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Ruso Ix La Rusia Soviética JUAN-ALBERTO KURZ UN MILENIO DE ARTE RUSO IX LA RUSIA SOVIÉTICA INSTITUTO DE HISTORIA Y ARTE DE RUSIA Edición no venal Ad modum manuscriptum El contenido de esta obra está protegido por la ley. Se autoriza la reproducción y/o traducción del presente texto total o parcialmente por cualquier medio, siempre que se cite la fuente y autor del mismo. Queda expresamente prohibido el uso lucrativo o comercial de esta obra, total o parcialmente, cualquiera que sea su fin ©Juan-Alberto Kurz Instituto de Historia y Arte de Rusia www.juan-alberto-kurz.es [email protected] DL V- Portada. Kugash. Al gran Stalin, ¡Gloria! Tomo IX LA RUSIA SOVIÉTICA I.- SINOPSIS HISTÓRICA 01 Causa y origen de la caída de la Rusia imperial El nacimiento de la dictadura comunista. II. - IDEOLOGÍA DEL ARTE SOVIÉTICO 14 Primera etapa del arte soviético - Segunda etapa del arte soviético - Historia del arte soviético. III.- PINTURA 26 Carteles propagandísticos - Pintores soviéticos – Arte independiente - Arte de las décadas finales IV. ESCULTURA 93 Características generales V.- MÚSICA 112 VI.- CINE SOVIÉTICO 118 VII.- ARQUITECTURA 126 Arquitectura postrevolucionaria – Arquitectura estalinista - Arquitectura postestalinista. VIII.- CONCLUSIÓN DEL ARTE SOVIÉTICO 155 Tomo IX LA RUSIA SOVIÉTICA CAPITULO I SINOPSIS HISTÓRICA CAUSA Y ORIGEN DE LA CAÍDA DE LA RUSIA IMPERIAL En 1912 Rusia ha recobrado fuerzas y reorganizado su ejército. Su papel le parece que es de protectora de los eslavos: bajo su tutela Serbia y Bulgaria primero y Grecia después forman una liga balcánica que se disolverá después de la victoria sobre Turquía. A propósito de la discusión sobre las fronteras, impide con su decidida actitud que Austria y Alemania ataquen a Serbia. Pero las intenciones de Alemania y Austria en Oriente, subrayadas por el envío a Constantinopla de una misión militar, son amenazadoras: Rusia refuerza, con ayuda francesa, su trama estratégica en su frontera oeste; asigna urgentemente ciento diez millones de rublos para aumentar la flota del mar Negro y retira sus reservas de los bancos alemanes. El asesinato del archiduque austriaco Francisco-Fernando por un anarquista serbio en suelo bosnio – perteneciente a Austria – enciende la mecha. Austria lanza un ultimátum a Serbia, ex profeso totalmente inaceptable, y procede a la movilización. Rusia, aliada de Serbia, multiplica sus consejos de moderación a través especialmente de una serie de telegramas cruzados entre el emperador Nicolás II y el káiser Guillermo II, primos al fin y al cabo, y sólo moviliza trece cuerpos de ejército de treinta y siete. Alemania, a su vez, amenaza con la movilización general. Rusia no cede esta vez y el 21 de julio de 1914 decreta la movilización general. El 1 de agosto Austria y Alemania declaran la guerra a Serbia, que cuenta con la alianza de Francia y ésta con la de Inglaterra. El emperador de Rusia, Nicolás II, forja su perdición y la de toda Rusia: sin interés material alguno, sin nada que reivindicar para sí, solamente por defender a un pequeño país eslavo, declara la guerra a las potencias centrales. Nunca el honor de un país y de un hombre en cumplir la palabra dada ha costado tan funestamente caro en toda la Historia. Al principio la guerra entusiasma a todo el país. La movilización general y los transportes funcionan perfectamente. En la Duma, el 8 de agosto, todos los partidos y todas las nacionalidades se juramentan para defender a la patria Rusia. Hasta los polacos, convocados por el generalísimo, el gran duque Nicolás, responden a la llamada. La campaña comienza brillantemente con un avance profundo sobre Prusia en ayuda JUAN-ALBERTO KURZ 2 de los franceses. Simultáneamente los ejércitos rusos avanzan sobre Austria-Hungría cosechando victorias. En octubre el imperio turco declara la guerra a l os aliados, lo que aprovecha Rusia para reclamar Constantinopla y los Dardanelos. Pese a algunas victorias iniciales, Rusia no consigue la salida al mar Mediterráneo, por lo que su única vía para conseguir ayuda de sus aliados es el pequeño puerto de Aleksandrovsk, en el océano glacial ártico. El 2 de mayo de 1915 la guerra da un giro imprevisto. Los austro – alemanes lanzan una poderosa ofensiva que hace retroceder al ejército ruso. La falta de municiones, el desabastecimiento al no poder recibir ayuda exterior, la ineptitud de los mandos y la desorganización de los transportes indican el principio del fin; la Duma se limita a dar palos de ciego ante el desorden que se generaliza en Moscú y Petrogrado. El ejército ruso abandona Polonia y Lituania, el frente pasa ya por Riga. El 6 se septiembre, para empeorar las cosas, el inepto Nicolás II toma el mando supremo, medida altamente impopular; la zarina Alejandra, alemana de origen, es acusada de traición por el pueblo y hechizada por el monje Rasputín. El zar suspende la Duma. Se suceden las movilizaciones, pero los soldados son enviados al frente sin los mínimos pertrechos, incluso sin calzado apropiado ni armas, como carne de cañón. Los ejércitos rusos aún consiguen algún éxito en el Cáucaso, pero sin consecuencias ante el empuje austro – alemán. Un manifiesto oficial declara tan estúpida como solemnemente que la guerra sólo terminará con la conquista de Constantinopla y los Dardanelos. Tal es la separación entre el mundo oficial y la Rusia real. Se suceden las deserciones, en las ciudades los precios se disparan ante la escasez de alimentos y otros productos. Se suceden los ministros en un baile absurdo, los hermanos del zar quieren, para salvar la dinastía, hacer abdicar al zar en el zarévich Iván, gravemente enfermo. Los generales conspiran, la indisciplina cunde entre los soldados. El último golpe: Rumanía entra en guerra, obligando a Rusia a prolongar el frente en 500 kilómetros. Durante el invierno de 1916 – 1917 se extiende por Rusia la ira popular; hubo motines de campesinos y huelgas de obreros. La revolución se precipitó por los decretos de 11 de marzo de 1917 or denando que los huelguistas de Petrogrado se reincorporen al trabajo y suspendiendo de nuevo la Duma que se había vuelto a reunir. Los huelguistas se negaron a obedecer y ganaron el apoyo de los soldados. Se formó un soviet revolucionario de obreros y soldados que de acuerdo con la Duma formó en Petrogrado un gobierno provisional el 14 de marzo presidido por el príncipe Igor Lvov, un aristócrata terrateniente liberal. Al día siguiente, el zar abdicó. El Gobierno provisional proclamó inmediatamente la libertad de palabra, prensa, asociación y religión. Puso en libertad a los presos políticos, autorizó el regreso de los desterrados, devolvió a Finlandia la plena autonomía y se la prometió a UN MILENIO DE ARTE RUSO 3 Polonia. Anunció que pronto sería elegida por sufragio universal una Asamblea Nacional Constituyente para redactar una constitución para Rusia. Al mismo tiempo se esforzó por infundir nueva energía a la continuación de la guerra. Craso error. Durante tres años Rusia había sufrido pérdidas más graves que ningún otro país, las masas estaban cansadas de la guerra y los soldados deseaban regresar a sus hogares. El Gobierno provisional no podía ponerse de acuerdo para un programa de reformas, ni resistir las presiones de los soviets revolucionarios de soldados, obreros y campesinos, que se estaban formando en todas partes. En mayo el príncipe Lvov, descorazonado, dimitió, siendo sustituido por Kerenski, miembro del partido social revolucionario. Kerenski nombró ministros a varios socialistas moderados – mencheviques – pero no pudo contener las actividades subversivas del grupo socialista más radical, los bolcheviques o comunistas, dirigidos hábilmente por Lenin, nombre de guerra de Vladimir Ilich Ulianov, que había regresado de su destierro en Suiza en un tren especial precintado con un salvoconducto alemán – jugada magistral que dio jaque mate a R usia. Trotski, nombre de guerra de Lev Bronstein, magnífico estratega como se vio en la guerra civil posterior, regresó también de su destierro en América. Los bolcheviques eran una pequeña minoría de la población, incluso del proletariado y de los radicales de la clase media. Pero tenían una doctrina, un programa, una disciplina férrea y una excelente técnica revolucionaria. Más que suficiente para hacerse con el poder en el caos ruso. Colocaron a sus miembros en los puestos claves de los soviets de Petrogrado, Moscú y en todas partes. Exigían la dictadura del proletariado sin transigir con el capitalismo y propusieron la nacionalización de todas las fábricas y tierras. Al pueblo le prometieron el cese de las hostilidades y a los obreros hambrientos darles alimentos. El slogan de Lenin Mir, zemlia, mir, Paz, tierra, pan, causó un profundo efecto en el pueblo ruso y provocó una reacción favorable de las multitudes, que sólo tenían una idea nebulosa del socialismo marxista. En vano Kerenski trató de combatir a la vez la propaganda bolchevique y alemana y restablecer la disciplina de los debilitados ejércitos rusos. En noviembre de 1917 o currió en Rusia una segunda revolución o, mejor, un golpe de estado. El Gobierno provisional de Kerenski fue derribado y Lenin, a la cabeza de los bolcheviques y actuando a través de los soviets locales, se hizo con el poder. Uno de los primeros actos del nuevo régimen comunista (Partido Comunista- bolchevique: PCb) fue acordar una tregua con Austria – Hungría y A lemania, y en marzo de 1918, tras muchas discusiones, se firmó el deshonroso tratado de Brest-Litovsk. La paz dictada por Hidenburg y Ludendorff fue muy dura y demostró lo que los aliados podían esperar en caso de derrota. Representaba casi una partición del imperio ruso. Polonia, Lituania y Curlandia pasaban a Alemania. Besarabia quedaba en poder de las potencias centrales para ser transferida a Rumanía. La parte de Armenia al sur del Cáucaso fue I Nicolás II Romanov La familia imperial rusa JUAN-ALBERTO KURZ 4 entregada a T urquía.
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