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Routledge Handbook of Ocean Resources and Management
Hance D. Smith, Juan Luis Suárez de Vivero, Tundi S. Agardy
Subsea Telecommunications
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 Lionel Carter, Douglas R. Burnett Published online on: 26 Oct 2015
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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 et al. of anthropogenicgreenhousegases(e.g.Halpern which aretakingplaceagainstabackdropofoceanchangeforced byaclimateundertheinfluence generation, hydrocarbonandmineralexploration,industrial fishing andmarineresearch,allof two decadeshavewitnessedamarkedexpansionofshipping, offshorerenewableenergy a highpriorityespeciallyatthistimeofrapidlyincreasinghuman presenceoffshore.Thelast invites largefinancialrepercussions(Rauscher,2010).Accordingly, cableprotectionhasbecome transferred ortradedonadailybasis.Thusfailureofthesubsea network,nomatterhowbrief, financial databetween208countriesviasubseacables.In 2004, upto$US7.4trillionwere for WorldwideInterbankFinancialTelecommunication) provides aservicethattransmits limit forbottom trawlfishing,whichisamajor causeofcabledamage(e.g. Mole the USA,UKandFrance(Figure23.1 ). Forwaterdepthsexceeding ocean floorsince1988when thefirsttrans-oceanicsystem, Around 1.5millionkilometres offibre-optictelecommunicationscableshavebeenlaidon the (Carter and rapidlytransmitlargevolumesofdatavoicetrafficinasecureeconomicalmanner by independentcommercialentities.Thatdominanceofcablesreflectstheirabilitytoreliably collective termusedheretoencompassthemanycablesystemsthatareownedandoperated international communicationsanddatatransferareviatheglobalsubseacablenetwork–ageneral these everydayactionswillmostlikelyinvolvesubseafibre-opticcables.Over95percentof Send anemailoverseas,downloadavideo,searchtheinternetormakeairlinebooking– protection (e.g.Lacroix that theyarenowregardedas disasters. as bringingcommunicationstoremoteareasnotlinkedcablesandregionspronenatural traffic, theyarestillsuitedforprovidingworldwidecoverageandtelevisionbroadcastsaswell Such istherelianceofworld’seconomy,securityandsocialframeworkonsubseacables , 2010;IPCC,2013). et al. TELECOMMUNICATIONS , 2009;Burnett Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett et al. , 2002;ACMA,2015).Toemphasisethispoint,theSWIFT(Society et al. critical infrastructure , 2013).Althoughsatellitescarry<5percentofinternational SUBSEA Subsea cables Introduction 23 349 et al. and henceareworthyofthebestpossible , 2008;UNEP-WCMC,2009;Smith TAT-8 ca. 2000 m–anapproximate , wasinstalledtolink et al. , 1997; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 techniques, areliableoperating systemwasinstalledin1866fromthefamedcableship, a start.Followingotherfailedattempts thatencouragedimprovementsincabledesignandlaying and Newfoundland(Gordon, 2002; Ash2013).Althoughitoperatedforonly26days, was cables aroundEurope.In1858, thefirsttrans-AtlantictelegraphiccablewaslaidbetweenIreland survived foradecade,which was longenoughtoencourageinstallationofothershort-haul cent oftheocean.Indepths<2000m,cablesareupto50mmdiameterdueaddition deploy about thesizeofadomesticgardenhose,i.e.between17and22mmdiameter.Thisis Kordahi andShapiro,2004)–fibre-opticcablesaretypicallylaidontheseabedsurface Source: CourtesyofSubmarineTelecomsForum. Figure 23.1 after afewmessages(Carter the cablecouldnotwithstandstrongwavesandcurrents oftheEnglishChannelandfailed Dover andCalais.Nomorethanacopperwireinsulatedby thenaturalpolymer, communications thatbegansymbolicallyin1850withthelaying ofatelegraphlinkbetween sending themontheirwaytothenextrepeater. element, erbium.Whenenergisedbylasers,theseerbium-doped fibresamplifythelightsignals repeaters nowuseopticalamplifiersthatareessentiallyglass fibrescontainingtherareearth approaching 100kmalongacableroute.Poweredviathe copper-based conductor,modern passing alongtheopticalfibresperiodicallyrequireamplification, repeatersareinstalledatintervals armoured typesarefinallywrappedinahard-wearingpolyethylene sheath.Becauselightsignals layers ofgalvanizedsteelwirearmourareappliedaccording tothenatureofrisk.These protective insulatingsheathofpolyethylene(Hagadorn,2009).Forwaterdepths<2000m,various provide strength,(iii)acopper-basedcompositeconductortocarryelectricalpowerand(iv) encased inasteeltubefilledwiththixotropicmedium,(ii)coveringofwirestrandsto the seabedforadditionalprotection. than 200m(Kordahi of steelwirearmourforprotectionespeciallyincontinentalshelfandslopewatersshallower
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, th ern Suva Cr oss Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 range ofapplications. whereas theinternetmadethatmaterialavailabletoawiderange ofuserswithanequallywide could efficientlyandrapidlytransferlargevolumesofinformation anddataaroundtheworld optic cablescoincidedwiththedevelopmentofinternet. Itwasafortuitoustiming.Cables transfers of1Mbfiles(PCLanding,2013).Equallyimportant, therapidevolutionoffibre- Japan, canaccommodate23millionsimultaneousvoicecallsor around1.9millionsimultaneous Law oftheSea (1982)(‘UNCLOS’)(Burnett international lawforsubmarine cablesascontainedintheUnitedNationsConventionon the transition tothe capacity offibre-opticcableswasmuchlargerthanthattheir coaxialcounterpartsandsothe optic, trans-oceaniclinkin1988heraldedafundamentalshift incommunications.Thecarrying dominated globalcommunicationsthroughthe1980s.However, thelayingoffirstfibre- of upto4000telephonechannels,theyweremainlyviable onmajortrafficroutes.Satellites munications inthelate1970sand1980s.Eventhoughtrans-Atlanticcablesachievedcapacities major improvementontelegraphiclinksbutnotenoughtomatchdevelopingsatellitecom first dayofoperationin1956,707telephonecallsweremadebetweentheUSAandUK–a cause ofcablefaults water depthsexceeding2000m,whichistheapproximatedepthlimitofdeeptrawlfishing,amajor The InternationalConvention fortheProtectionofCables and Newfoundland.The In 1955–56thisbecamearealitywiththelayingofcoaxialsystem,TAT-1,betweenScotland with thedevelopmentofrepeaters,setsceneforcablestocarrymultiplevoicechannels. In the1930sexperimentswithpolyethyleneencasedcoaxialcableswereunderwayand,along which increasedfrom12words/minuteforthefirstcablesto200by1920s. Eastern Source: L.Carter. Figure 23.2 . Advancesincabledesignandconstructionimprovedreliabilitytransmissionspeeds, A sectionoflightweightcabledesignedfordeploymentontheseabedsurface,nominallyin fibre-optic era International lawandsubmarine cables telephonic era began. Today,acablelink,suchasthatbetweentheUSA and Subsea telecommunications was bornandthe 351 et al. , 2013).UNCLOS treatscablesthesame telegraphic era 1 is thefoundationofmodern became history.Onthe - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 into theEEZorhighseas. should generallybeeffectiveonlywithintheterritorialandarchipelagicseasnotextend may establishconditionsforcablesorpipelinesenteringthesezones.Suchon LCS. Inarchipelagicwatersandintheterritorialsea,coastalStatesexercisesovereignty other StatesenjoythefreedomtolayandmaintainsubmarinecablesinEEZupon continental shelf(LCS)forthepurposeofexploringandexploitingtheirnaturalresources,but sovereign rightsandjurisdictionintheexclusiveeconomiczone(EEZ)uponlegal in offshorezoneswiththeinterestsofallStatesusingoceans.Coastalexercise to continuebecause mostnationsdependupon cablesforparticipatinginthe globaleconomy therequirementthatpartiesapplydomesticlawstoprosecutepersonswhoendangeror • cable. the continentalshelfitallowsacoastalStatetodelineate route forapipelinebutnot potential environmentalimpactbydistinguishingcablesfrom submarinepipelines;thatis,on adverse impactscausedbysubmarinecables,UNCLOSindirectly takesintoaccounttheir Careful routeplanninghelpstoavoiddamagecables(Wagner, 1995).Withrespecttopotential therequirement thatcoastalStatesalongwithpipelineandcableownersshallnottakeactions • therequirementthatownerofacableorpipeline,whoinlayingrepairing • therequirementthatcableownersmustindemnifyvesselforlawfulsacrificesof • therequirementthatvesselsmustsacrificetheiranchorsorfishinggeartoavoidinjury therequirementthatvessels,unlesssavinglivesorships, avoidactionslikelytoinjurecables; • • thefreedomstolay,maintainandrepaircablesoutsideofterritorialseas,includingcable • to layandmaintainsubmarinecablesintenarticles. or naturalresourcesasthecasemaybe.UNCLOSexpresslyprovidesforfundamentalfreedom governing telecommunicationcablesbegovernedbythelegalregimeformarinescientificresearch telecommunications andnaturalresources,itwillinadditiontotheUNCLOSlegalregime based ontheirpurpose.Ifacableisusedfordualpurposes,telecommunicationsandscienceor be summarisedasfollows: reasonable useoftheseaandcoastalStatesbenefitfromthem. that extendoutto2000mwater depth. international law,haslegislated toprotectitsvitalcablelinksbycreatingseabedprotectionzones strong protectiontocomplement traditionalinternationalcablelaw.Australia,consistentwith communications orelectricalpowerdistribution. not involvepollution(Nordquist pollution thatmayresultfrompipelinedamage.Bycomparison, damagetoanoceancabledoes legislation thatestablishednofishing andanchoringzonesaroundcables. fishing practices,aswellanchoring, areprohibitedinsidethesezones.NewZealandhasenacted UNCLOS establishestherightsanddutiesofallStates,balancinginterestscoastalStates Outside oftheterritorialsea,corelegalprinciplesapplyingtointernationalcablescan States treatinternationalcablesinnationalmaritimezonesascritical infrastructurethatdeserves damage cableswilfullyorthroughculpablenegligence; that prejudicetherepairandmaintenanceofexistingcables. laid cableorpipelinefortherepaircosts; or pipelinecausesinjurytoapriorlaidcablepipeline,indemnifytheowneroffirst their anchorsorfishinggear; cables; route surveysincidenttocablelaying 7 The reasonforthisdistinctionisthatthereaneedtoprevent, reduceandcontrolany 4 3 The layingandmaintenanceofsubmarinecablesisconsidereda Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett et al. , 1993),butmaysignificantlydisruptinternational 8 5 Bottom trawlingandotherpotentially destructive (Nordquist 352 2 et al. 6 , 1993); 9 The trendisexpected Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 Sicily andbroke threecables(Orange,2008). Atleast14nationssuffered lossoffibre-optic in 2008whenashipdraggedits anchoracrosstheMediterraneanseabedbetweenTunisia and seabed posingathreattoanycables alongavessel’scourse.Suchcaseappearstohaveoccurred (1997) notedthata4tonneanchor ona5000tonneshipcouldpenetrate5mintosoftmuddy over theseabedunbeknownto thevesseloperators.Toemphasisehazard,Shapiro known tobreakfreewhileaship isunderway.Asaresult,anchorscanbetowedlongdistances eventually driftwiththecurrentsthananchorsmaybedragged ontocables. indiscriminately installedoversubseacables.Ifthesestatic devices arepoorlyanchoredand from lobsterpotstolargefish-trappingsystems.Thehazard ariseswhenlargedevicesare cable breaksat40tonnesstrainormore.Anchorsareusedto install staticfishingdevicesranging armoured orlight-weightcablemaybreakunderafewtonnes strainwhereasadoublearmoured or ultimatelybreakacabledependingonitsdiameterandamount ofwirearmouring.Anon- snags acableonorundertheseabed,momentumof towingvesselmaybend,stretch a significantrisk.Grapnelsmaybetowedbyfishingvessels torecoverlostgear.Ifagrapnel optical fault shunt fault insulating sheathingtoallowseawatermakecontactwiththeliveconductorandproducea the sheathingwithoutcausingsignificantdamage,(ii)boardsbreakprotectiveand path. Severaldifferentscenariosarepossible;(i)theotterboardspassovercableandscrape relates toheavytrawldoorsor fishing isespeciallyhazardousbecauseitawidespreadandrepetitivepractice.Thehazard the presenceoftrawlgearorfurrowsinseabedproducedbyadraggedanchor. as ‘unknown’,thatistherenoconclusiveevidenceregardingthecauseoffaultsuch improved reliabilityofcables(Kordahi of 7percentbutoverthepasttwodecadesithasdroppedbelow5cent,reflecting Ocean (seeNaturalhazards).Faultsresultingfromcomponentfailurehavealong-termaverage be locallyhigherinhazard-proneregions,particulartheseismicallyactiverimofPacific caused bynaturalphenomenasuchassubmarinelandslidestendstobe<10percentbutmay anchoring (KordahiandShapiro,2004;Kordahi that About 150to200cablefaultsoccurannuallyaroundtheworld.Analysesoffaultrecordsshow protecting vulnerableecosystemsandspeciessuchascoralssponges(Carter on trawlingtopreventcabledamagecanalsoprovidedirectbenefitsforbiodiversityby and fornationalsecurity.Thesedevelopmentsgohandinwithconservation,asrestrictions damage them. practice increasinglyrecognisestheimportanceofprotectingcablesfromactivitiesthatcould have providedadequategovernanceforinternationalcablesoutsidenationalwaters,andState there hasbeennoirreversibleenvironmentalimpactfromthem.UNCLOSandStatepractice cultural heritage. and theagreementofpartiesthatcablelayingmaintenanceposednothreattounderwater (2001) agreedtoexemptcablesfromthattreatybecauseofthespecificprovisionsUNCLOS The anchoringofshipsistheothermajorcausefaults.Incorrectly stowedanchorsare Commercial fishingappearstobetheprimecauseofcablefaults(Drew,2009).Bottomtrawl The layingandmaintenanceofcablesisareasonableusethesea,in166yearsuse, Since UNCLOS,thepartiestoUNESCOConventiononUnderwaterCulturalHeritage ca. 70 percentandmoreofallfaultsresultfromhumanactivities,notablyfishingships’ , (iii)thecableisdraggedandbentsufficientlytodamage glassfibrestoforman and (iv)thecableissevered.Fishingoperationsusingananchor orgrapnelalsopose Protecting thenetworkinabusyocean otter boards Subsea telecommunications et al. ploughing theseabedanddamaginganycableintheir , 2007).Around20percentoffaultsareclassified 353 et al. , 2007;WoodandCarter,2008).Damage et al. , 2009). et al. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 infrastructure (DrewandHopper,1996;OFCC,2007;The CrownEstate,2012). of theinvolvedpartiesandhaveproducedguidelinestoimprove thesafetyofseabedusersand wind-farm industries.Thoseinitiativesresultinthesharingof knowledgeabouttheoperations between thecableindustryrepresentativesandotherseabedusers suchasthefishingandoffshore official noticestomariners(e.g.ACMA,2015)and(iii)direct communicationandcollaboration (ICPC, 2013;Burnett information oncablesandtheirimportanceforpolicymakers, thepublicandotherseabedusers a vesselbechargedwithdamagingcable. a warningshouldvesselposerisk;thosedataarealsoarchived toprovideevidenceshould speed, directionandotherdata.Softwareplotsaship’slocationheadingthusprovides gross tonnesandprovidesfrequentupdatesviaVHFradioofavessel’sname,number,position, now permitmonitoringofvesselsinrealtime(Drew,2013).AISisrequiredforshipsover299 in particulartheAutomaticIdentificationSystem(AIS)andVesselMonitoring(VMS) observers and/orpublicnotificationofhazardousactivities.Developmentnewtechnologies, Ministry ofTransport,2013).Policingmayinvolveperiodicover-flights,stationingpermanent successful througheffectivepolicingandeducationofseabedusers(e.g.Transpower by finesand/ortenyearsimprisonment(ACMA,2015).Ofcourseaprotectionzoneisonly exclude activitiesconsideredhazardoustocables,anddeparturesfromthelawarepunishable zones (seeInternationalLawandSubmarineCables).InthecaseofAustralia,protection mile (22km)limit)maybeaffordedlegalprotectionthroughthecreationofcable drilling fromshore(e.g.Austin mentally sensitivecoasts,cablesmaybeplacedunderthelittoralzoneseabedviadirectional they maybeprotectedbyconcretematsorrockarmour,insertedinironpipes.Forenviron protects itfromaknownhazard.Wherecablescannotbeburied,forexampleinrockyareas, on thearmouringofacable,andwherepossible,buryingitbeneathseabedtodepththat communication withotherseabedusersincludingthepublic.Physicalprotectiontypicallycentres nation ofphysicalprotection,legalactivepreventativemeasuresandongoing or wellprotected. ships todesignatedanchorageswherevesselswerebetterregulatedandcableseitherabsent Malaysia, SingaporeandIndonesiaapproachedtheInternationalMaritimeOrganizationtodirect damage tocablesamountedalmost$US4.5million(LloydsList,2009).Toresolvetheproblem, cable damageasshipsdraggedtheiranchorsorswungonmoorings.Resultantanchor problem wasexacerbatedbystrongtidalcurrentsthatheightenedtheriskofvesselcollisionand (West ofEngland,2009).OffSingaporeandMalaysia,OPLanchoragesbecamecongested.The major ports.Manyvesselsanchoredoutsideportlimits(OPL)toavoidpilotandcharges downturn of2008–2009.Internationaltradedeclinedandcargo-lessvesselswerelaiduparound centres inIndiaandPakistan.Anotherexampleofanchoringimpactsfollowedtheeconomic connectivity. Particularlyhard-hitwereinternet-basedbusinessessuchasout-sourcingandcall typically slowalthough theymaybesubjectto strongperiodicperturbations (e.g.Hollisterand temperatures are<2°C,pressures are500timesthatatsealevel,andcurrents,ifpresent, are dynamic, wave-dominatedsurf zonetoextremedepthsof5000mandmorewherewater In traversingtheocean,cables encounterasuiteofenvironmentsthatrangefromthehighly Education isanongoingprocessandoccursonseveralfronts; (i)provisionofplain-language Cables withintheEEZ(200nauticalmile(370km)limit)orTerritorialSea(12 Protection ofsubseafibre-opticcablesisamultifacetedprocessthatinvolvessomecombi et al. , 2013),(ii)provisionofcablelocationsonnavigationalcharts and Environmental aspectsof cables Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett et al. , 2004). 354 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 occur mainlyinwaterdepths<200mbutcanextendto may poseariskand(ii)cablesburiedundertheseabedforprotectionfromsuchactivitiesthat ditions, thepresenceofacableprotectionzoneoranabsenceotherseabeduserswhoseactivities in shallowerwaterwherecableburialisnotpossibleorneededduetounsuitableseabedcon remotely operatedvehiclealongasubseacableoffCalifornia, Kogan judging byseveralcable-basedstudies.Usingsedimentcores andvideofootagecollectedbya and McCave,1984;Carter1997). sediment especiallyduringperiodswhentheflowisreinforcedbypowerfuleddies(Hollister western boundariesofthemajoroceans(Hogg,2001)andareknowntoerodedeposit Elsewhere, cablesmaybesubjecttolocallyintensified,deep-oceancurrentsthatflowalongthe mud-laden flowsor such instancescablesmayreceiverapidinfluxesofmudandsandfromsubmarinelandslides tionally largevolumeofsedimentbecauseunstablelandscapesandpronouncedrainfalls.In margins suchasthoseborderingthePacificOcean.There,smallriversdischargeadispropor such astheZaire(Droz (e.g. HeezenandEwing,1952;Carter discharged todepthvia(i)submarinecanyonslinkedlargeriversand(ii)landslides 0.001–0.004 cm/year).However,higherratesoccurlocallywhereland-derivedsedimentis (up to1cm/year)canburyacable. the circum-Pacificrim(e.g.MillimanandSyvitski,1992),rapidaccumulationofsediment storms. Ifthecontinentalshelfhasastrongsupplyofsediment,asiscaseforshelves of storm-forcedcurrentsandwavesdecreasebutcannonethelessdisturbtheseabedunderextreme In depthsdownto et al. Once deployedontheseabed,cablesareexposedtophysicalandbiologicalforces(Carter usually inwaterdepths> McCave, 1984).Forpracticalpurposes,cablescanbeseparatedinto(i)thoselaidontheseabed the fishattacks took placeremainsunclear,but theypromptedaredesignof deep-watercables teeth embeddedinthecablesheath, weresufficienttodamagethecableandforcerepairs.Why Canary Islands(Marra,1989). Bitesfromthedeep-dwelling of thefirsttrans-oceanfibre-optic cablewasdisruptedbysharkattacksin1985–1987off the researchers (e.g.LevingsandMcDaniel, 1974). recovered cableshavebeenasourceofspecimensfromparts oftheoceanseldomvisitedby organisms aslongthecableiswithindepthrangeof anorganism.Asaconsequence, eastern USA.Wherecablesremainuncoveredbysedimentthey canactassubstratesforencrusting ment. Grannis(2001)reachedsimilarconclusionsregardingthe biotaalongacableoffthenorth- composition andbiomassoforganismsbeforeoneyearafter asubseapowercabledeploy In asimilarvein,Andrulewicz animals livinginorontheseabed1mand100mfromcable werenotstatisticallydifferent. wave actionandeventuallyinducecablefatigue(e.g.Carter or underminecables.Thelastphenomenoncanproducesuspensionsthatswayundercurrent/ with storm-forcedoceancurrentsandwavesmoveseabedsedimentthatcanabrade,bury,expose Any interactionofsurface-laidcableswiththemarinebiotaappears tobenegligibleminor In thedeepocean(>2000m),depositionofsedimentisconsiderablyslower(e.g. Surface laidcablesareexposed to fish,inparticularsharksandmarinemammals.Deployment , 2009).Intheshallowwaters( ca. turbidity currents 130 m–theglobalaveragedepthlimitofcontinentalshelfeffects et al. ca. 2000 mbeyondthepresentlimitofbottomtrawlfishing,butalso , 1996),buttheprimesitesareoffearthquake-andstorm-prone et al. Cables laidontheseabed Subsea telecommunications ca. with sufficientpowertobreakcables(seeNaturalHazards). <30 m)oftheinnercontinentalshelf,tidesinassociation (2003) likewisereportednochangeintheabundance, et al. , 2012).Thesesettingscanbefoundoffmajorrivers 355 ca. 2000 m. crocodile shark et al. , 1991;Kogan et al. , identifiedfromits (2006) showedthat et al. , 2006). - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 exposed coastsdown to from 2to7monthsand1 5yearsrespectively(Dernie For shelteredcoasts,recovery fromploughingofmangroveswampsandsaltmarshesranges consideration istheabilityof the seabedtorecovernaturallyfromburial-relateddisturbance. trawl fishinghasawiderfootprint andisarepetitiveprocess(e.g.Puig activity inthe20–25yeardesign lifeofacableunlessrepairisrequired.Incontrast,bottom and effectonbiotawilldependuponlocaloceanographicconditions. disturbance relatingtothewidthofjettedfurrowanddispersal ofturbidwaterwhoseextent Featherstone, 2001).Jettingisalsousedtoburyrepairedsections ofcable.Again,thereissome such assteepslopes,verysoftmuddysedimentsandwaterdepths a requireddepth.Thetechniqueisusedforsubstratesthatareunsuitable formechanicalploughing on aremotelyoperatedvehicle(ROV),liquefyseabedsediments allowingthecabletosink the immediateseabedsurfaceovera2mto8widestrip. the laboratorytestsissmall. for marinebiologicalprocesses(MorelandPrice,2003),theamountofleachaterecordedin in theseawatercontainersand(iii)Znisacommontraceelementthatessential lower duetodilution,(ii)theratesofZnleachingdeclinedmarkedlyaftertendays’exposure was detected.Bearinginmindthat(i)theopenoceanZnconcentrationswouldbemuch measured initiallywhereasironandcopperwereatnaturalbackgroundlevels,i.e.noleaching armoured sampleswithexposedends(Collins,2007).Upto11partspermillionZnwere and testedforleachedmetals.Onlyzincwasdetectedthisfromthegalvanisedwire- cut endssealedandothersexposed–wereimmersedin5litrecontainersofnaturalseawater agents, moderncablesarechemicallystable.Whensamplesofdifferentcabletypes–somewith design andlayingtechniquesthatpreventedcoiling,cableburialbeneaththeseabed. and fibre-opticsystems(WoodCarter,2008).Thismarkedchangeresultedfromimproved Cable faultdatabasesshowacessationofwhaleentanglementswiththeintroductioncoaxial factor thatsuggeststhewhalesmayhavebeencaughtincoilsofcableformedfromrepair. continental shelfandupperslopewherecableshadbeenpreviouslyrepaired–a the entanglementswereconfinedtotelegraphiceracablesandlocatedmainlyon whales whoseremainswereentangledintherecoveredcables.Analysisoffaultrecordsrevealed highlighted byHeezen(1957)whoreportedonaseriesofcablefaultscausedmainlysperm that improvedprotectionagainstfishbites.Theinteractionwithmarinemammalswas a disturbancestrip 0.5 mintotheseabed,acablemaybeburied1mdeepinwhichcaseploughsharewillhave hazard (e.g.Rapp conditions, ploughtypeandthedepthofburial,whichisdictatedbynatureexpected sediment accumulation.Ploughingdisturbstheseabed,extentofwhichvarieswithsubstrate solidated materialsmayonlypartiallycollapse.Inbothinstances,burialisfacilitatedbynatural is inserted.Insoftsediments,thefurrowwallcollapsestoencasecablewhereasmorecon ploughing. Aplough,towedbyacableship,opensfurrowintheseabedintowhich The protectiveburialofcablesonthecontinentalshelfandslopeusuallyinvolvesmechanical Burial disturbanceshouldbeviewedincontext.is a restrictedandnon-repetitive The othermainburialtechniqueisjetting.Highpressurewater jets,commonlyincorporated Comprised ofhighdensity,ultra-violetresistantpolyethylenesheathingwithoutantifouling ca. et al. 0.3 mwide.Inaddition,theskidsthatsupportploughshare candisturb ca. , 2004).Forheavilyfishedareaswherethetrawldoorspenetrate 30 mwaterdepth, waveandcurrentactionshift sedimentonadaily Cables buriedundertheseabed Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett 356 et al. , 2003;Ecoplan,2003).On ca. >1000 m(Hoshinaand et al. , 2012).Another ca. - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 (Dan case forearthquake-triggeredsubmarinelandslidesandturbidity currentsoffAlgeria2003 a widespreadreductionorevenlossofinternetandcommunication traffic.Thiswasthe Furthermore, amajorhazardsuchassubmarinelandslidecan damagemultiplecablestocause more prominentindepths>1000–2000m,wherehumanoperationsaremarkedlyreduced. nbrmti rsueas e psomsre socre duringTyphoon Nargis(2008)when in barometricpressure alsosetupstormsurges asoccurred continental slopeoffOahu,Hawaii tobreaksixcables(Dengler waves andcurrentssetoffsubmarine landslidesandturbiditycurrentsthatsweptdown the and currentactiontoenhance sedimentmobility.DuringHurricaneIwa(1982),wind-forced produced robustshallow-water cables. fatigue (e.g.Kogan (i) abrade,(ii)buryor(iii)underminecablestoproducesuspensions thatmayresultincable On thecontinentalshelf,cablesareexposedtomobilesand andgravel(Allan,2000)thatcan Although naturalhazardscause<10percentofallcablefaults(Kordahi 1920 kgcomparedto5.7fortheteleconference. face-to-face meetingsinvolveairandothertravel,thecarbondioxideequivalentemissionswere and NewYorkiscomparedtoanequivalentface-to-facemeeting(Donovan,2009).Because equivalent emissionbecomesapparentwhenacable-basedteleconferencebetweenStockholm mission of1gigabitdataover10,000kmcable.Therelevancethiscarbondioxide that 7gofcarbondioxideequivalentswerereleasedforevery10,000gigabitkm,i.e.thetrans those andotherfactorssuchascablemanufacturerecyclingintoaccount,itwasestimated cable terminalstationsandwithfuelusedbyshipsforlayingmaintenance.Taking Potential environmentaleffectsareassociatedmainlywiththeelectricalpowerrequiredtooperate environmental effects–bothpositiveandnegativeofcablemanufacture,operationrecovery. A cradle-to-graveanalysisoffibre-opticcableswasmadebyDonovan(2009)toassessthe to beunaffectedbycabledeploymentasevincedAndrulewicz CEE, 2006).Thebenthicfaunaarealsoadaptedtothefrequentlymobilesedimentsandappear to annualbasisresultinginameliorationorremovalanyburialscars(CarterandLewis,1995; Japan, 2011(studiesunderway). slower (e.g.NOAA,2005;CaliforniaCoastalCommission,2007). areas withalimitedsedimentsupplyandweakorinfrequentcurrent/waveaction,recoveryis facilitated bytidalandoceancurrentsthatareintensifiedagainsttheedgetopography.Forshelf reach 1cm/yearormore(e.g.Huh a substantialsupplyofsedimentmaybeinfilledbythenaturaldepositionmudthatcanlocally New Zealand(Grochowski movement ofsedimentintide-dominatedregionssuchastheEnglishChannelandCookStrait, driven currentsdeclineswithdepthalthoughtidesareomnipresentandcaninstigatedaily remainder ofthecontinentalshelfoutto Severe stormsareamajorthreat tocoastalandshelfcableinfrastructure.Windsincreasewave et al. , 2003;Cattaneo et al. , 2006).However,improveddesign,constructionanddeployment have Hazards fromthecoasttoabyssalocean et al. et al. , 2012),southernTaiwan,2006(Hsu , 1993;CarterandLewis,1995).Plowscarsonshelveswith Subsea telecommunications et al. Natural hazards Cable lifecycle ca. , 2009).Attheshelfedge,seabedrecoverymaybe 357 130 mdepth,theinfluenceofwavesandwind- et al. , 1984).Windsandchanges et al. et al. et al. , 2009)andnorthern , 2007)theybecome (2003). Forthe - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 geological andgeophysicalfeatures andareavoidedbycablerouteplanners. impacts ofsubmarinevolcanism canbeminimisedbecausevolcanicstructureshavedistinctive Ocean severingthelocalsubsea telegraphiclinkwiththerestofworld.However,direct main blast,atsunamithatlocally reached35mheight,radiatedsouthwardsacrosstheIndian occurred duringtheeruptionof Krakatau(Krakatoa)in1883(Winchester,2003).Following a through eruptions,landslides,hotwaterventsandotherphenomena includingtsunamisuchas ridges wheretectonicplatesdivergeandaroundthePacificrim. Volcanoesposepotentialhazards under climatechange).Submarinevolcanicactivityiswidespread especiallyalongmid-ocean may cometotheforeasremoteArcticareasareconnected theglobalnetwork(seeHazards cause(s) ofthedamage(landslide,turbiditycurrent,tsunami) haveyettobedetermined. submarine telecommunicationsweredamaged(BBC,2011), butthefullextentandspecific least onecablelandingstationaswellfixedlineandmobile phoneinfrastructure.Inaddition, e.g. Orleansville(HeezenandEwing,1955),Papua-NewGuinea(Krause set ofobservations,earthquakeshavebeenimplicatedinarangecable-damagingevents, 5000 m.Currentspeedsofupto65km/hourwereachievedenroute.Sincethispioneering that brokeafurther16faultsasitflowed650kmovertheseabedintowaterdepthsof and Ewing,1952;Piper set offsubsealandslidesthatimmediatelycaused12faultsinAtlantictelegraphiccables(Heezen Banks, Newfoundland,whichwasshakenbyamagnitudeM7.2earthquakein1929.Theshock Mediterranean region.However,thetextbookexampleisfromcomparativelystableGrand where tectonicplatescollideasisthecaseforcircum-PacificOceanandpartsof unsurprising thatsuchoccurrencesarerelativelycommoninseismicallyactiveregionsespecially Canyon todamageeightcablesalonga370kmlongpathwayinwaterdepthsdown4200m. discharge eventuallytransformedintotwoturbiditycurrentsthatsweptdownthesub of upto15m(Tanaka earthquake (M9.0)offnorthernJapan,extendedupto5km inlandandreachedsurgeheights BT, personalcommunication).Anothertsunami,thistimeformed bythe2011Tohokumega- damaged terrestrialtelecommunicationsandpossiblyasubseacableoffSouthAfrica(M.Green, shelf telecommunications.The2004Indonesianmega-earthquake(M9.1–9.3)andtsunami off southernTaiwan,whichisamajorcablecorridor,highlyhazardousregion. (2009) andin2010byanotherturbiditycurrentthatbrokeninecables.Clearlytheoceanfloor to causeatotalof19cablefaults.HengchunwasfollowedthreeyearslaterbyTyphoonMorakot shocks. Thesedebris-chokedcurrentsfloweddownGaopingCanyonandintotheManilaTrench cable failures(three).Severalturbiditycurrentsfollowedwithsomepossiblytriggeredbyafter et al. of themorerecentbeing2006Hengchunearthquake(M7.0)offsouthernTaiwan(Hsu charge anestimated150milliontonnesofsedimentinjustsixdays(Carter Taiwan. Almost3mofraingeneratedexceptionalfloodsthatcausedtheGaopingRivertodis across whichcablespass.TyphoonMorakot(2009)wasthewettesttropicalcycloneonrecordfor but akeyimpactrelatedtothefloodingofseveralmajorcable-feddatacenters(Cowie,2012). flooded lowerManhattan(NASA,2012;USGS,2014).Atleastonefibre-opticlinkwasdamaged, Hurricane Sandy(2012)alsogenerateda4mhighsurge,whichtogetherwith180mmofrain, a 4mhighstormsurgepassedovertheIrrawaddyDeltatodamagecablestation(Ko,2011). Damage fromactivesubmarinevolcanoesandicebergs/seaice is rarealthoughthelatterhazard Submarine landslidesandturbiditycurrentsarealsotriggeredbyearthquakes,soitis Offshore earthquakescanalsogeneratetsunamithatposearisktocoastalandcontinental River floodsarealsoahazardespeciallywhereriverislinkeddirectlytosubmarinecanyon , 2009).Forthelattereventmainshockwasalsoaccompaniedbynear-instantaneous et al. et al. , 1985).Landslidedebriscontributedtoamajorturbiditycurrent , 2012).Suchadevastatinginflowofwaterseverelydamaged at Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett 358 et al. et al. , 1970)withone marine Gaoping , 2012).River - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 China. with theRussianArcticandLondon ( Trans-Arctic SubmarineCable System(ROTACS),forinstance,isplannedtolinkTokyo optic linkswithremoteArctic communitiesandtherestofworld.TheRussianOptical free withinadecade.Such marked environmentalshifthasfosteredplanstoinstallfibre- and increasedstorminess,ifthecurrenttrendcontinues, thesummerArcticcouldbeice- since 1978whensatellitemonitoringbegan(NSIDC,2012). Icelossreflectsawarmerocean has lostmuchofitssummerseaiceandinSeptember,2012, reacheditsminimumextent fishing practices. preferred depthby3.6m/decade.Suchtrendsarelikelyto alter thestyleanddepthrangeof occur incommercialquantitiesofftheUK.Furthermore,deep-dwelling fishareincreasingtheir fish speciestomigratenorth,forexample,previouslyMediterranean-dwelling anchoviesnow (e.g. Frost and maintenanceoperations.Industrialfisheriesmayalso be respondingtoclimatechange will restrictthechoiceofviabletelecommunicationcableroutesandimpactuponlaying schemes, aswellplanstocreatenewsubmarineenergygrids(e.g.IEEESpectrum,2010), and establishmoresecureenergysupplies.Thegrowthofwindfarmsotherrenewable as nationsseektoreducegreenhouseemissions,meetincreasingdemandforelectricalpower and henceischangingtherisksuchactivitiesposetocables.Windturbinefarmsareexpanding laying andmaintenanceoperations. et al. for example,iswitnessingstrongerwaveactivityandstrengthenedoceancurrents(e.g.Böning and currentregimes(Toggweiler although itscharacteristicsareconsistentwithclimateprojections. cyclone onTaiwaneserecordsitcannotbeconfidentlyattributedtomodernclimatechange by TyphoonMorakot(Carter climatic eventsinthenortheastUSA(NOAA,2012). surges ofwhichHurricaneSandymaybeaharbingerjudgingbyrecordedincreaseextreme shelf. Inaddition,strongerwindsandassociateddropsinbarometricpressurewillenhancestorm (IPCC, 2013)thatwillstrengthenwaveandcurrentactivityatthecoastadjacentcontinental increased byafactorof3inthetwentiethcentury(OceanClimateChange,2012). demonstrated bydatafromAustraliathatsuggestthefrequencyofextremehighsealevelevents cable infrastructure.Assealevelrises,coastsbecomemorepronetoerosionandfloodingas sea level;hencetheneedtodeterminelocalconditionswhenassessingriskposedcoastal Tectonic platemovements,oceancurrents,gravitationaleffectsamongothersalsolocallyaffect produced aglobalaverageriseinsealevelof3.2mm/year(UniversityColorado,2015). documented bytheIPCC(2013)andaplethoraofongoingresearch. Coastal andoceanenvironmentsarerespondingtothepresentphaseofclimatechangeas Ocean/climate changeisalsobringingnewopportunities for cables.TheArcticOcean In additiontodirectenvironmentaleffects,climatechangeisalteringotherseabedactivities The coreofstrongwesterlywindshasmovedtowardsthepolesresultinginchangeswave islikelytoaffectrainfallpatternsandbyassociationriverdischargeasexemplified Warming Ocean andatmosphericwarmingarelikelytoleadmoreintenseand/orfrequentstorms Meltwater fromglaciersandicesheets,togetherwiththermalexpansionoftheoceanhave , 2008)–responsesthatwillhaveabearingoncoastalandshelfsettingsaswellcable et al. , 2012).OceanwarmingintheNorthernHemispherehasencouraged southern Hazards underclimatechange et al. et al. Subsea telecommunications , 2006;Thompson , 2012).However,althoughMorakotwasthewettest New Scientist 359 , 2012)withbranchestoSouth Koreaand et al. , 2011).TheSouthernHemisphere, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 infrastructure activities inmulti-purposeprotectedareas,especiallylightoftheirdesignationas limited activitiesarepermittedexceptthosethatdamagingtotheenvironment. different levelsrangingfromMPAswhereallcommercialactivitiesareprohibitedtothose 3.1 millionkm of thatprotectionvariesamongnations.InthecaseAustralia,whoseMPAsextendover encompass One responsehasbeenthecreationofMarineProtectedAreas(MPA),whichpresently especially inrelationtotheextractionoflivingandnon-livingresources(e.g.UNEP,2006). Humanity’s increasingpresenceinandontheoceanhasplacedpressuresenvironment Council, 2012). Policyaimsarewideranging; fromprotectingandrestoring oceanbiodiversity implement policyconcerningstewardship oftheGreatLakes,coastsandoceans(NationalOcean the Environment,2012).The USA,forexample,createdaNationalOceanCouncil to Europe, NorthAmericaandOceania amongotherregions(e.g.DEFRA,2009;Ministry for and recreationalactivitiesaswell asscientificresearch.ImplementationofMSPisunderway in and marineissuesconcernedwith environmentalconservationandsustainability,commercial such asMarineSpatialPlanning(MSP).Theseregimesprovide frameworkstoaddresscoastal slopes andcanyons,bythepotentialminingofgashydrates asanenergysource. hazards posedbylandslidesandturbiditycurrentsgenerated unstablesedimentsonsubmarine of earthquakesandtsunami.Suchinformationisrelevantto the cableindustrybyvirtueof mixtures ofmethanegasandicethatareapotentialsource hydrocarbonsand(iv)theimpacts along thecanyon,(ii)compositionandchangeofcanyon ecosystems,(iii)gashydrates– Canyon (400–1000mdepth)isthehubforresearchinto(i) movementofwaterandsediment experiments tailoredforaspecificsetting.Forexample,the nodeinthesubmarineBarkley 2015). Inthatconfiguration,NEPTUNEcoversarangeof keymarineenvironmentswith distributed fromthecontinentalshelftoabyssalplainat2660m depth(OceanNetworksCanada, observatory withan812kmlongfibre-optic/powercablethatinterconnectsfivenodes (NEPTUNE) observatory,whichbeganoperationin2009.NEPTUNEispresentlythelargest long fibre-optic/powercable. communications andpower,isconnectedtoashore-basedreceivingcentreby52km resistant submarinehousingintowhichvarioussensorsandexperimentscanbeplugged.Itsupplies 891 mdepth.Shapedlikeatruncatedpyramidandweighingseveraltonnes,thenodeistrawler- (MARS, 2015).Itbeganoperationin2008andisbasedona is theMontereyAcceleratedResearchSystem(MARS)situatedinBay,California conducting multidisciplinaryresearch,havecometothefore.Oneoffirstcabledobservatories 2001; Howe,2004),ithasonlybeeninthelastfiveyearsthatlargeobservatoriescapableof to measurecurrentsandthermalstructureoftheoceansince1980s(BaringerLarsen, community (CarterandSoons,2013).Althoughsubseacommunicationscableshavebeenused in situ and powercable-basedsystemshavebeendesignedforlong-term(20–25years)monitoring assessment, hasbeenbolsteredbythedevelopmentofoceanobservatories.Thesefibre-optic 2013) andtheirspecialstatusunderUNCLOS(seeInternationallawcables). The layingandmaintenanceofsubmarinetelecommunicationscablesaregenerallypermitted Whatever theactivity,increasinghumanpresenceoffshorehas promptedregulatoryregimes On alargerscaleistheNorthEastPacificTime-seriesUnderseaNetworkExperiments Marine research,especiallythatrelatedtoclimate/oceanchange,naturalhazardsandresource experiments, thedatafromwhichareavailableinnear-realtimeforpublicandscience ca. , theirlowenvironmentalimpact(OSPAR,2008;Carter 3.2 percentoftheglobalocean(MarineReservesCoalition,2012).Thenature 2 of oceanandseabed(AustralianGovernment,2015),protectionisaffordedat Telecommunications inanevolvingseascape Lionel CarterandDouglasR.Burnett 360 node et al. located ontheseabedat , 2009;Burnett critical et al. , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:56 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203115398, chapter23, 10.4324/9780203115398.ch23 Austin, S.,Wyllie-Echeverria, Groom,M.J.,2004.Acomparativeanalysisofsubmarinecable Ash, S.,2013.Thedevelopmentof submarinecables,inBurnett,D.R.,Beckman,R.C.andDavenport, Andrulewicz, E.,Napierska,D.andOtremba,Z.,2003.Theenvironmental effectsoftheinstallationand Allan, P.,2000.Cablesecurityinsandwaves.PaperICPCPlenary 2000, Copenhagen. 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ACMA’sRoleinProtectionofSub The CableConventioncontinuestobewidelyusedinthecableindustry.Whileitsessentialterms 1 submarine cables(e.g.DEFRA,2011),shouldnotdisadvantageunderMSP. infrastructural aspects,alongwithacknowledgementoftheniltolowenvironmentalimpact (2011) describesas‘sociallyandeconomicallycrucialtotheUK’.Bothlegalcritical world’s oceans’.Thereisalsorecognitionofcablesascriticalinfrastructure,whichDEFRA of thatconventionas‘thebedrocklegalinstrumentgoverningactivitieson,overandunderthe point iscriticalinthatwhilenotasignatorytoUNCLOS,theUSArecognisesimportance law thatinvolvesrespectforandpreservationofnavigationalrightsfreedoms.Thelatter uses oftheoceanand(ii)exerciserightsjurisdictioninaccordancewithinternational telecommunications are;(i)thesupportofsustainable,safe,secureandproductiveaccessto, to betteringthepublic’sknowledgeofitsoffshoreestate.Ofrelevancesubmarine The termlayingreferstonewcableswhilethemaintainingrelatesbothand existing 5 Articles 51,58,79,87,112–115,and297.(1)(a). 4 Article 79(4). 3 Articles 21,51,58,79,87,112–115and297. 2 Submarine Cableand PipelineProtectionAct(16May1966). 9 Telecommunications Actof1997, includingamendmentsuptoActNo.169of2012. 8 Article 79(3). 7 The originoftheterm‘culpablenegligence’isfoundinRenault,Louis,ProtectionSubmarine 6 7, 173–183. installation methodsinNorthernPuget Sound,Washington. pp. 19–40. 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Area oftheBalticSea. functioning ofthesubmarineSwePolLinkHVDCtransmissionline: acasestudyofthePolishMarine zones/submarine-telecommunications-cables-submarine-cable-zones-i-acma (accessed8July2015). marine Cables.www.acma.gov.au/Industry/Telco/Infrastructure/Submarine-cabling-and-protection- procedures necessarytoimplementthem. are includedinUNCLOS,theCableConventionremainsonlytreatythatprovidesdetailed cables andincludesrepair.Nordquist, continued useoftheseprovisions,whicharecompatibleandsupplementUNCLOS. of injuringcablesandobtainingevidenceinfractions.Article311(2)UNCLOSrecognisesthe competency ofnationalcourtsforinfractions;andArt.10,proceduresboardingvesselssuspected required tobefromcablebuoys;Art7proceduresforsacrificedanchorandgearclaims,Art.8 ships; minimumdistancesshipsarerequiredtobefromcableArt.6distance under UNCLOS. was adoptedinUNCLOSwithoutdiscussion,itisreasonabletoassumethatthesamestandardapplies by aprudentseamanfacingthesituationthatcausedcablefault.Sinceterm‘culpablenegligence’ that culpablenegligenceinvolvesafailuretouseordinarynauticalskillwhichwouldhavebeenused 32 (Mar.5,1864)and two earlyEnglishcases Telegraphs andtheParisConference(October–November1882)atp.8wherereferenceismadeto Vol II(1993)atp.915. 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