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Educational Reconstruction: African American Education in the Urban South, 1865-1890

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Educational Reconstruction: African American Education in the Urban South, 1865-1890 EDUCATIONAL RECONSTRUCTION: AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATION IN THE URBAN SOUTH, 1865-1890 Hilary Nicole Green A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2010 Approved by: Heather A. Williams W. Fitzhugh Brundage William L. Barney Crystal Feimster Jerma A. Jackson ABSTRACT HILARY NICOLE GREEN: Educational Reconstruction: African American Education in the Urban South, 1865-1890 (Under the direction of Heather A. Williams) The central question that I ask in this dissertation is: how did African Americans and their supporters create, develop, and sustain a system of education during the transition from slavery to freedom in Richmond, Virginia and Mobile, Alabama? For newly freed African Americans, education served as a means for distancing themselves from their slave past, for acquiring full access to the rights of American citizenship, and for economic mobility in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War. Unwilling to accept African Americans‘ claims of citizenship through education and new postwar realities, many local white elites and restored city governments in the urban South opposed African American education. These socioeconomic conditions forced African Americans to seek strategic alliances with both non-local groups supportive of educational attainment, such as the Freedmen‘s Bureau, Northern missionaries, as well as a few local, sympathetic whites. African Americans‘ process of building networks to yield education for the largely under and uneducated masses, I argue, amounted to Educational Reconstruction. These relationships were continually negotiated, accommodated, and resisted by all involved as each had a stake in the success and failure of African American education. As in any relationship, power struggles ensued and internal strife sometimes marred the networks. Even as African Americans witnessed a contested ii terrain concerning African American education globally, nationally, and locally to limit the growth of black education between 1865 and 1890, African Americans experienced educational triumph through two major developments in African American education--- the Freedmen‘s Schools and state-funded public schools. As partners and circumstances changed, this dissertation argues that urban African Americans never lost sight of these aims in their struggle for educational access and legitimacy for the African American schoolhouse. Through Educational Reconstruction, African Americans successfully moved African American education from being a non-entity to a legitimate institution, established a professional class of African-American public school teachers, and ensured the continuation of this educated middle class for future generations. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could not have been completed without the help and support of many people. My advisor, Dr. Heather A. Williams, has assisted me at every stage of writing. She provided encouragement, guidance, and editorial suggestions that have only enhanced the dissertation. I would like to acknowledge the members of the dissertation committee: Dr. W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Dr. William L. Barney, Dr. Crystal Feimster, and Dr. Jerma A Jackson. Your comments have made for a better dissertation. Thank you. I would like to also thank my family, friends, and co-workers for their support during these past months. My parents, Millicent and Nathaniel Green, and my brothers, Joshua and Zachary, have always encouraged me in this endeavor with their unconditional love and support. They have also endured my anxieties and ramblings without complaint. Thank you for reminding me why I decided to embark on this project. Your words of encouragement continue to motivate me. Stretching the boundaries of a typical friendship, Marja (Brown) Humphrey, Catherine Connor, Georgina Gajewski, Elizabeth Gritter, Bryna O‘Sullivan, and Dwana Waugh have read, commented, and offered advice on several sections of the final project. Thank you for serving as the necessary voices of reason during every phase of this project. The project would not have been possible without several fellowships and archives. Travel grants from the Center for the Study of the American South, the iv Massachusetts Historical Society, the Virginia Historical Society, and the History Department at the University of North Carolina allowed me to conduct necessary research. I would also like to give many thanks to the archivists and staff at the following facilities: the Massachusetts Historical Society, Virginia Historical Society, Library of Virginia, Virginia State University, Vanderbilt University, Duke University, University of South Alabama, Mobile Municipal Archives, Mobile Public Library, Historic Mobile Preservation Society, Davis Library at the University of North Carolina, and the North Carolina Collection at Wilson Library. Furthermore, the Doris G. Quinn Fellowship allowed me to write and complete this dissertation. I am grateful to have received these valuable resources. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the late Gerald R. Gill. While at Tufts University, he showed me that a life in the academy could combine teaching, scholarship, and community service without conflict. His encouragement and unconditional support allowed me to become the scholar, teacher, and community activist that I am today. You will be greatly missed but never forgotten. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. viii INTRODUCTION. .1 Chapter I. THE QUEST FOR ACCESS AND LEGITAMACY BEGINS: AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY AND THE FREEDMEN‘S SCHOOLS, 1865-1867 . .13 Richmond: Remaking the Former Confederate Capital. .16 Mobile: Hard Struggle for Access and Legitimacy . 57 II. IN TRANSITION: STATE CONSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND THE FREEDMEN‘S SCHOOLS, 1867-1870. 93 State Constitutional Conventions and the Creation of the Public Schools. 98 Richmond: From Resistance to Acceptance. 106 Mobile: Competing Visions and Communities at Odds. 120 III. REDEFINING USEFULNESS IN RICHMOND AND MOBILE: THE CREATION OF A CORPS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS. .152 Richmond Colored Normal: Richmond‘s Response to the Crisis. .156 Emerson Institute: Fulfilling Mobile‘s Needs. 195 IV. SHIFTING STRATEGIES: THE QUALITY CAMPAIGNS AND THE AFRICAN AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1870S. 223 Richmond: Struggle for Quality Public Schools and a Unified Campaign. .225 vi Mobile: A Community‘s Struggle for Quality Public Schools. 261 V. WALKING SLOWLY BUT SURELY: QUALITY CAMPAIGNS AND AFRICAN AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1880s . .310 No Longer Crawling: Readjusters and Success in Richmond. .311 Still Crawling: African Americans‘ Struggle for Quality Schools Continues in Mobile. .341 EPILOGUE. THE BLAIR EDUCATION BILL AND THE DEATH OF EDUCATIONAL RECONSTRUCTION, 1890. .357 APPENDIX 1. POPULATION STATISTICS, 1800-1890 . .361 APPENDIX 2. FREEDMEN‘S SCHOOL STATISTICS, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, 1865-1870 . .362 APPENDIX 3. FREEDMEN‘S SCHOOL STATISTICS, MOBILE, ALABAMA, 1865-1870 . 365 APPENDIX 4. COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF THE RICHMOND AFRICAN AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1869-1890 . 367 APPENDIX 5. COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF THE MOBILE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1871-1890 . 368 APPENDIX 6. RICHMOND COLORED NORMAL GRADUATES, 1873-1890. 369 APPENDIX 7. EMERSON NORMAL GRADUATES, 1876-1890. .386 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 388 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABHMS American Baptist Home Mission Society AFUC American Freedmen‘s Union Commission AL-BRFAL-ED Superintendent of Education for the State of Alabama, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands AMA American Missionary Association BRFAL United States Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands BRFAL-ED United States Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, Education Division LVA Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia MCPSS Mobile County Public School System, Barton Academy, Mobile, Alabama MHS Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Massachusetts NEFAS New England Freedmen‘s Aid Society USA University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama VA-BRFAL-ED Superintendent of Education for the State of Virginia, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands VHS Virginia Historical Society, Richmond, Virginia VSU Virginia State University, Petersburg, Virginia viii INTRODUCTION On June 13, 1888, Professor Daniel Barclay Williams took the opportunity to reflect upon the racial progress made since emancipation before an audience of Richmond Colored Normal graduates. ―For the last twenty-three years the colored people have made rapid progress in civilization,‖ Williams informed the audience. ―Their intelligence has been wonderfully augmented. Public schools, industrial, normal, professional schools, and colleges have taught millions of children, and educated thousands of teachers, ministers, doctors, lawyers, statesmen, business men, and mechanics.‖ Yet, Williams reminded them: ―Although much as been done for our people by the powerful influence of intelligence, industry, and morality, much remains to be done.‖1 Despite the work ahead, Williams and his peers could still celebrate their achievements. Education had yielded them success in a variety of professions that might have been viewed as possible in 1865 such as a professorship for the former slave. Hence, Williams paraphrased the last two stanzas of Longfellow‘s ―Launch of the Ship,‖ and charged attendees with a mission to ―Sail on, O Ship of Education! Sail on, O Normal, hold thy station!‖ Through the Freedmen‘s Schools, state-funded
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