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Home , Era, History, Periodization, Timeline

Social 75(4), pp 210–214, 231 ©2011 National Council for the In Defense of Memorization: The Role of in Historical Inquiry

Dave Neumann

’m a master packer. At least my wife tells me I am, and I’m happy to believe her. Last that I wasn’t interested in dates; I was summer, anticipating the thousand-mile drive from southern California to Colorado, more interested in big ideas and in their II packed our Sienna so that everything had its logical place, from the DVDs to ability to think critically and weigh evi- the audio books, from the beef jerky to the bottled Starbucks mocha. Of course, at dence. Of course, they might find it use- first I had to explain to everyone else where things were, since what seems logical to ful to remember some dates, but it was me isn’t intuitive to my . But once they understood my system, everything was entirely up to them to decide which dates, easy to find and, after being used, went back to its well-defined home. While it was if any, they would memorize. a relatively modest element of the journey—certainly not as important as a detailed The result is not very surprising, in map or good brakes—it required advance planning and made the journey easier and retrospect. Left to their own devices, more enjoyable. students remembered few dates, and could not recall whether Texas became I would like to propose that “peri- defining periodization and examining independent before or after the Mexican- odization” should a similar role in why memorizing some dates is essential, I American War or what Lincoln meant by a classroom focused on inquiry: will explore the connection between peri- “four score and seven ago,” because a seemingly minor element of an intel- odization and historical inquiry. Then they didn’t know when the Declaration of lectual journey that turns out to make I will illustrate the integration of peri- Independence was written. This lapse in the journey much more enjoyable, as odization and inquiry with a description memory also made higher level historical and ideas are accessed and placed of my own former high school American thinking more difficult. Students strug- in appropriate frameworks of meaning. history class. My hope is that this explo- gled to recognize the causal link between This relatively humble tool represents ration encourages us as teachers to reflect Texas independence and the outbreak an important historical thinking skill, on how we might pack more of the Mexican-American War, or the even if it doesn’t usually get mentioned thoughtfully for a meaningful intellectual significance of Lincoln’s redefinition of in texts that address historical thinking. excursion. the Declaration of Independence. I sus- Most historical thinking skills—weighing pect that my are not all that , investigating change over , The Need for Dates unusual among those who like to view comparing historical accounts—seem The first few years I taught history, I dis- themselves as teachers who care about dynamic, while periodization appears missed the importance of dates. I knew historical thinking and see memorization static by definition. More damning, peri- that rote learning was bad, that memo- as antithetical to that role. It turns out, odization requires memorization of dates, rization represented a very low level on however, that while history is more than a rote activity that seems to put the sage Bloom’s Taxonomy, and that students memorizing dates, it certainly isn’t less. back on the of direct instruction. should be unconstrained by a teacher’s In the welter of facts and dates that I will argue in this article, however, impositions and free to determine for confront students in a history class- that periodization, which inevitably themselves what was important. I was room, without a guide to sort the more requires the memorization of dates, is not also stung by the horror stories of adults important from the less important, stu- only compatible with a classroom cen- who claimed that all they remembered dents simply feel overwhelmed. Their tered on historical inquiry, but actually of school history was being forced to teacher does not that same an indispensible tool in inquiry. After memorize dates. So I told my students sense of bewilderment, because she is an

Social Education 210 expert in the material and easily moves “ of Good Feelings”? In 1824, with ture. Yet the is fluid, complex, and between smaller events and larger pro- the candidacy of Jackson? In a sense it continuous, so any attempt to divide it cesses employing a framework, albeit doesn’t matter—dates don’t have to be into neat chronological chunks is bound perhaps an implicit one, that shapes her definitive to be useful.3 Instead, they to be artificial. Periodization always interactions with those historical facts.1 should make intuitive sense to the teacher does violence to the complex of The teacher’s thinking is invisible to the and be historiographically defensible. the past, and even the most careful and students and they would benefit from Once dates meet this standard, teachers most honest attempts at dividing up the her efforts to make that thinking visible.2 should require their students memorize past involve some distortion. Any scheme From this perspective, the teacher who them and explain to them the reference must compromise between the often con- refuses to force students to memorize point for the particular years and signifi- tradictory demands of clarity, coherence, facts seems less like a guide on the side cance of these dates. That way teachers accuracy, and honesty.4 and more like a swim instructor who sips avoid the kind of muddle I created my It should be clear then that simply iced tea while children flail about des- first few years in the classroom. presenting students with a list of dates perately in the community pool. Teachers and requiring them to memorize that need to overcome their reluctance to be Dates and Inquiry list does not bear much resemblance to sages on the stage and boldly compel Having been intentionally provocative in periodization. Rather than a , students to memorize some dates—not defending the importance of memorizing periodization requires attentiveness to every conceivable date, but a fairly size- dates, I want to nuance my argument by larger . Teachers should determine able number. suggesting that history teachers should the most crucial turning points in the They should do this even if, as good work with the historical skill of peri- history they are studying and use those students of history themselves, they odization, which requires more cognitive to anchor students’ understanding of recognize that many historical dates sophistication than simple memorization. periods. Then they should help students are somewhat arbitrary. Did the early David Christian observes that associate labels with those dates: “revo- republic end in 1815 with the Treaty of periodization is one of the main tech- lutionary era,” “early republic,” “ante- Ghent? In 1816, with the onset of the niques used by to create struc- bellum” era. In places where the label is

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September 2011 211 not obvious, they should explain what it of deciding the beginning of the Vietnam means.5 Finally, they should discuss some War. Criteria of of the issues, topics, and themes that are A grasp of periodization is thus a pre- important in this era. requisite for deep, meaningful inquiry Historical Rather than attempting to exhaustively into the past using more well-known his- 1 catalogue all possible events of historical torical thinking skills. Determining his- Significance significance, this scheme provides a basic torical significance, for example, connects framework of some of the most significant intimately with the selection of “turning events in history. With this framework points” in periodization.8 Turning points The following factors provide some firmly established, students can add suggest a close connection with the skill of guidance in helping to determine other significant events and movements recognizing change over time. Historical historical significance. These factors at their own discretion (and critical think- empathy requires an understanding of the are not “objective” or quantifiable ing) through triangulation. For example, ways that people’s values and beliefs were and rely on the judgment of histo- students will certainly want to remember different in the past;9 periodization assists rians—or history teachers and their turning points in civil rights that are not students in pinpointing more specifically students. In , teachers could represented on the required timeline, as how and why beliefs were different in a ask students to evaluate events they see the significance of these events particular period, rather than “back in or movements by explicitly using and are able to correlate them with World the .” Crafting historical accounts these criteria and, in the process, War II and the . A teacher’s requires an understanding of the dynamics encourage students to wrestle with decision to proactively address the issue of a particular era.10 What major develop- the subjective nature of historical of memorization through a meaningful ments took place in the ? judgments. The following factors framework actually frees students to move Why was non-violent protest such a bold could be applied to individual his- beyond a focus on simple memorization strategy in the 1960s South? Why were torical events or to larger trends or throughout the course, and facilitates the Americans so distrustful of their govern- movements. The last point would development of historical thinking and ment in the 1970s? likely be disputed by those who analysis instead. see it as less “objective” than the While teachers should generally avoid An Example from U.S. History other criteria; it remains defensible the temptation to share with students I want to illustrate one way that periodiza- in my view, as all study of the past the details of historiographic battles tion might be implemented by describ- depends intrinsically on a over periodization,6 they can use their ing my former American history class. At determination that the past mat- understanding of these historiographi- the beginning of the , I used to draw ters to us. cal debates about the era, bracketed by a timeline running the length of both the memorized dates, to guide students whiteboards with 1450 at one end and Importance: it mattered to those in creating engaging, open-ended inquiry the current year at the other end. Then who lived at the time questions that require them to analyze I would ask students to tell me events in Profundity: it deeply affected peo- trends in an era and use evidence to make American history they thought they were ple at the time arguments about these trends. In the same going to need to know for the course and way that historians know what members when those events happened. Students Quantity: it affected a large number of the for the History of the Early were often able to supply many events, of people American Republic study, and teachers but rarely remembered when the events know why they called a unit of instruction happened. When their answers had been Durability: it (or its effects) endured “The Cold War,” so students discover that exhausted, I began to recite a litany of for a long period they can join a rich discussion because other events. I purposely stacked the deck Relevance: it matters to people they understand the chronological bound- by choosing events like Bacon’s Rebellion today aries and historical context that frame that that would be obscure to most students. I discussion and make it meaningful.7 In then discussed the example of a computer advanced classes or classes where pac- desktop with hundreds of files on it and Note ing allows, teachers might venture into suggested that if students’ own comput- 1. Drawn from Stephane Levesque, Thinking explicit debates about the appropriateness ers looked that way, they probably often Historically: Educating Students for the Twenty-First (Toronto: University of of a particular periodization scheme: the spent time looking for files. I bragged that I Toronto Press, 2008), 45–52. “long civil rights movement,” the possible could find any file on my computer related disappearance of progressivism with the to their class in an instant, because I orga- onset of , or the challenge nized my course files in a logical hierarchy

Social Education 212 of folders within folders. By approaching periodization as a pragmatic technique, rather than an esoteric historical skill, I The Better You Understand hoped to create a felt need among the stu- dents for the memorization task ahead. The Better They Will At the heart of the periodization scheme that I adopted lay a framework The Master of • highly interdisciplinary focus on global I learned from Stanford historian David degree at Syracuse Univer- problems, using comparative analysis of Kennedy. Kennedy argued that three major cultural areas “transformative moments” had taken sity’s Maxwell School was place in the course of American his- founded nearly 40 • distance-learning format, with short- tory: the and Constitution, years ago to help residencies and self-paced study Civil War and Reconstruction, and the secondary teachers • engaged, senior faculty members in small Great Depression and World War II. As classes with friendly, personal attention stay ahead. I introduced this framework to students, I pointed out some of the similarities Info: www.maxwell.syr.edu/exed/mssc between them: these moments all involved large-scale wars relative to the population size, so they disrupted society in signifi- cant ways, leading to major changes in society and . And they all changed the way government operated by rede- fining the Constitution (or, in the case of the first moment, defining it). These three moments were both historiographically defensible and pedagogically useful. They had the virtue of having distinct starting and ending points, even if, as discussed above, the precise years could be disputed. Students’ first task was to memorize the three transformative moments, their start- New for SpriNg 2011 ing and ending dates, and the for their significance. The : Investigate How Science and Changed Over the course of the year, I gradually the World with 25 Projects includes built on this framework. Students had to elements of history, biography, and with learn the names, dates, and basic charac- activity-driven enrichment projects that kids can do with minimal supervision. Activities teristics of each era that resulted from the include creating a water-powered wheel, divisions created by placing these three designing a steam ship, building a telegraph moments on the timeline. Then students machine, and making a pinhole camera. had to memorize five events within each unit. I generally chose wars and presiden- tial administrations, not because I favor over other genres, but for the same reason that the three larger moments were essentially political: they are discrete events with clear beginning and ending dates. Students had to be able to articulate the significance of each of these events and relate it to the era in which it occurred. By the end of the year, students had a sophisticated, detailed Guided Reading Level Q • Ages 9–12 framework for American history with a Available Cloth, Trade paper, ebook • Distributed by www.ipgbook.com Books to Inspire Learning continued on page 231; see also timeline on next page September 2011 NP.NCSS_2011.Science.YoungLearner_4.75x4.75_IndustrailRev_final.indd 1 8/1/11 2:22 PM 213 Timeline for U.S. History The following represents the timeline I required students to memorize for U.S. history. Events and dates after the colonial period largely involve very conventional events in political history: wars and presidential elections. (In the colonial period, I chose to emphasize the founding of the two most influential colonies—one in each region— and a significant in that colony’s history; the final event, the Great Awakening, breaks my pattern in many ways, but I used it anyway since historians often see it as the most important colonial event before the onset of the Revolution.) I chose these events not to downplay social and , but because they can be dated explicitly. The events can all be justified according to the criteria for historical significance provided in the previous sidebar—and students were even- tually required to explain this significance—but they also link to significant social and cultural trends. For example, the end of the War of 1812 is often connected to an upsurge in and the onset of the Market Revolution and, with it, the Great Awakening and reform movements. As explained in the article, these events are by no means exhaustive, but rather provide a framework for some of the most significant events in American history. With this framework firmly established, students can “triangulate” and memorize other significant events and movements, in part at their own discretion.

Colonial era—founding: establishing English settlements in North America 1607—Founding of Jamestown 1630—Founding of Massachusetts Bay

Colonial era—development: growth of society & culture in English North America 1676—Bacon’s Rebellion 1692—Salem Trials 1730s–1740s—Great Awakening Transformative Moment 1: Revolution & Constitution (1776–1788)

Early Republic era: establishing government & society in an independent nation 1800—Election of Jefferson 1812–1814—War of 1812

Antebellum era: exploring the growth & limits of democracy 1828—Election of Jackson 1846–1848—Mexican-American War 1860—Election of Lincoln Transformative Moment 2: Civil War & Reconstruction (1861-1877)

Industrial era: shifting from an agricultural nation to a mechanized nation of & immigrants 1896—Bryan campaign 1898—Spanish-American War

Progressive era: responding to industrialization through reform & international engage- ment 1901—(Theodore) Roosevelt presidency 1912—Election of Wilson 1914–1918—World War I Transformative Moment 3: Depression & World War II (1929-1945)

Early Cold War: addressing communism abroad and at home 1950–1953—Korean War 1960—Election of Kennedy

Later Cold War: 1964—Tonkin Gulf Resolution 1968—Election of Nixon 1980—Election of Reagan

Social Education 214 NCSS now offers PASS professional development seminars and workshops. See www.socialstudies.org/pass Memorization from page 213 not fit the model of inquiry instruction, 5. Stephane Levesque, Thinking Historically (Toronto: but inquiry practices are always hybrids University of Toronto Press, 2008), 70-74, discusses “colligation” and the ways that historians group events hierarchical structure, as the three trans- that include elements of more tradi- into eras to make meaning. formative moments were always visible tional instruction for a host of practical 6. The academic warfare of generally 11 interests teachers more than their students. I often above the specific events. Students eventu- reasons. Conversely, those who have suggest to colleagues that the teacher’s display of ally knew the six events associated with been seduced by the list-like character of is a bit like an iceberg: the majority of the three transformative moments; names, many standards,12 should recognize what a teacher knows is not visible directly, but forms the necessary foundation for the knowledge that is characteristics, and dates of six major eras that date memorization must be part of used in the classroom. in American history; and 20 key events, an integrated, hierarchical, sequential 7. Robert Bain and Jeffrey Mirel, “Setting Up Camp at the Great Instructional Divide: Educating Beginning five for each period before and after a framework of meaning that teachers care- History Teachers” Journal of Teacher Education 57, transformative moment. They could fully choose and explicitly communicate no. 3 (2006): 212-219, discuss the use of historio- graphical questions in the creation of meaningful easily triangulate events not included in to students. Sometimes the teacher has to classroom inquiry. the periodization scheme with events that be the sage on the stage first so that she 8. On significance as a historical thinking skill, see Peter were. Once students had a good sense of can be a better guide on the side later Seixas, “Mapping the Terrain of Historical what characterized the antebellum era, for on, encouraging students to explore deep Significance.” Social Education 61 (1997): 22-27. 9. O.L. Davis, Jr., Elizabeth Anne Yeager, and Stuart J. example, it was easier to place additional historical problems. Foster, Historical Empathy and Perspective Taking events there logically. But more impor- in the Social (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001) define “empathy” and explore its tantly, knowing some characteristics of the role in history-social science classrooms. era allowed me to ask students to consider Notes 10. Peter Lee, “Putting Principles Into Practice: the question, “To what extent did this era 1. For an explanation of the frameworks of experts in a Understanding History,” in Committee on How particular discipline in comparison with those of People Learn: A Targeted Report for Teachers. How increase democracy for Americans? What novices, see Committee on How People Learn: A Students Learn: History in the Classroom evidence would support your conclusion?” Targeted Report for Teachers. How Students Learn: (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004) History in the Classroom. (Washington, D.C.: explores the creation of historical accounts as a his- Students provided much more thoughtful, National Academies Press, 2004). torical thinking skill. nuanced answers because their under- 2. For a discussion of the invisibility of the thinking of 11. For a discussion of the history of educational reform standing of the question was imbedded historians and teachers in the classroom—as well as and an eloquent testimony of hybrid instruction, see the need to make that thinking visible, see Robert B. Larry Cuban, How Teachers Taught: Constancy and in a framework of meaning—a framework Bain, “Into the Breach: Using and Change in American Classrooms 1890–1990 (New they had internalized because they had to Shape History Instruction,” in Knowing, Teaching, York: Teachers College Press, 1993). Powerful and Authentic Social Studies (PASS) is a major professional development program for social and Learning History: National and International 12. Robert B. Bain, “‘They Thought the World Was been forced to memorize it. studies educators at each of the three levels of schooling: elementary, middle, and high school. For each Perspectives, eds. Peter Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Flat?’: Applying the Principles of How People Learn Conclusion Wineburg (New York: New Press, in Teaching High School History,” in How Students level there is a of two videotapes and a manual outlining the principles of powerful and authentic 2000), 345-346. A recent avalanche of history scholar- Learn: History in the Classroom, eds. M. Suzanne social studies teaching. Each videotape set presents classroom instruction on at least seven topics 3. Of course, historians might argue about these precise Donovan and John D. Bransford (Washington, D.C.: ship has provided a compelling vision of dates, as they bracket the events that are considered The National Academies Press, 2005), 182. representing various social studies disciplines. The manuals include reproducible handouts and trans- history instruction based on meaningful part of a particular era. See, for example, Jacquelyn parencies designed to facilitate professional development workshops that build the capacity of teachers Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and inquiry into genuine historical questions. to meet standards for powerful and authentic social studies teaching. the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American Anxious to reject the infantile approach to History 91, no. 4 (2005): 1233-1263, in which the author argues that reperiodizing the civil rights move- history that focused on date memoriza- A detailed brochure on the PASS professional development program is available at www.socialstudies. ment by extending it back into the Great Depression tion in favor of this inquiry vision, some has significant consequences for who gets viewed as org/pass. To receive a hard copy of the brochure in the mail, please send a request and your mailing leaders in the movement. My point is that a useful history teachers have thrown the baby out address to NCSS Publications, either by e-mail to [email protected] or by regular mail to NCSS framework can be employed with students without with the bathwater by avoiding memoriza- having addressed all possible questions about Publications, 8555 Sixteenth St., #500, Silver Spring, MD 20910. tion altogether as antithetical to inquiry. dates. 4. David Christian, “Periodization—Overview” in Jerry But rather than seeing memorization as a High School: Item 104506 : Item 104507 Elementary School: Item 104508 Bentley et al., Berkshire Encyclopedia of World barrier to meaningful learning, we need History (Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Publishing Group, 2005) 4: 1453. It should not be to change our perceptions to recognize surprising that this quote is drawn from a world his- that it represents a tool that enables that tory reference, as world historians seem much more interested in issues of periodization than their learning. In the same way that repetition American counterparts. Perhaps for the latter group and practice provide the requisite training periods more often seem intuitive, while for the for- that enables a violinist to perform a skilled mer the vast scale of time and demands explicit attention to the issue. A search of JSTOR revealed recital, memorization enables students that of the 36 articles published between 1985 and to engage in genuine historical thinking. 2010 in which “periodization” appears either in the title or in the abstract, only 2 dealt with American Facility with the basics allows cognitive history, while 12 dealt with (defined effort to focus on more challenging skills. as invoking world history in the title, being published Dave Neumann ([email protected]) is Site in a world history journal, and/or having an explicitly Director for The History Project, CSULB & DH, Some may object that the highly-struc- comparative or transregional focus). in Long Beach, California. tured classroom I have described does

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