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Mechanisms of Dna Lesions And STUDY OF THE NATURAL ALKENYLBENZENES COMPOUNDS: MECHANISMS OF DNA LESIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN HEALTH CÉLIA MARIA DA SILVA MARTINS Tese de obtenção do grau de Doutor em Ciências da Vida na Especialidade em Genética, Oncologia e Toxicologia Humana na NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas Universidade Nova de Lisboa Setembro, 2016 i STUDY OF THE NATURAL ALKENYLBENZENES COMPOUNDS: MECHANISMS OF DNA LESIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN HEALTH Célia Maria da Silva Martins Orientador: António Sebastião Rodrigues, Professor Auxiliar Co-orientador: José Rueff, Professor Catedrático Tese de obtenção do grau de Doutor em Ciências da Vida na Especialidade em Genética, Oncologia e Toxicologia Humana Setembro, 2016 ii This work was financially support by the fellowship SFRH/BD/81097/2011 from the “Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia”, Portugal. iii “Só com o acto de pintar vemos o que nunca tínhamos visto; só com o acto de investigar percebemos o que nunca tínhamos percebido” Luís Damas Mora, em Cadernos de um cirurgião, da autoria do Professor Francisco d'Oliveira Martins. iv AGRADECIMENTOS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Aos meus orientadores: Professor José Rueff a minha gratidão Professor Sebastião o meu muito obrigada por ter acreditado em mim desde o primeiro segundo. Tive o privilégio de conhecer, ouvir, sentir, as vozes dos sábios que não mais existirão porque fazem parte de uma geração que para existir em novas vozes o mundo teria que renascer…a sapiência de uma geração educada para a transmissão de valores humanos, sociais e culturais tende a desaparecer. Agradeço a oportunidade que deram a esta cidadã para crescer bebendo um pouco do vosso néctar, cheio de sabedoria e humildade. Aos de sempre “da Genética” Sebastião, Nuno, Michel, Joaquim, Jorge, Laires, Octávia, Aldina. Todos sem exceção me ensinaram algo que ainda hoje aplico durante a minha vida profissional, e não há dia algum, quando penso em um pormenor ou outro, que não me lembre de vocês e do quanto foram importantes para a minha formação. Formámos uma equipa durante anos, e independentemente de algumas divergências eu sempre trabalhei considerando-os como um todo, e assim foi até sair. Fico feliz por termos sido tão felizes e dado tantas gargalhadas mesmo no meio das ansiedades e nervosismos típicos de quem gosta do que faz e não quer falhar. Aos meus colegas que passo a passo caminharam comigo nesta aprendizagem pelo mundo da Ciência, Bruno, Marta, Susana, Francisco, Diana, Bernardo, Claudia, Joana, Xana, Paula, Natália, Ana, Vânia, Zita, Iris, Maria João…e tantos outros. Mais do que colegas, muitos de vós foram/são meus amigos, ouviram confidências, desabafos. Não poderia ter tido uma experiência tão enriquecedora como a que tive convosco, todos diferentes, mas todos com uma certeza, e penso que não me engano: Um amor incondicional ao que fazemos. v Dedico ainda aos meus professores e a todos os estagiários que passaram pela genética e com quem tive a oportunidade de trabalhar, com um especial agradecimento para a primeira estagiária que orientei, a Carolina Doran, que é única. Às pessoas que se cruzaram no meu caminho e que deixaram a sua impressão digital no que sou hoje. À minha Família, aquela que me viu nascer e crescer. Deixando-me ser e cometer todos os erros, responsabilizando-me e tornando-me na pessoa que sou hoje. Aos meus amigos de infância, que mantenho e tenciono os ter sempre ao meu lado, são o meu pilar junto com a minha família. Dizem que para crescermos não nos podemos esquecer do que fomos, e eu não me esqueço. Aos meus sobrinhos e afilhados… dizem que trabalho muito… Ao Zeca, por tudo e principalmente pelo mundo que partilhamos juntos há 20 anos. E, claro, agradeço à minha irmã e aos meus pais, somos o fruto dessa árvore, e sem a sua total compreensão e dedicação nunca teria conseguido chegar até aqui. Bem hajam. Por fim, se o fim sinaliza o que acaba, o que deixa de existir, gostaria de dedicar todo o trabalho que tive na construção desta tese à Joana Dinis e de dedicar o facto de ter conseguido chegar onde cheguei aos meus avós Maria Rosa e Amaro. Para que o fim passe a ser um renascer e que viva para sempre nas palavras e nos actos de alguém. Muito Obrigada vi ABSTRACT Alkenylbenzenes are a family of natural compounds found in spices, such as nutmeg, clove and anise, and essential oils of various plants and encompass more than 30 compounds with different structural features. The natural sources containing these compounds have been used not only in foods but in medicines for thousands of years, in essential oils, infusions, teas or even in pharmaceutical formulations. Consequently, this family of natural compounds is present and widely used not only in Western diets but in medicinal preparations, providing a significant potential risk, as some of these compounds have genotoxic properties. In this thesis our goal was to assess the mechanisms of genotoxicity of several alkenylbenzenes, including eugenol, estragole and myristicin, all widely present in spices. We showed that eugenol, present in clove, induced chromosomal aberrations in V79 Chinese hamster cells and H2AX phosphorylation in AA8 Chinese hamster ovary cells, indicating the formation of double- strand breaks. More interestingly eugenol induced endoreduplication, which suggested that this compound is a topoisomerase inhibitor. Another alkenylbenzene studied was estragole, present in tarragon, basil and anise. This compound was shown to produce DNA strand breakage, sister chromatid exchanges and DNA adducts, which could be responsible for its genotoxicity. Our results also indicated that myristicin, an alkenylbenzene present in basil, anise, cinnamon, clove, fennel, nutmeg, parsley and star anise, is not genotoxic but is apoptotic, and downregulates DNA damage response genes, with significant under-expression of genes associated with nucleotide excision repair, double strand break repair and DNA damage signalling and stress response. Finally, as a proof of concept, we addressed DNA methylation alterations in several genes induced by prolonged exposure to a low dose (10 µM) of the alkenylbenzenes eugenol and elemicin in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. We showed that eugenol and elemicin can increase expression of RASSF1A in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, as measured by RT-PCR, and can induce DNA demethylation, although without a direct clear cut result. Unexpectedly, we also observed an increased in phospho-ATM and phospho-H2AX after prolonged exposure to eugenol and elemicin, indicating possible genotoxic effects at low doses. vii Globally, our results may contribute to a further understanding of the potential risk of increasing our consumption of these alkenylbenzenes present in the diet, as was recommended by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Keywords: Alkenylbenzenes, eugenol, myristicin, estragole, elemicin, genotoxicity, apoptosis, DNA methylation. viii RESUMO Os alquenilbenzenos são compostos naturais encontrados em especiarias como a noz-moscada, cravinho e anis e nos seus óleos essenciais englobando mais de 30 compostos com diferentes características estruturais. Os produtos naturais contendo estes compostos têm sido utilizados ao longo dos anos não apenas em alimentos mas também em medicinas, como óleos essenciais, infusões, chás ou mesmo em formulações farmacêuticas. Por conseguinte, esta família de compostos não só está presente como é amplamente utilizada tanto na alimentação ocidental como em preparações medicinais, apresentando um potencial de risco significativo uma vez que alguns destes compostos são genotóxicos. O objetivo desta tese foi avaliar os mecanismos de genotoxicidade de vários alquenilbenzenos, incluindo o eugenol, o estragole e a miristicina, todos eles presentes em especiarias. Demonstrámos que o eugenol, presente no cravinho, induz aberrações cromossómicas em células V79 e leva à fosforilação da histona H2AX em células de ovário de Hamster Chinês AA8, indicando a formação de quebras de dupla cadeia no DNA. O eugenol também induziu endoreduplicação, o que sugere que este composto é um inibidor da topoisomerase. Outro alquenilbenzeno estudado foi o estragole, presente no estragão, manjericão e anis. Este composto induziu quebras no DNA, trocas de cromátides irmãs e aductos no DNA, que provavelmente são responsáveis pela sua ação genotóxica. Os nossos resultados também indicaram que a miristicina, presente no manjericão, anis, canela, cravinho, funcho, noz- moscada, salsa e anis, não é genotóxica mas é apoptótica, e levou a uma subexpressão de genes envolvidos nas vias de reparação de DNA, em particular genes envolvidos na reparação por excisão de nucleotídeos, reparação de quebras de cadeia dupla de DNA e na sinalização de lesões no DNA e stress celular. Por último, como prova de conceito, avaliámos alterações na metilação do DNA de vários genes após exposição prolongada a uma dose baixa (10 µM) dos alquenilbenzenos eugenol e elemicina em células humanas de cancro da mama, MCF- 7. Observámos que o eugenol e a elemicina aumentam a expressão do gene RASSF1A e alteram o estado de metilação do DNA, embora sem se conseguir ter uma relação directa entre estes dois fenómenos. Inesperadamente, observámos um aumento do ATM e do H2AX fosforilado após ix exposição prolongada ao eugenol e à elemicina, indicando um risco aumentado para possíveis efeitos genotóxicos a doses baixas. Globalmente, os nossos resultados podem contribuir para uma maior compreensão do risco associado ao consumo destes alquenilbenzenos presentes na alimentação, como foi preconizado pela JECFA. Palavras-chave: Alquenilbenzenos, eugenol, miristicina, estragole, elemicina, genotoxicidade, apoptose, metilação do DNA. x LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND COMMUNICATIONS From the results published in this thesis, the following full papers were published in international refereed journals: Maralhas A., Monteiro A., Martins C., Kranendonk M., Laires A., Rueff J. and Rodrigues A.S. (2006) Genotoxicity and endoreduplication inducing activity of the food flavouring eugenol. Mutagenesis, 21(3):199-204. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16595588. DOI: 10.1093/mutage/ge1017. Martins C., Doran C., Laires A., Rueff J.
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