Hindawi Publishing Corporation Journal of Waste Management Volume 2014, Article ID 823752, 9 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/823752
Research Article Municipal Solid Waste Management in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana
Bernard Fei-Baffoe,1 Eugene Atta Nyankson,1 and John Gorkeh-Miah2
1 Department of Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana 2 Waste Management Department, Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Eugene Atta Nyankson; [email protected]
Received 29 May 2014; Accepted 17 July 2014; Published 2 September 2014
Academic Editor: Gopal Achari
Copyright © 2014 Bernard Fei-Baffoe et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The rapid increase in urban population due to the influx of the citizenry in search for better conditions of life has resulted inpoor environmental conditions in most urban and peri-urban settlements in the country. Municipal solid waste management (MSW) for that matter has become problematic within Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis as the city is being inundated with so much filth which has proven to be very difficult and seemingly impossible for the municipal authorities to tackle. This study investigates the nature of solid waste problem in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. A mixed methodological approach including field investigation, questionnaire survey, and structured and face-to-face interviews were employed in the gathering of data for the study. The key findings established to be the factors affecting effective solid waste management in the metropolis are irregular solid waste collection, inadequate operational funding, inappropriate technologies, inadequate staffing, inadequate skip, and lack of cooperation on the part of the citizenry.
1. Introduction solid waste management (SWM) are most visible in and around urban and peri-urban areas [3]. Despite the present Though the need for solid waste management became neces- concerns of individuals and the government about waste sary ever since nomadic life was discarded, the initial concern management in Ghana, Sekondi-Takoradi, one of the urban of society was on movement of waste out of the immediate towns in the country, is still faced with serious solid waste human settlement. This was largely possible because, dur- management problems [4]. The worsening solid waste situ- ing the prehistoric era, human population was quite low ation in many urban settlements in Ghana and in Sekondi- and the amounts of waste generated were quite minimal Takoradi in particular has been a major concern both to the and biodegradable [1]. The proper management of solid government and the indigenes as a whole. This is because waste became a major problem overwhelming practically thehealthimplicationsofpoorwastemanagementcanbe all communities of the world today as a result of growing very damaging to the people exposed to such unsanitary human population, changes in habits and lifestyle, rising conditions. The rationale therefore of any proper instituted disposable income, technological and scientific advancement, waste management is to protect the environment from the and increasingly greater production and consumption of new polluting effects of waste materials in order to protect public products [2]. These factors have acted in concert to increase health and the natural environment [5]. The rapid increase both the quantity and complexity of waste being generated. in population and business activities in Sekondi-Takoradi has This have long rendered ineffective and detrimental any waste presented several challenges which have been accompanied management strategies dependent on nature’s capacity in the by a rapid increase in the volume of solid waste generated nullification of those substances. In Ghana, deficiencies in from production and consumption activities. Against this 2 Journal of Waste Management backdrop of mounting waste production, municipal author- part of the year averages 7 hours per day. Relative humidity is ities in Sekondi-Takoradi seem unable to organize adequate generally high throughout the year between 50% and 70% in collection and safe disposal of waste within their jurisdiction. thedryseasonand75%and85%inthewetseason[12]. In view of that, urban settlement in the country and most especially Sekondi-Takoradi metropolitan area which is the 2.1.4. Topography and Geology. The metropolis is of varied prime focus for this study is inundated with so much filth topography. The Central area of Takoradi is low lying with which proves to be very difficult and seemingly impossible to an altitude of 6 m below sea level. Fortunately, the numerous control, manage, or solve and thus threatens public health and low-lying areas in the metropolis are interspersed with ridges the environment [6]. The deplorable state of municipal solid and hills ranging from 30–60 m high. Sekondi-Takoradi is waste (MSW) situation within Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis characterized by faulted shales and sandstones of various isreflectedinthetitlesofmostnewspapersandonline types resting on a hard basement of granites, gneiss, and articles: “Sanitation worsens in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis” schists. The faulting system has marked influence on the [7]; “Sanitation problem in Takoradi is out of control” [8]; landform especially along the coastline which clearly follows “Filth engulfs Sekondi-Takoradi as landfill site chokes” [9]; themainfaultdirectionofnortheast[12]. “STMA losing battle against filth” [10]; “Sekondi-Takoradi’s sanitation dilemma, Metro set to re-assign contract” [11]. 2.1.5. Economic Profile. The metropolis is the third most The main objective of the study was to examine the factors industrialized and the largest city in Ghana and it is gradually affecting effective solid waste management in the Sekondi- emerging as the “Oil City” since the discovery of oil in Takoradi Metropolis so as to get a better understanding commercial quantity in the country. The services sector of what the problems of solid waste management are and contributes 59.9%, agriculture 21%, and manufacturing 19.1% provide proper strategies to tackle the problem. to the local economy. The city can be accessed by air through Kotoka International Airport, Accra, with a domestic sched- uled flight to Takoradi due to the existence of an airport 2. Methodology managed by the Ghana Air Force. The city also has a seaport and a very good road network, which links all parts of 2.1. Description of the Study Area GhanaaswellastheneighbouringcountriesofLaCoteˆ 2.1.1. Location and Size. Sekondi-Takoradi metropolitan area d’lvoire,BurkinaFaso,Mali,andNiger.Themetropolisiswell ∘ ∘ is located between latitudes 4 52 30 Nand504 00 Nand developed, with the best of socioeconomic infrastructure and ∘ ∘ longitudes 1 37 00 Wand1 52 30 W. B o u n d e d t o t h e No r t h facilities in terms of electricity, water, telecommunication, of the metropolis is the Mpohor-Wassa District, to the south education,andhealthwithindustrialsetupsandotherseveral bytheGulfofGuinea,tothewestbytheAhantaWestDistrict, economic activities [12]. and to the east by Shama District. The metropolis happens to be the smallest district in the region with a land area 2.2. Data Collection Methods. A mixed methodological ap- 2 of 385 km .However,itisthemostpopulateddistrict.The proach and specific techniques were employed to address the metropolis is strategically located in the south-western part objectives of the research since the reliance on any single ofthecountry,about242kmtothewestofAccrathecapital approach to data gathering could lead to loss of valuable city and approximately 280 km from the La Coted’Ivoireinˆ information [13]. the west. Figure 1 is a map of the study area [12]. Substantial relevant information on the sustainable solid Major towns in the metropolis include Essikado, Kwesim- waste management practices and other vital issues on the intsim, Ketan, Sekondi, and Takoradi (Figure 2). subject matter were gathered from newspapers, journals, published materials and unpublished reports, articles, and internet sources. Whilst the onsite waste handling and exist- 2.1.2. Vegetation. The metropolis has an equatorial type of ing Residential Solid Waste Management (RSWM) practices climate. Vegetation is highly woodland in the northern and of residents within the metropolis were obtained through central parts, while thicket is intermingled with tall grass preliminary field investigation, questionnaire survey, and species along the coast, especially in areas where there are face-to-face interviews. The preliminary field investigation no permanent crops. The land cover of the metropolis can involved scouting through the study area to assess solid waste broadly be categorized into five types, namely, moderately dump sites, communal waste collection container, landfill closed tree canopy with herb and bush cover, moderately site, and dustbins in selected areas of study. dense herb or bush with scattered trees, mosaic of thickets During this process, pictures were taken of heaps of solid and grass with or without scattered trees, planted cover, and waste in dump sites, solid waste skips overflowing with solid settlements [12]. waste, scattered solid waste in between houses, the number ofdaysaskiptakestogetfull,andthefrequencyatwhich 2.1.3. Climate. The metropolis lies within the south-western these skips were evacuated by the private sector solid waste equatorial zone. It has fairly uniform temperature, ranging collecting institutions within the metropolis. This process ∘ ∘ between 22 CinAugustand30C in March. The metropolis gave a general overview of the current waste management has a mean annual rainfall of 2,350 mm. It experiences heavy situation within the Sekondi-Takoradi Municipality and also rainfall in May and June with the minor rainfall occurring aided in the formulation of questionnaire survey and inter- between September and October. Sunshine duration for most view schedule. Journal of Waste Management 3
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ 1 50 0 W 1 48 0 W 1 46 0 W 1 44 0 W 1 42 0 W 1 40 0 W 1 38 0 W Upper east N Upper west N N
0 0 Northern 2 2 ∘ ∘ 5 5 Brong Ahafo Volta
N N Ashanti
0 0 Eastern
Oseikrom 0 0
∘ ∘ Greater Accra 5 5 WesternCentral Mampong N Mempeasem N 0 0 58 58
∘ Kojokrom ∘ 4 4 Ntankoful
N Mpatado Fijai N Sekondi 0 Whindo Anagyi 0 Assaka 56 56 ∘ ∘ 4 4 Kwesimintsim N N 0 0
Gulf of Guinea 54 54 ∘ ∘ 4 4 Takoradi (km) 15075 0 150 300 450 600
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ 1 50 0 W 1 48 0 W 1 46 0 W 1 44 0 W 1 42 0 W 1 40 0 W 1 38 0 W
Metro capital Road Settlement Metro boundary Stream/river Sea
Figure 1: Projected map of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis in Western Region of Ghana.
2.3. Sample Technique and Size Determination. The size of the Table 1: Residential communities selected for the household survey. sample taken was dependent on the number of households in the sampling area with due regard to the income levels. A Residential status Participating community Beach road sampling technique developed by Cochran [14]withwhich High income areas the desired degree of precision for the general population was Anaji estate employed according to the following equation: Effiakuma Middle income areas 𝑁𝑍2𝑃𝑄 Whindo 𝑛= , (1) Assaka 𝑑2 (𝑁−1) +𝑍2𝑃𝑄 Low income areas Esaaman village where n = sampling size of housing units, d =allowableerror (0.05), P =housingunitvariable,andQ = 1−𝑃.Note:it is a constant indicating building facilities within the study 2.4. Identification of Households. Based on their life stan- area not used for residential purposes. N =Totalnumberof dards, income levels, housing, and other facilities, communi- housing units and Z =standardizednormalvariableandvalue ties within the area of study were categorized into low income that corresponds to 95% significance level equal to 1.96 groups (the poor group), middle, and high income groups According to the data obtained from the 2000 Population [16](Figure 2). Households which were categorized under and Housing Census by the Ghana Statistical Service [15], lowincome(thepoor)werethosewhoarelivinginslum the total housing stock within the metropolis is estimated areas and congested living rooms. Simple random sampling at 36,079 (N)andoutofitabout90%(P) according to the technique was used to select two communities from each Metro Planning Unit of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area residential class grouping within the metropolis from which (STMA) are residential with the remaining 10% (Q)being householders based on their willingness to take part in the used for commercial activities, offices, and other activities research were selected for the questionnaire survey (Table 1). other than for residential purposes. After grouping (stratification) households, 21 households Therefore, 𝑛 = 138 is the minimum sample size of housing (representing 15.21%) from low income group, 71 households units for reliable results. (representing51.4%)frommiddleincome,and46households 4 Journal of Waste Management
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ 1 50 0 W 1 48 0 W 1 46 0 W 1 44 0 W 1 42 0 W 1 40 0 W N N
Upper east 0 0
2 2 Upper west ∘ Shama ∘ 5 5 N Northern Mpohor-Wassa Oseikrom district West District
Eshem Brong Ahafo
N N Volta
0 Mpintsin 0 0 0 ∘ ∘ Ashanti 5 Anoe 5 Eastern Greater Accra Essipong Kojokrom Central Farmlands Ahanta Abasa Deabenekrom Western N Kwabewu N Mampong 0 Nkenya Nguresia 0 Akromakrom Ahinkofikrom 58 Mempeasem 58 ∘ ∘
4 KNkrofulansawurado Ketan 4 Ntankoful Butumagyebu Essikado Ntankoful Anaji Fijai Adeimbra Sekondi
N Bakaekyir N
Adiemtem Mpatado
0 Kweikuma Ekuase 0 Whindo Essaman 56 56
∘ Agyamoa Bakam ∘ 4 Assaka Effia 4 West Tanokrom Nkontompo Effiakuma New Takoradi
N Apremdo East Tanokrom N
0 Kwesimintsim 0 Ah Gulf of Guinea
54 anta 54 ∘ ∘
4 District Takoradi 4 West Chapel Hill Takoradi Habour Beach road (km) 15075 0 150 300 450 600 "N 0 ' 2 ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
1 50 0 W 1 48 0 W 1 46 0 W 1 44 0 W 1 42 0 W 1 40 0 W 4°5
Poverty income pockets Low poverty pocket Moderate poverty pocket High poverty pocket
Figure 2: Poverty Map of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis in Western Region of Ghana. Income Poverty pockets in Sekondi-Takoradi.
Table 2: Household selection for questionnaire survey. 3. Results and Discussion
Residential status Participating community Number Total 3.1. Existing Solid Waste Management Practices Beach road 5 High income areas 46 3.1.1. Waste Generation and Storage. The per capita waste Anaji estate 41 output in the city according to the Waste Department of Effiakuma 65 Middle income areas 71 Sekondi-Takoradi is estimated at 0.6 kg with the total daily Whindo 6 waste generation output based on a current 2010 population Assaka 17 census figure of 559,548 being 335,728.8 kg [17, 18]. Lowincomeareas 21 Esaaman village 4 Waste generated at source within the metropolis just Total 138 like most communities in Ghana is stored in all manner of containers such as plastic bags, paper boxes, baskets, unused buckets, or any container considered appropriate for such purpose [19]. However households in the high and some middle class income areas within the metropolis have been (representing 33.3%) from high income groups were selected supplied with dustbins with proper covering at no cost by as depicted in Table 2. This percentage distribution was the private waste collection company operating within those made possible by taking into account the housing units areas. Separation at source is not practiced but whatever waste that exist in a participating community, dividing them by that is generated in the various households regardless of their the total housing units of the six participating communities nature is put together in the same container for disposal [20]. multiplied by 138. This was to ensure fair distribution of Figure 3 depicts how the various sampled households the questionnaire among the respondents in the various store their waste before disposal. Data gathered from the communities. sampled households revealed that 48.6% store their waste in Journal of Waste Management 5
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Mode of waste storage.
(a) Accumulation of illegal waste dump (b) Skip overflowing with waste
Figure 4: Aspects of urban waste situation in Sekondi-Takoradi. closed containers with majority of such respondents hailing deposit their waste in central containers placed at designated from the high class zone and about 30.4% ascribed to the use points to be emptied at specific intervals at a very small of open containers for waste storage whilst 21% use polythene fee. According to the Waste Management Department of bags/sacks for storing waste. This method of waste storage theassembly,thehighincomezonewithinthecitypaysa wasverycommoninthelowclasszoneandaddstothe monthly levy of GHL 5 (USD $ 1.46) with the middle class waste management problems as wind and animals scatter the zone paying GHL 4 (USD $ 1.17) for the waste collection content, thereby making the area unsightly. However, there service that they receive. However, the low class income areas wasn’t any other form of waste storage apart from the three pay a very small amount, GHL 0.20 (USD $ 0.06), for using mentioned earlier. the skip. Those that use the communal container system are in the majority representing 49.3% whilst those who enjoy 3.1.2. Waste Collection and Transportation. Solid waste col- thecurbsidesystemmakeup32.6%.However,18.1%of lection system employed within the metropolis is of two households without the benefit of having the curbside and main types and is either on a franchise or contract basis. The communal container system and which are usually from the major cities and towns within the municipality have been low class zone and newly developed areas resort to the use of zonedintounitswitheachprivatewastecollectioncompany waste dumps and other crude means of waste disposal. assignedtheresponsibilityofcollectingandtransporting Massive patronage of the communal container system by solid waste from the various zones to the final disposal site. majority of the residents coupled with erratic schedules of The two main methods of solid waste collection within the waste collection by the waste collection companies has put metropolis are the door to door collection and the communal pressure on the limited number of skips available for waste waste container system. The door to door collection which is deposition, thereby resulting in a huge number of spillages usually done on franchise basis is carried out by private waste and mushrooming of illegal dumpsites often seen at most collectionfirmsinhighandinsomemiddleclassincome middle and low class zones where central container system areas at a fixed cost. Those that do not enjoy this service and is employed at no cost. This has led to serious spillages as well who are usually from the deprived or low class income areas as the mushrooming of illegal dumpsites (Figure 4). These 6 Journal of Waste Management
Table 3: Frequency of skips filling and evacuation in selected areas Hencesolidwastemostlydisposedofinthemetropolis of study. does not go through processing or treatment. This is simply because wastes generated at the various households or points Number of days taken Frequency of Residential area/section of generation are bundled together without undergoing any for skip to get full evacuation form of separation. This practice of handling waste at source Effia 24dayswithout any form of waste separation has been a serious Sabon Zongo 34daysobstacle to any form of processing or treatment that relies Essipon town 53dayson recycling or recovery programs. Due to nonavailability of Kojokrom 26daysany proper or formal legislation to ensure waste separation New Takoradi (upper) 35daysat source, potentially harmful or dangerous waste such as cadmium batteries, paint containers, pesticides containers, Amanful East 2Over7days and other materials are found mostly in our household waste Nkontompo 36days[24]. In some cases medical and clinical waste are treated by Kweikuma Zongo 4Over7daysincineration in open pits with no environmental control [25]. However,theonlyformofrecoveryandreuseactivities isbyscavengerswhosearchthroughwasteintemporary spillages were very evident with the skip monitoring study storage areas and at final disposal site for items considered conducted in the metropolis as shown in Table 3. to be of economic value. These scavengers mostly use their All wastes collected within the metropolis are disposed of at a municipal dump site near the newly constructed landfill bare hands and at times stick for separation and picking of site yet to be operational at Sofokrom, a suburb of Essipon the items which are dictated mostly by type, market value, in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. The municipal dumpsite and demand. The operational activities of these scavengers is a poorly managed area where authorities manning the tend to be very dangerous and unhealthy since most of them area are engaged in open burning of waste at the site. This go about their scavenging activity without any protective procedureisoftenadoptedtoreducethevolumeofwaste equipment (Figure 5). In some cases, hazardous waste from but it releases toxins and carcinogens especially from plastic the industrial setting is buried at designated portions of the materials. However, the best option to reduce waste volume dumpsite without any prior treatment. and extend life of existing disposal site would be to improve waste recovery through recycling and composting programs 3.2. Constraints to Effective Solid Waste Management [21]. Even though there exist a municipal dumpsite for solid Operations within Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis waste disposal, not all generated solid waste lands up at the dump site. 3.2.1. Lack of Finance. This study found that undue delays in The accumulation of waste as a result of the erratic sched- payment of work done coupled with huge sums of money ule of skip evacuation poses a potential adverse impact on owed to these private waste collection institutions are one public health and environmental quality due to its attraction of the key challenges hampering effective waste management of rodents and vector insects for which it provides food and operations within the metropolis. It was also evident that shelter [22, 23]. even on franchise basis, the door to door waste collection Waste collection trucks that cart waste from the point of service beneficiaries are in payment default summing to generationtothedumpsitearenotcoveredandinsomecases several thousands of Ghanaian cedis. The failure on the part are covered with thin net that could barely keep it intact. As of municipal authorities and the beneficiaries of the door to aresult,thewastethatwassupposedtobeconveyedtothe door waste collection service to make regular payments to the municipal dump site gets littered all over the road. However, waste contractors makes it difficult and absolutely impossible information gathered from Waste Management Department for the latter to undertake adequate waste collection within of the assembly indicates that operations of public and private the metropolis. waste management institutions cover 72% of the metropolis These problems are a result of poor revenue mobilization leaving 28% unattended to. The private waste collection firms attheassemblyaswellassourcereductioninmoniesthe take a greater chunk of percentage of waste collection within assembly owes to the central government for waste collection. the metropolis whilst that of the assembly takes only 23% out Another cause of the financial predicament of municipal of which most are evacuation activities. Within the coverage authorities in Ghana is the decision taken by the municipal areas where solid waste collection is done, current statistics authorities to charge communities regarded as “low income” showthat69%ofsolidwasteiscollectedanddisposedof very small amount of money as waste disposal levies. These leaving 31% of the waste uncollected. low class zones and a section of the middle class zone that use the communal container system are the majority, thereby 3.1.3. Waste Treatment and Recovery. In the city, there is no leaving a small proportion of the inhabitants to pay for waste treatment or recovery facilities established by either the wasteservice.Thereforetheintroductionofappropriatelevies assembly or private companies. However, there exist some for the polluter pay system and pay-as-you-dump system informal recycling facilities within the city that accept major coupled with strict monitoring schemes would enhance recyclable items such as metals, glass, plastics, rubber, and revenue mobilization from all waste disposal users in the papers. metropolis. Journal of Waste Management 7
Figure 5: Scavenging activity at the final waste disposal site.
Figure 6: State of a waste collection truck leaving the final waste disposal site.
Figure 7: Condition of central waste collection container at Amanful.
However,thedifficultyonthepartofthemunicipal company due to low remuneration, poor service conditions, authorities and the waste collection companies in securing and the stigma attached to being a waste collection worker. adequate funds in changing obsolete equipment for new Satisfactory waste management according to Armah [26] modernized equipment and payment of salaries or wages requires a wide range of qualified professionals including to their staff as well as huge sums of money they owe engineers, mechanics, administrators, sanitation officers, to service beneficiaries and the authorities for work done finance and accounting staff, and even researchers. This impedes smooth operation and maintenance schedule within dearth of waste professionals in the waste business has really the metropolis (Figures 6 and 7). militated against the provision of better waste management service and thus results also in poor generation of data for planning waste management. 3.2.2. Lack of Waste Management Personnel. The data gath- ered from the study show that apart from financial challenges, lack of human resource in the waste management business 3.2.3. Lack of Appropriate Technologies. All the private waste is militating against the effort to provide a better waste management companies together with Waste Management management service. All the private companies within the Department of the assembly have poor equipment and inap- metropolis with the exception of Zoomlion indicated that propriate technologies to carry out waste collection activities. they are understaffed and cannot attract workers to the A visit to the facilities of these companies revealed a lot of 8 Journal of Waste Management
Table 4: Equipment base of Sekondi-Takoradi waste management byelaws could help change the poor waste disposal culture department. within the metropolis and by extension Ghanaian cities. Equipment type Number available Number operational Tractor 4 0 4. Conclusion Tipper trucks 3 3 The analysis has shown that waste generation in Sekondi- Backhoe 1 1 Takoradi far-outstrips the capacities of waste companies Bulldozer 2 2 entrusted with the responsibility of collecting and disposing Compactor 1 1 of solid waste. And as a result several challenges ranging from Source:Fieldsurvey,2014. financial constraint, inappropriate technologies, inadequate personnel, and law enforcement have acted in concert to Table 5: Equipment base of private waste companies. militate against the effective waste management practices within the metropolis. Equipment type Zoomlion ABC Rusaben The study also revealed that municipal authority and Compactor 6 2 1 their waste collection contractors concentrate their waste Skip trucks 4 0 0 collection operations in the wealthy residential areas whilst Tricycle 120 0 0 low income and commercial areas receive little or no service Roll on/off 2 2 2 for waste collection. Bulldozer 3 0 0 Toensure effective waste management within the metrop- olis, it is recommended that clear contractual agreements for Source: field survey, 2014. private sector participation in waste management within the metropolis with clear roles and responsibility should be out- broken down vehicles with the ones working also in a very lined for their operation. It is also important that regulations deplorable state. The lack of adequate equipment of these on waste disposal and appropriate sanctions on littering and companies as shown in Tables 4 and 5 confirmed that most improper waste management behavior are strictly enforced of them lack the capacity to operate in their contract area. by the Environmental Health and Sanitation Department. In some cases the contract area assigned to these companies The adoption of an integrated waste management program is so large that the inadequacy of their equipment becomes a is also strongly recommended for adoption by the municipal limiting factor to the provision of waste management services authorities. and, therefore, a major cause of the poor waste situation in the metropolis. Conflict of Interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests 3.2.4. Lack of Law Enforcement. It emerged from the studies regarding the publication of this paper. that nonenforcement of byelaws on waste disposal is a major contributing factor to the poor waste situation bedeviling the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis. This has given room to Acknowledgments what is now termed “throw-it-where-you-like” syndrome. This negative attitudinal response to solid waste management Profound thanks go to the entire staff at Waste Management retards the progress of these institutions in their effort to rid Department of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly, the metropolis of solid waste. An informal discussion with Ghana Statistical Service, Environmental Health and Sanita- some of the assembly men within the metropolis asserted to tion Department of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Assem- thefactthatifthesebyelawsarestrictlyenforcedapositive bly(STMA),andprivatewastecollectioncompaniesaswellas wastedisposalcultureamongthepopulationtokeepthe the various households whose cooperation and support made cities clean will be achieved. However, municipal authorities the fieldwork a success. in the country seem unable to enforce the byelaws due to lack of political will. An official at the Health and Sanitation References Departmentwhosedutyitistoensurethecomplianceofthese laws stated that their department is very much handicapped [1] J. T. Pfeffer, Solid Waste Management, Prentice Hall, Upper since the assembly itself is part of the problem. He further Saddle River, NJ, USA, 1992. added that the assembly owes these waste companies and thus [2] B. Fei-Baffoe, Household and Industrial Waste Management, sanctions cannot be proffered to residents whose wastes are Handout for MSc Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah left in the various houses and central containers uncollected. University of Science and Technology, Department of Theoret- The nonenforcement of these byelaws on waste disposal has ical and Applied Biology, Kumasi, Ghana, 2010. created a lack of fear for the law and encouraged a “throw- [3] D. Carboo and J. N. Fobil, “Physico-chemical analysis of it-where-you-like” culture among the population [27]. It municipal solid waste (MSW) in the Accra metropolis,” West is therefore a common sight to see passengers in moving African Journal of Applied Ecology,vol.5,no.2,pp.116–117,2004. vehicles throwing litter such as food wrappers and plastic [4] A. Mensah and E. Larbi, Solid Waste Disposal in Ghana,2005, litter bags. Hence strict enforcement of already existing http://www.trend.wastsan.net. Journal of Waste Management 9
[5] J. C. Agunwamba, “Solid waste management in Nigeria: prob- [24]G.E.BlightandC.M.Mbande,“Someproblemsofwaste lems and issues,” Environmental Management,vol.22,no.6,pp. management in developing countries,” Journal of Solid Waste 849–856, 1998. Technology and Management,vol.23,no.1,pp.19–27,1996. [6] J. N. Fobil, D. Carboo, and N. A. Armah, “Evaluation of munic- [25] R. Babanawo, “Constrains to Sustainable Solid Waste Man- ipal solid wastes (MSW) for utilisation in energy production agement in Ghana,” 2006, http://deposit.ddb.de/cgibin/dok- in developing countries,” International Journal of Environmental serv?idn=984500952&dok var=d1&dok ext=pdf&filename= Technology and Management,vol.5,no.1,pp.76–86,2005. 984500952.pdf. [7] M. Aklorbortu, “Sanitation Worsens in Sekondi/Takoradi [26] N. A. Armah, “Waste management,” in The Future of our Cities: Metropolis. Aklorbotu Blogspot,” 2012, http://mosesaklorbortu Proceedings of the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences,vol.28, .blogspot.com/2008/12/sanitation-worsens-in sekonditakoradi pp.78–83,1993. .html. [27] G. P. J. Dijkema, M. A. Reuter, and E. V. Verhoef, “A new [8] R. S. Zambaga, “Sanitation problem in Takoradi is out of con- paradigm for waste management,” Waste Management,vol.20, trol,” The Chronicle,2012,http://ghanaian-chronicle.com/?p= no. 8, pp. 633–638, 2000. 8637. [9] A. Osabutey, “Filth engulfs Sekondi-Takoradi as landfill site chokes,”Joy News, 2011, http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/ news/201108/70636.php. [10] R. S. Zambaga and A. Adams, “STMA losing battle against filth,” Modern Ghana News, 2010, http://www.modernghana.com/ news/284653/1/stma-losing-battle-against-filth.html. [11] H. M. Andoh, Sekondi-Takoradi’s Sanitation Dilemma Metro Set to Reassign Contract,TheGreetlaneNews,2012,http://www. greetlane.com. [12] Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly (STMA), “Profile of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis,”2012, http://stma.ghanadistricts. gov.gh. [13] G. Freduah, “Problems of solid waste management in Nima, Accra,” Undergraduate Research Journal for the Human Sciences, vol. 6, 2007. [14] W. G. Cochran, Sampling Techniques, Wiley Series in Produc- tivity and Applied Mathematical Statistics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 3rd edition, 1977. [15] Ghana Statistical Services, 2000 Population and Housing Cen- sus: Summary Report of Final Results, Ghana Statistical Service, 2000. [16] Cooperative Housing Foundation International, Sekondi- Takoradi Poverty Map: A Guide to Urban Poverty Reduction in Sekondi-Takoradi, 2011. [17] Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), “2010 Population and Housing Census: Summary Report of Final Results,”Accra, Ghana, 2012, http://www.statsghana.gov.gh. [18] Waste Management Department, Sekondi-Takoradi Metropoli- tan Assembly, Western Region, Ghana, Personal Communica- tion, 2013. [19] F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA, 1994. [20] A. Gbekor, “Domestic waste management,” Ghana Environmen- tal Protection Agency (EPA) Newsletter,vol.47,no.5,2003. [21] J. M. L. Kironde, “Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” in Managing the Monster, A. G. Onibokun, Ed., Urban Waste and Governance inAfrica,IDRC,Ottawa,Canada,1999. [22] EGSSAA (Environmental Guidelines for Small-Scale Activities in Africa), “Solid waste: generation, handling, treatment and disposal,” 2009, http://www.encapafrica.org/EGSSAA/solid- waste.pdf. [23] K. O. Boadi and M. Kuitunen, “Environmental and health impacts of household solid waste handling and disposal prac- tices in Third World cities: the case of the Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana,” Journal of Environmental Health,vol.68,no.4, pp.32–36,2005. Journal of Journal of International Journal of Waste Management Environmental and Ecology Public Health
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