RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY

FACULTY OF , M.V. LOMONOSOV MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY, RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

No. 02 [v. 03] 2010 GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY 2 GES 02|2010 Institute ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, A. Kolosov Vladimir ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Kochurov BorisI. ofGeography,Institute Japan ofEducation, University Hokkaido Himiyama Yukio Association of Tunisian , Tunisia Hayder Adnane Russia Rosoboronexport, Gutenev Vladimir V. Chinese Academy ofSciences, China Guo Hua Tong Russia ofEcologyandEvolution, Institute Russian Academy ofSciences, Gunin Petr D. ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Gritsay Olga V. Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow D’yakonov KirillN. Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Dobrolubov Sergey A. Geography andGeoecology, Russia Sankt-Petersburg State University, Faculty of Dmitriev Vasily V. ofPlymouth,University UK Brian Chalkley furgeographie,Insitut Germany Ludwig Universitat Munchen, Maximilians Baume Otfried, Pacific ofGeography, Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, PetrBaklanov Ya. ofdeserts, Institute Turkmenistan Turkmenistan Academy ofSciences, Babaev Agadzhan G. Sciences, ofGeography, Institute Russia BranchofRussianAcademySiberian of Antipov Alexander N Faculty ofGeography, Russia. M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow S. Tikunov Vladimir Russia University, Faculty ofGeography M.V. Lomonosov State Moscow Kasimov Nikolay S. EDITORS-IN-CHIEF: EDITORIAL BOARD (Secretary-General) . Russia ofGeographyInstitute Russian Academy ofSciences KotlyakovM. Vladimir Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute, Zilitinkevich Sergey S. of Environmental Geosciences, Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Institute Viktorov Alexey S. Geographic Institute, Chile Military Vargas RodrigoBarriga et SciencesHumaines” France Université duHavre –UFR “Lettres Thorez Pierre ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Tishkov A. Arkady ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, OlgaN. Solomina ofGeographyInstitute Ukraine Academy ofSciences,National Ukrainean Rudenko Leonid G. and Regional Studies, Poland University Warsaw, Faculty ofGeography Andrzej Richling diGeografia, Italy Instituto Universita degliStudidiRoma “La Sapienza”, Palagiano Cosimo, ofGeography,Institute Mexico National Autonomous ofMexico, University Palacio-Prieto Jose Faculty ofGeography, Russia. M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Mironenko Nikolay S. Faculty ofGeography, Azerbaijan State University,Baku Mamedov Ramiz Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Malkhazova Svetlana M. ofBehavioral Sciences,Institute USA ofColoradoUniversity atBoulder, O’Loughlin John The Netherlands Sciences, ofAppliedEarth Department of University Delft Technology Kroonenberg Salomon, Czech Republic University, FacultyMasaryk ofScience, Konečný Milan, Belgique Université Libre deBruxelles Vandermotten Christian Vladimir M.Kotlyakov Valentin S.Tuzhilkin Yuliy I.Drobyshev Tamara A.Yanina Vladimir S.Tikunov Vyacheslav V. Dolotov, Vitaly A.Ivanov Natalia E. Kosheleva, Nikolay S.Kasimov, Dorjgotov, Dechingungaa N.Bazha, Sergey Suzanne A.G.Leroy Evgeniy A.Zolotarev, Evgeniy G.Har’kovetc Nataliya S.Bolikhovskaya, Nikolay S.Kasimov Chultem Dugarjav, Peter D. N.BazhaandMijidorjSaandar Gunin,Sergey NEWS &REVIEWS SUSTAINABILITY ENVIRONMENT GEOGRAPHY CONTENTS Dmitryi L.Golovanov,Dmitryi Enkh-Amgalan Sandag OlgaI.Sorokina, KAMCHATKA ( A 100-YEAR ANNIVERSARY OF EXPEDITION THE RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY TO PREFACE ...... MODERN VIEW ...... SOME FEATURES . . . . OF THE BLACK SEA SEASONAL THERMOHALINE VARIABILITY: INTERCARTO CONFERENCESINTERCARTO ...... SUSTAINABLECOASTAL . .DEVELOPMENT ...... 9 . . . CADASTRAL ASSESSMENT OF CRIMEAN BEACHES AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR CORESSEDIMENT ...... REGION SINCE . THE LATEGLACIAL FROM PALYNOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF MARINE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL AND PALAEOCLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE CASPIAN SEA MONITORING ...... UNDER CHANGING CLIMATE. KEY FINDINGS OF THE GLACIO-CARTOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF THE ELBRUS GLACIATION SINCE THE MID XIX CENTURY MONGOLIA . .MONGOLIA ...... ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION OF SOILS IN INDUSTRIAL CITIES OF THE HOLOCENETHE ...... EVOLUTION . . OF CLIMATE . . . AND ENVIRONMENTS IN THE LOWER VOLGA REGION DURING PROTECTION IN INNER ASIA .ASIA .INNER . IN . . .PROTECTION ...... ECOSYSTEM APPROACH FOR EVALUATING DEGRADATION PROCESSES AND NATURE UNIVERSITY, . .RUSSIA ...... SEPTEMBER, 6–8, PROCESSES IN ECOTONE ZONE OF SOUTHERN SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA” INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF BIOSPHERIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE CLIMATE CHANGE” OCTOBER 14– INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE CASPIAN REGION:“THE ENVIRONMENTAL 1908–1910). . 1908–1910). 2010, ULAAN-BAATAR,MONGOLIA ...... 131 ...... 16, MOSCOW STATE ...... 4 ...... 51 ...... 13 ...... 42 ...... 78 ...... 32 . 126 ...... 66 . 120 . .... 5 . 8

3 GES 02|2010 4 PREFACE regions would strengthen cooperationinenvironmental international research. The Editors believe thatproviding Eurasian information to key thepubliconthesetwo questions related to sustainabledevelopment oftheCaspianregion. intheconferenceand geochemistry, participated andaddressed fundamentalandpractical , , , marine , , , from problems.scientific fields–, various Experts range ofmultidisciplinary cooperative research intheCaspianregion. efforts The conference addressed awide its20-year during to climate scientificcommunity changeobtainedbytheinternational Moscow, Russia. The maingoalofthisconference wasto discussecosystem feedbacks Change” 14–16,2010,atM.V. took placeonOctober Lomonosov State University, Moscow The secondconference Caspianregion: Environmental Consequences oftheClimate“The Baikal. ecosystems ofLake current biodiversity, state ofprotected areas andproblems network, ofaquaticandwetland centennial dynamicsofclimaticconditions, ecological inanthropogenic risks systems, the associated causesandconsequences of withenvironmental pollution and desertification, AcademyMongolian ofSciences. The conference discussedecological andsocialproblems Complex BiologicalMongolian ExpeditionoftheRussianAcademy ofSciencesandthe Mongolia. This conference wasdevoted oftheJointRussian- to the40-year anniversary andCentral Asia” Siberia of Southern took placeonSeptember 6–8,2010,inUlaanbaatar, The firstconference “Ecological Processes Consequences ofBiospheric intheEcotone Zone presented scientificconferences international attwo heldin2010. This issueoftheGeography papers Environment containsselected journal Sustainability appeared early in the XIX century: theParis appeared intheXIXcentury: early The firstnationalgeographical entities Peter himself. geographical expeditionwasorganized by were publicfigures, and thefirstRussian Y.V. Kirilov, Bruce,and I.K. V.N. Tatishchev, thatthefirstRussiangeographers,surprising ofPeterand activities isnot theGreat. It forceThis wasthedriving for thepolicy the geographical features ofthecountry. informationin Russiawasgathering about For three centuries, themaintaskofgeography EXPEDITION TO KAMCHATKA ( RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY A 100-YEAR ANNIVERSARY OF THE Baer (1792–1876), geologist Gregory PetrovichBaer (1792–1876),geologistGregory Gel’mersen (1803–1885),Academician Petr Ivanovich Fig. 1.Members–founders oftheRussianGeographical Society. From toright andfrom topto left bottom: astronomer Vasily Yakovlevich Struve (1793–1864),Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (1770–1846), Admiral Ferdinand Petrovich Wrangel (1795–1870), Academician KarlMaksimovich Koppen (1793–1864),Admiral Petr Ivanovich Rikord (1797–1855). mounds) andAdmiral F.P. (aresearcher Litke Caspian lowlandlandscapefeatures, i.e., Baer (his nameisreflected inthenamesof Baer the famousnaturalistandexplorer K.M. ofRussia.Soon, oftheterritory surveying issues relating to statisticalandgeographical gather regularly inSt.Petersburg to discuss and ethnographer P.I. beganto Keppen, the leadershipofanoutstandingstatistician circle ofstatisticiansandexplorers, under 1843,a in1833.In in 1830,andMexico inLondonthe RoyalGeographical Society in1828, in1821,Berlin Geographical Society 1908–1910)

5 GES 02|2010 6 GES 02|2010 the word “statistics” from the titleand through allthesubmitted papers, dropped Minister.for theInterior The Emperor looked for SpecialAssignments astheOfficer served ofthefamous participation V.I. Dahl, who 1845. This wasaccomplishedwithactive onJunesecond, Ibythe Minister Nicholas to theEmperorand thecasewasreported up. ofdocumentswas assembled Aportfolio wasdrawn A memorandumto hisMajesty writers, andpublicfigures (Figs. 1and2). tireless explorers, courageoussailors, famous Among thefounders there oftheRGS were –until1948. more thanacentury proved to besosuccessfulthatitlasted oftheRSGwhich charter developed adraft of1845,Litke thespring (RSG).In Society predecessors oftheRussianGeographical joined thecircle. These meetingswere the Zemlya expeditions) andaround-the-world and Headofthe1826–1829Novaya Fig. 2.Members–founders oftheRussianGeographical Society. From toright andfrom toptobot- left Levshin (1799–1879),Academician Konstantin Ivanovich Arseniev (1789–1865),writer andethnogra- tom: writerandmusicologist Vladimir Fedorovich Odoevsky (1803–1869),statesman Alex Iraklievich surveyor Pavlovich Mikhail Vronchenko (1801–1852),General Field MarshalFyodor Fedorovich Berg pher Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl(1801–1872),explorer Platon Alexandrovich (1812–1892), Chikhachev (1793–1874). of the mid-century and took an active part in in andtook part anactive of themid-century wasamongthemosteducated people prince 3), agreed oftheSociety. to beChairman The I,whosetutor wasF.P.of Nicholas (Fig. Litke thesecondson Nikolaevich, Konstantin Duke from members. itsactive Grand Vice-Chairman the shallelect out to bethecase),Society on thetitleof “Chairman” thisturned (infact, bytaking familyhonorstheSociety imperial recorded Charter that RGS “if amemberofthe 12ofthe1849 Council waselected. Article Academy where theRGS ofSciencesandArts, meeting intheconference halloftheImperial membersheldtheirfirstgeneral of theRGS members oftheRGS. Within eighteen days, were elected. Those were thefirstactive 1,1845,where held onOctober 51people founders The firstmeetingoftheRGS was the Emperor announcedtheorder “So beit”. was approved. Thereafter, onAugust 6,1845, the forwarded “case” to theCabinet,where it Society, Petr Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky. Chairman oftheRussianGeographical Society. Fig. 4.ChairmanoftheRussian Geographical Fig. 3.Grand Duke Constantine –thefirst December 2009 the Minister for 2009the Minister CivilDefense,December In was headedbyAdmiral A.M.Komaritsin. Y.P. in2002–2009 theSociety Seliverstov; St. Petersburg S.B. University Lavrov and washeadedbytheprofessorsSociety of A.F. Treshnikov (1978–1991). Later, the and oceanographer andpolarexplorer S.V. (1964–1978); Kalesnik (1952–1964); glaciologist andphysical biology andbiogeography E.N.Pavlovsky ofnaturalfocalcreator disease ofthetheory physical geographer L.S.Berg ( wereSociety Academicians ichthyologist and The subsequentPresidents ofthe Geographical agriculture, assumedthepositionuntil1940. continents to studytheancientcradlesof to themountainsofCentral Asia andother organized anincredibly fruitfulexpedition 1931 (whenhedied). Then, N.I. Vavilov, who in 1917to ofthegovernment overturn who remained the inthepositionafter position waspassedonto Y.M. Shokal’sky, P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky diedin1914,the andarchives (Fig.library 5). When and secretariat oftheSociety, awonderful the buildinghashousedmanagement Society. From thenuntilthepresent time, ofthe as served Vice-Chairman Shansky event oftheyears whenP.P. Semenov-Tian- Lane,(Demidov) in1908wasthecrowning buildingat No. 10Grivtsov headquarters oftheSociety’s ownThe construction wascreatedof theRGS inKamchatka. divisions were established. Eventually, adivision and (in Khabarovsk), Turkestan (in Tashkent) Southwest (inKiev), West (inOmsk),Amur Siberia Then, theOrenburg, (in Northwest Vilna), (in were opened. (inIrkutsk) Tiflis) andSiberian regionalthe firsttwo divisions – Caucasian 1851, throughout Russia.In expanded quickly and 1873–1914)(Fig. 4). The Society’s branches added to“Tian-Shansky” hisname)(1850–1857 1873) andP.P. Semenov(whosubsequently Presidents: F.P. (1845–1850and1857– Litke The until1917”.Society ofthe becameChairman Mikhailovich Nikolai peasant reform. hisdeath,GrandDuke After de facto leaders of the RGS were leadersoftheRGS its Vice- 1940–1952);

7 GES 02|2010 8 GES 02|2010 extension withaspecialpurpose”.extension 1938, In theAcademyabsolutely independent,islike emphasized, further Geographic Society, “The task oftheRussianGeographical Society”. He – more shouldbedone–andthismore isthe Academy was unableto doallfor geography Academy of Sciences. F.P. said, Litke “The withthe wascloselyconnected Society From thebeginning, theRussian Geographical Yu.M. Shokal’sky, V.L. Komarov, and V.A. Hoops. Presidents:had Honorary Academicians as thePresident. rare cases, In theSociety became known oftheSociety the Chairman Russian Geographical Society. Since1945, Mr. Sergei Shoigu, becamePresident ofthe Emergencies, andDisaster Management, Fig. 5. The at buildingoftheRussianGeographical Demidov Society Lane. supported bythestate, includingfundssupported fieldexpeditions wereThe RGS financially of namesexplorers and researchers. others, have entered into treasury theworld Maclay, A.I. Voeikov, Y.M. Shokal’skii andmany V.A. Obruchev, P.K. Kozlov, N.N.Mikluho- M.V. Pevtsov, G.E. Grum-Grzhimailo, I.D. Cherskiy, G.N. Potanin, N.M.Przewalski, N.A. Severtsov, I.V. Mushketov, P.A. Kropotkin, activities. members,The namesoftheRGS islargely duetoSociety itsexpeditionary The uniqueimageoftheGeographical place basedonthenumberofmembers. Russian Federation assumingfirst withRGS scientificsocietiesinthe there are thirty nearly these bondswere officiallyrecognized. Now, struck by how little Kamchatka had been struck byhowlittleKamchatka Hewas inspired to visitKamchatka. young F.P.the very Riabushinsky, became acourseingeography, 1906,having taken In hampered bythelackofsufficientfunds. expedition. These projects, however, were and in1903, V.L. suggested Komarov asimilar attempted itaswell; naturalist B.I. Dybovsky proposed suchaproject;in1877,thePolish the RGS’s existence, in1850–1854,F.P. Litke beginning of Atthevery explore Kamchatka. For alongtime, hadintended to theRGS the name Expedition”“Ryabushinsky’s (Fig. 6). Complex Expedition of1908–1910received the area ofvolcanoes. Kamchatka The RGS peninsula,mainlyin fauna oftheKamchatka was to explore andexaminetheflora expedition,which organized theKamchatka assistance oftheGeographical Society Fyodor Pavlovich Riabushinsky, withthe of adistinguishedfamilyentrepreneurs, 1908,thefamousphilanthropist, amember In funds,private specifically, F.P. Ryabushinsky’s. –thatwasorganized using to Kamchatka perhaps, beonlyoneexpedition–in1908 from theAcademy ofSciences. There may, Fig. 6.Fedor Pavlovich Riabushinsky. separate divisions:geological, meteorological, Sciences (Fig. 7). The expeditionconsisted ofsix the future President oftheUSSRAcademy of Vladimir Leontievich Komarov(1869–1945), The Headoftheexpeditionwasabotanist research. inKamchatka ofinaction period along-term after scientificmaterial collected was oneofthemosteffective of interms expedition wasorganized. This expedition prepared andtrulyintegrated scientific matter through. well As aresult, avery phthisis. hisheirsto Heinstructed seethe 1910, F.P. diedfrom foudroyant Ryabushinsky personallyintheexpedition.In to participate However, hisweak healthdidnotallowhim F.P. donated 200.000rubles. Ryabushinsky consent thisexpeditiontook place. P.P.the RGS, Semenov, andwiththeirmutual tuberculosis. to theHeadof Then, heturned but wasstopped byhisrapidlydeveloping decided to goonarecognizance there, trip for itsimplementation.Oncehehadalmost begantoexpedition andactively prepare by theideaoforganizing theKamchatka explored. Fedor Pavlovich wassmitten Fig. 7. Vladimir Leontievich Komarov.

9 GES 02|2010 10 GES 02|2010 expedition (seeFigure a 8)undertook The Geological divisionoftheRyabushinsky’s hydrological, andethnographic. botanical (ledby V.L. zoological, Komarov), Fig. 9.Mapofvolcanoes andsouthernsheets. ofKamchatka: thenorthern Fig. divisionoftheKamchatka 8.MembersoftheGeological expedition. Karaginskij and Korf (Fig. three andKorf 9)during field Karaginskij ofthepeninsula,andgulfs central part inthe areas Shiveluch andKlyuchevskoy ofthevolcanic ofKamchatka, part southern detailed integrated explorationofthe were alsostored intheRGS’s archives, in and zoology andbotany ofKamchatka andlife oftheaboriginesanthropometry slides thatreflectthegeography, geology, number ofphotographic negatives and archives, inSt.Petersburg. Anenormous V.L. KomarovandP.Y. Schmidt,intheRGS of inthecollections was preserved accumulatedThe material bytheexpedition people. and Koryak published later inbooksaboutItelmens gathered bytheEthnographic divisionwere and were publishedinitsreports. The data at themeetingsofGeographical Society and Hydrological divisionswere presented Kamchatka”. oftheZoologicalThe activities volume of work V.A. Komarov “Flora of summarized inthemonumentalthree- oftheBotanicaldivisionwereThe efforts Mil’kovo, Kluchi, Tigil andBolsheretsk. ofPetropavlovskin thecity andthevillages organized fiveweather permanent stations the fieldstudies, theMeteorological division seasons from 1 Fig. 10.Participants oftheexhibition devoted totheKamchatka expedition inDecember 1912. 908 to1910.Additionally newspapers andmagazines. The interest this expeditionappeared in many Russian about 1910–1913, numerous articles In of thecatalogsexpedition’s divisions. photographs,their reports, andsummaries about theevents were publishedalongwith press.in theworld The participants’ letters waswidelyreported to Kamchatka of theRGS expedition The 1908–1910multidisciplinary a fortress. to andahalfyears in two inprison Karavaev of Naval Court whichsentencedVladivostok, only 7.500rubles. The casewasheard inthe transferredKuzmin-Karavaev to Iokhel’son the Ethnographic divisionoftheexpedition, of 15.140rublesintended for the needsof of themoneyallocated for Iokhel’son”. Out former commanderofthecruiser “Kolyma”, Kuzmin-Karavaev, a the Captain,2ndRank, of a over“lawsuit theembezzlementby that theRGS’s archives have documents 1873–1957”. Anotherinteresting is fact Expeditionsinthe Geographical Society the collection “Slides andNegatives of

11 GES 02|2010 12 GES 02|2010 her way. that theheiress wassuccessfulinhaving not intheirentirety, itmay beconcluded Soviet era(in1928–1930),andeven then, published asscientificpapersonlyinthe thattheexpedition’sby thefact results were correspondence withP.Y. Schmidt.Judging litigation process, whichwasreflected inthe the expeditionsherself. the That started that shewould of publishthematerials 18,1910, statedcategorically onOctober widow.was Riabushinsky’s T.K. Riab differences withtheheirofpatron, who to settle from itwasnecessary party, aprivate Since thefundingfor the expedition (forscientific works eachexpedition’s division). plannedto publishsixvolumesthe RGS of theexpedition, after another detail. Shortly itisappropriate thiscontext, to recallIn Riabushinsky”. citizen and honorary Tatiana Konstantinovna mercifully granted to thewidow ofhereditary forand theaccompanying thegift certificate decorated withsapphires anddiamonds, pendant withthenationalcoatofarms, fromgift the Winter Palace –a “brooch- P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky received a Within three weeks following theexhibition, expedition (Fig. 10)intheSociety’s building. exhibition devoted to theKamchatka an arranged of1912,theRGS December in theexpeditionwasresumed whenin ushinsky ushinsky came came and are well known aroundand are theworld. well known members oftheRussianscientificcommunity Sciences). These institutionsare important BranchoftheRussianAcademyEastern of of Institute Volcanology andSeismology(Far andthe branchoftheRGS the Kamchatka directly associated withtheexpeditionare result ofthisendeavor. institutions The two institutions were founded inthisregion as a Russian Far scientificandpublic East.Important significant role inpromoting scienceinthe played a The expeditionto Kamchatka processes are mostpronounced. the Pacific where geological Ocean, modern transition zone from theAsian continentto the creation ofageodynamicmodelthe formation, etc. These studiesshouldleadto and seismicity, ore tectonics andmodern are volcanism studyingthelinksbetween tostation isactive thisday. Currently, scientists this Sopka; at thefoot oftheKluchevskaya Sciences establishedavolcanological station F.Y. Levinson-Lessing, theAcademy of 1935,attheinitiative ofAcademicianIn focused onvolcanic activity. primarily studied extensively, buttheattention was hasbeen environment ofKamchatka thepast100years,Over thenatural Geographical Society PresidentHonorary oftheRussian Vladimir M.Kotlyakov,  1 anthropogenic causes. dueto naturalratherthan was mostlikely the endofLittleIceAge. The warming after began inthemiddleofXIXcentury coolingperiods, alternated withshort-term suggest thatglobalclimate warming, which volume haseven slowed down. These facts evenly through timewhilethedecrease inits practically the area reductionwasoccurring the 1850–1887period. Beginning in1887, the greatest rates ofitsretreat coincidedwith volume oftheElbrusglaciationindicated that Quantitative dataonchangesinthearea and glaciation). is representative ofall Central Caucasus largest (which Elbrusglacier)andDzhankuat (the ofglaciersBolshoiAzau fluctuations approximatelycyclical, 55years long, frontal and digital methods. cartography There were glaciation were studiedusinglichenometry withinthelargest inEurope Elbrus century from themiddleofXIX been occurring Changes inthearea andvolume thathave warming, digital mapping. 2 Yevgeniy A.Zolotarev * Corresponding author [email protected] Moscow State University e-mail of Cartography, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov of Cartography, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT MONITORING GLACIO-CARTOGRAPHICALOF THE CHANGING CLIMATE. KEY FINDINGS SINCE THE MID XIX CENTURY UNDER EVOLUTION OF THE ELBRUS GLACIATION Research for Associate , oftheLaboratory Department for Remote Sensing, scientistoftheLaboratory Senior Department

Elbrus glaciation,global 1 and Yevgeniy G.Kharkovets* 140 km exceeds Elbrus glaciationwhichphysical surface satellite ofthelargest monitoring inEurope can betested andaerial- through cartographic specifically, thearea andvolume. This hypothesis should affect theirreg change. inglobaltemperatures Increase glaciersareMountain sensitive to climate 2003;Climate Change, 2001]. [World..., world models have emerged inRussiaandthe effect. Anumberofglobalclimate warming asaresult ofgreenhousethe XX century gases inthesecondhalfof warming, whichstarted by climatologists suggest globalclimate Numerous recently studiesconducted glaciers’ response to climate 1849 change. In are crucialindefining the observations ofsomeElbrusglaciers. observations These has establishedafoundation for long-term Russian Academician G.Abich[Abich, 1875] to thepresent time. end oftheXIXcentury –from for the been conducted over acentury INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE THE GLACIER’S RESPONSE THE FRONT FLUCTUATIONS – 2 . ofthisglacierhas The monitoring 2 imes and parameters, imes andparameters,

13 GEOGRAPHY 14 GEOGRAPHY at 2322mfrom barometric leveling anda Abich conducted thoroughAbich conducted studiesof related glacier. to theBolshoiAzau its parts G. adetailedpresentation especially of deserves to most researchersunknown and, therefore, G. Abich’s for somereason, work, stillremains reconcile withoutG.Abich’s data. assessments are hard to interpret and of thespatialpositionglacier. Such assessments 1866] provided contradicting 1890;Mushketov, [Dinnik, 1882;Salatskyi, to 1887andmany researchers ofthattime inElbrusprior were surveys nocartographic State (MSU)Elbrusstation. University There the present-day M.V. Lomonosov Moscow of 2295–2300 melevationinthevicinity valleyat at thebottom oftheriver Azau glacier’s wasatawell definedmoraineline wasassumedthatthe 1958].It [Tushinski, Caucuses inthemiddleofXIXcentury the glaciationexpanseinCentral end accepted asafundamental evidenceof on amature pineforest. waslater This fact Abich found thattheglacier hadintruded glacier.Bolshoi Azau hisfirsttrip, During G. to the trips and 1873,G.Abichmadetwo Azau the glacier’s elevation( Hedefined using instrumentalobservations. tongue on October 21,1849.Picture by G.Abich tongue onOctober Fig. 1.Location Azauglacier oftheBolshoi

glacier tongue [Abich, 1875]. fluctuations in 1849–1873 in1849–1873 fluctuations on October on October 21 1849) 21 1849) the Bolshoi the Bolshoi located there in1849. 27 m. Therefore, theglaciercouldnotbe oftheMSUElbrusstationis in thevicinity crest andthelowwater Azau lineoftheriver The difference intheelevationofmoraine “Elbrus”.cable-way only inthearea ofthelower stationofthe moraine slopeofsuchrelative heightexists This difference appeared to be37,5m. The moraine covered withmature pineforest. abutted againstamore ancientend-lateral the elevationofpointupperapex moraine lineattheglacierendin1849and difference intheelevationsoffoot ofthe byG.Abichwasthe measurement taken to 1873wasmeasured at180m. The third result. The glacierlinearretreat from 1849 accepted thismeasurement asthefinal elevation measurement (2317m).G.Abich to 1849resulted inadifferent endmoraine pressure andtemperature) in1873compared environmental conditions(atmospheric Differentinstrument andbenchmark. same barometric leveling usingthesame retreating glacier(Fig. 2).Hemadethe September 17,1873,G.Abichfound the hissecondvisitto theglacierin During across from hotel Cheget. amodern of Mt. Terskolak’s slopeabove theforest level ledge rocky a pointlocated atawell-marked glacier (Fig. 1). This drawing wasmadefrom to ofthe draw generalboundaries sextant of angularmeasurements withaportable the future andlimited hisstudiesto theuse to return toHe didnotexpect thearea in ofPyatigorsk. nearthecity benchmark known tongue on October 17,1873Picture by G.Abich tongue onOctober Fig. 2.Location Azauglacier oftheBolshoi [Abich, 1875]. beginning XX documented by centuries Later research oftheendXIX– activities glacier in1849(Fig. 3). oftheBolshoiAzau of theendice-flow precise ofthespatiallocation determination of 2317m. These dataare sufficientfor a corresponds well withG.Abich’s measurement line atthebottom ofthevalleyis 2315m,which elevationofthefootcentury. Modern ofthis valleyinthefirsthalfofXVII in theAzau growth issimilarto thatofpinesappeared the analysisshowed thatthistree’s annualrings line where pinewasfound aburied in1968; Furthermore, itwasthefarmostmoraineend ofthecable-way vicinity “Elbrus” iswell visible. cone); buttheendmorainelinein mudflow Garabashi bytheriver is obstructed oftheMSUstation(it be seeninthevicinity from thispoint, the endmorainelinecan’t tracesofrecent glaciation.However,preserved from thispointinAugust 1981showed well glacier. conducted Aphototheodolite survey showing theendmorainelineinfront ofthe his drawings oftheglacierin1849and1873 We found thepointfrom whichG.Abichmade Fig. 3.Endmoraine inthemid. at XIXcentury thebottomofAzauriver valley. Phototheodolite imagetaken onJuly15,1981. elevation ofthesamewaterfall. of 2345m,whichis75mhigherthanthe canyon. mapshowstheelevation The modern inthe Azau oftheriverMalya the waterfall tongues atapproximately 70–80mhigherthan location. The 1911mapshowstheglaciers also correspondsglacier’s well withtheactual m (or2325ontheG.Burmester’s map). This 2345 glacierin1911wasactually Boshoi Azau ofthe elevation oftheendice-flow map.than thatofthemodern Therefore, the elevations ofthe1991mapto be20mlower the I.A.Labutina(1968)determined Year (IGY). Geophysical theInternational during conducted compiled from thephototheodolite survey should bereconciled map withthemodern systems ofthesemaps Elevation benchmark [Burmester, 1913]. byG.Burmester phototheodolite survey map compiledfrom thedataof1911 anda1:20000scale Engineers surveys of the 1887–1890Corps Topographical scale topographic mapcompiledfrom glacier tongue. These mapsare a1:42000 locationofthe theexact maps describe

15 GEOGRAPHY 16 GEOGRAPHY Bolshoi Azau ice-flow endelevationcan ice-flow Bolshoi Azau well witheachother. Therefore, the1887 systems correspond slope) mapsbenchmark (oftheElbrussouthern The 1887andmodern Fig. 5. The Azauglacier. tongueoftheBolshoi Phototheodoliteimageby A.V. Blryuhanov. August 1958. Fig. 4. The Azauglacier. tongueoftheBolshoi Image by A.V. Pastuhov onAugust 5,1890. glacier belowtheicefall, andthepresence oftheentireend moraine, intense cracking were: asteep glacier’s front, absenceofthe to thegrowing phase. The evidenceofthat growing orasaboutto beready to transition theglacieras described G. Burmester elevation from thelowriver level. 1911, In open rocks whichwere atabout2327m wasadjacentto the oftheice-flow part a steep slopecrossed bycracks;theright endedwith oftheice-flow the lower part any instrumentalmeasurements),conduct didnotglacier in1881,butwhounfortunately G.AbichtoN.I. Dinnik(firstafter visitthe of otherinvestigators According to 1881 It is alsohelpfulto review observations (Fig.clearly 4). canyon, canbeseen theAzau had blocked end ofthelava line, whichsometimeago the locationofglacier’s front atthe on August 5,1890byA.V. Pastuhov (1893), This elevationis2330m.Onthephoto taken caused bydeadiceneartheglaciertongue. 1957 maps, whichexcludes distortion be obtained byoverlaying the1887and completely free ofdeadice. whenthevalleywas phototheodilite survey riverusingdataofthe1987 site attheAzau topographic map, whichwe created for a were reconciledThe surveys usinga1 : 5000 fromtongue fluctuations 1849to 2002(Fig. 7). glacier oftheBolshoiAzau compile achart of 1973,1980,1987,1997,and2002(Fig. 6)to the glaciertongue in1969,andoursurveys in1957–1959 (Fig. of survey 5),thesurvey oftheElbrusphototheodolitematerials the glacierretreat attheendof1940s), P.V. [1961](whoprovided Kovalev dataon theglacierin1932–1933), (who surveyed We by usedworks Ye.P. [1936] Oreshnikova [Altberg, 1928]. in thecanyon andwasagainretreating glacier was20mhigherthanthewaterfall thatthethe glacierin1925–1928)reported 1925, 1933]. In V.Ya at Altberg (whoworked 15 maheadcompared to 1911[Soloviev, S.P. Soloviyev in1913,theglacieradvanced to V.P. Rengarten’s communication with 2600 and2700melevation.According swell wave slidingbetween of asurface Fig. 6. The Azauglacier. tongueoftheBolshoi Phototheodoliteimageby Ye.A. Zolotarev. August 31,2002. at arepresentative oftheCentral Caucuses withaninsignificant timeshift similar cycle specialresearchDuring efforts,we found a the cycles. in the1970s, between with55-years intervals phases and itsearly small advancesduring delays and andinterrupted byshort cyclic rate wasabout19m/year. This retreat was retreated 2860m,i.e., theaverage retreat 150years, during Overall theglacierhas area wassimplygettingfree ofdeadice. retreat thistime, in1959–1969.During the help to explainthepeakrates oftheglaciers The aforementioned information may also glaciation...,1968]. researchers [The elevations oftheglaciertongue byearlier its bed. This madeitdifficultto systematize end positioninthevalleyand40mabove glacier front was700mabove itsactual for example, onthe1957–1959map, the the identificationofitsfront location. Thus, large volume ofdeadicethathampered simultaneous formation inthevalleyofa featureA distinct ofthe glacierretreat isa

17 GEOGRAPHY 18 GEOGRAPHY cartographic measurements onthe1887cartographic possibleto make that itwasinprinciple 1887–1957. Analysisofthemaps confirmed spatial changesoftheElbrusglaciersduring map to obtainquantitative parameters of mapwiththeold themodern superimpose it hadto ifitispossibleto bedetermined compiled into a1:42000scalemap. First, Engineers in1887–1890. was The survey by ateam of oftheCorps Topographical entire Elbrusglaciationwasconducted ofthe survey instrumental (plane-table) scale, topographic map. survey ofthe1887–1890,1 Analysis : 42000 advances. iftheglacierretreats determines or ice-flow the iceinflowandlossatendof area oftheglacier. The difference between oftimeintheaccumulation a longperiod the iceinflowstays relatively constantduring endablationwhile changes oftheice-flow 2003]. Changesinairtemperatures cause glaciers response [Zolotarev andPopovnin, main climaticparameter thatinfluencedthe suggests thatairtemperatures were the glacier.glaciers theDzhankaut This fact MATERIALS ON ELBRUS GLACIATION ANALYSES OF CARTOGRAPHIC Fig. 7.Fluctuations Azauglacierfrom oftheBolshoi 1849 to2002.1–theglacieradvancement.

The first indicated that above this mark, changes indicated thatabove thismark, 4000 melevation. The research conducted the glaciers’ tongues, i.e. upto approximately map canonlyproduce reliable estimates for shouldbenoted, thatthe1887 glaciation. It changes inthearea andvolume ofthe and usedincomputer modelsto determine Then, thisandthe1957mapswere digitized available. were reconciled whennewdatabecame on; especiallywhentheglacierboundaries This newlycompiledmapwasrefined later exposurelocated onthesouthern slopes. was appliedto allglaciersexcept to those contours, a5msystematic error correction oneanddrawinginto elevation themetric Russian elevationsystem (Russian fathom) and oldmaps. theoldWhen converting identical control pointsonthe modern was donebyzones usingatleastthree of themore map. modern This transition coordinate system andelevationbenchmark 1 : 42000 into a1 : we themapfrom decidedto convert a 25000 scaleusingthe solutions for ourcase, thisproblem. In there material; arecartographic nostandard maps ischallenging even for themodern shownonmultitemporal similar surfaces Elbrus map. of superimposition Acorrect digital methods(147,5кm mapusing measured onthenewly-compiled that thearea ofglaciationin1887,whichwe shouldalsobenoted glaciation evolution. It is alsosuitablefor thestudiesofElbrus area below4000 m. Therefore, the1887map changes are associated specificallywiththe and 1997indicated thatover 90%ofvolume photographycompiled usingaerial of1979 of multitemporal digital modelsofElbrus special research aimedatcomparison efforts measurements [Zolotarev, 1997]. However, in elevationmay bewithinanerror of orthophtographic mapcompiledfrom the orthophtographic All thesedatatogether withthedigital Age” XIX)[Solomina,1999]. (XIII-mid to themaximalparameters ofthe “Little Ice appeared thattheseparameters were close area andvolume inthemidXIXcentury. It were used to theElbrusglaciation determine materials moraines wasaccomplished. Its survey, studyofstadial alichenometric the1986–1987phototheodoliteDuring was conducted. photographic1979–1987, itsaerial survey additionin the entire Elbrusglaciation.In wasrepeatedphototheodolite for survey 1986–1987,the etal., 1984].In [Knizhnikov wasundertaken forwork thesecondsurvey recognizance 1980–1983,apreliminary In glaciation..., 1968]. oftheElbrusglaciation[The monitoring map for thefuture cartographic-aerial-space 1:10 000scalemap, whichbecameabase of theElbrusglaciation. They compileda to assesstheevolutionphototheodolite survey MSU Faculty ofGeography a conducted andGeoinformaticsof Cartography ofthe Aerial-Photo oftheDepartment Methods) of (atthattime,Methods theLaboratory forscientists from Aerospace theLaboratory glaciation. Modern cartographic materialsontheElbrus negligible error ofestimates. grid.measuring This isconsistent withthe Podozersky [1911]ontheoriginal mapusing 1 %different from thearea measured byK.I. During theIGY(1957–1959),During 2 ), isapproximately a substrate where lichensmay appearinthe only atimeofformation ofarelief form, i.e., sources provide andcartographical historical shouldalsobeconsideredage dating. that It unjustifiably accurate claimedprecision of resultingthe source inan dataaccuracy evaluationof acritical islacking work ouropinion,thisundoubtedly valuable In 1982]. [Golodkovskaya, slopemorainesdating ofthesouthern appeared to beunacceptablefor age slopeoftheCentral Caucuses the northern growth. Thus, dataongrowth obtainedfor of environmental conditionsonlichen demonstrated theinfluence These efforts 1981]. radiochronological [Golodkovskaya, methods, e.g., historical, or cartographical, sites; usingother theageisdetermined using lichensfrom different age-control its growth substrate. This isachieved by ofage thallus diameter asafunction amaximallichenmodel thatdescribes Beschel’s ideasto establishamathematical given to methodological research builton shouldbe difficult. Specialimportance widescaleapplicationofthismethod makes specific region isthemainreason that for each suchdependency determining Challengesof used for proper age-dating. for different lichendiameters have to be means thatdifferent annualgrowth values the growth rate decreases. Practically, this environmental conditions, which after reaches itsmaximaldiameter for given the middleofgrowing tilllichen cycle the speedishighbecomingconstantin different thebeginning speeds. ofgrowth, In through theirlives, lichenthallusgrows at R. Beschel[Beschel, 1961]believed that The founder method ofthelichenometrical millennium andmiddleoftheXIXcentury. maximum limitsoftheglaciationinlast Lichenometrical methodofdeterminingthe a100-yearshappened during time-period. in theglaciationchanges, whichhave to studytendencies a uniqueopportunity provided photographic1997 aerial survey RESEARCH METHODS

19 GEOGRAPHY 20 GEOGRAPHY mudflow andfluvioglacialsediments with Besides, threeinterval. sites withtheancient moraines withinthe1930s to 1850age sites (insixglacialvalleys)onthestadial 1909 to 1979were usedtogether with14 descendfromsediments withknown Twenty five control sites onmudflow were processed. a hundred of1400–2000 melevationsites the valleysofPreelbrus’e withinwhichover Overall, there were 20mudflowbasinsin widely usedinourresearch ascontrol sites. advantage ofbeingeven-aged, were which compared to icehave acertain Along withthemoraine, mudflowdeposits, the lastcentury. Baksan riverbasinglacierschangesduring method wasappliedto studytheElbrusand Specificallythisvery age determination. aprobabledeviations characterize error in of agiven size canbedetermined. These from themeanvaluesofannual growth may this case, beapplied. deviations In with different environmental conditions annual lichengrowth datafrom control sites specifically, a statisticalprocessing ofthe Then, asimplifiedsolutionispossible, i.e., that are withinthelimitsoftheseerrors. conditions may result indatingdifferences for thesites withdifferent environmental end, differences intheannuallichengrowth also reasonable to concludethatatthe applied to dataprocessing. Therefore, itis despite any reliable mathematicmodels level ofconfidence more orlesssatisfactory with period, onecanonlydate to acentury dating. Forlast century a thousand-year datingerror for the may bea decade-long facts, itisreasonable to concludethatthere 1500–2000 years). allthese Considering temperate climate (according to Beschel, limited life spanoflichensgrowing under Such inconsistencies may bearesult ofa diameters oflichensthatgrow onthem. theageofbouldertrainsand between especially careful to exclude inconsistencies several thiscase, decades. onehasto In be related to oldercontrol sites may comprise future andatdifferent times. Datingerrors quantitatively express thistendency. order In datadoesnotallowoneto lack ofactual elevation noted by V.I. Turmanina [1971].A fast increase inthegrowth below2000m However, to there inreality a isatendency the growth rates andabsolute elevations. changesin between is nocleardependency elevations inthe1800–2000minterval. There growth values correspond to theabsolute datausedto obtaintheannual The actual obtained. thecredibilityofresultswhich confirms graph (diameter ofabout100mm)coincide, datingforcarbon arespective pointonthe the sedimentsageanderror oftheradio- The valuesofthemean-root-square error of their formation. than10years after sediments notearlier was assumedthatlichensinhabited the It values ofthemean-root-square error (year). data onthesedimentsageandabsolute growth dataare supplemented withthe possible standard deviation.Also, theannual annual growth valuesare presented witha presented inatabularformat 1). (Table The growth values. For convenience, thisgraph is oftheannual allowed assessingreal accuracy The upperandlower enveloping curves growth average valuesfor different diameters. wasdrawn usingtheannual generalized curve and Zolotarev, 2001]. The annualgrowth different environmental conditions[Seinova the annuallichengrowth wascompiledfor Based onthesedataageneralized graph of stabilized andwas0,15–0,11mm/year. and bigger, theannualgrowth haspractically beginning from thediameter ofabout100mm first decadesoftheirlives (to 50years); andd) annual lichengrowth the occurred during declineinthe lichens was1mm;c)asharp than 10years; b)theminimalvisiblesize of lichens were found onthedepositsyounger through processing ofthesedata:a)no The following dependencieswere established data “IGAN-747” were used. etal. 1973]andourdating 1971; Kotlyakov etal. datingdata[Kaplin radiocarbon known Table 1.Annualgrowth ofdiff growth graph (see Table 1)addingabsolute to onthe usethelower enveloping curve on absolute elevations)itseemsfeasible data ofouractual (the middleoftheinterval to date thesedimentslocated above 2300m ihndaee,m Ana rwh mAge ofdeposits, yrs Annualgrowth, mm Lichen diameter, mm deposits for the northern slopeoftheCentraldeposits for thenorthern Caucasus (absolute elevations 1800–2900m) 0 ,020 Ic. III-IIc. IVc. Vc. VIc. 2000 VIIc. 1900 VIIIc. 1650 1550 X–IX c. XIc. 1450 XIIc. 0,10 1360±150 XIIIc. 0,10 1200±140 0,11 1000±130 0,11 900±120 XIVc. 0,11 820±110 0,12 760±100 200 700±90 0,12 190 0,13 180 0,13 666±80 170 0,14 160 0,14 150 0,15 140 130 0,15±0,01 120 112 110 105 100 95 0,16 ± 0,02 570 ± 70 XV c. XV c. XVI c. XVII 570±70 500±60 420±55 c. XVIII 360±50 330±45 0,16±0,02 290±40 0,18±0,03 240±35 0,20±0,03 210±31 XIXc. 0,22±0,03 180±29 0,23±0,04 160±26 0,25±0,04 95 140±23 0,27±0,05 90 120±18 0,29±0,05 85 100±15 0,31±0,06 80 80±12 0,33±0,06 75 60±10 0,34±0,07 70 45±7 0,37±0,07 65 30±5 0,39±0,08 60 20±2 0,43±0,09 55 0,47±0,10 50 0,55±0,11 45 0,65±0,12 40 0,78±0,11 35 30 25 20 15 10 0XX c. 10 15±1 1,00±0,10 – 5 2–121 erent sized geographicum lichenRhizocarpon anddating oftherespective on maximaldiameters of Using datafrom publishedsources values. values ofthestandard deviationto theage Rhizocarpon

21 GEOGRAPHY 51 71 1930th 14 17 15 15 22 GEOGRAPHY Table 2. The ageofthestadialmoraines oftheriver Baksanvalley glaciersidentifi Fig. 8.ChangesintheElbrusglaciation century. from theend oftheXVII 1–area ofice that melteddur- oso zuMliAa eso rkYsniDhnat Bashkara Dzhankaut Yusengi Irik Terskol MalyiAzau Bolshoi Azau ing 1700–1887;2–lava; 3–glacialdivides. Glacierboundaries:4–1987, 5–1957,6–1887,7–stadial Maximal diameter oflichens(mm)onthestadialmoraines intheglaciersvalleys 43 03 23 01880th XIXc. Mid c. EndofXVIII 30 21 33 41 20 32 40 50 33 40 24 50 30 40 51 21 34 20 34 38 50 method. 66 64 End of XVII c. EndofXVII 64 66 1 2 XIIIc. 125 115 58 08 First c. halfofXV 80 90 85 85 moraine lineofthemid. XIXcentury. 11910th 21 ed with the lichenometry ed withthelichenometry Time offormation of themorainic ridges XVII andmiddleXIXcenturies attheend ofthe Elbrus glaciationboundaries the stadialmorainesallowed the determining of The results survey ofthelichenometric magnitude inthemiddleofXIXcentury. retreat, hascomebackto almostthesame some andafter century mid oftheXVII Caucasus hasreached itsmaximuminthe millennium ADinthisregion oftheCentral theglacialtioninsecond their surface, the endmorainesandlichensize on glaciers. Judging of bythemorphology advancing was interrupted byperiodically millenniums thelasttwo glaciation during suggest thataconsecutive declineofthe general, thedatafrom1971]. In Table 2 lichen growth of0,3mm/year [Turmanina, basedonthedataannual century XVII tomoraines hadbeendated themid earlier these For andBashkara, theglaciers Djankaut state ofthestudiedglaciers. of thestationary apparently formed thelongestperiod during the greatest relative elevation,andwere lines were well visibleintherelief, have seven studiedglaciers. The endmoraine of 85–90mmwere found nearfive outof The endmorainelineswithlichendiameters elevation). tongueto oftheglacial(2540m themodern sideofthevalleyin1km deposits oftheleft valley –amidsttheavalanche andscree (2400 melevation)andintheriver Terskol to thetongue oftheBechoglacial 2 km frontal apron valleysidein neartheright river Yusenga, thismorainetowers over the infragments asremnants.preserved the In lichen diameters of115–120mmwere published literature. The moraineswith noted previously –thefact inpreserved represented mostfully. They were well stadialmoraineswere of theXIXcentury As shownin Table 2,themiddleandend 2). glaciation wasobtained(Table ElbrusandBaksanriverin thesouthern the following representation ofchanges supplemented withourownobservations, 1971] moraine ofseveral glaciers[Turmanina, geographicum lichengrowing onthestadial (Fig. 8). T heir computers). Let usreview indetaila (developed alsofor personalpackages photogrammetric computer software withthehelpofdigital is performed Processing ofdigital photographic pairs orphototheodoliteaerial surveys. through scanninganddigital “digital imagery”, thatisobtainedinAlpine imagery. This stageisassociated with processing ofground, aerial, andspace bydigitalis characterized photogrammetric research state incartographic The modern an exampleofsuchmaps. as 000 scaleElbrusglacialsystem mapserves of thematicmaps. The aforementioned 1:10 analysesandcompilation in cartographic asabasisfor largeserved scalemapsused glaciers. The results of thedataprocessing used to capture spatialpositionsofmountain werephototheodolite commonly surveys the XX century, stereo-autograph processed and aerialphotography. photogrammetricDigital processing ofground 3). elevation (Table glaciers tongues from theirendsto 4000m elevation andicevolumes ofallElbrus allowed changesintheaverage determining models the estimates thesetwo between data for eachglacier. The difference in digital modelswere developed from these the 1957topographic map. Multitemporal together withrespective sites shownon the mapswere compiled anddigitized the upperlevel ofthestadialmoraine, Thus, for eachglacierfrom itstongue to andmiddleoftheXIXcenturies. of theXVII the areas occupiedbytheglaciersatend contour linesfrom elevation for theridges ofthe was accomplishedbyinterpolation theirmaximumdevelopment.during This identify thearea andvolume oftheglaciers symbols. cartographic The mapwasusedto the stadialmorainesare shownwithspecial of whereallridges practically 1957 survey of theElbrusglaciationcompiledfrom the (1:10 000),10mcontour topographic map identification wasbasedonalarge scale Untiltheendof

23 GEOGRAPHY 24 GEOGRAPHY Table 3.Changeinthearea andvolume oftheElbrusglaciation beginningfrom themid. XIXc. stereo modelsandcontour digitizing during model pointsets;stereo editor for editing measurement ofparallaxes anddigital relief bundle adjustment;programs for automatic images; programs for photogrammetric for coordinate measuring pointsondigital components: program stereocomparator which includesthefollowing main we developed for apersonalcomputer, that package photogrammetric software data. The mapwascreated using adigital compiled from photographic the1997aerial the glaciersusingadigital Elbrusmap digital methodappliedtocartographic glaciation Elbrus Total for 2 lua ,5 ,8 ,2 ,6 ,4 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,4 0,144 0,146 0,141 0,151 0,160 0,469 0,697 1,440 0,517 0,769 1,561 1,067 №№ 1–9 0,479 0,700 0,168 Clif glaciers 1,233 1,620 0,561 0,826 0,196 yube 1,174 0,621 1,882 15. Bityukt- 0,832 0,196 1,405 4,689 tlyu 3,950 6,975 0,256 13. Kyukyur- 1,425 4,744 6,901 0,260 12. Ullukam 10,671 4,911 1,680 6,988 10,763 Azau 11. Bolshoi 5,781 10,995 1,735 7,818 0,548 12,425 Azau 6,321 1,806 8,428 10. Malyi 12,605 0,595 2,816 9. Garabashi 0,552 1,230 8. Terskol 3,006 0,605 1,318 7. Irik 0,610 1,227 6. Irichkat 5,485 1,269 kez 5,538 Dzhikiugan- 1,589 5. Icefi eld 5,748 12,301 4. Mikelchiran 12,277 5,918 derku 12,124 Ullumalien- 6,638 + 3. Ullu-Kol 12,944 13,914 2. Karachaul 1. Ulluchiran elevation) 5200 m (area above Elbrus peaks of glacier Name 8018 9717 9715 87195719791997 1887 1850 1997 1979 1957 1887 1850 3122,6 1022,7 0403202902302222,046 0,836 2,222 0,913 2,330 0,866 2,900 0,974 3,270 1,074 20,460 8,363 20,677 8,508 21,032 22,662 8,806 2,558 23,102 3,032 9,826 3,207 10,256 4,339 4,929 25,581 27,295 29,042 31,762 34,832 ,5 ,7 ,9 ,5 ,8 ,3 ,5 ,9 ,0 0,378 0,407 0,221 0,390 0,231 0,450 0,691 0,221 0,530 0,700 0,251 3,783 0,696 0,254 4,058 0,747 2,212 0,752 5,395 1,997 6,913 7,475 2,170 7,226 8,450 2,330 7,039 2,560 7,269 8,119 0,460 0,503 0,479 0,488 0,607 0,439 0,613 0,412 4,604 0,475 4,670 0,481 0,481 4,882 4,834 0,480 4,960 5,564 0,470 5,186 6,014 0,480 5,826 0,480 6,146 4,811 4,818 4,818 4,818 4,818 5,5 4,1 3,1 2,2 2,51,8 62613,540 16,296 17,880 124,85 127,728 132,514 147,516 159,159 Area ofglaciersinhorizontal projection, km projection, 3 of imagesandcomputation ofspatial The elementsfor relative orientation photogrammetric scanner. photographs scanning oforiginal aerial ona was obtainedbeforehand through imagery Digital and compilinganorthophotomap. pointsfor measuring phototriangulation, DEM, processing control includedmeasuring points, imagery. Photogrammetric of orthographic a digital elevation model(DEM)andcreation shutter glasses;andaprogram for building a personalcomputer monitor usingLCD visual interpretation ofthestereo modelfrom Volume ofglaciers, km 3 13,741 12,482 important for assessingtheirvolume changes. important ofglaciers elevations is Monitoring surveys. Adjustment ofmultitemporal dataofrepeated (Fig.included intheboundaries 9). (as itwasconsidered to bestagnant) were previously shownonthe1957–1959map covered bythemorainemantleandnot ends oftheglacierstongues icethatisentirely 1968] were alsoapplied. Additionally, the glaciation..., the Elbrusglaciationmap[The thecompilationof during and ofCartography of theDepartment for Aerospacein theLaboratory Methods The interpretation methodsdeveloped theirdetaileddelineation. which permitted to approximatelystereo-editor 1:5000scale, examination oftheimagesenlarged with from visualinterpretation andstereoscopic wereThe glaciationboundaries defined orthotransformation. imagery perform DEM wasusedto buildcontours andto processed. the entire territory The obtained There were about1mlnpointsintotal for automated processing ofeachstereo-pair. measurement results usingstereo editor after throughselected visualexaminationofthe all DEMpoints. The rest ofthepointswere methods thatwere appliedto obtain96%of the usageofautomated stereo-measurement building adetailedelevationmodeldictated ofalarge numberofpointsforselection relatively images. oriented of The necessity sets were definedwiththestereo-pairs on data asanintermediate step. The DEMpoint The relief mappingwasdoneusingtheDEM interpreted glacierboundary. relief represented by10mcontours, andan images ofthearea;resolution orthographic mapwerecompiled orthographic the1m The baseelementsofthecontent ofthe for compilationofa1 : 10 000scalemap. coordinate sufficient measurement accuracy allowed reaching 1,5mhorizontal andvertical the entire photographic aerial area, which using alarge numberofcontrol pointsover defined basedonblockphoto-triangulation coordinates ofmeasured pointswere associated withtechnical capabilitiesof This laborintensive methodand itslimitations 1957–1987[Zolotarev,glaciers during 1997]. towas conducted identifychangesintheElbrus methods.precisely Such work thancartographic elevationchangesmore allow determining elevation changes. Bothversions ofthismethod of the reconstructionofacontinuoussurface but theyaresuch interpolation, preferable for nodes ofaregular grid, oncontrary, require Measurementsinterpolation. basedonthe relief at contours eliminates amap-based over Pointing astereotick mark modelsurface. while simultaneouslypointingastereograph over amapcontour or anodeofregular grid by pointingacoordinatograph finderdevice Measurements werefrom surveys. made earlier were using mapscompiled oriented survey this method, thestereo-pairs from repeated based photogrammetric instruments. Under multitemporal dataadjustmentusingbroad- of intermediate mapsrequired applying data from withoutcreation repeated surveys of measurements ofchangesbyusing raw together withtheneedto improve accuracy photography istimeconsuming. This fact glaciers withphototheodolite dataoraerial material. However,cartographic mappingof to measure elevationsonmultitemporal methodsare traditionallyused Cartographic Fig. 9.Fragment ofthe1 : 10 000scaledigital ortho mapofElbrus(1997)(reduced size).ortho

25 GEOGRAPHY 26 GEOGRAPHY retreat. V.I. 1967]estimated [Kravtsova, Kravtsova or,stability incontrast,ofitssubstantial provide evidenceoftheglaciation relative a 100-yearvolumes during could period because theassessmentofchangesin interesting Elbrus glaciationisparticularly The assessmentofthetotal volume ofthe coordinates isreached. planimetric inapointwithnecessary surface are adjusted anditspositionattheglacier orientation. Thus, coordinates thetickmark under specifiedparameters ofexternal stereoscopic onto aglaciersurface tickmark and real pointingofa spacedirectlyduring coordinates interconversion images between directly to acomputingsystem andconduct transfer valuesofmeasured imagecoordinates became possiblewithstereocomparators that system. The implementationofthismethod coordinate grid nodeswithinaplanimetric the locationofpointsmay betiedto regular necessary,application ofanalyticalmethods. If provided by substantially higheraccuracy without intermediate witha interpolations change inapointare obtained directly thiscase, thevaluesofelevation 1996]. In coordinates [Zolotarev andKharkovets, with previously establishedplanimetric of thestereo-pairs –atthesamepoints coordinatedconducting measurements surface. actual The solutionwasfound in analytically differs substantiallyfrom the ofchanges obtained appears thatthesurface ofmeasurements.increase theaccuracy It measured stereo pairs, didnotsubstantially detalization obtainedfrom independently linesorsomeotherways ofspace structural andusing network or someotherarbitrary pointsonaregularestablished thatselecting stereo hasbeenexperimentally pairs. It of theDEMsdeveloped from multitemporal changesthroughdetermine thecomparison There have beenseveral attempts to processing.to analytical methodsofimagery transitioning thatdetermined the mainfactors repeated imagesandmapsadjustmentsare DIFFERENT PERIODS OF ITS EVOLUTION GLACIATION VOLUMEDURING ASSESSMENT OF THE ELBRUS the Elbrusglaciationvolume at6km at approximately 12,5m the glaciationin1997canbethenestimated is possiblyaround 100m,andthevolume of for theentireice thickness Elbrusglaciation two, approximately. meansthattheaverage It in 1957were underestimated of byafactor the results ofassessmentstheicethickness plateau, indicated thatfor theDzhikiugankez The assessmentofthevolume ofmelted ice slopeshould beeven greater.on thenorthern 200 m[Rototaeva etal., 2003]. The icethickness icecapewas90m,sometimesreaching the firn Academy ofSciences, of theaverage thickness of Geographyexpedition oftheInstitute ofUSSR Caucasian obtained in1987–1989bytheNorth andBolshoiAzau) Azau, Malyi Garabashi, slopeoftheElbrus(theglaciers the southern andradiosounding dataat Based ondrilling dataforthe actual someglaciationsites. possible to compare theseassessmentswith was estimated at50m.Atthepresent time, itis oftheicefor average theentire thickness Elbrus 100 malongtheaxes ofthelarge glaciers. The icecapwas20–50 mandreached of thefirn oftheicefor thelargerthat thethickness part the glaciers’ valleysprofiles. wasassumed It elevations anddepthofclefts, andanalysisof oftheicecliffs of phototheodolite surveys theIGYfrom compiled during theresults thatwas a mapoftheElbrusicethickness topographic map compiled by the Laboratory topographic mapcompiledbytheLaboratory 18 years. We digitized a1 : 10 000scale 22and approximately even time-intervals: dates: 1957,1979,and1997,thatform two glaciation evolution isbasedonthree fixed The assessmentofthepostIGYElbrus to disappear.unlikely the nearest centuries, the Elbrusglaciersare losses itisreasonable to concludethatduring glaciation volume andiceannualaverage From oftheestimates ofthe comparison decreased byabout22 % (or0,2peryear). thelast110years,during theglaciationvolume km AND THEIR ACCURACY ASSESSMENT GLACIATION EVOLUTION DIGITAL MAPS COMPILATION OF THE POST IGY ELBRUS 3 for 1957and1887,respectively. Therefore, 3 ; and at 13,6 и 16,2 ; andat13,6и16,2 3 using using error of changes in the glaciation surface error ofchangesintheglaciationsurface 1966]. Therefore, arelative measurement measurements errors [Reference Book..., zero, asfollows ofrandom from theproperties points, thealgebraicsumoferrors tends to entire area oftheglaciationinatleast1mln measurements were withinthe conducted maps andphotographs. Becauseelevation from 20contour pointsrecognized onthe multitemporal modelswas2,5mcalculated oftheses thesuperimposition during errorsstandard horizontal andvertical models comparison. The maximalpossible points, whichsubstantiallyfacilitated the controlcoordinate system andsurveying three modelswere compiledusingthesame All for eachofthetime-intervals. surface andelevationoftheglaciation boundaries changesinthe maps allowed measuring glaciation. oftheseThe superimposition we created digital modelsfor theentire 1997. As a result, for eachofthedates photographicaerial datafor 1979and the IGY. addition,we digitally In processed Faculty ofGeography oftheMSUduring andGeoinformaticsof Cartography ofthe for Aerospace oftheDepartment Methods 2 –Karachaul, 3–Ullukol andUllumalienderku, 4–Mikelchiran, 5–Dzhikiugankez, 6–Irikchat, 7–Irik, Fig. a)1957–1979 10.Changesintheelevation ofElbrusglaciersduringtheintervals: ofthesurface within the1957boundaries, b) 1979–1997withinthe1979boundaries. Glaciers:1–Ulluchiran, 8 –Terskol, 9–Garabashi, 10–MalyiAzau, Azau, 11–Bolshoi 12–Ullukam,13Kyukyurtlyu, 14 –Bityuktyube. algebraic summationofΔ the digital models of1957and1997by independent methods, i.e., of bycomparison were1957–1997 period obtainedusingtwo (Δ thatthevaluesofchangesinthickness the fact discussions, inourcase, by were supported elevations canbeignored. T and 1979–1997. In theidealcase, Δ and 1979–1997.In for in1957–1979 thecorresponding periods based on interpolation ofscatteredbased oninterpolation points. elevation andavoiding errors indigital models a detailedpictureofchanges inthesurface from 10mcontours. This allowed obtaining topographic map, inthiscase, wasdigitized should benoted,estimates. thatthe1957 It order ofmagnitude compared to theinitial ofmeasurementsend result byan accuracy large volume ofmeasurements increased the glaciation volume was1,8%. Thus, thesufficiently 2,6 %.Asimilarerror ofmeasurements for the elevationat error for theentire glacialsurface This allowed usto definearelative measurement for eachoftheglaciersandentire glaciation. reality, we hadto dealwithadiscordance (δH) ofmultitemporal models,superimposition in Δ H H 2 ) and volumes of the glaciers during the ) andvolumesthe oftheglaciersduring , however, dueto errors associated with H 1 andΔ hese theoretical hese theoretical H H =Δ 2 values values H 1 +

27 GEOGRAPHY 28 GEOGRAPHY eraei lvto ftesrae /r0500300,320 0,350 0,530 Decrease in volume, km Decrease inelevation of thesurface, m/yr (1979–1997), auniversal decrease inthe ofobservations thesecondperiod During Elbrus glacierswere advancing[Panov, 1993]. the1960s[Kotlyakov,during 1994]whenthe Hemisphere temperatures oftheNorthern aresultwas clearly ofthetotal decrease inair at +0,94mofwater equivalent. The process assessed entire thisperiod glaciationduring resulted inalowpositive massbalanceofthe slopeoftheUlluchiranglacier.northern This prevailed reaching 40matthe in thesurface oftheglaciation,increase south-western part andHotyu-Tau part in itsnorth-eastern inthe Plateauglaciers except for theDzhikiugankez general decrease inthearea, atalmostall 1957–1979,despite a change periods. In glaciation response climate even for short The compiledmaps(Fig. showthe 10)clearly Table 4.Average annualchangesinthearea, elevation andvolume ofthesurface, oftheElbrusglaciation Decrease inarea, km Fig. 11.Changeinthearea and volume oftheElbrus glaciation for 1850–1997. 1–changeinthe below 4000melevation, for diff aaee 8018 8715 1957–1997 1887–1957 1850–1887 Parameter 2 y ,1 ,1 0,190 0,210 0,310 /yr 3 y ,5 ,3 0,027 0,035 0,058 /yr area, km erent periods 2 , 2–changeinthevolume, km on the two aforementionedon thetwo glaciersofthe 45%ofthisamountfalls ofwater; to 1km3 whichisequivalent has decreased by1,2km3 (1957–1997), theElbrusglaciationvolume 40years theIGY generalduring after In tongues. area was16,8mreaching 40matthe decrease for theentirethe surface glaciation Dzhikiugankez”. Here, theaverage valueof the commonname “Ice Field ofthe and Birdzhalychiran, combinedunder of theglaciationslope–Chungurchatchiran greatest decrease wasnoted attheglaciers insignificant area neartheElbrussummit. The elevationtook place, except forsurface an CONCLUSIONS 3 . 10. Knizhnikov, Yu.F., V.I. A.P. Kravtsova, andS.M.Myagkov. (1984)Changesinthe Martyshev P.A., Kaplin, I.V. O.B. Grakova, Paronin, etc. (1971) ofthe dating,The listofradiocarbon Laboratory 9. N.A.(1982) Golodkovskaya, slopeoftheCentral The dynamicsofglaciersthesouthern 8. ofmorainesandglacierdynamicsthenorth- N.A.(1981)Lichenometry Golodkovskaya, 7. Reserve. N.Ya. Dinnik, andancientglaciersoftheCaucasus. Kakvakzskyi (1890)Modern 6. Climate change–2001. (2001) The ScientificBasis. of Contribution GroupWorking Ito the 5. Burmester, H.(1913)Rezent glazialeUntersuchungen undphotogrammetrischeAufna- 4. bylichengrowth Beschel, anditsapplicationto R.E.(1961)Datingrock glaciology surfaces 3. Altberg, V.Ya. (1928)Onthestate oftheElbrusglaciersinGreater Caucasusrangeof 2. umjahre 1873.Moskau. Abich,H.(1875)Geologische BeobachtungenaufReisenimKaukasus 1. there even decrease hasbeenpractically in (1850–1887).Beginning period in1887, earlier glaciation decrease wasassociated withthe data indicate thatthegreatest rate ofthe These reasonably reliable quantitative of theglaciationtongues 4). (Table and area oftheglaciationwasdueto melting becausethedecrease inthevolume century glaciation retreat thatbeganinthemidXIX 4000 m. allowstracingtherate of This fact the endsoftongues to theelevationof oftheglaciation,specificallyfrom lower part this volume (i.e., 98%)iscontainedinthe slope. of northeastern The majorportion REFERENCES Geography, Russian). №2(In Elbrus glaciationin25years theIGY. after ser. State Bulletin (Vestnik), University Moscow 5, ser. State Bulletin(Vestnik), University Moscow 5,Geography, Russian). №4 (In Faculty ofGeography, oftheUSSR. ofOceanology State andtheInstitute University Moscow Russian). № 45(In ofGlaciological Research,Caucasus inthelast700yearsdata).Materials (Lichenometrical Academy ofSciences., ser. Geogr., Russian). №6(In oftheUSSR oftheCentral macro-slope Caucasusoverern thepast700years. Izvestia Russian Geographical Society, Tiflis, Vol. Russian). 14,№1(In ofIPCC. Press.Third University Cambridge Assessment Report 1. Bd. furGletscherkunde, Zeitschrift 8,Ht. men imBaksanguellgebiet(Kaukasus). Geology oftheArctic,and physiography (lichenometry), Toronto Univ. Press, Vol. 2. Russian). GGI,№22(In basininthe1925–1927 period.the BaksanRiver Izvestia Research (project #10-05-00453a). oftheRussianFoundationsupport for Basic This paperwasmadepossiblebythefinancial anthropogenic causes. was moredueto naturalthan likely theendofLittleIceAgeafter and ofcooling, periods beganinXIXcentury change, whichalternated withshort These datasuggestthatglobalclimate down (Fig. 11). the area whilevolume hasslowed reduction ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

29 GEOGRAPHY 30 GEOGRAPHY 32. Zolotarev, Ye,A. and V.V. Popovnin. response to climate (2003)OntheglacierDzhankaut World Conference31. onClimate Change. (2003)Moscow. Abstracts. 30. Tushinsky, (1958) Post G.K. mud-slideglaciationofElbrusanditsdynamics. –Information Turmanina, 29. V.I. usingphyto-indica- (1971)Study oftheevolution oftheglacierDzhankaut Press. Elbrus. University The glaciation ofMount (1968)Moscow Russian). (In 28. Moscow Solovyev, S.P.27. (1933)Statusofthe ElbrusArea GlaciersandtheQuestionaboutReason Eurasiainthe Holocene, Scientific Solomina, O.N. GlaciationofNorthern (1999)Mountain 26. 25. Seynova,I.B. and Ye.A. Zolotarev. (2001)GlaciersandsatElbrus(Evolution ofglaciersand 24. Salatsky, N.D. Re- (1886)Essays onorography andgeologyoftheCaucasus. Kakvakzskyi 23. Rototaeva, O.V., A.B. Bazhev, S.A.Nikitin, G.A.Nosenko, O.A. Nosenko, A.V. Vesnin, and Russian). (In (1966)Nedra,Moscow Reference ofSurveyors Manual 22. 21. Podozersky, Rus- Reserve. (1911) K.I. The glaciersoftheCaucasusMountains. Kakvakzskyi Russian Reserve. Pastukhov,20. A.V. oftheascentElbrusJuly31,Kakvakzskyi (1893)Report 19. Panov, V.D. (1993) CaucasusGlaciation.S.Gidrometeoizdat,The Evolution oftheModern Oreshnikova, 18. Ye.I. (1936)GlaciersoftheElbrusarea basedonresearch of1932–1933.Pro- 17. Mushketov. I.V. ofRussianGeo- (1882)Geological to theCaucasusin1881.Izvestia trip A.P.Martyshev, 16. glacierinElbrus. (1980) Fluctuations Materi- ofthetongue oftheBigAzau 15. Labutina, I.A.(1968)Studyofchangesinthesize ofglaciersusingamappingmethod. 14. Kra Kovalev, P.V.13. slopeofthecentralCaucasus. Materials (1961)Onmud-slidesonthenorthern 12. K Kotlyakov, 11. V.M. (1994) The Russian). (In World Moscow ofSnowandIce. Nauka, change. ofGlaciological Russian). Research, Materials №95(In Bulletin ontheIGY Works oftheFaculty ofGeography ofMSU, №2. tion methods. ofGlaciological Russian). Research, Materials №18(In for theirRetreat. Russian Geographical Society, Vol. 65,№2. World, Russian). (In Moscow Scientific mudflow activity), World, Russian). (In Moscow RussianGeographical Society,serve. Vol. Russian). 7,№1(In ofGlaciologicalterials Russian). Research, №93(In I.F. Khmelevskoy. (2003) Elbrus. slopeofMount Ma- ofice onthesouthern The thickness sian Geographical Society, Vol. Russian). 29,№1(In Geographical Society, Russian). (In Tiflis, book.15 St. Petersburg Russian). (In Russian). ceedings oftheGlacierExpeditions. Caucasus. (In Moscow graphical Society, V. 18,№2(INRussian). als ofGlaciological Russian). Research, №39(In Press, University Elbrus Glaciation,Moscow Russian). (In Moscow Kharkov, of theCaucasusExpedition.(ProgramVol. Russian). IGY), III(In times.mountainous Caucasusinhistorical ofGlaciological Russian). Research, Materials №21(In otlyakov, V.M. V.A. Gerasimov, etal. (1973)Onclimate changeandglaciationin A.L.Devirts, vtsova, V.I. (1967)Ice Map. ofGlaciological Research, Materials No.Thickness Russian). 13(In 204 p. (Evolution of 34. Zolotarev, 34. Ye.A. ofGlaciological (1997)ChangesglaciersElbrusinthelastcentury. Materials Zolotarev, 33. Ye.A. and Ye.G. (1996)Applicationofautomated Kharkovets. mappinganddigital Zolotarev) Moscow State University Bulletin (Vestnik), ser.Zolotarev) State Bulletin(Vestnik), University Moscow 5,Geography., 2007,N5. Assessment ofElbrusglaciationsdegradation bydigital methods(coauthor cartography Ye. ofglaciological research1997), Materials (coauthor Ye. Zolotarev) 2000, Vol. 89p.175–181, (A digital mapofElbrus, publications:Elbrusglaciationsattheendof20-thcentury Main formethods ofdigital geographical andphotogrammetry cartography research applications. attheFacultyworking interested ofGeography indeveloping since1987.Heisparticular of Cartography, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow Hehasbeen Yevgeniy Kharkovets Research, № 83 (In Russian). Research, №83(In Russian). 26–29June1996)(In Conference (Irkutsk, GIS for thestudyandmappingofenvironment. Proceedings oftheInternational inElbrusregion. glaciermonitoring for INTERCARTO 2: theDzhankaut glaciation and mudflow activity) (coauthor I.B. Seinova)glaciation andmudflow (2001), activity) is Research Associate of the Laboratory for Remote Sensing, Department isResearch for Associate Remote Sensing, oftheLaboratory Department Moscow, (2009)238 p;Glaciersandmudflows sensing and cartographic methodsofglacialmonitoring, sensing andcartographic publications: Evolution oftheElbrusglaciations:remote catastrophic glacialprocesses inhighmountainregions. Main the fieldofevolution anddynamicsofmountainglaciers hazard inhighmountainregions. research His interests are in Ph. D.His thesis(1979)wasdevoted to mappingofavalanche stationofMSU. 10 years atElbrusMountain helived and worked graduated in1967.For from University Moscow more than Geography, M.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow He for ofCartography,of Remote Sensing, Department Faculty Yevgeniy Zolotarev, Ph.D. is Senior Scientist of the Laboratory is SeniorScientistoftheLaboratory of the Elbrus region of theElbrusregion

31 GEOGRAPHY 32 GEOGRAPHY acute intheCaspianSea. dating,to radiocarbon whichare especially problems related to solve are theuncertainties have Someofthemosturgent beentaken. quantification ofthepalynological spectra exists for theHolocene. The firststeps towards However, stillnowadays nocomplete record hence providing accessto low-standsediment. oftheCaspianSea, cores inthedeeperparts ofnewprojectshavea series allowed taking on spare palynological analysesbefore 1990, decadesisproposedthe lasttwo here. Building analysesmadein anddinocyst palynomorphs A review ofpollen,spores, non-pollen traditional approach sofar has beento look (CS) andpastclimates oftheregion, the past sealevel changes intheCaspianSea 2004; Leroy etal., 2010]. To reconstruct etal., around activities thesea[Kazancı onsocio-economical had adramaticimpact thelatter period, thesechangeshaveIn [Kroonenberg etal. 2000]. in thelastcentury in thelastglacial-interglacial and>3m cycle changesofitswater level: c. large-scale 160m many small and The CaspianSeahasknown Lateglacial, Holocene, climate, sealevel Uxbridge UB8 3PH (West London), UK, [email protected] London),Uxbridge UK, UB83PH(West forInstitute theEnvironment, BrunelUniversity, Lane, Kingston Suzanne A.G.Leroy KEY WORDS. ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION ANALYSES OF MARINE SEDIMENT CORES LATEGLACIAL FROM PALYNOLOGICAL CASPIAN SEA REGION SINCE THE CHANGES IN THE SOUTH AND MIDDLE SEA LEVEL AND PALAEOCLIMATIC Caspian Sea, pollen, dinocysts, Caspian Sea,pollen,dinocysts, were itsdrivers. how climate changed, howfastandwhat understanding why theyoccurandsecondly changes occurred, which isastep before to understandingfirstlywhensealevel key bothlowandhighstandsholdsthe covering Sea (Fig. 1). analyses Their multidisciplinary basinsoftheCaspian central andsouthern the shallowandmore rarely inthedeeper coresRecently marine have beenobtainedin such asanthropogenic andtectonic ones. other drivers ofthewater level played arole a longertimescaleitisnotimpossiblethat precipitation over the Volga basin.At River of isdominated bythevariability variability thanbyahiatus. otherwise The CSlevel stands are notrecorded withthismethod dates onbivalveradiocarbon shells. Low micro/macrofossil contents andto obtain at outcrops, to analysetheirsedimentand and thisiswhatoccurred in2010. etal. phase[Arpe 2000], when ENSOisinLaNiña that drought over the Volga basinwould occur region. have GlobalClimate Models suggested drought, extensivewildfires occurred inthe Volga months. As adirectresult ofthisandcombined above 30°Chave affected for two Moscow nearly temperatures summer2010,extreme In well DRIVERS OF CASPIAN SEA LEVELS Figure 1a:Location oftheCaspian inrelation Sea toneighbouringseas; 1b: Location mapofthecores andthemaininflow intheCaspian Sea

33 GEOGRAPHY 34 GEOGRAPHY in press] anewproxy isbeingdeveloped [Mudieetal.,non-pollen palynomorphs [1980] andthecurrent cited work here) and ofAbramova[1980]and work Vronsky Besides pollen(for exampletheformer and byclimate over thewestern Himalayas. Europe influenced bothbyclimate of northern Therefore theCaspianSeawater levels may be from themeltingofmonsoon-fed glaciers. Tien-Shan andtherefore itswater isderived 2000] ariverwhosesource isinthePamir and [Létolle,brought water from theAmu-Darya ago,centuries (nowdefunct) theUzboiRiver waterof theriver to theCS.However afew Nowadays the Volga 80–85% brings River and Leroy, 2007](Fig. 2). the 1930s(drop) [Arpe 1977(rise) andafter well majorevents thetwo thathappenedin dominant role onsealevel andthisexplains Precipitation summerplays a during PROXIES Figure 2:Flooded mosqueonN-EIranian coast, view from theAshoorade Spit)tothe Island(Miankale Elburz Mountains (photobyElburz S.Leroy in2005) surface samplesform usefultrainingsets surface ofconditions (analogues).A collection assemblages to environmental andclimatic microfossilto quantificationbylinking past changes, as they are astepping stone samplesare essential to interpret Surface Gol. the Karabogaz oftheCaspianSeaandforms characteristic level changes. Plates 1and2 showsome Therefore thismethod isaproxy for sea- etal., 2009]. content [Mertens nutrient as water salinity, water temperature, and are related to different environments such data. Various forms, speciesandgenera use thesamenamesandcompare their 2004] allowingnowdifferent scientiststo etal., established[Marret has beenfirmly and itisonlyrecently thattheirtaxonomy many endemicforms intheCaspianregion organisms haveThese smallprokaryote in theCaspianregion, whichisdinocysts. SURFACE SAMPLES 8–9. 6–7. 10. 5. 4. 3. sedis5b, fenestrate of5b, core type 2. Incertae otherspecimen,opticalsection, SR94G05-I,70cm. sedis5b, fenestrate of5b, type 1. Incertae core SR94G05,I70cm. 12. Tooth ofgastropod radula, core SR94CP14,20cm ofostracod,11. Mandible core Gm2,7–983,35cm Impagidinium Pterosperma Pterosperma Lingulodinium machaerophorum Spiniferites Impagidinium caspienense, Plate 1:Photographs of palynomorphsoftheCaspian andtheKara-Bogaz Gol. Sea , optical section, core, opticalsection, SR94CP21,I5cm , core SR94CP14,0–2,5cm belerius, core KBG8-01,58–57cm caspienense, core commontype, Gm2,7–983,35cm type with spiky processus, different withspiky two type specimens, core SR94GS05,III92cm var. Gol, core KBG8-01,58–57cm oftheKara-Bogaz A,whichisaform typical

35 GEOGRAPHY 36 GEOGRAPHY 14. Unidentified dinocyst, core KBG8-01,17–18cm 14. Unidentifieddinocyst, core KBG8-01,18–19cm 13. Deflandria, 12. Wetzeliella, core KBG8-01,18–19cm oftheKarabogaz-Gol dinoflagellate cysts Reworked 15. Foraminifer lining, core KBG8-01,18-19cm along side unpublished data, show the very along sideunpublisheddata, showthevery Golestan NationalPark in NEIran. These, etal. andinDjamali [2009] inthe N. Iran et al. [2004]for the lagoonofAnzaliin havespectra beenpublishedinKazancı transfer functions. Sofar for pollen,some palaeoclimatic reconstructions suchas and allowsusingpollen/dinocyst-based Plate 2:Photographs ofpalynomorphstheKara-Bogaz Gol. such as and whichhave disappeared from Europe, fromelements thathave the survived Tertiary southwest. These forests stillcontainsome and theforested area inthesouthand (dominantChenopodiaceaepollen) desert CS: steppe (dominant ofthelandscapearoundopen character the Parrotia persica Artemisia and Gleditsia caspica. pollen)and

been noted dueto therelease ofoldCO effect ofupto 1500yearsa reservoir has thecaseofvolcanic fumaroles,happen. In effect ofupto 2000yearsa reservoir may made inIsraelhave however shownthat is generallyaccepted. Someexperiments of400years correction ocean areservoir all locationsandattimes. For theworld magnitude ofthiseffect isnotthesamein as theygrow [Ascough etal., 2005]. The inlivingorganismsbeing incorporated presentto oldcarbon inthewater and datingdue radiocarbon to skew known effect. reservoir of itsmarine This iswell detailed studieshave beenmadesofar Sea over thelast40,000years. However no date the sea-level changesoftheCaspian datingisthebesttool toRadiocarbon of12–13. salinity to abrackish Impagidinium caspienense Typical samplesare modern dominated by etal., 2004]. in thelagoonofAnzali[Kazancı and centralbasinsfrom grab samples tops etal., [Marret 2004]across thesouth assemblages have beenpublishedfrom core For somemodern thedinoflagellate cysts, rare cores. inmarine terrestrial plants, whichare however quite tobest material date would beremains of poor precision needsto beresolved. The [1993]. 345 to 384yrinKarpytchev This 390–440 yrin K 290 yrinKroonenberg etal. [2007];and 290 to dates intheliterature. They rangefrom have radiocarbon beenusedto correct Leroy etal., 2007]. Various effects reservoir organicdetrital matter [Escudiéetal., 1998; and/or carbonates anddetrital 117 pMC) waters (108– ofsurface seepages, activity water, ofmethane types effect ofvarious inthe ages:oldcarbon of radiocarbon other negative influencesonthequality sources exist,aswell as ofoldcarbon Caspian Seahasshownthatmany different inthePreliminary onradiocarbon work nodate]. [Higham, DATING 440 yr: 383yrinLeroy440 yr: etal., 2007; uzmin etal. [2007];and andcorrespond 2

Impagidinium caspienense assemblagesare dominated bydinocyst profiles. Unpublisheddata indicate thatthe the last200years according to radionuclid [H. Lahijani,pers. comm.]. The sequencescover in thecentre) atwater depthsof250m Anzali inthewest andcore CS10offBabolsar (core offshore CS03off thecoast ofIran taken Two cores marine (c. 150cm)have short been of arboreal taxa. concentration andamaximumofreworking water levels lowpollen hasanextremely AD 1913–1955corresponding to decreasing colonised byChenopodiaceae. of The period and AD1955–1998),theemerged shore are oflowwater levelsperiods (AD 1878–1913 (chronologycenturies basedon environmental changesover thelasttwo project have beenusedto reconstructrapid (KBG) intheframeofanINCO-COPERNICUS Gol of asedimentcore intheKara-Bogaz taken Palynological analyses(pollenanddinocysts) age obtainedbyradionuclids. subsequent plateau, andAD1860,theoldest recent reliable agesdueto a radiocarbon leaves AD1750,themost agapbetween and radionuclidmethodshowever still best, either 150 years, theradionuclid method isthe For themore recent times, i.e. thelast dominated by vegetation issurrounded bysteppe-like lake of higherwater levels (AD 1871–1878),the KBG having disappeared. periods During of theKBG,CSspeciespresent inthe speciesthatare oftwo typical the survival byalower and diversity ismarked dinocysts oflowwater levelsThe impact onthe and invegetation cover ofitssurroundings. ofitswaterslevels oftheKBG,insalinity combine to inducerapidchangesinwater dam separatingtheCSandKBGwaters) and anthropogenic (buildingofa factors et al., 2000]andintheKBG[Giraltetal., 2003] water level changesintheCS[Kroonenberg (65years) of et al., 2006].Anaturalcyclicity with THE LAST FEW CENTURIES 137 Cs. The combinationofradiocarbon 210 Pb aloneorincombination Artemisia ; whereas during withincreasing 210 Pb) [Leroy

37 GEOGRAPHY 38 GEOGRAPHY have beenanalysedonthesesediment Pollen, spores anddinoflagellate cysts content [Leroydetrital etal., 2007]. for BP)onbulksedimentcorrected their ka datescalibrated (ca5,5–0,8cal. radiocarbon available for oneofthecores isbasedon ofthecentralbasin).Achronology north SR01GS9421CP orCP21,460mdepthinthe or CP18,480minthecentralbasin;and in thesouthbasin,330m;SR01GS9418CP CP14 influence (SR01GS9414CPorinshort and were chosento avoid directriver project. Core locationswere indeep water, the frameofsameINCO-COPERNICUS ship, rentedmilitary for theseacruisein cruise (August 1994),onboard aRussian aFrench–Russianduring oceanographic ofthemiddlebasin part and thenorthern inthesouthbasin,middlebasin taken Pilot cores (140–182cmlong)have been with sealevel cominginsecondposition. probably themaindriverofthesechanges huge volumes ofsedimentto thesea,is from Mountains, whichcarry theAlburz andothersmallrivers flowing Sefidrud River Little IceAge. The strong influenceofthe recordsthese two have beenrelated to the sealevels atthebaseof accepted]. Higher closing upofthewater body[Leroy etal., showtheprogressivejointly withM.Djamali) (analysesmade andofAmirkola centuries lagoonover thelast of aslightlybrackish Anzali revealed thecontinuousexistence on locations. Palynological analysesof sedimentationsrates depending varying with radionuclidsindicate highbutvery dates onshellscombined The radiocarbon ofOceanographyNational Institute (INIO). 100 cmlong)have beencored bytheIranian (core HCGL02,170 cmlong)andAmirkola The coastallagoonsofAnzali(core HCGA05, shore Babolsar. Anzali, whereas Artemisia top. are dominatedThe pollenspectra by Lingulodinium machaerophorum THE LATE HOLOCENE and Chenopodiaceaeoffshore Alnus is very abundantoff isvery towards the penetration. top oftheKullenberg cores corer during Kullenberg cores dueto severe lossesatthe thepilotand occurbetween overlap dating onostracodshellssuggeststhatno [Leroy etal., 2007].However preliminary from thesamestationthancore CP18 (museum numberSR01GS9418)comes Core and core GS18from themiddlebasin cores seemto for overlap amillennium. in amore location,butthetwo southerly different stationthancore coring CP14,i.e. inaslightly number SR01GS9405)wastaken Core GS05 from thesouthbasin(museum are etal., each10mlong[Chali’@е 1997]. content. dinocyst These Kullenberg cores 1994 are beinganalysedfor thepollenand cores two from thesamecruiseof A further basin. ofthemiddle probably alsointhenorth BPinthesouthbasinand 2,1 to 1,7cal. ka from water inflowhasalsobeenobserved Himalayas. Asimilar, later clearphaseof andthewestern water from theAmu-Darya frommeltwater higherEurasianlatitudesor River, to theCaspianSeaeither carrying of alate andabundantflowoftheUzboy hypotheses, thiscouldbecausedbytheend the southbasin(core CP14).Amongst other BPwiththeendofahighlevel phasein ka A majorchangeissuggested atca4cal. level fluctuations, have beenreconstructed. changes oftheCaspianSea,causingsea- andthe River Volga aswell River assalinity flowmodificationsoftheUzboy important oftheHolocene, thesecondpart During caspienense psilata (abundanceof slightly brackish assemblages changebetween dinocyst introduced bystrong inflow. river The some outstandingzones display abias addition In steppebetween anddesert. spores assemblagesindicate fluctuations cores [Leroy etal., 2007]. The pollenand more brackish (dominanceof more brackish LATEGLACIAL THE EARLY HOLOCENE AND and ) conditions. Spiniferites cruciformis Impagidinium Pyxidinopsis Pyxidinopsis ) and . Chalié, F., Escudié, A.-S.,Badaut-Trauth, D., Blanc, G.,Blanc-Valleron, S.,De- M.-M.,Brigault, 5. Ascough, P., G.andDugmore, Cook, A.(2005)Methodological approaches to determining 4. andLeroy, Arpe, K. S.A.G.(2007) The CaspianSeaLevel forced circula- bytheatmospheric 3. Bengtsson,L.,Golitsyn,G.S.,Mokhov, I.I., Semenov, Arpe, K., V.A., andSporyshev, P.V. (2000) 2. Abramova T. A.(1980)Changing themoisture oftheCaspianregion intheHolocene(from 1. terminates BP. atc. 4cal. ka Therefore the that seenatthebaseofcore CP14,which correspond to oflower salinity This period to alower salinity. (brackish) values ofsalinity BP,at 9,5cal. ka butfrom thepresent day coreassemblages ofthesouthern change the transitionto theHolocene. The dinocyst and notat in thepresent) onlyat4cal. ka water water to (as morebrackish brackish basin core showalate changefrom slightly assemblagesofthemiddle The dinocyst of chemicalerosion. increase 4000 cal. yrBPinlinewithafurther they becomemore abundantonlyafter The development oftrees is delayed and place andtheerosion becomeschemical. A progressive colonisationbyshrubstakes to andthewater carbonates level drops. of theHolocene, thesedimentationswitches 2000; Pierret etal., inprep.]. Atthebeginning climate and highwater levels [Leroy etal., intensive mechanicalweatheringinacold theLateglacial withlandscape during open Preliminary results suggestavery core from thesouthbasinissilicate rich. sedimentofthelong The pre-Holocene REFERENCES (IIa), 309–316. Caspian Sea,Comptesin thesouthern Rendusdel’Académie desSciences deParis, 324 M., Mélières, F., Tribovillard, N., Tucholka, P., Gasse, F. (1997) The glacial-postglacial transition sprairies, A.,Ferronsky, V.I., Giannesini,P.-J., E.,Guichard, F., Gibert, A.,Massault, Jelinowska, effect, Progress reservoir radiocarbon the marine inPhysical Geography, 29,532–541. 173–174,144–152. International, andmodelled, Quaternary tion, asobserved Letters, 27,2693–2696. andENSO, CaspianSealevel between variability Connection Geophysical Research p. Russian). 71–74(In Nauka, Moscow: region oftheAral-Caspian intheHolocene, Moisture fluctuations palynological data).In: climate modelling. (MPIforArpe inHamburg) for for cores accessto andKlaus theIranian HamidLahijani(INIO,the dinocysts, Tehran) ofLiverpool)for(University thetaxonomy of cores,INCO-Copernicus Fabienne Marret (CNRS–CEREGE)forGasse accessto the over thelast17years, especiallyFrançoise toI would thanknumerous like collaborators are cruellyneeded[Cordova etal., 2009]. model withrobust age-depth climatic cycle cores marine awhole covering fine-grained sea. Palaeoclimatic records from continuous should bedeveloped atthescaleofwhole a transfer for function pollenanddinocysts thenearfuture done intheCaspianSea.In record for theHolocene, muchremains to be theabsenceofacomplete palynological In Apsheron sill. giving apossiblerolelevel to history the basinsdidnothavetwo thesamewater ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONCLUSIONS 

39 GEOGRAPHY 40 GEOGRAPHY 6. Cordova, 17. Leroy, F., S.,Marret, Gasse, F. andChalié, F. (2000)Understanding theCaspianSeaerratic 16. M.V.,Leroy M.,NaqinezhadA.,Moghadam Djamali Shah- S.A.G.,LahijaniH.A.K., K., Arpe Kuzmin, 15. Y.V., andBurr, L.A.,Krivonogov, Nevesskaya, S.K. G.S.(2007)Apparent 14Cagesof 14. Kr 13. Kroonenberg, E., S.,Abdurakhmanov, G.,Badyukova, Vanderborg, A., Kalashnikov, K., 12. N.,Gulbabazadeh, Kazancı, T., Leroy, O. andenviron- S.A.G.andIleri, (2004)Sedimentary Karpytchev, 11. Y.A. dat- radiocarbon ofCaspianSea-level fluctuations: (1993)Reconstruction Higham, 10. T., nodate. www.c14dating.com/corr.html, lastaccessed 19August 2010. Giralt,S.,Julià,R.,Leroy, S.andGasse, F. (2003)Cyclic water level oscillationsoftheKara- 9. Escudié, A.S.,Blanc, G.,Chalié, F., Clauer, N.,Filly, M.,Mélières, E.,Massault, F., A.,Gibert, 8. M.,deBeaulieu, Djamali, J.-L., Campagne, P., H.,Andrieu-Ponel, Akhani V., Ponel, P., Leroy,7. 7–12 Oct. 2000. Extended abstract in abstract 2000.Extended 7–12 Oct. Terra Nostra7,45–49. palynological resultsfluctuations: from thesouthbasin.ELDP-ESF meeting, Pallanza, Italy. Palaeoecology. Caspian Sea):vegetation andsealevel changes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Holocene palaeoenvironmental records lagoons(south from theAnzaliandAmirkola Ch.S., Hosseini M.,HosseindoustMiller Tavakoli V., HabibiP., M.(accepted) Late Naderi inPhysics andMethods Research,Nuclear Instruments B259,463-466. the ‘pre-bomb’ values(R, shellsandcorrection Geology, dynamicsalongCaspianshores,in 65years: barrier Sedimentary 134,257–274. 137–143. 173–174, International, BP andLittleIceAge highstandsoftheCaspianSea,Quaternary Kasimov, N.,Rychagov, G.,Svitoch, A., Vonhof, H., Wesselingh, F. (2007)Solar-forced 2600 Systems, 46,1–4,145–168. Caspianwater ongeomorphology, level fluctuations and short-term ofMarine Journal influenceoflong- Iran: oftheGilan-Mazenderanplain,northern mental characteristics 35,3,409–420. ing coastalandbottom deposits. Radiocarbon ScienceLetters, andPlanetary 212(1–2),225–239. Bogaz Gol–CaspianSeasystem, Earth 623–631. in thehydrosphere andtheatmosphere”, IAEA,SM-349, Vienna, 1997, Austria, 14–19April posium on “Isotope techniques inthestudyofpastandcurrent environmental changes Sea evolution: from contribution isotope tracers. Proceedings sym- oftheinternational Van-Exter, S.,Zuppi,G.M.,Gasse, F. (1998)Understandingthepresent andpastCaspian 272–281. ReviewofPalynologythe GolestanNationalPark, N-EIran, andPalaeobotany, 153,3–4, pollenrain-vegetationS. (2009)Modern relationships alongaforest-steppe in transect 197, 1–2,12–16. International, Quaternary sincethelastGlacialMaximum, corridor and charcoal records for Sea palaeovegetation reconstruction intheMediterranean-Black oonenberg, E.,Storms, S.,Badyukova, J.E., Ignatov

C., Harrison,

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N. (2009)Pollen, macrofossils 26. Vronsky V.A.26. oftheCaspianSeafrom Mois- palynological data,In: (1980)Holocenehistory Pierret, M.C.,Chabaux,F.,25. Leroy, S.A.G.andCausse, C.(inpreparation) in Isotopic variations 24. M 23. ...,Leroy, K. Mertens, (2009)Process ofa S.A.G.andco-authors incysts lengthvariation 22. Marr Létolle,21. R.(2000)Histoire del’Ouzboï coursfossile del’Amou synthèseetéléments Darya 20. Leroy, S.A.G., Warny, S.,Lahijani,H.,Piovano, E.,Fanetti, D. andBerger, A.R.(2010) The role Leroy,19. F., S.A.G.,Marret, Giralt,S.andBulatov, S.A.(2006)Naturaland anthropogenic rapid Leroy,18. F., S.A.G.,Marret, E.,Chalié, F., Gibert, inflowand (2007)River Reyss, J-L.andArpe, K. Russian). 74–79(In Nauka, region oftheAral-Caspian ture intheHolocene. fluctuations Moscow: ScienceReview.ing? Quaternary the recent continentalweather- sedimentoftheCaspianSea:arecord of Late Quaternary Sea Region: Beyond theFlood Siegel(ed.), Don Hypothesis. SyracuseUniversity, USA.GSA. Hombach, V., R.,(eds),GeologyandGeoarchaeology O. Smyntyna, oftheBlack andMartin, Environmental Corridor. ChangeintheBlackSea-Mediterranean Buynevich,I. In: Yanko- press 2010)Non-Pollen M.(In Marinova, Palynomorphs and ofSalinity (NPP):Indicators potential as salinity proxy,potential assalinity Micropal, 70,54–69. Marine sediments: investigatingdinoflagellate, its Lingulodiniummachaerophorum, insurface recent sedimentsofcentralAsian seas, Reviewof Palaeobotany andPalynology, 129,1–20. 29(2),195–240. nouveaux, StudiaIranica Science, International inseries Year 115–147. ofPlanet Earth T. Beer, (ed.) maximisingawareness”“Geophysical risk, Hazards: Minimising for Springer of geosciencesintheimprovement ofmitigationnaturaldisasters: five casestudies. In: 150,52–70. International, ternary bypalynological Golover centuries analyses, thelasttwo Qua- changes intheKara-Bogaz views, 26,3359–3383. ScienceRe- thelast 5500years, changesintheCaspianSeaduring salinity Quaternary udie, P.J., Leroy, S.A.G.,Marret, F., Gerasimenko, N.,Kholeif, S.E.A.,Sapelko, T. andFilipova- et, F., Leroy, S.,Chalié, F. andGasse, F. (2004)Neworganic-walled from dinoflagellate cysts since 1994. in theregion oftheCaspianSea,where shehasworked levelvegetation reconstructions successionsandlake ofcatastrophicdetection events. Oneofherinterests is for palaeoclimaticreconstructionsaswell asfor the to thepresent Europe inNWAfrica, andS-WAsia investigated from sequencescovering thePliocene degree insciencesfrom UCL,Belgium, in1990.Shehas isapalynologist. London, Sheobtainedadoctoral UK, Suzanne A.G.Leroy , professor atBrunel University,

41 GEOGRAPHY 42 GEOGRAPHY in monographs [Knipovich, 1932],whichin monographs [Knipovich, wasmade andN.M.Knipovich Shokalskii, under theguidanceofI.B. Shpindler, Yu.M. inthe1890–1930s oceanography performed studiesoftheBlack Seaphysicalearlier The firstlarge generalizationofthe Black Seabypipelinesandships. throughhydrocarbons the transportation increasing environmental over concern region. Specifically, there hasbeenmodern to humansocietiesofthevast importance abundance, great valueandvital historical due to itsnaturaloriginality, resource considerableattention The BlackSeaattracts salinity, seasonalvariability effects oftheseprocesses are described. wind-stress relative vorticity. Thermohaline 50 and200mitiscausedbythefluxof themainpycnocline depthsof between In and freshwater fluxes across theseasurface. isgenerated mainlybytheheat variability upper 50-mlayer, seasonalthermohaline layer (0–200m)are considered. the In oftheBlackSeamainbaroclinicvariabilities (hydrographic)seasonal thermohaline hydrographic datasetare presented. A andrecentanalyses ofthehistorical Results ofstatisticalprocessing andphysical Leninskie Gory,Leninskie 1,119991,Moscow, Russia Tel. +74959392215 Professor, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Valentin S. Tuzhilkin INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT MODERN VIEW SEASONAL THERMOHALINE VARIABILITY: SOME FEATURES OF THE BLACK SEA The BlackSea,temperature, results. approachmodern to interpretation of technology for theirprocessing, and the measurement dataused, anupdated significantly (1,5–2-fold) greater amountof the above mentionedmonographs bya flora andfauna. This studydiffers from ofthewaters,chemical properties marine in particular, thegeneralcirculation and components oftheBlackSeaecosystem, ofotherthe conditionandfunctioning variability. To agreat degree, itdefine (temperaturethermohaline and salinity) scale features oftheBlackSeaseasonal generalized viewonthesomelarge- In thispaper, we present themodern generalized in[Simonov&Altman,1991]. regimethermohaline oftheBlackSeawere Sea waters. Further refinements ofthe the temperature oftheBlack andsalinity of variabilities synoptic, andshort-period of theclimatic, seasonal, inter-annual, quantitative oftheprocesses description [Blatov etal., 1984]presented asystematic of theBlackSeawaters. The monograph ofthehydrographicdescriptions regime devoted to thegeographical andphysical monographs [Leonov, 1960,Filippov, 1968] we shouldnote the of the20thcentury processes were discovered. themiddle In structureandrelatedthermohaline physical atpresent. Later,known finerfeatures ofthe features(thermohaline) oftheseseasthatare ofthehydrographic themajorpart describes in theBlackSea. Sea from outside, whichhave nodirect contact [Mamayev etal., 1994],suppliedto theBlack may water bereferred masses to asprimary the salinewaters oftheSeaMarmara. They fresh waters and direct influenceofthesurface ofthe depth of60mrepresents theboundary the multi-annualmean(climatic)regime, the of 60mandsinkto thedeeper layers. Thus, in Black Seathrough theBosporusStraitatalevel ofthe flowinthesouthwesternMarmara part The saline(35–36psu)waters oftheSea units(psu). salinity the range17,5–18,5practical Usually, in thislayer thewater salinity iswithin and upto 40–60mattheendofwinter. andsummer of5–10minthespring thickness the uppermixed layer (UML)oftheseawitha over bycurrentsdistributed andturbulence runoffandprecipitation with theriverine are fresh watersThe supplied to theBlackSea Altman, 1991]. water budgetisgenerallysmall[Simonov& becauseofwhichitsexternal Sea ofAzov), and the World (theSeaofMarmara Ocean ofthe the BlackSeawithadjacentparts water restricted exchange of to thevery of theBlackSeawaters inmost are related The features structure ofthethermohaline is relatively good. coverage oftheentire area oftheBlackSea Meanwhile, itshouldbenoted thatthe shore areas andalongstandard sections. they are mostlyconcentrated inthenear- exceededperiod 90000.Geographically, temperature profiles andsalinity inthis density. The total numberofpairsvertical (1956–2005) withthehighestmeasurement analyzed thedatafor a50-year-long interval 1994, Locarnini etal., 2006]. We processed and recommendations given in[Boyer &Levitus, profiles, following theprocedures and the water temperature vertical andsalinity of theshipandcoastalmeasurements of and physical dataset analysisofhistorical results statisticalprocessing ofmodern ismainlybasedontheThe description RESULTS AND DISCUSSION DATA AND METHODS 0,3 °Сm gradients oftemperaturehigh vertical (0,2– layer isalsothin(10–20m)butfeatures the seasonalpycnocline (thermocline). This of theyearis period The BlackSeaUMLinthewarm density (0,10–0,15kg density to 17,0–17,7psuincoastalarea). Winter summer (from 18,0–18,2psu incentralarea –early and minimalvaluesinlate spring central area to 17,7–18,2psuincoastalarea) in February–March (from 18,4–18,7psuin ismanifestedsalinity bymaximalvalues The seasonalsignal oftheBlackSeaUML seasonal thermocline. ofthe formation andautumndestruction winter renewal ofCILandbythespring processesthermal are represented bythe approximately 40–60mthicktheprincipal So, theupperlayer oftheBlackSea In isrelated to themainpycnocline.part is located insidetheUMLandonlyitslower oftheCIL Atthistime, themajorpart surface. isexposedatthesea upper 8°Сisotherm) winter, of the CIL(the theupperboundary ofthearea,greater attheendof part the seasonalandmainpycnoclines. the Over oftheyear,period itis “sandwiched” between the coldintermediate thewarm layer (CIL).In temperature lower than8°Сisreferred to as is itlocated intheUML. The layer witha values of6,5–7,5°С.Onlyinsevere winters pycnocline (atadepthof50–75m)andhas ofthemain encountered intheupperpart temperature intheBlackSeaisusually The absolute minimumofthewater lessthan10m. comprises salinity, oftheUML thewinter thickness gradients ofthewaterto thehighvertical the near-mouth areas oftheBlackSea,due gradients uptodensity 0,03–0,04kg 150–200 m (halocline) the layer ofthemain(constant)pycnocline this time, theUMLislimited from beneathby ofthearea increases uptopart 30–60m.At oftheUMLover thegreaterthe thickness the winter, convection, owingto thethermal –1 ) and, correspondingly, ofwater the depthrangefrom 30–60to of the Black Sea with vertical withvertical of theBlackSea underlain bythelayerof underlain • m –4 ). By theendof By ). • m –4 . In . In

43 GEOGRAPHY 44 GEOGRAPHY Black Sea(upto 40км resulting winter freshwater runoffto the thatthe maximum existdespite thefact salinity minimumvalueandphase aresalinity much area theannual Black Seacentral(deep-sea) regions minimumvalue. In salinity ofthe with progressive of timedelay andrising direction (anticlockwise) the generalcyclonic freshened alongthe shores waters extend in 2-nd halfofMay. From them,tongues of areas in andsouth-eastern north-western placeinnear-river-mouththan 17psu)take minimums(muchlessAbsolute salinity maximum. the salinity values (Fig. 1)are more thenonesof variable minimumphasesand of annualsalinity of theBlackSeashowthatspatialdistribution in38regions salinity half-month seasurface layers. Resultsofourcalculationsclimatic the winter UMLofthemore salineunderlying in theintensive convective entrainmentin runoff. The reason for lies thisinconsistency (only 25%smallerthan)themaximalspring &Ivanov, 2006])iscloseto to [Goryachkin (psu), 5–climatic annualmeanisohalinesat adepthof100m,delineated coastal (19,9psu)andcentral of annualsalinityminimumvalue andphase:12–standard hydrographic southwestward sections (deep-sea, 20,3psu)areas,(deep-sea, andthemainfrontal zone between them.Shadedarea withbottomdepth Fig. regions oftheBlackSea withhomogeneoushydrographic 1.Scheme conditions anddistribution from (1)and Sebastopol Tuapse (2),3–annualsalinityminimumphase(halfmonth) and4–value 3 permonth,according less then100m and anticyclonic character inthesummer. character and anticyclonic inthewinter character which hasacyclonic from thewindfieldover theseasurface, intheinfluxofrelativevariations vorticity oftheBlackSeawaters to theseasonal vorticity potential of theresponse ofthelarge-scale in [Blatov etal., 1984]from thepointofview interpretation ofthisfeature wassuggested of theBlackSeamainpycnocline. The first the summerdecrease ofthedomeheight seasonal process isthewinter increase and to alevel of30m.Belowm,theprincipal salting rapidlydecrease withdepthdown annual heating/coolingandfreshening/ The amplitudesoftheBlackSeasurface autumn evaporation. is compensated byhighsummerandearly into centralarea June, onlyafter butitseffect water, diluted freshwater, byriver diffuses here from late autumnto June. The coastal (precipitation minusevaporation),lasting The reason for thisispositive difference P-E 2-nd halfofJune, respectively, seeFig. 1). more homogeneous(about18,1psuand Table 1. coastal area oftheminimalsalinity, andthe the centralarea ofthemaximalsalinity, the elements are well recognized: thealongshore, seasons oftheyear, threeofstructural types field atthe100-mlevel (Fig. allthe 2a,b).In is especiallyclearmanifested in the salinity horizontal ofthemainpycnocline structure (from ofthe winter to summer)variability maximum atadepthof100m. The seasonal the corresponding oscillationsreach their in aopposite phases. The amplitudesof and coastalareas oftheBlackSeaproceed in themainpycnocline layer inthecentral inthetemperature changes andsalinity thecourseofthisprocess,In theseasonal cycle at adepthof100m:the1-stEOF(c)and2-nd(d),annualvariations ofitscoefficients February (a) and in August (b), and empirical orthogonal functions (EOF) ofclimaticFebruary salinityannual (a)andinAugust functions (b), andempiricalorthogonal Section Section February Fig. 2.Climatic monthly fieldsofthewater at salinity(psu)oftheBlackSea adepthof100min August 1±2 .05±004 3±2 18±16 31±37 10±5 73±24 11±39 94±44 83±21 0.0085±0.0045 128±36 0.0079±0.0059 41±23 0.0169±0.0064 72±53 0.0165±0.0039 35±16 2 65±35 1 2 1 NX max m( , km dS / dx ) max (inset inFig. 2c) ,psukm –1 values decrease twofold over theentirevalues Black autumn (from August these to October), end ofthesummer–beginning ofthe inshore 1). Atthe edgeoftheMFZ(Table gradients aresalinity located closerto the is mostintensive. The maximalcross-frontal (fromthe spring February to theMFZ May), At theendofwinter –thebeginning of Current [Ozsoy&Unluata,1997]. or theRim BlackSeaCurrentthe Main [Blatov etal., 1984] in theupper500-mlayer oftheBlackSea– main elementofthegeneralwater circulation gradients.salinity MFZiscloselyrelated to the frontalMain zone (MFZ)ofhighcross-shore X off

,km X in ,km

45 GEOGRAPHY 46 GEOGRAPHY variability should be most clearly manifested shouldbemostclearly variability 1st EOF. This modeofthemainpycnocline withrespectto the oftheperiod quarter 2ininsetofFig.(curve bya 2c) is shifted ofthe2ndEOF coefficient of thevariability distance from thecoast. The annualcycle amplitudes, whichdecreases withthe andcoastaltrappingof of 300–400km structurewithawavelengthquasi-periodical the total dispersionrepresents analongshore The 2ndEOF(Fig. 14,2%of 2d)thatdescribes when thedomeismostlow. ahalf-year later,is observed inOctober, dome isespeciallyhigh.Anopposite situation inApril, whenthemainpycnocline observed bythismodearethe BlackSeadescribed anomalies inthecentral(coastal)areas of that themaximalpositive (negative) salinity 1ininsetofFig.coefficient (curve 2c)shows ofthecorresponding The annualvariability pycnocline response forcing. to external modeoftheBlackSeamain most large-scale 46,1 %ofthetotal dispersion,represents the The 1stEOF(Fig. 2c),thatisresponsible for ofthemaretwo presented inFig. 2c, d. fieldsare byfive EOF; described the salinity in total dispersionoftheannualvariability (EOF). The results showed that80%ofthe functions orthogonal 100 mover empirical fieldsatadepthof climatic monthlysalinity Black Seamainpycnocline, we decomposed ofthehorizontal structureofthe variability For amore detailedstudyoftheannual the processes in “forcing–response” systems. of ofdelay ischaracteristic thiskind annual cycle; wind forcing, ofthe whichisaboutone-fourth months withrespectto themaximumof strengthens withadelay ofapproximately three and summer[Simonov, Altman,1991]. The MFZ weather conditionsinthespring anticyclonic intheautumnandwinter andto the activity circulation owingto theenhancedcyclonic intheBlackSeageneral autumn weakening winter–spring strengthening and thesummer– whose widthdecreases. This iscausedbythe towardshifts theoffshore edgeoftheMFZ, of themaximalcross-frontal gradients salinity Sea area (seeFig. 2band Table 1),whilelocation the cyclonic motion – 1,0–1,5 km day motion–1,0–1,5km the cyclonic ameanphasespeedof about 300–350km, anomalies thatform adipolepaircomprises ofthecenters ofthe along thetrajectory point to theirwave origin. The wavelength in thesizes andintensities oftheanomalies open sea. The rapidincreases anddecreases spread alongit,andthenare issuedto the anomalies are trappedbythecoast, fast rotation, salinity stages oftheirjointcyclonic Hence, we cansuggestthat,atcertain but withanopposite sign. anomalies isidenticalto thatshowninFig. 3, 2nd halfoftheyear, theevolution ofthe the the anomaliesfastspread aboutit.In intensities. While approaching to thecoast, in thechangesoftheirshapes, sizes, and with respectto theircommoncenters and pairs ofanomaliesopposite signs (dipoles) rotation ofthe (anticlockwise) the cyclonic temporal evolution. This ismanifested in basin sizes andacomplicated spatialand different signs showninFig. 3have sub- anomaliesofThe areas ofthesalinity 3. Fig. the firstsixmonthsofyear are shownin fields atadepthof100m. The results for field and1stEOFfrom themonthlysalinity oftheannualmeansalinity contribution the pycnocline wasobtainedbyextracting ofthemain modes oftheannualvariability The combinedeffect ofthe2ndandhigher they represent ofthe2ndEOF. overtones trapped bythecoast.Onemay suggestthat dispersion, alsofeature awave structure which covers from 5,9to 6,8%ofthetotal The 3rd–5th EOF (notshown),eachof of 100m. fieldsatadepth in thesummersalinity from harmonicanalysis Sea were received in[Eremeev etal., 1994] intheBlack undulations withannualperiod termohaline The firstevidenceofsub-basin while atthecenter oftheseaitisslower. the phasespeedofanomaliesisgreater, the alongshore segments ofthetrajectories, of climatic –1 . Within salinity salinity Black S the sea. While crossing ofthe thenarrowest part of by thewindforcing part inthesoutheastern day of1–2km andaphasevelocity 250–350 km, about0,5–1,0year,a period awavelength of of theexistence here ofRossbywaves with Stanev &Rachev, 1999]showed thepossibility &Stanev,of theBlackSeawaters [Rachev 1997, studies ofthemesoscalewater dynamics Model 2001]. data [Stanevetal., 2000,Korotaev et al., (ERS-1/2 and TOPEX/Poseidon) altimeter ofthisinspaceindependent confirmations fields. Someyears later were received February, (c)March, (d)April, June. (e)May, Contour –0,05psu. interval Dashedlines–negative (f) traction theannualmeanand1-stEOF fieldsfromtraction climatic monthly salinityfieldin:(a)January, (b) Fig. 3.Climatic water fieldsoftheBlackSea salinityanomalyat adepthof100mreceived by sub- –1 . The model Rossbywaves were generated ea south of the Crimea, their phase speed, ea southoftheCrimea,theirphase speed, anomaly hybrid waves. model changedatdifferent evolution stagesof trapped waves andtheRossbywaves inthis ofthecoastal oftheproperties The proportions &Johnson,1999]. in acircular basin[Bokhove with themodelofmesoscalewater dynamics trappedwaves wasobtained Rossby–coastal resultinginteraction intheformation ofhybrid withtheRossbywaves.possible interaction This coastal trappedwaves anddiscussed their manifestations1999] theauthorsreported of &Stanev,in [Rachev 1997,Stanev&Rachev, slightly modifiedtheirevolution. Meanwhile, continental slope. The topographic effects only their finaldissipationoccurred offthewestern sizes, andintensities significantly decreased and

47 GEOGRAPHY 48 GEOGRAPHY 1. Blatov A.S., Bulgakov N.P., Blatov A.S.,Bulgakov Ivanov V.A., A.N., Kosarev Tuzhilkin V.S. (1984) Variability ofhydro- 1. to great depths. penetrating the waters oftheSeaMarmara heat fluxandstabilizingsaltsuppliedwith thedestabilizing geothermal balance between fluxes Black Seaare definedbythebuoyancy parameters oftheNBMLin the observed [Eremeev etal.,In 1997],itwasshownthat separates NBMLfrom thedeepstratifiedlayer. about100m.It withathickness and density gradients ofwater temperature,vertical salinity, of 1700m,onefindsalayer with from 1750to 1800m.Above it,upto adepth oftheNBMListracedatdepths boundary mixed layer upper (NBML).Adistinct allowed oneto distinguishthenear-bottom decades thepasttwo the BlackSeaduring in profilers performed temperature-depth withconductivity- water observations of thewaters etal., [Murray 1991]. The deep- ofthefine 10 m,whichistypical T, S-structure by T, scalesabout S-inversions withvertical withdepthsometimesbroken and salinity layerisothermal 500and700m) between the temperature (withtheexception ofan alayer withaslowincreaseone observes in layer. thedepthrangefrom 200to In 1700m, is namedsometimesgenerallyasthedeep indistinguishable, onefindsthelayer that isseasonal (andinter-annual) variability Below themainpycnocline, where analogous to tidalamphidromic systems). amphidromic systemscyclonic (some waves, whichform quasi-geostrophic trapped hybrid Rossby–coastal and sub-basin an annualbasin-scalestandingoscillation ismanifested of periodicity insuperposition (wind)forcingto theexternal ofanannual response oftheBlackSeamainpycnocline ourcase, weIn may suggestthatthe REFERENCES summary). physical fieldsoftheBlack Sea.Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 240p. Russian withEnglish (In increased increased should befoundstudies. outfrom further in themeanwhile. The degree oftheirvalidity Some oftheseconclusionsare hypothetical – – – – – thefollowingto make conclusions: presented inthispaperallowsus variability of theBlackSeaseasonalthermohaline The generalizationoftheresults ofthestudies CONCLUSIONS

amphidromic systems. cyclonic which form quasi-geostrophic trappedwaves, basin hybrid Rossby–coastal a basin-scalestandingoscillationandsub- modes– principal oftwo the superposition fluxes from thewindismanifestedvorticity in to theannualforcing bymomentumand the response oftheBlackSeamainpycnocline the fluxofwindrelative vorticity; pycnocline are causedbythechangesin ofthemain the seasonalvariability runoff; andintheriverine the seasurface in theheatandfreshwater fluxes through caused bythecorresponding variations seasonal pycnocline, andtheCILare oftheUML, the seasonalvariability much more salinedeepwater mass; andthe thefreshenedbetween surface exchange properties ofthethermohaline turbulent related weak vertical to thevery featuresthe principal ofthisstructureare bottom mixed layer; increasesalinity withdepth,andthenear- deep layer withaslowtemperature and intermediate layer,isothermal thethickest (CIL), themainpycnocline (halocline),the thecoldintermediate layer (thermocline); mixed layer (UML),theseasonalpycnocline layers withdifferent theupper thicknesses: Sea waters consistsofafew characteristic structure of theBlack the thermohaline  16. Simonov A.I.,AltmanE.N.(editors) (1991) Hydrometeorology of the andhydrochemistry N.,StanevE.V.15. Rachev seas. (1997)Eddyprocesses Acasestudyfor insemi-enclosed the 14. Ozsoy E.,UnluataU. (1997)Oceanography oftheBlackSea:areview ofsomerecent re- 13. J.W.,Murray Top andventilation Z.,OzsoyE.(1991)Hydrographic oftheBlack properties 12. Mamayev O.I.,V.S., Arkhipkin Tuzhilkin V.S. (1994) T, S-analysisoftheBlackSeawaters. A.V.,Locarnini R.A.,Mishonov 11. Antonov J.I., Boyer T.P., Garcia H.E.(2005) World Atlas Ocean 10. (1960)RegionalLeonov Oceanography. A.K. Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 728p. Rus- (In N.M.(1932)Hydrographic research Knipovich intheBlackSea.In: Transactions oftheSea 9. ofthe observations O.A.,C.J. Saenko (2001)Satellite altimetry Koblinsky KorotaevG.K., 8. Y.N., Goryachkin Ivanov V.A. (2006) The BlackSealevel: past,present, andfuture. Sebasto- 7. Filippov 136 D.M. Nauka, (1968)Circulation andwater intheBlackSea.Moscow: structure 6. Eremeev V.N., layer L.I.,Samodurov in A.S.,DumanM.(1997)Bottom Ivanov boundary 5. Eremeev V.N., Ivanov V.A., KosarevA.N., Tuzhilkin V.S. (1994)Annualandsemiannual 4. Boyer T., Levitus control S.(1994)Quality andprocessing oceanographic ofhistorical tem- 3. O., modesfor coastalandinterior Bokhove two-di- JohnsonE.R.(1999)Hybrid 2. meteoizdat, 340p. RussianwithEnglish summary). (In seas. Vol IY. The Black Sea, Issue1.Hydrometeorological conditions. St.Petersburg: Gidro- Black Sea.J. Phys. Oceanogr., vol. 27,N8,pp. 1581–1601. ScienceReview,sults. Earth vol. 42,N4,pp. 231–272. Research, ser.Sea. Deep-Sea A,vol. 38,suppl. 2A,pp. S663–S689. Oceanology, vol. 27,N2,pp. RussianwithEnglishsummary). 178–192(In 2005. Volume 1: Temperature. Washington DC:U.S. Gov. Printing 182p. Office, sian withEnglishsummary). summary). andtheBlackSeaExpedition,vol.of Azov 10. Moscow, 272p. RussianwithEnglish (In Black Sealevel. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 106,NC1,pp. 917–933. pol: MHIUAS, 210p. RussianwithEnglishsummary). (In p. RussianwithEnglishsummary). (In 275–289. Sea.Dordrecht: Acad. Kluwer to Press, change:BlackSea,BalticSeaandNorthern ity pp. A.Sensitiv- Editors OzsoyE.&Mikaelyan the BlackSea:Asimplemodelofformation. In: pp. 89–101. environmentof marine Seabasin.Sebastopol: MHIUAS, oftheAzov-Black Diagnosis ofthestate fieldoftheBlackSea.In: intheclimaticsalinity harmonics perature, salinity, andoxygen data. Washington DC:NOAA, 64p. pp. 93–118. ocean.J. Phys.mensional homogeneousflowincylindrical Oceanogr., vol. 29,N2,

49 GEOGRAPHY 50 GEOGRAPHY 18. Rossbymodesinthe Stanev E.V., studyontheplanetary N.H.(1999)Numerical Rachev Stanev E.V.,17. Le Traon P.-Y., Peneva on E.L.(2000)Sealevel andtheirdependency variations pp. 159–194. Tuzhilkin V.S. (2008) pp. StructureoftheSea.Ibid, Thermohaline 217–254. Hdb Env Chem Vol. 5,Part Q. Heidelberg: DOI10.1007/698_5_090–Berlin Springer-Verlag, A.G.&KosarevA.N. EditorsGeneral Circulation. Kostianoy In: The BlackSeaEnvironment. Black Sea.J. Systems, Marine vol. 21.pp. 283–306. Black Sea.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 105,NC7,pp. 17203–17216. meteorological andhydrographical forcing:datafor the analysisofaltimeter andsurface Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 33–57. Tuzhilkin V.S. (2008) Hdb Env Chem Vol. 5,Part P. DOI10.1007/698_5_003–Berlin A.N. A.G.&Kosarev Editors Kostianoy The CaspianSeaEnvironment. Structure andGeneralCirculation oftheCaspianSea Waters. In: publications Tuzhilkin V.S., A.N.(2005) Kosarev Thermohaline structureandgeneralcirculation).(water thermohaline Main University. The focus ofhisresearch liesonphysical oceanography 2010 heisaProfessor oftheFaculty ofGeography, State Moscow graduated in1973,andreceived thePhD in1979.SinceJanuary He studiedattheM.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Valentin S. Tuzhilkin was born inMoscow, wasborn Russiain1951. * [email protected] Sciences, e-mail: Geography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] andEvolution oftheRAS,e-mail: of Geography Academy oftheMongolian ofSciences University, [email protected] e-mail: Geography, andSoil of LandscapeGeochemistry M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State Moscow State University, [email protected] e-mail: andPleistoceneSediments Paleogeography, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov 1 Mongolia anomalies, soils, pollution, urban Mongolia. evaluated basedonstandards accepted in soilswas The ecological statusoftheurban identity.depending upontheirfunctional soils geochemical heterogeneity ofurban concentrated onidentifyingspatial efforts specialization ofthecities. The research of thestudyarea andtechnological of background geochemicalconditions including the assessment(Mongolia), of Ulaanbaatar, andErdenet Darkhan, soils metalsinurban anomalies ofheavy quantitative assessmentoftechnogenic This paperpresents qualitative and 7 6 5 4 3 2 Natalia E. Kosheleva Bazha Geography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT CITIES OF MONGOLIA POLLUTION OF SOILS IN INDUSTRIAL ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL Ph.D, Research Senior Associate, ofGeography Institute Academy ofMongolian Post-graduate student,D Ph.D. andSoil (geography), Instructor, Senior ofLandscape Geochemistry Department Ph.D. Research (biology),Senior Associate, ofProblems Institute A.A.Severtsov Academician Academy oftheMongolian ofSciences, Director, Institute Academician oftheRussianAcademy ofSciences, HeadoftheDepartment (geography), ofScience Doctor for Leading Recent Research Laboratory Scientist, Corresponding author 4 ,

Dmitryi L.GolovanovDmitryi heavy metals, heavy technogenic 1* , Nikolay S.Kasimov epartment of Landscape Geochemistry and Soil andSoil ofLandscapeGeochemistry epartment 5 , OlgaI.Sorokina 2 the soilsofthree centers majorindustrial pollutantsin(HM) whichare thepriority metalsgeochemical anomaliesof heavy oftechnogenicquantitative characteristics this studywasto establishqualitative and changes [Guninetal., 2003]. ofThe purpose haveof Mongolia undergone significant 90’searly inthecities ofthe20-thcentury economic conditionsthatexisted inthe residents.living conditionsofurban Socio- in thesoilcover, of and deterioration air andwater, accumulation ofpollutants on theenvironment causedpollutionof its cities. technogenic Increasing pressure a numberofenvironmental problems in population growth andto aggravation of recentduring decadeshasledto urban development inMongoliaIndustrial INTRODUCTION , Dechingungaa Dorjgotov , Dechingungaa 6 , Sandag Enkh-Amgalan , Sandag 3 , Sergey N. , Sergey 7

51 ENVIRONMENT 52 ENVIRONMENT urban settings.urban and ultimately ofenvironmental changein representing goodindicators of pollution 1988;Kasimov, 1995]1990; Glazovskaya, substances [Environment geochemistry, accumulating mediafor thesechemical snow cover, as andvegetation) thatserve in thelandscapecomponents(i.e., soil, and theirassociationswasdetermined Basically, thecontent ofchemicalelements concept.the ecological-geochemical wereThese objectives achieved through • • • herein were to: oftheresearchThe objectives presented 1995]. etal.,pollute theatmosphere [Kasimov brown coalwhosecombustionproducts andgerdistricts. These entitiesuse(TPP) powerassociated plants withthermal sources ofpollutioninallthree citiesare industries. and lightconstruction The ferrous includesprimarily sector metallurgy theindustrial Darkhan, molybdenum). In of non-ferrous metals(copperand processing andprimary of enrichment largestthe Mongolian productioncenter with adiversesector. industrial Erdenet is capitalbasin. Ulaanbaataristhecountry’s mountainous area intheSelengariver low mountainsoftheHangayn-Hentiyn valleys anddepressions hillsand between These citiesare located inintermontane Erdenet. –Ulaanbaatar,of Mongolia and Darkhan, Mongolia. soils basedonstandards accepted in assessment ofHMpollutiontheurban outenvironmental-geochemical carry zones; and functional features ofsoilpollutionindifferent soilsandspecific composition ofurban transformation ofmicro-elemental assess generaltrends oftechnogenic anomaly inErdenet; including thenaturalgeochemicalore parameters ofsoilsinthestudyregion, backgroundcharacterize geochemical Expedition. Soilsampling Complex BiologicalRussian-Mongolian This studyusedthefindingsofJoint 1 by cluster analysis(Complete Linkage of elementsinthesoilswere identified 2004).Stableassociations (Mathsoft, software processed statisticallyusingStatistica7 were grouped zones and byfunctional The analyticaldataobtainedinthestudy of HMwasestablished. theconcentrations methods indetermining agreement these between A satisfactory Elmer”, (“Perkin and Optima-4300DV USA). usingdevices (VIMS), Materials “Elan-6100” Raw ofMineral at theAll-RussianInstitute (ICP-MS) coupled plasmamassspectrometry andinductively by massspectrometry of soil, brown coal, andashwere analyzed method,quantitative spectral thesamples To oftheapproximate checktheaccuracy defined byroutine methods[Orlov, 1985]. ofthesoilswereand chemicalproperties analyzer RA-915+.Basicphysical mercury ZeemanHg were identifiedbyaportable Elements(IMGRE).ConcentrationsRare of of Chemistry Geochemistry, andCrystal ofMineralogy, oftheInstitute Laboratory Geological andGeochemicalExpedition spectrograph DFS-465SintheAlexandrov methodwithaquantitative spectral byanapproximatesamples wasdetermined W, Ge, Sn,Ga, Ti, Mn, Y, Zr, Sn,andBainthe soil The bulkcontent ofCu, Zn,Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, V, Mo, collected. Environmental Protection were ofMongolia) of oftheMinistry Monitoring Air Quality the TPP-3 (provided bytheCommittee for Baganuur, andChuluut)ofashfrom three depositsnear Ulaanbaatar(Nalaikh, addition,samplesofbrown coalfromIn 500–800minhorizontal direction. at every 1m) from thetop sod-humuslayer (0–10cm) were bythe taken “envelope” method(1m× soilsamples 2007.Mixed (50) inDecember (46),andErdenet Ulaanbaatar (99),Darkhan MATERIALS AND METHODS

The numberofsamplesisgiven inparentheses. 1 was conducted in wasconducted concentration (C [1979]. For soils, theurban thecoefficientsof Greenwood [2008]andBowen andEarnshaw theestimatesposition between of used becausetheyoccupyanintermediate Vinogradov’s 1962] [Vinogradov, clarkes were calculated withrespectto theglobal dispersion (CD)ofHMinbackground soils and ofconcentration(CC) The clarkes byacorrelation coefficient( characterized ofHMbehavior was similarity clustering); minimum (orlow)(0< (16 < bythefollowingdescribed valuesof Different levels ofsoilpollutionwere of soilpollution soilswasbasedontheintegralurban index assessmentofthe Ecological-geochemical and thesoilsofrecreational landscapes. Bogdhanuul the soilsofNaturalReserve background conditionswere represented by assumed to bereference; inUlaanbaatar, andErdenet were landscapes inDarkhan of elementsinthesoilsrecreational to theelementsymbols. Concentrations 1,5 andwhosevaluesare next subscribed by aformula thatincludedmetalswithC soilswasdefined specialization oftheurban were calculated. Technogenic geochemical under polluted soilswasdefinedasthe ratio sampling locations, the percent ofarea 2008]. Given arelatively even spacing of Standards andMeasurements [Soilquality, of Nationalagency by theMongolian ofelementsadopted concentrations (MPC) in thesoilswithmaximumpermissible theconcentrationsofelements comparing pollutantswere identifiedby The priority method.IDW soils wereurban compiledusingthe ArcGIS ( (64< heavy where Zc >128). M Zc n < 32); heavy (32< <32);heavy –numberofmetalswith Zc aps onZc inthe distribution = Zc c

) anddispersion(C <128);andmaximum ∑ i = n 1 K c –( Zc Zc n –1), <16);medium < 64); extremely <64);extremely C c d >1[3]. ) ofHM c Zc r > ). : with Fe, andCo ( Mn, of thePaleogene-Neogene depositsenriched and pebbles. Occasionally, there are outcrops loams withinclusionsofbreak stone, gravel, alluvial-proluvial loamy sedimentsandsandy depressions, theparent consistsof material theintermontane basins [Bathishig, 1999].In intheriver valleysandintermontane material with acomplexoflithophylous elementsand rocks (shale rocks). The former are enriched and Carboniferous extrusive-sedimentary granosyenites Devonian ormetamorphosed cases, theparent bedrocks are composedof ( with alowcontent ofmosttraceelements sediments The light-textured Quaternary snow cover andinto theuppersoillayers. elements are gradually deposited into the many toxic substancesintheair. These toxic specifically, ofconcentrations therise creates unfavorable ecological environment, cause temperature inversions inwinter, which weather conditionsinthecities anticyclonic of airtemperatures. The prevailing calm with large annual anddailyfluctuations This region hasaseverely continentalclimate oftheSelengariver.is athird-order tributary river,is located neartheHangalyn-gol which river valley.spread alongtheKharaa Erdenet the Tuul rivervalley. is ofDarkhan The city Selenga river. Ulaanbaatarstretches along ofthe riverbasin,thelargestOrhon tributary located. The studyregion belongsto the There, are thecitiesofErdenet andDarkhan with average bottom elevationsof700–1200m. forms ofrelief andbroad valleys intermontane direction. northeasterly This area hasflowing Selenga midlands, where elevationfallsinthe direction,therenorthwestern are Orkhon- the with abs. elevationsof1300–1500m.In basin intheHentiynmountainousregion Ulaanbaatar islocated inawideintermontane Natural conditions of tested area. sites withinthecity elements exceeded MPCto thetotal number of anumbersites where thecontent of OBJECTS OFCHARACTERISTICS RESEARCH CD =1,2÷1,5)represent themainparent CC . of The territory = 1,5÷2,6). In most =1,5÷2,6).In

53 ENVIRONMENT 54 ENVIRONMENT on the right bankoftheriver on theright Tuul, isa ofUlaanbaatar,The centralpart located tripled.the numberofcarshas nearly its populationhasgrown 1.6timesand rapidly for thelast10years, which during Ulaanbaatar hasbeendeveloping more Erdenet is87and80thousand, respectively. and one million;thepopulationofDarkhan thepopulationexceedscenter ofMongolia, cities. zoningofthe Industries andfunctional in theatmosphere. erosion, andto theincrease ofdustcontent to theintensification ofwater andwind leading eventually reduction ofsoilturfness natural vegetation, lossofthesodcover, and of hascausedthedestruction Urbanization meadow-swampy soilsare formed. forests.riparian theoxbow-shaped lakes, In willows and, more rarely, withpoplar-larch covered withmeadowcommunitiesand are thealluvialsod-lapideous-pebblesoils soil horizons [6].Soilsoftheriver valleys content (andevendetrital stoniness) ofall have alowhumus(upto 4%),butasignificant in transitionto theflatland. ofthesoils Most mountainous chernozem andchestnutsoils sparse thinxerophilous grasslands onthe steppesare with gradually replaced bydry meadow-steppe plantcommunitiesthat andby are occupiedbyshrub-dry-steppe Warmer exposure slopesofthesouthern seasonally frozen mountain-sodforest soils. withthedevelopment of sub-taiga) typical (more coldandwet) byforests (often, exposures on theslopesofnorthern widespread. This landscapeismanifested i.e., mountainexpositionalforest steppe, is Central Asia, where auniquelandscapetype, and transitional zone) Siberia ofSouthern The region belongsto theecotone (i.e., has ahighcontent ofAg andRe. molybdenum copper-porphyritic ore deposit Mo, and V [Bathishig, 1999]. The Erdenet content) ofPb,(close to theglobalclarke and Cr( content) ofFe,to theglobalclarke Ti, Cu, Ni, the latter have highconcentrations(relative In Ulaanbaatar, In thelargest industrial CC =1,7÷2,8)andalower content Ulaanbaatar, obtained bytheICP-MS method, of thebrown coalandthe TPP-3 ashin composition Analysis ofmicro-elemental coal, are themainsources ofpollution. The TPPs andgerstoves, brown whichburn are inthecity’s southwest part. basesandranges the uplandslopes. Military on are ofthecity inthesouthwestern part zone.west ofthe industrial The gerdistricts administrative buildingsislocated to the and residential ofmodern districts part gol river, there are sludgepits. The central oftheHangalyn- in thevalleyofatributary facilities.complex ofindustrial Further north two concentrating factory, TPPs, anda plantabutsaminingand the extraction ofthemine, North parts. and northeastern rock dumps, are located initstheeastern andwaste concentrating complex(MCC) oremolybdenum porphyritic miningand ofthecity,industries i.e., acopperand from southwest to northeast. The principal basinthatstretchesin theintermontane Erdenet (aswell asUlaanbaatar)islocated ofthecity. outskirts western, andnorthern occupytheeastern, north. The gerdistricts station andtheelevator is located inthe spur. withitsrailway ofthecity The oldpart byanupland ofthecity the main(new)part plants. zoneThe industrial isseparated from processing, leathertanning, andiron-steel there are the TPP ofthecity, where parts and southeastern zoneindustrial islocated inthesouthern valley forto south. 12milesfrom north The stretches alongtheriverKharaa Darkhan Range. the Baga-Khentei southwestern, foothills andsoutheastern of creeping the city upslopesofsouthern, of surround thecentraldistricts districts parts. andsoutheastern eastern The ger wind bearings, causessoilpollutioninits predominance ofwestern andnorthwestern the city, which,incombinationwiththe TPPs of are located inthewestern part andall enterprises ofitsindustrial Most administrative, andcommercial buildings. many-storeyedplace ofmodern residential,

and the

cement, wood ore-geochemical specializationofthearea of ore-geochemical Sn, Mo, andAg ( were noted onlyfor W ( concentrations accumulation above theclarke ( concentrations for Ge,clarke Co, Y, andNi Zr, Hg, andBa concentrations for Zn,Mn, clarke V, Ti, Cr, metals; theytend to approach theglobal the three citieswere close inrespectto most (Fig. 1,a). The reference for characteristics theirgeochemicalspectra by constructing in thenaturalandrecreational landscapesand chestnutsoils chemical compositionofdark byanalyzing soilswasdetermined the urban technogenic geochemicaltransformation of the majorindustrialcenters. conditions and theirtransformation in Regional soilgeochemical background onhumanhealth. impact atmosphere creating thedirectnegative the solidphaseandare spread into the Pb. These elementsdonotaccumulate in gaseous phase:Se, Sb, Hg, Te, Bi,andpossibly, the ashandthatmay betransitioningto the us to identifyelementsthatare depleted in to theseofthe TPP-3 1) ash(Table concentrationsinthecoals of micro-elemental elements natural radioactive Th andU. The ratio basin. of acoal-bearing in The flyashisrich thegeochemicalspecialization characterize Pb), and W, Be, andMo, i.e., elementsthat of chalcophylic elements(Se, Sb, Cu, Bi, of mostsulfurcoals, have ahighcontent coal depositsnearUlaanbaatar, asinthecase 1). generation(Table thermal The brown landscapesassociated with of theurban revealed awiderangeofcontaminants Table specialization 1.Geochemical ofMongoliancoals andfl RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CD Ulaanbaatar coals Study facilities P- lyahSe TPP-3 fl yash = 1,7÷8,4). In Ulaanbaatar, =1,7÷8,4).In thesignificant (average) CC of lithosphericconcentrations = 1,9÷1,5) in Darkhan. =1,9÷1,5)inDarkhan. The Cd Se based on Vinogradov [12] 4 128 333 Sb are below W Relative to clarkes Sb CC 3,7 100 Cu 13 =1,5),andfor Pb, Be Bi 3,7 12 32 U W Mo 3,1

The extent of The extent 2,1 Sr Be 13 3 the Co Bi 2 Mo 6,5 3 allowed Sn Th 1,8 global 1,8 6,5 Pb Pb As5 1,6 1,7 (Fig. 1, soilsof HMaccumulationintheurban istheothermainsource activity Industrial Ag (CC =8,2÷2,8). manifested inhighcontents ofMo, Cu, and the Erdenet copper-molybdenum depositis Darkhan (Cr Darkhan capacity.with alowsorption Soilpollutionin and thepredominance oflight-textured soils to thediversification ofthecity’s industry formationwas formed. may beattributed Its concentrations (Ag geochemical anomalywithrelatively lowclarke due to thedifferences inthenaturaland showed theirconsiderablevariability the HMassociationsin three cities forming elements. of Comparison associationsincludecomplex- the fourth for barrier Ba. the sorption The third and whichhydroxidesincludes Mn, represent humus horizons. The secondassociation conditionsthataccumulate inthealkaline inneutralandelements ofpoormobility combines cationgenicandchalcophylic and Cr–Ga, Y–Zr. The firstassociation the parent Cu–Zn–Pb, material: Mn–Ba, ofreflect geochemicalcharacteristics stable associationsofelementswhich analysis, thereference soilshave themost According to theresults ofthecluster and Ge. brown coalcontaininghighcontent ofSn andthecombustionproductsof and Mo withCu blown bythewindandenriched elements are theMCC rock waste dumps Mo production. The soilsofErdenet accumulated tanning, goldmining, power andthermal inleather specialization,primarily industrial for world coals ( Pb Relative to theaverage 23 2,2 Sb y ashfrom the TPP-3 W Cu 16 5 ash ( Th Se b 1,8 ). In Ulaanbaatar, In ). amulti-elemental 4,2 4,2 Sn U Cu b 2 ) [13] 5,0 Cu 1,5 3,6 а Hg Bi Ge 1,7 ) andcoal 2,3 ( 3,1 b Ni 1,5 3,0 )– W 1,3 . The sources ofthese Pb ( 3,0 а 2,4 )Sb ) indicates itsnarrow Sn 2,1 Hg to TPP-3 fl to TPP-3 3,4 Se 1,9 Relative 2,6 Ge Hg 1,7 2,5 Zn y ash Bi 1,8 1,7 Te W 1,6 1,5 )

55 ENVIRONMENT 56 ENVIRONMENT industrial zones.industrial For thesesectors, the residential blocks, and recreational and many-storeyedtraditional gerdistricts, compositionarefunctional thehighways, the territories. The mainelementsofthis of identity associated withthefunctional soilsisheterogeneity oftheurban of theurbansoils. The spatialgeochemical heterogeneity areasurban 2). (Table anthropogenic conditionswithinthe estimated tothe withrespect Vinogradov’s clarkes; thecoefficients ofconcentration (Cc) anddispersion and technogenic(b). The clarkes ofconcentration (CC) anddispersion(CD) inthebackground soilswere Figure specialization 1.Geochemical ofthesoilsinUlaanbaatar, andErdent: Dakhan, background (a) (Cd) were tothebackground estimated withrespect soils. Geochemical highways andmany-storeyed residential is confinedto thesoilsnearmajor accumulation ofmany elements-pollutants Ulaanbaatar,In thehighestlevel of pollutants inthesoilsofthesezones. concentrations ofmetals–thepriority were plotted. Table 3provides average were definedandgeochemicalspectra addition,theassociationsofelementsIn wereparameters ofvariability calculated. average concentrationsofHMand the traffic zones(83) Residential, industrial, and traffic zones (42) Residential, industrial, and Background, recreational (8) Cu, Ag, Ge, Ge, Ag, Cu, Background, recreational (8) traffic zones (39) Residential, industrial, and Zn, W, Ge, Mo, Sn,andCu (C where highconcentrationsofPb, Hg, Ag, (Fig. ofthecity blocks intheoldpart 2), Table 2.Associations ofHMintheupperhorizons ofbackground andurbansoils the city’s area. commonin ofvalleysandterraces material reflect geochemicalfeatures oftheparent associationsmainly andthefifth fourth upon theheterogeneity ofsoiltexture. The fractions. fine-silt depend Their variations elements thataccumulated intheclay and second andthethird associationsinclude sources, from motor primarily vehicles. The combines elementsfrom theanthropogenic Cr–V, Mn–Ti, andBa–Zr. The firstassociation arezones ofthecity Cu–Zn–Pb, Ni–Co–Ga, traced inthesoilsofalmostallfunctional The moststableassociationsofelements brown coalusedfor gerheating. the productsofincomplete combustionof noticeable accumulationofPb andGefrom of development intheseareas, there isa of thecity. Despitearelatively young age ontheslopesinoutlyingparts districts height. The leastpolluted areas are theger pipes to theatmosphere ataconsiderable dispersion ofemissionsreleased from the about 0,5unitslower dueto alarger area of zone, theindustrial present. theC In akrud erainl(0 Cu Background, recreational (10) (number ofsamples) Types oflandscapes Cr, V (0,73);Mn, Ti, Y (0,44–0,64);Sr, Ba,Zr(0,56–0,59) Cu, Zn,Pb, (0,57–0,83);Ni, Sn,Ga V, B, Co, Ti (0,35–0,75); Cr , V, Ba(0,89); (0,91–0,96);Mo, Ga Sn(0,73);Mn, Cu, Ag, (0,76–0,92);Pb, Mo V, B, Ge, Ga, Zn(0,28–0,66); Ni, Co, Ba, Ni, Li(0,63–0,84);Mn, Ti, Y, Zr, Sn(0,29–0,77) Cu, Co, Zn,Pb (0,59–0,72);Ni, B(0,48-0,81); Ga, Mo, W, Ge(0,74–0,85);Zr, Y, B(0,33–0,63) Cr, Co (0,78–0,92);Mn, Ga, Li,Ni, Y, Zr, Ba(0,85–0,97) Ti, Y, Zr(0,68–0,87) c Association, correlation coeffi =3÷1,5)are Darkhan Erdenet Zn, Pb (0,78–0,9); , Pb, Zn, V, Sn,B(0,68–0,88); c Ulaanbaatar is (W ofelements-pollutantsspectrum thewidest thesoilsofDarkhan, In Sn (seeFig.traditional gerdistricts 2),where technogenic anomalyisconfinedto the theErdenet soils,In themost contrasting pollution. can beexplainedbythepointnature of did notform stableassociations, which most hazardous metals, i.e., Cr, Ag, andHg, origin from thearea-source pollution. The three associationsare ofthetechnogenic Y–Ba, Ni–V, andCo–Ti. Undoubtedly, thefirst Zr–which are: Cu–Zn–Pb, Sn–Ga, Mo–W–Ge, in elementalassociations, themoststableof soilsismanifested transformation ofDarkhan soils ofnewresidential areas. Geochemical accumulation of W elements-pollutants wasnot identified, For thetrafficzone, theaccumulationof residential blocksaccumulated Ge Cu zoneSoils oftheindustrial accumulated W of technogenic geochemicalspecialization: have thefollowingthe gerdistricts formula zonethe industrial (seeFig. 2). The soilsof 9,1 2,6 1,8 15 Zn Ge Cr Mo 1,8 8,8 cient ( 2,4 1,5 Mo Hg Zn , whilesoilsofthemany-storeyed 2,6 1,7 1,7 r Ge Cu Hg No ) 1,6 1,9 1,5 Mo Mo Ag, Mo, Hg, Cr, Ag, Mn, . There isanoticeable W, Co, Hg, r ,H 0,34 Cr, W,Hg 8,6 association Hg, Li Sn, Li 1,5 Ag, Mo, Hg, 1,9 Li, B Hg Zr were accumulating. Ti, Sr 2,7 1,5 Ge ) wasfound in 1,5 Zn Signifi ( Р 1,5 =95%) 0,63 0,28 0,31 0,71 inthe 2,2 cant Zn 2,0 r

.

57 ENVIRONMENT 58 ENVIRONMENT

Table 3. Average concentrations (mg/kg of soil) and MPC for HM [11] in the upper (1–10 cm) soil horizons in diff erent functional zones in Ulaanbaatar. Darkhan. and Erdenet

Class of hazard of elements Number Functional zone of I II III samples Sn Hg Zn Pb Ni Co Cr Cu Mo W Mn V Ulaanbaatar Background 5 0.058 52.0 27.0 29.0 8.40 66.0 42.0 1.20 1.00 660 84.0 2.80 Recreational 5 0.080 42.0 19.4 23.0 6.80 60.0 36.0 1.14 3.00 520 78.0 2.40 Highways 9 0.170 82.2 55.6 31.1 8.44 70.0 60.0 1.96 3.67 544 91.1 4.22 Industrial 23 0.120 60.4 69.1 27.0 7.39 54.4 47.4 1.65 3.17 478 71.7 4.14 Ger districts 23 0.081 59.6 35.2 24.8 7.57 60.4 42.8 1.29 1.35 509 79.1 3.00 Many-storeyed residential areas 31 0.185 105 59.4 30.6 8.23 72.6 56.5 1.66 3.94 519 85.5 4.17 Darkhan Background 3 0.022 50.0 28.3 30.0 8.00 80.0 46.7 1.50 0.50 500 93.3 3.67 Recreational 3 0.083 56.7 40.0 23.3 5.67 80.0 40.0 1.93 3.67 400 80.0 3.00 Highways 25 0.056 63.6 29.2 32.0 8.92 704 50.8 2.78 7.48 560 104 3.24 Industrial 7 0.034 91.4 45.8 34.3 10.0 98.6 52.9 2.50 4.57 557 104 4.57 Ger districts 7 0.058 75.7 34.3 27.1 7.43 98.6 47.1 1.24 4.29 500 100 3.29 Erdenet Background 6 0.080 65.0 22.5 34.2 11.0 81.7 243 9.03 1.67 850 107 2.17 Recreational 3 0.037 76.7 21.7 30.0 9.33 60.0 96.7 1.50 1.67 533 103 2.33 Highways 18 0.101 62.2 24.7 35.0 11.9 113 450 13.6 0.889 822 98.3 2.33 Industrial 10 0.071 109 30.5 39.0 13.1 88.0 381 13.2 0.50 760 111 5.60 Ger districts 8 0.062 128 32.5 37.5 10.5 100 95.0 4.31 1.25 625 115 2.75 MPC. sandy soils 0.5 100 70 60 30 60 60 2 – – 100 30 MPC. loam soils 1.0 150 50 100 40 100 80 3 – – 130 40 MPC. clay soils 2.0 300 100 150 50 150 100 5 – – 150 50 Figure 2.HMconcentrations intheuppersoilhorizons ofdifferent zones inUlaanbaatar, functional Darkhan, and Erdenet.Darkhan,

59 ENVIRONMENT 60 ENVIRONMENT medium level ofpollution. it reaches 27,7whichcorresponds to the from zone 12,6to 14,4,whileintheindustrial theresidential andtrafficzones,In Zc ranges values ofZc were found inthesoilsofDarkhan. concentrations ofsomeHM. The highest dueto enhancedreference(ger districts) fromit varies 1,53(major highways) to 8,2 storeyed residential blocks),whileinErdenet, from 5,6(recreational zone) to 18(many- zones: inUlaanbaatar,functional Zc varies in UlaanbaatarandErdenet are lowinall of theintegral indexofsoilpollutionZc of pollutiontheurbansoil. The ecological-geochemical assessment manifested association. inthePb–Zn (granitoids). pollutionisThe industrial Cu–Ag–Mo (ore body)andMn–Ba–Ti–Y–Zr oftheparentthat reflectthecharacter material: soils. The moststableassociationsare those the geochemicalheterogeneity oftheErdenet zone) associationsofelementscharacterize of theriver valley. Specific(for eachfunctional geochemical environment, i.e., ontheslopes of thehighway system inthetransitional which may to beattributed thelocation Figure 3.Mapsoftheintegral index ofsoilpollutionZc for thesoilsincitiesofUlaanbaatar, The values The Darkhan, andErdenet.Darkhan, 2008] that vary dependinguponsoiltexture 2008] thatvary standardssanitary-hygienic [Soilquality, officialMongolian with theratherstringent concentrations intheuppersoilhorizons theHMwas assessedbycomparing in Ulaanbaatar, andErdenet, Darkhan, The environmental ofsoilpollution risk reaching 200. increases to 64withsomelocalmaximums zonein theindustrial predominantly, Zc i.e. of pollutionislow. part, thesouthern In many-storeyedmodern buildings, thelevel withthe ofthiscity level. thecentralpart In hasamediumsoilpollution some factories withtheresidential blocksand part northern the (Zc Darkhan, reachingger district 37).In several locationsneartheMCC andinthe polluted (Zc <16),withtheexception of thesoilsare(Zc Edernet, less upto 40).In high valuesofpollutionwere identified the city’s center, insomelocations, relatively oflow-polluted soils(Zc <16).In category bulk oftheUlaanbaatarsoilsbelongsto the areaspollution intheurban studied. The demonstrate specificfeatures ofsoil The mapsonZc (Fig. distribution 3) exceptions are: inUlaanbaatar– W ( concentrations ofmosttraceelements. The values with closeto orbelowthe clarke of thesoilsinregion is associated The background1. geochemicalspecialization residential blocks, zones. andindustrial zones are many-storeyed the gerdistricts, zones, whileinErdenet themostpolluted zones andtheindustrial are thegerdistricts themostpolluted Darkhan, Zn (20%).In (71%),Cr(51 Cu (82%),Mo V (24%),and (27 %),Zn(24andPb (13%);inErdenet – Cr(80%), city): (49%),Cu V (60%),Mo are (in%ofthetotal area ofthe Darkhan significant: mosthazardous pollutantsin ismore by pollution(thatexceeds MPC) othercities, two theshareIn ofsoilsaffected andtrafficzones.alike) to theresidential andgerdistricts (modern areas ofsoilpollutionare mostlyconfined (19 %),Zn(15andCu (10%)(Fig. 4). The Mo cases ofCr(on25%theterritory), the MPCvaluesare exceeded onlyinthe (see Table appeared thatinUlaanbaatar, 3).It ( anomaly wasfound inthesoilsofErdenet: Mo The mostpronounced naturalgeochemical Pb, Sn,Mo, Ag, and W ( CONCLUSIONS Figure 4. The assessment ofecological hazard from HMpollutioninUlaanbaatar, andErdenet Darkhan, CC =8,2),Cu (5,2),andAg (2,8). CC (% ofarea withHMcontent insoilsexceeding MPC). = 1,9÷1,5) in Darkhan. =1,9÷1,5)inDarkhan. CC = 1,5) and and =1,5) specialization ofUlaanbaatar–Ag 2. The technogenic geochemical Pb Zc of theanomalieswasnoted inDarkhan: residential blocks. The greatest expression maximum (18,0)inthesoilsofmany-storeyed manifested by Zc values, reaches its technogenic geochemicalanomalies 3. Ulaanbaatar,In themagnitude of onlyfor GeandZn. observed the excess over thereference valueswas area ofmany-storeyed residential blocks, whileinthe in thesoilsofgerdistricts, anomaly ofSn,Ge, Zn,Cu, ispresent andMo coal. The mostpronounced technogenic and molybdenumores ofbrown andburning Erdenet isassociated withminingofcopper inthesoilsofof Mo2,2Cu1,8Sn1,5Ge1,5 W andHg. The anthropogenic accumulation the residential andtrafficzones accumulate the soilsare areas; confinedto theindustrial high levels ofaccumulation W andCrin tanning, goldmining, and TPP. Abnormally of Cr5,0Hg3,1W3,0pollutionfrom leather soilsistheproduct specialization ofDarkhan near themajorhighways. The geochemical of themany-storeyed residential blocksand elements-pollutants ispresent inthesoils of soilpollution. of The widestspectrum the influenceofmany different sources = 17,7 (industrial zone) =17,7(industrial and12,6 2,4 Sn 2,1 Hg 1,9 Ge 1,7 Zn 1,7 W 1,5 –reflects 3,0

61 ENVIRONMENT 62 ENVIRONMENT 13. Yudovich,13. Y.E. andM.P. (2005) Ketris. Toxic traceelementsinfossil Ural coals. Ekaterinburg: 12. Vinogradov, A.P. (1962) The average types content ofchemicalelementsintheprincipal 11. Soil quality. Soilpollutants, concentrations. Na- maximumpermissible (2008)Mongolian Orlov, D.S.10. State (1985)SoilChemistry. Univ. M.:Moscow press, 376p. Kasimov, N.S.,M.Y. D.L. Lychagin, Evdokimova, Golovanov, A.K. and Y.I. Pikovsky. (1995) 9. analysis Kasimov, andmethodsoflandscape-geochemical N.S.(1995)Methodology 8. Gunin,P.D., S.N.Bazha,andM.Sandar. Evdokimova, A.K. (2003)Socialandenvironmental 7. 191p. Nauka, Ground (1984)Moscow: vegetation andsoilsofMongolia. 6. Greenwood, volumes. two N.N.andA.Earnshaw. oftheelements. In (2008)Chemistry 5. ofnaturalandanthropogenic landscapes. Mos- M.A.(1988)Geochemistry Glazovskaya, 4. Nedra,332p. Environmental geochemistry. (1990)Moscow: 3. Bowen H.J.M. oftheElements. (1979)Environmental N.Y.: Chemistry Acad. Press, 333 p. 2. Bathishig, O. ofthe (1999)Soilgeochemicalcharacteristics Tuul Candidate dis- river valley: 1. Mo concentrationsinexcessMo oftheMPC; hasCr, territory 80 %oftheDarkhan V, and cities, thesituationismore dangerous: 50– theothertwo of theUlaanbaatararea. In levels for Cr, Mo, Zn,andCu within15–20% bytheincreasecharacterized over theMPC ecological soilsare conditionsoftheurban reference concentrationsofsomeHM. The exceed thevalueof10dueto theelevated theZcalmost everywhere, valuesdonot 14,5 (residential Erdent, andtrafficzones). In REFERENCES Branch oftheRAS,655p. of igneous rocks oftheEarth’s crust//Geochemistry. №7,pp. 555–472. ofStandards andMeasurements.tional agency Ulaanbaatar. 8p. (Ed.). State Univ. M.:Moscow landscapes,of urban N.S.Kasimov press, pp. 231–248. Ulaanbaatar, basin/Ecogeochemistry energy Intermountain (thermal sector). Mongolia pp. 6–39. landscapes. State ofurban Univ. M.:Moscow areasof urban /Ecogeochemistry Press, areas.problems ethnosinurban oftheMongolian UlaanBaatar–M., pp. 61–95. Binom. Moscow: Education,350p. Higher cow: Ulaanbaatar, abstract. sertation 24p. 2009–2013” (projectП1078). Pedagogical Cadres Russia, ofInnovative Target Program “Research andScientific- 10-05-93178-Монг_а) andbytheFederal Foundation for BasicResearch (RFBR) (project This research wasfundedbytheRussian MPC inErdenet. concentrations ofCu, Mo, andCrexceed the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  N.S. Kasimov, E.M. Nikiforova et al.) on geochemistry of natural and urban soil-plantsystems. ofnaturalandurban N.S. Kasimov, etal.) E.M.Nikiforova ongeochemistry in the “” and State Bulletin” University “Moscow magazines(with Geochemical Processes. StudyBook. 150scientificworks. publications: published nearly Main Region Landscape Geochemistry ; 2008(authorandeditor). , 1999 (co-author A.I.Perel’man);, 1999(co-author Nikolay S.Kasimov Natalia E. Kosheleva Ecogeochemistry ofUrbanLandscapesEcogeochemistry Landscapes ofSteppeandDesert Geochemistry author ofabout300scientificworks, including: andaquaticlandscapes. ofurban Heisthe and geochemistry oflandscapes,interests paleogeochemistry, are: geochemistry M.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow current research His oftheFaculty since1990–Dean Geography; ofGeography at andSoil ofLandscapeGeochemistry of theDepartment landscapes. Since1987,hehasbeenHead steppes anddeserts of of Sciencedegree (1983)inthefieldofpaleogeochemistry offaultzones in1972andhisDoctor landscape geochemistry (Moscow), 2009(Seoul). (Moscow), He isalsotheauthorof compiledatdifferentMongolia scales(1975,1980,1981,2004). ofsoilmaps of asoilclassification(1986)andseries Russian,andEnglishlanguages.in Mongolian, Heistheauthor Academy ofSciences. Hepublishedover 200scientificworks ofGeographyand Director oftheInstitute oftheMongolian degrees in1973and1992,respectively. HeisAcademician in1962. HereceivedUniversity hisPh.D. ofScience andDoctor Biology andSoilScienceofM.V. Lomonosov State Moscow Dechingungaa Dorjgotov problems, landscapes. specificallyonpollutionofurban She focusing herresearch environmental onurban efforts systems. Recently,landscape-geochemical she hasbeing in thefieldofmathematicalmethodsandmodelling of Sciencedegree isareputed in2004.N.E.Kosheleva expert MSU. Shereceived herPh.D. (geography) in1982andDoctor andSoilGeography,Geochemistry theFaculty ofGeography, ofLandscape Leading Research ScientistintheDepartment andCybernetics (1980).Since1995,sheisMathematics of Geography (1976)andtheFaculty ofComputational M.V. Lomonosov State (MSU):theFaculty University Moscow Moscow, Univ. Moscow Press, 1997.109p.; ofpapers aseries received hisPh.D. (geography) studying graduated from Faculties two of Oil andEnvironmentOil ofKaliningrad National atlasofMongolia Modeling of Soils andLandscape- Modeling ofSoils graduated from theFaculty of , 1995(authorandeditor); Landscape , 1988; , 1990

63 ENVIRONMENT 64 ENVIRONMENT and Factors oftheirDestabilization R. I. Miklyaeva, Tateishi, andCh.Dugarjav Regions Processes oftheBaikal intheMongolianPart Basin . Kluwer Acad.. Kluwer Publ. 2003.p. 157–177;GuninP., E. Vostokova, S.Bazha,A.Prischepa, Sergey N.Bazha Dmitryi L.Golovanov Dmitryi OlgaI.Sorokina Gunin, P.D. andS.N.Bazha 2003. Ulaanbaatar-Moscow. Publ. Rosselkhozacademic 96p.; Problems of S.N.Bazha,andM.Saandar. Evdokimova, A.K. degradation, andecological mapping. publications:GuninP.D., Main focused onecological risks, environmental pollution,plant-soil researchhis Ph.D. interests primary are inecology2002.His Ecology andEvolution oftheRAS,Moscow, where hereceived forSenior Research Institute Associate attheA.N.Severtsov March of1998,hebecameResearch Assistant andin2002– postgraduate ofEconomics, studiesattheInstitute Moscow. In of Agricultural Sciences, 1993,hefinished Hungary, in1989.In Yamnova, I.A.,M.P. Verba, andE.I.Pankova). on arid andsalinizedon arid soilsinthe “Soil Science” magazine(with of UrbanLandscapes publications: geochemical assessment.Main covers genesis, geography, andmappingofsoilsecological- ofMongolia. deserts arid The area ofhisscientificinterest was devoted soil-forming to processes oasis-type inextreme Senior Lecturer. Hereceived hisPh.D. in2004;hisdissertation sincethattime. Currently,department heholdsapositionof inthis State in1984 andhasbeingworking University Moscow andSoilGeography ofM.V.Landscape Geochemistry Lomonosov and urban ecogeochemistry. and urban oflandscapes The area ofherscientificinterest isgeochemistry (Ulaanbaatar, citiesofMongolia industrial andErdenet). Darkhan, has beeninvolved inresearch onecological situationin efforts Ph.D. thelastthree During years, degree she inthisdepartment. towardsState in2010.Sheiscurrently her University working andSoilGeography ofM.V.Geochemistry Lomonosov Moscow . CEReS,ChibaUniversity. Japan.2006.139p. Mongolian Ethnic Community Mongolian EthnicCommunity .

Present-Day Basin River Ecosystems oftheSelenga graduated from the Department ofLandscape graduated from theDepartment graduated ineconomicsfrom theUniversity (1995, with co-authors); a series ofpapers aseries (1995, withco-authors); /Monograf . graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment

Ecological ofDegradation Assessment Conserving Biodiversity in Arid inArid Biodiversity Conserving in UrbanizedTerritories. Social andEcologicalSocial Ecogeochemistry Ecogeochemistry

Sandag Enkh-Amgalan Sandag author ofapproximately 70scientificpublications. geoecology, medicalgeography, andruralecology. Heisthe research interest isinthefieldsofgeography, socialgeography, zone inMongolia” of thedesert-steppe “Ecological conditions oflivestock managementonpasture lands Bachelor degree Ph. D. wasentitled (1989).His dissertation graduated with from NationalUniversity theMongolian Geography Academy oftheMongolian ofSciences. He isSeniorResearcher of oftheInstitute (2000). The area ofhis

65 ENVIRONMENT 66 ENVIRONMENT E-mail: [email protected] Ulaanbaatar, telephone/ fax:(+976)-11-327-824; Mongolia telephone: (+7-499)-124-3313;fax:(+7-499)-124-7934;E-mail:[email protected] Evolution, 33,Moscow, RAS,119071,Leninsky prospect, Russia, telephone/ fax:(+976)-11-451-837;E-mail:[email protected] 210351, Jukovin gudamj, 77.Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, narcotization ofagrocenoses inmodified of hydromorphic landscapes, and(5) on lightsoils, (4)depletion ofecosystems ofecosystems ecosystems, (3)desertification shrubs, (2)deforestation offorest-steppe processes: (1)rangelandovergrowth with isolated 5groups ofhazardous degradation alteration ofthenaturalenvironment, we anthropogenic heavy andvery in heavy analysis ofdegradation processes thatresult to anthropogenic factors. Basedonour (moderate, heavy, due heavy) andvery undergone atlastthree levels ofalterations We analyzed ecosystems thathave division, and(3)landscape-ecological. (1)formal,principles: (2)administrative included approaches basedon three of changesinMongolia’s environment The comprehensive environmental analysis asacasestudy.the exampleofMongolia Asian ecosystems using assessment ofInner The paperpresents results ofeco-biological 3 2* Chultem Dugarjav 4 1 (Corresponding Author) telephone: (+7-499)-124-3313;fax:(+7-499)-124-7934;E-mail:[email protected] Evolution, 33,Moscow, RAS,119071,Leninsky prospect, Russia, ABSTRACT IN INNER ASIA PROCESSES AND NATURE PROTECTION EVALUATING DEGRADATION ECOSYSTEM APPROACH FOR MonMAP Engineering Service Co.,MonMAP Engineering Service LTD, Street, 210232,Seoul Sarora h.,office 2. ofArid Laboratory Territories Ecology, ofEcology Institute and A.N. Severtsov ofForestry,Laboratory ofBotany, Institute Academy Mongolian ofSciences Laboratory ofArid Laboratory Territories Ecology, ofEcology Institute and A.N. Severtsov 1 , Peter D. Gunin ; 2* , Sergey N.Bazha resistance to humanimpact. system, andofthethreshold limits of their soils, andfauna),ofecosystems as a whole individual ecosystems (suchasvegetation, protective mechanismsof andself-control of decisions basedontheknowledge demand oftheirpreservation the necessity and regional and levels worldwide arising Ecological problems bothontheglobal ecosystem conservation nature protection, degradation processes, ecosystem biodiversity, landdegradation and faunisticdiversity. offloristic wildlife for reserves conservation of organization of theoptimumnetwork forenabled arevision ofthestate the policy of adverse changesofnaturalhabitatshas ecosystems. The comprehensive assessment INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: 3 , and Mijidorj Saandar , andMijidorj Inner Asia, Mongolia, Inner 4 The United NationsConvention to Combat area have beenaffected bydesertification. lands. About70%ofthese to extra-arid lands, lands, 61,14%–to arid and 10,01%– from which25,49%belongto semiarid ofAsia occupy11930119km, The drylands and well-being ofourdescendants”. changed intheinterest ofourfuture welfare unresisting development modelsshouldbe to respectfor states, nature. It present “The stresses thegeneralresponsibilityofnations more than200countries. This document is congenial conditionsfor humansandbiota ofecologicallyaddress conservation documentsthatspecificallyinternational Oneofthelatest control ofdesertification. andon conservation on biodiversity programs, suchas, for example, programs the development ofcomprehensive global different componentsofnaturalresources to specialized programs ontherationaluseof atransitionfromalready supporting started World HealthOrganization, IUCN,etc.) have UNDP, World Meteorological Organization, Leading organizations international (UNEP, The Millennium Declaration The Millennium Figure 1.InnerAsia’s nature zoning (by Rachkovskaya etal., 2007). approved by Nor), lakes ofthe Nor), lakes Tsajdam Hollowandthe Bagrashkel, Lop-Nor, Koko-Nor, Gashuun- in thePeoples’ RepublicofChina(Ebii-Nor, PaneBig Lakes basinsoflakes inMongolia), basins(the completely drainlesslacustrine of midlandbasins. This system includes Asia isaregionInner thatconsistsofasystem rehabilitation. requires urgent measures for ecosystem now,By Asia aconsiderablearea ofInner intense disturbance. under intense orvery more than50%oftheregion hasbeen [2000], bythebeginning ofthe21st century, &R. to theassessments ofN.Kharin Tateishi end ofthe90s20thcentury. According ecologicalhas facedserious threats atthe Asia, aswellInner asotherregions ofAsia, climate change andhumanactivity”. resulting from factors, including various areas sub-humid in arid, semi-arid, anddry as defines desertification degradation“land (UNCCD) adopted in1994, Desertification OF INNER ASIA AND MONGOLIA BIOGEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

67 ENVIRONMENT 68 ENVIRONMENT Table 1. The mainnature regions Asia ofInner – – Asia: ofInner the ecological portrait The following mainecosystems comprise 2004]. [Guninetal., 1998;Gunin,Bazha,Lake) Bujr-Nur andDalaiNor Lake, Baikal, (Lake oceanicrunoff the basinswithaparticulate ofthe part northwest Tibetan Plateau, and Steppe Desert, moderatelyDesert, cold Semi desert Desert, moderatelyDesert, warm

A. mongolicum; gobica, S.glareosa, Alliumpolyrhizum, withadominanceof semidesert shrubs; Cleistogenes squarrosa steppes withadominanceof aua oe eifRegion Relief Natural Zone , and Stipa krylovii, Stipa krylovii, Caragana li 1. Mongolian Mountain Plain li 5. Sub-Gobi 6. Central Mongol-Altai Mountain Plain Mountain Plain Mountain Plain Stipa and steppe (includinghigh-mountain semidesert, mountains: mountaindesert, of ecosystems are types inthe The mostarid ecologicalextreme conditionsintheregion. features define the primary These two anticyclone.associated withtheSiberian and bytheminimumofwinter temperature precipitation dueto theEast-Asian monsoon by themaximumofsummeratmospheric oftheseecosystems islimitedThe functioning – –

extremely arid deserts. arid extremely deserts; semi-shrubandshrub dwarf various 4. Khangai 3.Mongol-Altai Northern 2. North-Western Mongol-Altai 11. Southern-Mongol-Gobi-Altai 10. MountainDzhungarian 9. Northern-East Tyan-Shan 8.Gobi Northern 7. Dzhungarian 22. Nan-Shanian 21. Tsaidamian 20. Eastern-Tibet 19. Tibet 18. Kun-Lunian 17. South-Eastern Tyan-Shanian 16. Pamir 15. Korydor Hesi 14. Alashan-Ordoss 13. Beishanian 12. Kashgarian vegetation andto defineecosystem spatial differentiation ofthesoilsand ecological mapping units to determine made itpossibleto usethelandscape- 1995] [Ecosystems ofMongolia, Mongolia available. ofsuchmapsforThe availability maps oftheregions have already been and whenspecialized andintegrated soils andvegetation have beenwell studied have beeneffective incaseswhere the studiesinMongolia Landscape-ecological mapping units(e.g., ecosystem types). the biosphere into smalland/orlarge scale of assessmentisanattempt to differentiate approach isappliedwhenthemaingoal and administrative divisions. The third assessment are unitsoftheregion’s political approach of isusedwhentheobjects asthestudy objects. grids serve The second oftopographicthe boundaries divisionsor thefirstapproach, In landscape-ecological. formal, (2)administrative division,and(3) approaches basedonthree (1) principles: in Mongolia’s environment included environmental investigation ofchanges The assessmentofcomprehensive have asignificant methodological value. plotsandtheymay models basedonkey approaches require thecreation ofterritorial ecological conditions. Suchsystems and inlandscapesundersevere conservation andpromote ecosystemdesertification management, includingsystems thatcombat specially developed conceptfor nature unifiedbya principles sound interaction demand thedevelopment ofecologically investigation, use, andprotection. They attention atallstagesofmanagement: severe ecological conditionsrequire special of ecosystems. Ecosystems existingunder processes eventually causinga “mutation” altersThe anthropogenic natural impact 2005]. (See Figure 1; Table etal., 1)[Rachkovskaya there are 8plainand14mountainprovinces Asia, steppe). Overall, inInner cryophilic METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES and 72arehydr andsemi-hydromorphic,automorphic ecosystems intotal, 348ofwhichare ofmiddle-level has430varieties territory According to ouranalysis, theMongolian – – – – – – ecosystems. were: activities The principle natural andanthropogenic-natural assessment andmappingofthemodern of Sciencesprovided acomprehensive AcademySciences andtheMongolian Expedition oftheRussianAcademy of Complex BiologicalJoint Russian-Mongolian Long-term investigations outbythe carried ecosystems. of theexpositionalmountainforest-steppe ecosystems isauniquetype of Mongolian Oneoftheprominentin Mongolia. features located and ecosystems are fullyorpartly Asian biotic provinces halfofInner Nearly Asia. ofInner part liesinthenorthern Asia. It includes almostallnative zones ofInner Mongolia area is1.564.116sq.world. km. Its isoneofthelargest inthe Mongolia countries for theentire area. Mongolian andpastoral)economic utilization(forestry of andtypes on naturalcharacteristics ecosystems andtheirclassificationbased provided for ofthe amuchbetter inventory level ofunitsthemap. This approach where mesoecosystems represented basic Ecosystems of Mongolia was utilized inthecompilationofmap thisstudy,In we usedthesamemethodas Vinogradov 1984; Vostokova etal., 1995]. classification oftheirstructure[see, e.g., local, orlandscapelevels of chorological conditions corresponding to elementary,

protected territories. ofnature- ofthenetwork Optimization anthropogenic systems; ofnatural- properties ofnew Definition Compilation ofecological databases; Identification ofextreme ecological regimes; at different scales; includingmappingofecosystemsdiversity ofthefloristicandfaunisticInventory Complex environmental investigations; omorphic ecosystemsomorphic [Guninetal., 1995]

69 ENVIRONMENT 70 ENVIRONMENT and theirdifferentiation inthedominance thousand sq. km. offorestsThe distribution forestMongolian ecosystems occupy119,0 ecosystems. ofphytocenosisesdiversity of inalltypes plant species. predetermines ahigh This fact andconsistof3.000differentis ratherrich [2005],thefloraofMongolia N. Ulziykhutag latest datapublishedbyR. V. and Kamelin their generalbiodiversity. According to the and as welldiversity asontheirfloristic conditions offormation oftheirecotopes, geomorphological, andlithological Ecosystem dependsongeological, diversity too. ecosystems steppes, butwiththedesert in directandbroadnotonlywith contact deserts). arid Thus, thetaigaecosystems are Belt (from mountaintaigato extra typical of theecosystems oftheEurasianModerate stretch cover most north-to-south 1200 km high. The zonal landscapesintheiralmost isextremely Ecosystem inMongolia diversity is 117,5sq. km. contours). The average area ofonecontour ecosystemsare (13,310 andsemiarid arid contours exceeds 25.000mostofwhich Figures(See 2 and3). The total numberof Figure 2. The maintypesofMongolianecosystems. 50 %oftheircombinedarea. moreanthropogenic make than disturbance under themoderate degrees andheavy of livestock. that attract The ecosystems have alarge numberofwater draw sites greatest disturbance. Suchlandscapes the zonesexperience arid ofMongolia andsemi- hollows andrivervalleysinarid ecosystemsHydromorphic alonglacustrine or more area). than90%ofthecountry’s area (almost1.230.000sq. inMongolia km of whichare grasslands) occupythelargest (most anddeserts Steppes, semi-deserts, the area oftheseecosystems). 85,7%of comprise high level ofdisturbance most severe (sites withhighandvery impact forests (larch andpine)areto the subject Sub-taiga Mongolia. Central andNorthern processes inthe against thedesertification astheglobalecological barrier They serve alsohaveMongolia globalecological value. of thecountry. The forest ecosystems of development andsocio-economic stability toare ecological ofexceptional importance area),occupy 7,6%ofthecountry’s they relatively smallarea (forest ecosystems are regionally heterogenic. Despitetheir conditions landscape-ecological various (birch,and parvifoliate aspen)species in of conifers (pine, larch, spruce, fir, andcedar) levels were broken into majorgroups: absent, the anthropogenic impact. These alteration and onthelevel of theiralteration under components (e.g., vegetation, soils, relief) ecosystem indices ofchangesinparticular ecosystems wasbasedonquantitative and oftheanthropogenicon impact The assessmentoftheecosystems’ status OF THE ECOSYSTEMS CONDITIONS THE ECO–BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Figure 3. The maintypesofMongolianecosystems (fragment ofthelegend). projective cover, ofgrass structure stand, plots) in plant communitiesofundisturbed used: changes(compared withthesame ecosystems. The following parameters were assessment ofanthropogeniconthe impact representmorphology reliable for criteria the Specific differences invegetation andits groups [Gunin etal., 2). 1999](Table into these between transitionalcategories slight, moderate, heavy, heavy, very and

71 ENVIRONMENT 72 ENVIRONMENT Table 2. The qualitative scalefor theassessmentofanthropogenic alteration oftheecosystems. Table 3. The relationship andthelevels of anthropogenic between ofecosystem thetypes impact formation thatallow and(2)factors ecotype disruption ofnaturallinksandtheinitial ofnaturalvegetation andthe destruction into groups: two leadingto (1)factors the The anthropogenic canbedivided factors ecosystems ofthealteration levels III,IV, and V. We analyzed anthropogenic onthe impact horizons were into account. alsotaken and agrochemical indicesintheuppersoil ofsoilprofiles characteristics Morphological plant speciesabundanceandviability. weed speciespresence,sod thickness, and composition,heightofgrassfloristic stands, eyhay()Very poor, naturalecosystems have been replaced by man-made, Poor, soil-plantcover is occasionally modifiedirreversibly and Very heavy (V) Moderate, therearemoremodifiedplotsthanatthepreceding Satisfactory, themodificationof ecosystems isobserved where From heavy to very heavy Soil-plantcover isslightly modified;naturalregeneration of Heavy (IV) From moderatetoheavy Moderate (III) Slight (II) Absent (I) raiain00 ,000 11 8,87 4,39 45,80 8,80 91,13 12,19 0,07 54,20 12,76 0,93 0,00 6,39 35,51 3,55 0,00 13,77 0,00 9,39 25,09 23,26 0,00 29,29 0,00 15,23 22,25 52,89 0,00 47,21 56,80 20,23 Complex effect Urbanization Land plowing Forest fires Forest cutting Overgrazing Type ofanthropogenic alterations inMongolia leainlvl State ofecosystems Alteration level impact IIII V IV III II I Degradation by extent thelevels ofalteration (%) quarries, etc.); naturalregeneration isimpossible. or theplotsrepresentanindustrialbadland(spoils,piles, dirt impossible. virtually destroyed andnaturalregeneration isfrequently Poor, occasionally very poor;naturalecosystems have been natural regeneration isextremely difficult. feasible withtemporary bansongrazing, regulation of tree felling. Moderate, occasionally pooratforest plots;forest regeneration stage; naturalregeneration ispossiblebutdifficult. of modifiedplotsispossible. cattle aregrazed; frequently, naturalregeneration of themajority slightly modifiedplotsispossible. anthropogenic fires over 51,5% comprise ecosystems exposedto cuttingsand of alteration (levels IVand The forest V). level heavy and 3,6%have to heavy very have moderate level ofalteration (level III) is occupiedbyrangelands, 23,3%of which The largest area ecosystems inMongolian in Table3. isshown ofdisturbances spatial distribution of successionalreplacement). of The pattern (immediately orinthecourse disturbances to largely recover anthropogenic after indigenous vegetation andtheecotypes with Shrubs. Overgrowth ofRangelandSteppeEcosystems altered ecosystems [Gunin,Bazha,2003]. and (5)narcotization ofagrocenoses in ecosystems ofhydromorphic landscapes, of ecosystems onlight forest-steppe ecosystems,desertification (3) overgrowth with shrubs, hazardous degradation processes: (1)rangeland environment containedfive groups of anthropogenic alterations ofthenatural heavy andvery ofheavy categories The cover. degradationvarious processes intheplant allowed theidentificationandassessmentof The analysisofthemulti-temporal data Ulan-Ude–UlaanbaatarHohhot. transect testingat selected plotsofthesubmeridian integratedareas observations ofstationary plots. The sites were located mainly inthe ofthevegetationdescriptions atthesame provided inMongolia multi-temporal surveys who previously geo-botanical conducted the results obtainedbyotherresearchers over thelastdecadeaswell asanalysesof performed Analyses ofourownsurveys altered categories. lands, inheavily withapproximately one-half account for nomore than3,57%ofall ecosystems etc.) undertechnogenic impact, ecosystems underintegrated impact, ecosystems (includinghydromorphicOther of degradation levels IVand V, respectively). degraded fallowlands(54,2% and45,8% and iscurrently represented byheavily territory) small(0,75%ofthecountry’s very Mongolia. The share ofcultivated landsis of parts are concentrated inthenorthern of allforest ecosystems; areas theimpacted Spiraea, Armeniaca, Amygdalus, Dasiphora shrubs ofthegenera semi- ofshrubsanddwarf types with various steppes ingeneral, wastheirovergrowth ecosystems studied, aswell asofAsian SUCCESSIONS OF PLANT COVER DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF DEGRADATION/ An important feature ofthe An important soils, (4) Caragana, Artemisia, Caragana, Artemisia, (2) deforestation of depletion of , etc. ecosystems. Suchelementsincluded: (1) more elementspenetrate into arid degraded process astheprocess when desertification anthropogenic impact. We definethe to degradation processes resulting from natural predisposition offragile environment isassociated with inMongolia desertification Granulometric Composition. ofLight ofEcosystems withSoils Desertification stage ( Betula fusca Amygdalus pedunculata,Armeniaca sibirica, melanocarpa involvement ofany trees ( and Populus tremula arborous species( with deadtrees, orwithoutundergrowth of including undergrowth ofshrubs orthickets ofindigenousspecies,without contribution Pinus silvestris platyphylla ofindigenousspecies( a mixture Larix sibirica); stages: I–indigenousforests had5major A complete successionseries phytomass. shrubs, andmeasurements ofaboveground count oftrunks, heightanddiameter ofthe diameters. Shrubmeasurements includedthe measurements oftheirheightand trunk were obtained. Tree evaluationincluded oftreedescriptions andshrubspecies complete geobotanicalandtaxonomic deforestation oflarch andpineforests, Ecosystems. ofLarchDeforestation andPine Forest degree oftherangelandalteration. to a abundance wasdirectlyproportional Thymus semi-shrubs and dwarf Caragana degraded rangelands, includingshrubs Several speciesplayed significant role in anthropogenic pressure ontherangelands. zone increased withtheincrease ofthe of theEastern-Asian ofthesteppe sector semi-shrubsinthe communities and dwarf ofshrubs appeared thattheparticipation It Salix Carex korshinskyi

gobicu,s sp.

, microphylla To investigate theprocess of , and ); Populus tremula, Larixsibirica, II–smallleaved forests with IV – thickets ofshrubswithout IV –thickets , ); III–smallleaved forests and , Cotoneaster melanocarpa Salix Betula platyphylla Spiraea aquilegifolia, Potentilla bifurca , sp. and Caragana pygmaea ); Artemisia frigida Artemisia Oneproblem of and C.pediformis) (Pinus silvestris,

Cotoneaster V –steppe , B. fusca, Betula ; their , .

73 ENVIRONMENT 74 ENVIRONMENT duriuscula andxeromorphicof meso- species IV inmeadowsteppe sodsoilsconsisted phytocenoses ofalteration stagesIIIand livestock andunregulated humantraffic. The concentration ofthehumanpopulationand dynamics ofplantcommunitiesare the major anthropogenic oflong-term factors depressions.the rivervalleysandlake The hydromorphic landscapesare commonin Landscapes. ofRangelandstheHydromorphic Depletion habitats. etc.) ofsandyorsalinized characteristic A. laciniata pungens phytocenoses into which itisincorporating. competing withspecies thatform environment forming capacity, successfully Furthermore,important. and seedlings’ development isalsovery providing for ofseeds thegermination Environment, i.e., thepresence ofconditions promoted bytheirbiological properties. of The distribution manifestation ofasyngeneticsuccession. asthe ofMongolia and centralparts species insuchavastregion asthenorth ofthe the current distribution and HighlyModifiedEcosystems. Narcotization ofAgrocenoses inFallow Lands dominant species. communities) andreplaced initiallydifferent andfloodplainsofmeadow on theterraces (e.g., everywhere species thatgrew virtually lactea species( of thesuccessionseries, iris Corispermum mongolicum ( zones were pestanthropophillic species habitatsinto theneighboringdisturbed The firstspeciesto advancethrough the into altered phytocenoses.of deserts steppe speciestypical ofdry incorporation waste piles,of salt-containing and(3)the forest-steppes resulting from water erosion development ofsalinizationprocesses in on altered plotswithsandsoils, (2)the the formation ofbarchan-likeforms ofrelief Caragana bungei , I. bungei , Peganum harmala , , and Artemisia frigida Artemisia

The rangelandsofthe ) becametheedifierperennial A. adam , C. spinosa Cannabis sii. Atthefinalstage Cannabis , , , , sp. isprimarily A. commutata P. nigellastrum Ephedra sinica Agriophyllum We regard hasahigh Cannabis Carex Iris , , ,

( the organization ofprotected areas (PAs) Eastern Mongolia intheGrasslandsLivelihood Options of Conservation andSustainableBiodiversity the framework ofthe organizations ofinternational within support Environment andunder the ofMongolia for Nature and the initiative oftheMinistry andfaunisticdiversity.floristic 1993,under In of of wildlife aimedatconservation reserves for theorganization ofanoptimalnetwork has enabledtherevision ofthe state policy inthenaturalhabitats changes occurring The comprehensive evaluationofnegative entire Mongolia. rate ofvegetation degradation across the regeneration successionswhilereducing the of plants, animals, ecosystems andplant andrecovery would promote conservation management. Collectively, thesemeasures economically justifiedsystems ofecosystem establishing andevaluatingecologically and for lands;andiii) cultivationofdisturbed guidelines ii)enacting national parks; and ofreserves i) definingthenetwork shouldbedirected towards:Specific efforts and goalsfor legallyprotected areas. implementation ofregulations, boundaries, to enhancethestatusand is critical It nature managementprevail. traditionalways of oftheterritory; large part remains stilllowwithina population density of nature intheregion asawhole:human stipulates arathersmalldisturbance fact of many endangered animalspecies. This objects, includingresidual populations isanareaMongolia ofmany uniquenatural biomass inruderalplantcommunities. mass providing upto 2,5to 3,0tons/ha of higher) above ground phytomass withlarge formed monocenosesfrom tall(1,5mand theecosystems studied,In itfrequently 1993) wasdeveloped. This planprovided for CONSERVING MONGOLIAN ECOSYSTEMS THE MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR Component B. Conservation Areas/Wildlife the long-term planfor thelong-term

UNDP-GEF project , . GuninP.D., E.N.(1998)Protection Asia.Vostokova ofEcosystems ofInner E.A.,Matyushkin 6. GuninP., Vostokova E.,Dorofeyuk N., Tarasov P.,5. BlackC.(1999) Vegetation of Dynamics Gunin,P.D. & Vostokova, E.A.(Eds).(1995). The map “Ecosystems ofMongolia”, scale1:1000 4. GuninP., BazhaS.(2004)Prospects pro- andproblems ofdevelopment transboundary 3. GuninP.D., BazhaS.N.(2003)Ecological assessmentofdegradation processes intheNorth- 2. GuninP.D. Areas/ (1993)Component B. Conservation Wildlife. Final Ulaanbaatar. Report. 1. Lacustrine regionLacustrine oftheCentral –Asian they are completely absent inthe Valley- are leastpresented inthestate PAs. Thus, ofMongolia parts in thecentralandeastern subzones steppes andsemi-desert the dry development.requires For further example, PA ofPAs system, thespatialdistribution organization ofaunique, to Asia, Mongolian area). Despitesignificant progress inthe 20,5 millionha(13,1%ofthecountry’s whichoccupy parks, andnaturalreserves) of different national ranks(reservations, PAs include48naturalreserves inMongolia realized initssignificant part. Today, thestate decade (1994–2003),thisplanwassuccessfully thefollowingChinese) [Gunin,1993].During – –RussianandMongolian (Mongolian the organization of12transnationalPAs total number (from 21to 60),including 5,5 %to 25,0 %)andfor theincrease intheir the expansionofarea ofthePAs (from REFERENCES Moscow. Nauka. Moscow. Nauka. Vol XL.219p. Russian). (In Academic Kluwer Publishers.Mongolia. Dordrecht/Boston/London. 225p. English). (In 000. 15sheets. Moscow. English). (In Center BranchRAS.p. Russian). ofSiberian 7–9.(In Asiatected areas //Proceedings inInner oftheAll-RussianSci.Conf., Ulan-Ude:Buryat English). 157–177. (In Ecosystems. inArid Biodiversity KAP. Conserving Basin.In: ofBaikal part ern Chapter 12.pp. November. 66p. English). (In economic culture inMongolia. will sustainthetraditionalgrazing-based that landscapes andvegetation ofMongolia andmanagementofthe conservation inachieving importance are ofprimary These conclusionsandrecommendations or NaturalMonuments). nature protection status(NaturalReserves and thatthePAs have currently alow PAs smallingeneral isvery inthecountry to note, thattheshare oflandunderall which isinsufficienttoo. isimportant It region isalsorelatively small(only4,1%), oftheCentral Asian Gobidistrict Middle The percentage ofarea ofthePAs inthe regionof theCentral Mongolian (0,80%). district area) andintheCentral Khalkha regionthe DaurMongolian (0,81%ofthe the PAs of district Khalkha intheEastern region. Onlyasmallareas are occupiedby 

75 ENVIRONMENT 76 ENVIRONMENT 9. Rachkovskaya E.I., Volkova Rachkovskaya E.A.,Evstifeev Yu.G. (2007)Central Asia asageographical region 9. N.G., Kharin Tateishi ofAsia Ecosys- //Arid ofdegradation R.(2004)Map ofthedrylands 8. R.V., floraofvascularplants N.(2005)NewdataontheMongolian Kamelin Ulziykhutag 7. Forest, BranchoftheRAS.59p. Siberian of Institute 1996.Krasnoyarsk: Abstract. Candidate ofBiological SciencesDissertation C.Larch14–18. Dugarzhav forsts (Current ofMongolia conditionsandregeneration): species selectionforafforestation ofMongolianlowlands. Academic in developingnations the Trans-Altai ofMongolia. GobiDesert Kluwer AP.Kluwer 240pp. 1: (withE.V.1,000,000. 1995.Moscow Vostokova); pp. (withE.V. Vostokova); of theMPR. on assessmentandmappingofthecontemporary ecosystems VASHNIL, Moscow, 354p.; processesEcology ofdesertification inaridecosystems the authorofmore than290publications. Relevantpublications: cover, ecosystem rehabilitation, andecological mapping. Heis degradation processes inplant-soil protection andconservation, scale integrated research, eco-biological includingecosystem studies. For over 40years, hehasbeeninvolved inlarge- biggestbiological1989) –theworld expeditiononecosystem Complex BiologicalJoint Russian-Mongolian Expedition(since HeisHeadoftheRussianComponent ofthe in Mongolia. thelast25years,During hehasbeenstudyingecosystems Ecology, IEERAS(since1994),HeisDr. Biol. Sc. andProfessor. Peter D. Gunin, servation.Moscow. pp. Russian). servation.Moscow. 22–33.(In and naturalregionalization Asia: IssuesofResearch //Ecosystems oftheInner and Con- tems. Vol. 10.N24–25.pp. English). 17–28.(In Mongolia”. Ulaanbaatar. BembiSanP.H. pp. Russian). 104–106.(In ofthefutureand perspectives investigations //Proceedings Conf. ofInt. “Ecosystems of , 1989.GUGKoftheMPR,Moscow, Ulaanbaatar, 60 Publ. pр. 137–156; Dugarzhav C.,Gunin P.D.,pр. 137–156;Dugarzhav Erdenehuleg D., BazhaS.N. is Head of laboratory of Arid ofArid is Headoflaboratory Territories /edited byJohnLemons, Reginald Victor, DanielSchaffer. 2003.Kluwer Ecosystems ofMongolia Methodological recommendations In: In: Dugarjav, Chultemiin Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in Conservation andsustainableuseofbiodiversity Relevant publications: ecosystem disturbances, andecological mapping. focused onforest rehabilitation andrestoration, research interests primary are His Krasnoyarsk. biology atthe V.N. ofForest Institute Sukachev in (1980) andPh. D. (1996)degrees were received in University, M.S. ofBiologyin1970.His faculty MAS. Hegraduated from theLeningrad State Sciences (MAS). Since2006,heisAcademician of ofBotany,the Institute Academy Mongolian of Conserving biodiversity inaridregions: biodiversity bestpracticesConserving . Map at a scale atascale . Map Vegetation Dynamics ofMongolia Vegetation Dynamics . 1990. . 1990. // Journal ofForestry isDirector andProfessor of

Dugarjav, Ch., Tsetseg, B. . 2009.4.pp. . 1999. on

on remote sensingandground data publications: Association onRemote Sensing. Hepublishedapprocimately 45scientificpapers. Relevant andRemote Sensing, ofPhotogrammetry Society andamemberoftheAsianMongolian satellite images, photogrammetry, andecological mapping. Dr. SaandarisPresident ofthe and andmappingusingaerial Engineering.scientificinterests His includesurveying Survey Engineering (1985)wasreceived from CentralSurvey Research theMoscow of Institute Ph. D. Engineering Institute. His graduated degree from Survey theMoscow inAerial is President ltd. ofMonmap andHeadoftheGeoInformation Technology Center. He Saandar, Mijiddorj transgressional mountainbuildinginCentral Asia 16 sheets, Scale1:1000000; Ecosystems ofMongolia Remote Sensing, and J. Badamgarov). Gobi Altai-Tien Shanconnection 139 p. BasinandFactors River Selenga oftheirDestabilization R. Bazha, A.Prischepa, I.Miklyaeva, Tateishi, andCh.Dugarjav Regions inArid Biodiversity Degradation Processes oftheBaikal intheMongolianPart Basin AMultipurposeecological mappingandevaluation ofMongoliannature based Thailand was born intheChoibalsanprovince in1952.He wasborn ofMongolia , Moscow, Complex Biological 1995,Russian-Mongolian Expedition, Earth and Planetary Science Letters Science andPlanetary Earth Sergey N.Bazha ; LateCenozoic transgression insouthwestern Mongoliaandthe . Kluwer Acad.. Kluwer Publ. 2003.p. 157–177;GuninP., E. Vostokova, S. Publ. 96 p.; Gunin, P.D. p.; 96 andS.N.Bazha Publ. Territories Ecological Problems of P.D., S.N.Bazha,andM.Saandar. Evdokimova, A.K. degradation, andecological mapping. publications:Gunin Main focused onecological risks, environmental pollution,plant-soil researchhis Ph.D. interests primary are inecology2002.His Ecology andEvolution oftheRAS,Moscow, where hereceived forSenior Research Institute Associate attheA.N.Severtsov March of1998,hebecameResearch Assistant andin2002– postgraduate ofEconomics, studiesattheInstitute Moscow. In of Agricultural Sciences, 1993,hefinished Hungary, in1989.In A Structural transect across theMongolianWestern Altai:Active “. 1995.(with W. Cunningham, B. Windley, D.Dorjnamjaa, . 1995.(withP.Gunin). In: . 2003.Ulaanbaatar-Moscow. Rosselkhozacademic graduated ineconomicsfrom theUniversity . 1996. Mongolian EthnicComm . CEReS,ChibaUniversity. Japan.2006. Tectonics . 140 (1996) 67–81, Elsevier; . 140(1996)67–81,Elsevier; .

Proc.16 Present-Day Ecosystems ofthe , 15(1):142–156. . /Monograf

Ecological of Assessment th Asian Conference Asian on unity inUrbanized unity Conserving Conserving Social and and Social

77 ENVIRONMENT 78 ENVIRONMENT University, [email protected] e-mail: Geography, andSoil Landscape Geochemistry M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State The results ofthepalynological analysisand 2 Nataliya S.Bolikhovskaya 14 regressions ofthe CaspianSea transgressionspaleo-environments, and vegetation andclimate reconstructions, 1* Holocene, pollenassemblages, Caspianregion. Holocene intheNorthern for future paleogeographical studiesofthe asaclimato-stratigraphical framework serve for ofclimaticevents periodization may Caspian Searegion. The modeldeveloped transgressions andregressions inthe stages were correlated to theHolocene these phases. paleoclimatic Reconstructed chronological were boundaries identifiedfor and characteristics Landscape-climatic theHolocenewereduring distinguished. in evolution ofthenaturalenvironment last ten thousandyears. Twenty-six phases place theLower Volga region the during intrazonal plantformations thatwere taking ofclimatealternations phasesandzonal and a detailedreconstructionofmulti-cyclic of theHolocenesedimentswere usedfor Corresponding author University, [email protected] e-mail: ABSTRACT KEY WORDS: VOLGA REGION DURING THE HOLOCENE AND LANDSCAPES OF THE LOWER THE EVOLUTION OF CLIMATE Academician oftheRussianAcademy of ofSciences, HeadoftheDepartment C datingofthemostcomplete sequences DSc., Leading Researcher, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State theLower Volga region, 1* andNikolay S.Kasimov 14 C dating, region [Abramova, 1980;Abramova, 1985; ofthe Caspian sectors and northeastern depositsofthenorthwestern subaerial Sea andfrom alluvial, analysis oflake, and of thebottom sedimentsoftheCaspian reconstructed from palynological analysis havephases oftheLate Atlanticperiod been Caspian transgression, andofdifferent regression, ofthemaximumNew of thelittoral areas oftheMangyshlak Climatic conditionsandplantcommunities 2006; Varuschenko etal., 1987]. Lower Volga..., 2002;Rychagov, 1997;Svitoch, Sea intheHolocene[Leontiev etal., 1976; transgressions andregressions ofthe Caspian hypsometry, andahierarchy ofmultiple havedating, definedage, coastline experts malacology andresults ofradiocarbon history,geomorphology archaeology, and the Caspianbasin.Usingdataongeology, ofwith climate changeandfluctuations thelast10,000yearsduring are associated CaspianSea inthenorthern been occurring Changes inlandscapeconditionsthathave INTRODUCTION 2 ( 14 C) series of series a sufficient palynological and characteristics, full representation oftheHolocenesediments, lack ofdataontheCaspiansequenceswith interglacial epochhasbeenhampered bya climate evolution theentire during modern A holisticunderstandingofvegetation and 1995]. Turmanina,1988; and Bukreeva Vronsky, assemblages[Abramova and spore-pollen quantify paleoclimaticparameters ofthe with thehelpofmathematicalmethodsto temperatures haveJanuary beenobtained precipitation andvaluesofannual, July, and paleogeographic stages, valuesofannual et al., 1986andmany others].For these Vronsky, 1980; Vronsky, 1987; Yakhimovich dated with palynological studyofsedimentsfully The firstresults ofacomprehensive the Holoceneperiod. The reconstructed were themostinformative inregards to dating ofpaleogeographic sequencesthat palynological analysisandradiocarbon were basedonacomprehensive of edaphicconditions. These reconstructions andchanges of globalclimate fluctuations Volga region thatoccurred undertheimpact in theHolocenelandscapesofLower the zonal andintrazonal plantcommunities andthetransformationvegetation of types reconstructions ofchangesinthezonal This paperpresents theresults ofdetailed Kasimov, 2008]. and and Kasimov, 2010;Bolikhovskaya thelast10,000yearsduring [Bolikhovskaya inthestudyareathat have beenoccurring oflandscapeandclimaticchanges patterns and the Volga deltaandidentifiedthe successions ofthe Volga-Akhtuba floodplain compared climaticandvegetation Holocene ofoursubsequentresearch,materials we etal., 1989].Using 1990; Bolikhovskaya obtained inthelate 1980’s [Bolikhovskaya, Lower Volga theHolocenewere during changes invegetation andclimate ofthe to reconstructacontinuoussequenceof 14 C dates. 14 C methodthatallowed us exposed sequence. Onthebaseofpollen been obtainedfor theupper3mof the river’s edge. Representative datahave high floodplaintowering 6–7met of thesediments, 2(S2)uncovered Section a through theentire theoutcrop Holocene. In claysof accumulationoxbow-lake continued appeared thattheprocess 1).It samples (Table and intervals at10-cm taken using palynological analysisof50samples stratig of ahighfloodplain.Adetailedclimato- developedoxbow onthesurface lake thick layer uncovered byаwell at adry 1(S1)wasa5-meter Section performed. of Chernyi Yar, oblast)was Astrakhanskaya southofthecity above sealevel); 5km (47°54’ N,46°10’ E;about–19–20 masl(i.e., nearthesite Solenoyesections Zajmishche pollen analysisofthesedimentstwo Caspian Sealevel fluctuations. The spore- to climate changeandthecongruent results responded ofthisstudy)actively vegetation (asshownbythe Its respect. it isthemostindicative inpalynological specifically, the Volga-Akhtuba floodplainas CaspianSearegion, was theNorthern oftheseresearch The mainobject efforts regressive epochs. Caspian region transgressive invarious – the HolocenelandscapesofNorthern the magnitude ofthetransformation of these findingsmay helpto understand Holocene oftheCaspianbasin.Furthermore, subsequent paleogeographical studiesofthe fora climato-stratigraphical framework as and climate changephasesmay serve ofvegetation, landscape, paleo-boundaries Holocene. The reconstructed chronological Caspianregion the during of theNorthern stratigraphical andpaleogeographical studies foras aframework subsequentclimato- has beendeveloped. This schemecanserve scheme ofindividualpaleoclimaticevents in theHolocene. Adetailedperiodization Caspian Seatransgressive-regressive phases paleoclimatic events were correlated to the THE STUDY AREA MATERIALS AND METHODS. raphical interpretation was performed raphical interpretation wasperformed 14 C dating of five C datingoffive ers above

79 ENVIRONMENT 80 ENVIRONMENT Table andcalendardates 1.Radiocarbon at for Solenoe theHolocene sedimentsoftheSections in an international projectfromin aninternational six sediments identifiedbyourcolleagues Reserve. The absolute ageofthissection’s NatureDamchik site oftheAstrakhan (45°43’ N, N22 inthelittoral area ofthe Volga Delta 10-m thicklayer penetrated byborehole Palynological datawere alsoderivedfor a Holocene. Subboreal ofthe andSubatlanticperiods assemblages, itmay bedated to thelate of tree, shrub, floraandby andherbaceous a gradual depletion,in thesamedirection, differs from otherprovinces inthiszone by to southfor from more north than350km, Volga-Akhtuba province, whichstretches communities. by sagebrush-gramineous The zone dominated adjacent to asemi-desert Zajmishche, the Volga-Akhtuba floodplain is [Nikolayev, thearea ofSolenoe 2007].In the landscapesVolga-Akhtuba semi-arid Volga delta–belongto theprovince of the Volga-Akhtuba floodplainandthe area where thestudysites are located – itself, butalsoofEurope asawhole. The ofnotonlythe the territory Volga region andcontinentalclimate in the mostarid Currently, theLower Volga istheplacewith 2010]. andBolikhovskaya, [Richards Richards outbyK. of thedeltacarried and algological investigation offour sections byrigorous palynologicalbeen confirmed and Kasimov, 2008] isincomplete, whichhas sequences ofthe Volga delta[Bolikhovskaya The Holocenegeological record inthe BP. 2008]. [Kroonenberg andHoogendoorn, 34 AMS from dates varied 7287±44to 3316± Number Sample Sample Zajmishche. ,005 0 0900–800 2620 3440–3400 9500 11060–10970 900±60 2540±130 3200±60 0,30–0,50 8500±100 2,00–2,25 9560±60 2,25–2,50 4,50–4,75 4,75–5,00 5 4 3 2 1 47°55’ E)(–22masl)atthe et,m1Сdts r PCalendar (calibrated) dates, BP. (ca.14СyrsBP) 14Сdates, yrsBP Depth, m 14 C pendula elm ( zonal type andstructure ofthepollenand zonal type samples analyzed adequately reflectthe that subrecent pollenassemblagesofall palynological demonstrate studiesclearly Caspianregion. Northern The results ofthe areas andarid ofthe sediments insemiarid alluvialandsub-aerial the modern We andstudiedsamplesfrom collected Holocene. result ofitsdevelopment the mainlyduring CaspianSeaisthe the floraofNorth stretches alongthesea. of The poverty common reed grass ( ( communities and saltwort-sagebrush the CaspianSeaconsistsmainlyofhalophytic bushes. The vegetation ofthe there anddzhuzguna tamarisk are primarily Dracunculus by sagebrush(subgenera landscapesdominated delta adjoinsdesert of thedelta. To thewest andeast,the Volga part in willowstandsandonlythenorthern Ash andelmcanbefound onlyoccasionally are formed mainlybywhite willow( of the Volga stands poor: deltaisextremely glutinosa Oak ( forests ofwillow. types together withvarious herb, etc.). Poplar, aspen,andmaplegrow in gramineous, gramineous-sedge, sagebrush- grassland communities(gramineous-herb, dense floodplainforests (mainlywillow)and Volga-Akhtuba floodplainisoccupiedby the greatest ofphytocoenoses. diversity The Suaeda altissima Halocnemum strobilaceum Ulmus laevis Ulmus Quercus robur , B. pubescens ) are lessfrequent. The dendroflora ). Onthesandsofdunes, , , S. сonfusa U. carpinifolia ), ash( ), andblackalder( Phragmites communis , Artemisia halophila Artemisia ). Thick growth of Fraxinus excelsior Seriphidium ), birch ( littoral strip of of littoral strip Salix alba Salix Betula Alnus and ), ). ) , oa ubro aa3 oa ubro aa30 Total number of taxa 35 Total numberof taxa Table 2.Composition ofdendrofl andpercentage-share Abies Picea iu iiia– Pinus sylvestris Pinus sibirica Pinus subgenusHaploxylon .pbsesB. pubescens Betula Betula B. pubescens Betula pendula Picea lu avsUlmuslaevis Tilia cordata Tilia tomentosa /argentea Carpinus orientalis Carpinus betulus cf. Quercuspetraea Morus Quercusrobur Fraxinus Fagusorientalis Ulmus glabra/scabra/ foliaceae/ Ulmus carpinifolia / Ulmus laevis Tilia dasystyla Tilia tomentosa/argentea/ Tilia platyphyllos Tilia cordata Carpinus orientalis Carpinus caucasica Carpinus betulus Quercus petraea Quercus robur Fagus orientalis Fagus sylvatica Corylus colurna Salix Tamarix A. incana Corylus avellana A. incana Alnus glutinosa Juniperus Caprifoliaceae Euonymus s.42–46 sp. sect. sect. s.3–5 sp. Solenoe ZajmishcheandDamchik-22Solenoe core cf. sect. sp. sp. sp. Section 1 Solenoe Zajmishche 1Solenoe Section sp. Taxa (Volga-Akhtuba fl (Volga-Akhtuba aaBetula nana sp. ie Picea Picea Omorica rtcs Betula Fruticosa – – – oodplain) during maxima,% Conmnt 21–31% 45–58 12–26 15–22 22–48 4–11 ora inpollenassemblagesoftheSequences at Pinus sylvestris Pinus Betula pendula Abies Picea Ulmus carpinifolia Fraxinus Ulmus Corylus avellana cf. Morus Alnus glutinosa Salix Elaeagnus cf. Tamarix Euonymus Juniperus Juniperus Taxa foetidissima s.63–75 sp. sect. sect. s.3–4 sp. Damchik-22 core subgen. cf. cf. cf. (Volga delta) sp. sp. cf. sp. pumila fruticosa nana sp. Picea Omorica – – – – – – – Haploxylon during maxima,% Conmnt 13–20% 22–43 45–55 12–20 46–67

1 81 ENVIRONMENT 82 ENVIRONMENT

Figure 1. Pollen-spore percentage diagram of Section 1 near the site Solenoye Zajmishche. 1 – sample locations for radiocarbon dating (14C); 2 – arboreal pollen (AP); 3 – non-arboreal pollen (NAP); 4 – spores (SP); 5 – pollen content less than 2 %; 6 – Juniperus; 7 – Tamarix; 8 – Euonymus; 9 – Fagus sylvatica; 10 – Fagus orientalis; 11 – Fraxinus; 12 – Ericales; 13 – Ephedra pollen (i.e., fir The maximumsofpercentages ofconiferous Zajmishche, 2). whichcontains35taxa(Table close to thearboreal pollenofSolenoe palynoflora, whichconsistsof30taxa,is that tree andshrubspeciesofDamchik on sealevel fluctuations. First, itappears consequently, atconclusions ofarriving change inthelittoral Caspianregion and, the investigation ofvegetation andclimate prospect ofusingthedeltasequencesfor thepromisingand Damchikconfirms in theassemblagesofSolenoeZajmishche ofarboreal pollen degree ofparticipation etc. ofthecompositionand Comparison grass andxerophytic shrubcommunities, coniferousof dark trees, broadleaf trees, i.e., thechronology ofpeaks of pollen the pollenrecords ofSolenoeZajmishche, were features basedoncharacteristic of fossil assemblagesfrom thedeltadeposits and stratigraphical interpretations ofthe aspects, we emphasize thatclimatological Here, referring to themethodological 2008]. andKasimov, Kasimov, 2010;Bolikhovskaya and 1990;Bolikhovskaya [Bolikhovskaya, in anumberofourprevious publications reconstructions, are givenof performed well asthemethodological background and reconstructed paleophytocenoses, as ofthepollen assemblagesdescriptions spore producing plantcommunities. Detailed Picea dendroflora: pine ( Siberian species are absentinthefossil Damchik floodplain andlittoral areas. The following edaphic conditionsofgrowing trees inthe sequences, aswell asto thedifferences in geography andpaleozonal position ofthe undoubtedly dueto thedifferences in systematic differences are seen, alsoclearly in thedendroflora are alsosimilar. However, of linden( common beech( colurna hazelnut- tree orbearnut-tree ( ( Caucasian hornbeam representatives oftheCaucasianforests, i.e., rough elm( ), andcommonpine( ). In addition, peaksofpollenbirch ). In Tilia platyphyllos Ulmus glabraUlmus Abies Fagus sylvatica sp.), spruce( Carpinus caucasica / scabra , Pinus sylvestris Tilia dasystyla Pinus sibirica ), some types ), sometypes /), andsome Picea Corylus sect. sect. )) ), ), ), (48 %)wasfound. general, theamount In sediments, pollencontent of spruce here, thatthemaximal, for theHolocene isprecisely cedar pine, and commonpine).It pollen, mainlyconiferous species(fir, spruce, are bythedominanceoftree characterized (4,8–5 m),dated to pollenzone 1(seeFig. 1), The oldestsedimentsofSolenoeZajmishche studies (Fig. 3). geomorphological, malacological, andother definedaccordingfluctuations to geological, paleoclimatic events to theCaspianSealevel We correlated thereconstructed 3). dating obtainedinthisstudy(Table the palynological dataandresults of Lower Volga region using were performed theHolocenein and climate during 26 phasesinthedevelopment ofvegetation of the sedimentsstudiedandadescription A detailedstratigraphical interpretation of vegetation theHolocene. during climate andthestructureofzonal andlocal units, whichreflectsuccessive changesof subzones andsmallerpalynostratigraphical zones were subdividedinto anumberof (Figs.characteristics stratigraphical-paleogeographical palynoflora dynamics ofmajorcomponentsandthe diagrams basedonthe the spore-pollen zonesEleven were spore-pollen isolated on of ferns andgreen andsphagnum mosses. grasses, sagebrush,goosefoot, andspores linden,elm,etc.),hornbeam, gramineous cedar, spruce, deciduoustrees (beech,oak, sequences were thepollenofScotspine, assemblages oftheSolenoeZajmishche The mostdynamiccomponentsofthepollen mixtum of acomplexdeciduoustrees ( glutinosa ( (~10500/10300 – – 9500/9200BP) (~10500/10300 PRE-BOREAL PERIOD AND CLIMATE RECONSTRUCTIONS THE RESULTS OF LANDSCAPE Betula pendula ) are also markedly different.) are alsomarkedly , A. incana , B. pubescens ), willow( 1 and 2). M 1 and2). Salix ), alder( ost ofthese Quercetum spp.), and Alnus 14 C

83 ENVIRONMENT 84 ENVIRONMENT

Figure 2. Pollen-spore percentage diagram of Section 2 near the site Solenoye Zajmishche (symbols are the same as in Figure 1). Table 3.Climatic stagesoftheHolocene intheLower Volga Region,theircharacteristicandagesaccording ubdivisions Holocene Holocene SB-3 SB-2 SB-1 SA-1 SA-2 SA-3 AT-1 AT-2 to pollenanalysis and14Сdating ofthedepositsfrom Zajmishche theSolenoe ovninlCalibrated Conventional 14 5020 6024 tpeTemperature fall, Temperature fall, Steppe 2600–2340 Dry steppe 2500–2300 2340–2080 2300–2100 7020 7020 tpeRelatively warm Relatively warm, R Warm andarid R Forest-steppe 3770–2780 Steppe Temperature fall, Temperature rise, 3500–2700 2780–2600 2700–2500 Steppe Steppe 2080–1720 1720–1600 2100–1800 Steppe 1800–1700 1600–1400 Dry steppe 1700–1500 1400–1270 Steppe 1500–1300 1270–1030 1300–1100 0070 9080 tpeWarm andrelatively Warm andrelatively Steppe 8900–8400 Dry st 8000–7600 8400–8240 Steppe 7600–7400 8240–6970 7400–6100 4770–4040 4200–3700 Dry st 4040–3770 3700–3500 0040 7054 oetsep Temperature fall, T Forest-steppe; mixed forests with 6970–5740 Forest-steppe 6100–5000 5740–5540 Forest-steppe 5000–4800 5540–4770 4800–4200 С agesofclimatic stages, 109013–4 r tpeCool andarid Dry steppe 1030–840 1100–900 0–0 4–7 eidsr Temperature fall, Temperature rise, Temperature fall, Semi-desert 840–670 Semi-desert 670–500 Semi-desert 900–700 500–250 700–400 400–200 0– 5– eidsr Relatively warm Semi-desert 250–0 200–0 years BP Artemisia assemblagesArtemisia and conifer stands hornbeam, beech, elm, lime, birch stands broadleaved , birchandconifer Forest-steppe; mixed forests with assemblages Chenopodiaceae – Artemisia oa eeainClimate Zonal vegetation eppe withChenopodiaceae – with eppe andsemi-desert humidification continentalization relatively humid relatively humid humidification and arid aridization humidification humid aridization Temperature fall, arid optimum) (II –mainclimatic Warm andhumid optimum) climate (IIIclimatic Warm andhumid aridization Temperature fall, aridization humidification rise aridization humidification humidification and arid emperature fall and emperature falland elatively warmand elatively warmand

85 ENVIRONMENT 86 ENVIRONMENT shrubs, thepollengrains ofxerophytes, thegroup6–7 %.In ofgrasses andsmall- the grains ofoakandelm,comprised 60 %;thepollenofdeciduoustrees, i.e., (fir, spruce, andcedarpine)approached of microfossils ofdark-coniferous species Figure ofclimate 3.Reconstruction changesintheLower Volga Regionduring theHolocene andtheir ubdivisions Holocene Holocene BO-1 BO-2 PB-2 1 – curve of fluctuations of heat supply; 2 – curve of fluctuations ofmoisture ofheat offluctuations availability offluctuations supply;2– curve 1 –curve ovninlCalibrated Conventional correlation withtransgressive and regressive stages oftheCaspian Sea. 14 9200 10000– 10350– 9200–8500 5080 5095 Forest-steppe; mixed forests with 9500–9350 8500–8300 3080 3080 tpeTemperature fall, Steppe 9350–8900 8300–8000 С agesofclimatic stages, years BP 10320 11500– 9500 filix-femina lagopus species ( the grains ofboreal forest clubmoss dominated. containedThe spore-group i.e., goosefoot, sagebrush,andephedra, Pinus Forest-steppe dominated by assemblages, park pineforests Steppe withChenopodiaceae conifer hornbeam, elm, lime, birchand oa eeainClimate Zonal vegetation , Abies (Laest.)Zinzerl.), andfern Lycopodium annotinum (L.)Roth). Picea Athyrium ,

L humid Relatively cool and continentalization Cool, (I climatic optimum) Warm andhumid continentalization ., L. in the section, andthe in thesection, phytocenotical reconstructions, thelocation on theclimato-stratigraphicalandclimato- of theHolocene. This datingwasbased second halfofthePre-Boreal (PB-2) period These depositsmay bedated to the ± 490BPbasedon by thedates of9700±190and13110 Caspian Sea. The ageofthisstageisdefined of theLatetransgression Khvalynian ofthe transgressive final phaseoftheSartass stage regions oftheEastEuropean Plain andto the to thePereslavlperiod coolinginthecentral ~10000–9200BP.interval We correlated this that thesedepositswere formed inthe fromdetermined calculations interpolation may be ± 60BPatthedepthof4,75–5,0m.It steppe vegetation withsomewooded sites. littoral areas theywere dominated byarid theirformationshowed thatduring in the V.A. and Vronsky [Bukreeva Vronsky, 1995] by Caspianregion performed the Northern sedimentsfrommarine theboreholes in The palynological analysisoftheSartass were the areas ofsparsepineforest growth. i.e., offresh naturalstorage water, reservoirs open landscapes. Sites sands, withreworked climaticphase, arid prevailedthe earlier in halophytic communities),developed during small-shrubs) andsalinized substrates (with sites (withsparsexerophytic shrubsand ferns, clubmoss, horsetail, andherbs. Eroded grass patches,consisted ofscattered turf forestsand elm.Grasscover ofthesepark grew together withfir, cedarpine, oak, the slopesfacingriver. There, spruce depressions adjacentto theterraces, and inloamyinner floodplainrich sediments, floodplain, i.e., leacheddepressions ofthe the mostfavorable habitatsofthe Volga coniferous forests. Spruceforests occupied developmentwith theextensive ofdark was dominated byforest-steppe landscapes continental climate, theLower Volga region At thattime, inacoldandrelatively humid [Rychagov,beach ridges 1997;andothers]. –12 maslfromofancient thedataonsections sea level ofthisstagewasidentifiedat–10to sediments ofDagestan[Leontiev etal, 1976]; 14 C dating of the Sartass C datingoftheSartass 14 C date of 9560± reconstructed paleovegetation, and and elm. The compositionofpalynoflora, fir, cedarpine, andisolated trees ofoak standswithsomesparse spruce-pine edaphic conditionswere occupiedby region. Biotopes withthemostfavorable intheLowervegetation type Volga formations becamethedominant gramineous andclubmoss-sagebrush steppes with thepredominance ofherb- increased,down anditscontinentality pollen zone 2),whentheclimate cooled Boreal (BO-1; theEarly period During 800 years. formations continuedto occurthere for over fluctuations, significant changesinplant landscapes. Undertheinfluenceofclimate development ofsteppe andforest-steppe phase, thestudyarea wasthezone of thisHolocene (BO) andsuggestthat,during represent thedepositsofBoreal period Pollen zones 2(4,6–4,8m)and3(4,2–4,6 Boreal period of the Holocene (BO-2) wereBoreal oftheHolocene(BO-2) period ofthe The sedimentsofthesecond part and Vronsky,1995]. plants ofsalinized littoral zones [Bukreeva andothersalt grass,sarzasan, glasswort, only bytheclubmossfamilyspecies, i.e., showed that thelittoral area wasinhabited woodythat completely vegetation, lacked Caspianfrom deepcolumnsoftheMiddle regressionsediments oftheMangyshlak Caspian Seaandanalysisofmarine exposed intheboreholes inthenorthern sedimentsthe continentalMangyshlak 1987]. The palynological analysisof regression [Abramova, 1980; Vronsky, theMangyshlakless than–50mduring which level dropped ofno to themarks shelfthatwasfree oftheCaspianSea,dry landscapesdominated theand desert Leontiev etal., 1976;etc.]. Semi-desert Rychagov, 1982; Varuschenko etal, 1987; range of~9000–8000yrBP[Leontiev and sea, identifiedbymostresearchers inthe regressiveMangyshlak stageoftheCaspian tous to the correlate thissub-period age of8500±100BP(4,5–4,75m)allowed BOREAL PERIOD (~ 9500/9200–8000 BP) 9500/9200–8000 14 C

87 ENVIRONMENT 88 ENVIRONMENT decreased; theshare ofmesophytic species, formations. The area of deciduousforests had greater presence of spruce andpine paleolandscapes oftheLower Volga region cooling dated to ~8300–8000BP. The period (3 period The finalsteppe phaseoftheBoreal and halophytic cenoses. along withtheseformations, ofxerophytic of steppes expressed bythedevelopment, diverse compositionofgrass-shrub cover theof edaphicconditionsdetermined formations. thiscase, theheterogeneity In were occupiedmainlybyherb-granineous gramineous plantsandgrasses. Openspaces forest communities wasdominated by orientalis ( hornbeam contained oriental species;theundergrowththe edificatory Q. petraea and linden.Oakelm( ( common hornbeam were dominated bydeciduoustrees: oak, forestsCaspian, whenthestandsofriparian first Holoceneclimaticoptimumofthe andmoistening ofclimatewarming to the of forest-steppe landscapes undersignificant We correlated thephaseofdominance of~9200–8500BP.interval regressionMangyshlak occurred inthe in thelevel the oftheCaspianSeaduring thought. Probably, themaximumdecrease regression wasnarrower thanpreviously oftheprecedingframework (Mangyshlak) conclude, therefore, thatthechronological was estimated at~8500–8300BP. We can Through theageofthisphase interpolation, subsequent AtlanticandSubboreal periods. forest-steppe andsteppe phasesofthe broad-leaved forest formations inseveral dominance oforasignificant presence of study region, mostvividlyexpressed inthe invasion ofdeciduousdendroflora into the Fig. thebeginning 1)marks ofalong-term The Mid Boreal phase(pollensubzoneThe Mid 3 the CaspianSea. the emerging NewCaspiantransgression of thefirstclimaticphaseof deposited during ) andhazel. The grass cover of b , ) marked a short-term climate ashort-term ) marked Ulmus laevis Ulmus Carpinus betulus , U. foliacea Quercus robur Carpinus ) were ), elm, a , , Varuschenko etal. [1987]indicate the of theNewCaspianbasin,for whichS.I. corresponds transgressive to theearly stage cooling. This wastheclimaticphasethat bytheLateBP interrupted Boreal briefly ~8500–7600and humidizationduring phaseofclimate warming was anextended Therefore, we have concludedthatthere steppe phase(3 BP were closeto arelatively humidforest- forest formations dated to ~ 8000–7600 with asignificant expansionofdeciduous (4 phaseoftheAtlanticperiod the early Climatic conditionsandvegetation cover of pollen zones 4 Atlantictime(AT-1)Early are represented by landscapes thatdominated throughout the Three phasesintheevolution ofsteppe pollen zones 4and5(seeFig. 1). areperiod reflected intheassemblagesof in theLower Volga region theAtlantic during Vegetation andclimate changethatoccurred 1991;etc.].Spiridonova, and 1988;Mamedov Nemkova, Veliyev, 1988; and 1986;Klimanov [Blagoveschenskaya, Eastern Bashkortostan, Transcaucasia, etc.) Lower Ulyanovsk Don, Volga Region, remote Eurasia(the regions ofNorthern also occurred inmany and neighboring Boreal oftheHolocene andAtlanticperiods ofthe indicate that coolingattheboundary into thefloodplain sites. Published sources the floodplainforests. Willow standsspread continued to play thedominantrole onlyin decreased intheseformations. Oakandelm andlinden,also hornbeam i.e., ordinary 2, 3.in[Lower Volga..., 2002]). the Western CaspianSearegion (seeFigure forms, terraces, sedimentsof andmarine based ontheresults ofthestudycoastal to –20masl)anddates itto ~8000–7000 (according to him,thecoastlinewason–19 considers thisphaseto bethemaximal to –16to [1997] –20masl. G.I.Rychagov ofsealevel7530 ±150BPandtherise age withintherangeof8000±150and ATLANTIC PERIOD (~ a а , 4 ) of the Mid Boreal warming.) oftheMid b and 4 8000–5000 BP) 8000–5000 c (3,6–4,2m). 14 а C ) ( T. dasystyla of thefloodplain,e.g., linden( the mixed oakforests ofthecentralpart forests. There were many otherspeciesin of thecompositiondeciduous toconditions contributed theenrichment the Volga-Akhtuba Valley,site improved and theirdifferentiation increased. Within with grass-shrub communitiesexpanded watersheds, thearea ofopenlandscapes theirplantformations.and between On zonalbetween andintrazonal landscapes ledto thegrowingGlobal warming contrast of theLower Volga region in7400–6100BP. Steppe remained thezonal vegetation type etal., 1987]. –28 (–39)masl[Varuschenko ofpollensubzonethe spectra 4 vegetation andclimate, reconstructed from phaseinthedevelopment ofThe next role ofwillow. a decliningshare oflinden,andbyagreater peakofsagebrush,by of theAtlanticperiod) and shrubs, themaximal(for thesediments isdominated bygrasspollen ofthisperiod ecotopes.expanse ofthearea ofturf-free The reduction ofdeciduousforests andthe andcoolingof climate witha aridization by corresponds to theregressive phasedated i.e., in~7600–6100BP. This regressive phase not onlyin7600–7400BPbuteven later, New Caspianbasincouldhave occurred phase, we ofthe assumethatthelowering Given theclimaticfeatures ofthelastarid climate. butalsoofarelatively warm dry 7400–6100 BP. ofnotonly wasaperiod It relatively intherangeof~ longwarming subzone 4 therangeof~7600–7400BP,In pollen betulus were covered withvinesofhops( by gramineous plantsandherbs. Tree trunks and willow. The grass cover wasdominated ( The undergrowth wasrepresented byhazel elm,alder,of oak-elm, andwillowstands. of lessfavorable habitatswere composed etc. forest Species-depleted communities U. саrpinifolia Corylus avellana Corylus 14 C to 6800±90and6400BPwith ), oriental beech( ), oriental b ), elm( marks a short-term phaseof ashort-term marks ), common hornbeam ( ), commonhornbeam ), euonymus ( Ulmus laevis Ulmus Fagus orientalis Euonymus Tilia cordata ), fieldelm c , reflects Humulus Carpinus ), alder, sp.), , moisture-loving speciesinthegrass cover of moisture-loving other speciesare indicative ofmeadowand clubmoss femina spore assemblagesoftheferns were elm,andpinestands. also oak-elm, The of elm,linden,birch andothertrees. There types beech,andvarious oriental hornbeam, oak forests withcommonandCaucasian the Lower Volga Valley consisted ofmixed the Late Atlantictime, theforest beltof showedOur reconstructions thatduring ~5500–5400 BP. 1990] dropterm insealevel [Bolikhovskaya, phase, whichcouldhave causedashort- of climate continentalizationwithinthis data, we identifiedtherelative momentum and 5390±110BP).Usingthepalynological and the et al, 1987]and-21masl[Rychagov, 1997]) Caspian basin(–18to –28masl[Varuschenko with thetransgressive phaseoftheNew We associated theentire Late Atlanticperiod moisture for availability vegetation. andbalanceofheatsupply the intensity optimum withinthestudyarea of interms This wasthemajorHoloceneclimatic species. andmoisture-loving thermophilic the highest,inHolocene, numberof the dominanceofsteppe vegetation and from 6100to 5000BP, by ischaracterized (AT-2),The late Atlanticinterval whichlasted Fig. 1). alder, grasses, caucasica presence ( ofCaucasianhornbeam dendrofloraof thermophilic pollen,inthe pollen, inincreased (upto 31%)amount latter inthe dominanceofthetree andshrub pollen zone 4.However, itdiffers from the taxacompositioniscloseto thatof m). Its isreflected bypollenzoneperiod 5(3,2–3,6 The vegetation cover oftheLate Atlantic forests. the Subboreal time, inthe Volga-Akhtuba Boreal anduntiltheendof period the Mid lupulus , ), whichwasconstantlypresent, since Botrychium matrycarifolium Botrychium 14 ), andinagreater role ofpollen C ageof5940±100,5540110, Diphazium complanatumDiphazium Ericales , andfern spores (see Athyrium filix- Carpinus , andof , ofthe

89 ENVIRONMENT 90 ENVIRONMENT during the first phase of the Early Subboreal thefirstphaseofEarly during Clay-sediment formation intheoxbow lake Subatlantic period. second halfoftheEarly floodplain were closeto theforests ofthe structure, theforests ofthe Volga-Akhtuba forest-steppe landscapes. theirvery By of broad-leaved forest standsinstillprevalent intheforestreduction cover anddegradation ofclimaticconditionsledtodeterioration a ofthenaturalzones,in theboundaries but no reason to assumeafundamentalchange disappearance ofthebeechpollen). There is elm,andlindenpollencontent and the oak, treethermophilic pollen(dueto decrease of by decrease oftheshare (to 15–18%)ofthe manifested assemblages inthespore-pollen cooling, whichbegan~5000–4200BP. This is transformed undertheinfluenceofclimate oftheSubboreal (SB-1) period one-third reconstruct thelandscapesoffirst Pollen zone 6(2,8–3,2m)allowed usto period. comparedin theSBperiod to theAtlantic conditions oflandscape-climatic alternations subzones. indicates moreThis fact frequent subdividedinto pollen two was inturn pollen zones were isolated there; eachzone increasing upward inthestratigraphy. Three Subboreal (SB)(2,0–3,2m)was period ofthesediments The variability al., 1986]. et linden,andash[Yakhimovich hornbeam, with pineanddeciduousspeciesofoak, region, there wasthedominanceofsteppes CaspianSea humidization intheNorthern and of themaximumHolocenewarming the riverUralfound thephase that,during Holocene sedimentsofthelower reaches of Furthermore, thepalynological studiesofthe etc. oak, for moisture, i.e., pine, birch, elm,English were thehabitatsofspecies less demanding depressions withalowlevel ofgroundwater, valleys, steppe “saucers”, estuaries, andother forests,of islandplacoric confinedto narrow the forests andtheforest fringes. The stands SUBBOREAL PERIOD ( ~5000–2500 BP) ~5000–2500 to –18to –22maslinthe to thetransgressive phaseofsealevel rise corresponds It characteristics. and thermal optimuminduration second, Late-Atlantic) Caspian region, wasinferior to themain(the third HoloceneoptimumoftheNorthern and humidization(~4200–3700BP),i.e., the steppe formations. of warming This period forests, spruce-pine andherb-gramineous T. rubra betulus elm ( mixed linden,and withbeech,hornbeam, forestslandscapes hadoakandoak-elm climate. Atthattime, prevailing forest-steppe developing andrelatively inawarm humid phasewas that thevegetation oftheearly species.of herbaceous suggests This fact formations), andbythepollenofavariety spruce), gramineous plants(ingrass-shrub 21 %),coniferous trees (mainlypineand by thepollenofbroadleaf species (upto of pollensubzone 7 ~4200–3500BP.the interval The assemblages Subboreal (SB-2)thattook placein warming Pollen zone theMid 7 (2,5–2,8m)describes possibly, bya gradual insealevel. rise accompanied byclimate humidizationand, SubborealEarly period, thiscoolingwas (~ 4800–4200BP)anduntiltheendof was 3100–2400BP(~5000–4400BP).Later ofregressionperiod to –32m(Izberbash) Varuschenko etal. [1980]thatthemostlikely byA.N.the assumptionmadeearlier to 4800BP). The dataobtainedconfirmed duration(approx. fromwas ofashort 5000 basin, which,according to thepollendata, regressivenext phaseoftheNewCaspian Atlantic andSubboreal periods, causedthe ofthe ofclimate ontheturn aridization The cooling, incombinationwiththe in thestratigraphy (pollensubzone 6 shrub, grass, andsedgepollengrew upward The amountofarboreal (includingspruce), xerophytic speciesdominated) reached 45%. 6 oftheexaminedlayer (pollensubzonepart ofclimate,and aridization sinceinthelower time took placeinconditionsofbothcooling а ), thepollenofgrass-shrub plants(where Quercus robur , , Tilia cordata Ulmus laevis Ulmus , , , Fagus orientalis T. dasystyla U. glabra а were dominated 14 C dated interval C dated interval , U. carpinifolia , T. tomentosa , Carpinus b ). ), , The share ofspruceandpinepollenfalls in theassemblagesofpollen subzone 8 small-shrub xerophytic pollenisprevalent thegrass- ofthesection, theupperpart In Caspian basin. al. [1980])transgressive phaseofthe New Turalinskaya (according to Varuschenko et according [1997])orto the to Rychagov Plain (to andto –23to thefourth –23masl, the centralregions European oftheEastern corresponds to theLate Subboreal coolingof The phaseofclimate humidization and gramineous cenoses. and to thedominanceofherb-gramineous grass cover ofthe Volga-Akhtuba floodplain, deciduous forests, to amesophicationof as thedominantspeciesinriparian elm ( Lower Volga territory, to theemergence of boundary, to thereturn ofsteppes to the ofdark-coniferous shift speciessouthern to 2700BP. This humidizationledto the climate thatlasted approximately from 3500 phase beganwiththehumidizationof assemblages indicate thattheLate Subboreal the dominanceofferns inthespore-grain gramineous plants, forbs, andgrasses, and species), thedominanceofpollen arboreal pollen(spruce, pine, andbroadleaf pollen zone 8(2,0–2,5m). The dominanceof (SB-3) (~3500–2500BP)are reflected by theLate Subborealconditions during phase Changes inphytocenotic andclimatic etal., 1987]. [Varuschenko from 4000±50to 3540±120BP the interval corresponds to theregressive Caspianstagein Ephedra eroded sites withsparsecover ofsagebrush, forests, andto theexpanse ofthearea of gramineous deciduous steppes andriparian watersheds, to thedegradation ofherb- communitieson steppe and semidesert 7 ~3700–3500BP(pollensubzone drying endedwithapulseclimate This sub-period S.I. Varuschenko etal. [1987]. of 4250±150and400050BPisolated by b ), whichledto thedominanceof Ulmus laevis Ulmus , andotherxerophytes. This phase , U. glabra , U. carpinifolia b ) . The results of stage (sealevel drop to –37masl). Varuschenko etal[1980],i.e., theregressive phaseisolated byA.N. the Alexandrbajskaya ofclimate to andwarming aridization term We correlated thisphaseofarelatively short- common. broad-leaved forests were significantly less Holocene vegetation oftheLower Volga, subsequent phasesoftheevolution ofthe from thepalynological records, all during overgrowing ofsphagnum moss. Judging waterlogging ofitsshoreline zone andthe causedthe area oftheoxbow paleo-lake sagebrush dominated. inthe The reduction shrub layer, graminoues grasses, sedges, and ( tamarisk alder, ofhalophilic andwillow)thickets grew together withsmallleafstands(birch, forest formations ofthe Volga-Akhtuba and forests were prevalent amongtheriparian sylvatica oflindenandbeech( with admixture area offorests consistingofoakandoak-elm disappeared.hornbeam Atthesametime, the conifer standsdegraded almostentirely and arboreal specieswassubstantiallydepleted: gramineous formations. The compositionof region, goosefoot-sagebrush associated with open steppe landscapesoftheLower Volga steppification ofthevegetation cover. the In from 2700to 2500BP, causedanewwave of ofclimate, whichlasted roughlydryness the Subboreal andincreased period, warming thefinalphaseof data indicate thatduring elements reaches 30%. The palynological arboreal amount ofpollenthermophilic broadleaf trees begins to dominate. The dramatically. The pollenofsmallleafand 2500 to 900BP). These steppes were replaced was initiallydominated bysteppes (~from Caspian region study area oftheNorthern 2) indicate that,for thepast2500years, the records ofthefloodplainalluviumS2(Fig. layer from (seeFig. theoxbow lake 1),andthe pollen records oftheupper2-mthickclay (~2500 BP TO THE THE TO BP (~2500 SUBATLANTIC PERIOD L.)increased significantly. These Tamarix 14 C dating (Table 1),thespore- C dating(Table sp.). thegrass-small- In PRESENT TIME) Fagus

91 ENVIRONMENT 92 ENVIRONMENT of theinitialphase. Warming promoted steppe remained thezonal vegetation type elm, andlindentogether, upto 14%),while the assemblageofpollensubzone 10 pollenincreasedarboreal thermophilic in of climate continentality. The amountof mainly bythecontinuingmitigation (~ 2100/2000–1100BP)wasinfluenced Subatlantic(SA-2)sub-period lasting Mid S2), theevolution ofvegetation ofalong- zone 10(0,6–1,6minS1and0,65–2,3 As shownbytheassemblagesofpollen cover (pollensubzone 9 sedges, andmesophilicspeciesinthegrass species intheforests andgramineous plants, spread coniferous ofdark andbroadleaf (~2100–2000 BP),whichledto agreater emerging phaseofclimate humidization endedwiththe Subatlanticinterval Early steppes thatprevailed atthattime. The in thesparsegrass-small-shrub cover ofdry (pollen subzone 9 forestspine park ofspruce withadmixture Lower Volga theywereValley; replaced by disappeared from thevegetation ofthe the deciduousstandsalmostcompletely climate continentalizationandcooling, (~2300–2100 BP),undertheinfluenceof (pollen subzone 9 ash with oak, forestswith patches ofspruce-pine mixed steppe (mainlygramineous) communities dominated byopensteppe andmeadow- the initialphase(~2500–2300BP)was coolingandhumidization ofclimate,During 9: 1,6–2,0min (pollenzonemainly ofthesteppe type (~2500–2100/2000BPare (SA-1) interval Subatlantic The assemblagesoftheEarly Subatlantic period. transformation ofvegetationthe during changes ofclimaticconditionsandthe palynostratigraphical units, suggestmultiple 9, 10,and11,eachsubdividedinto several periods. The assemblagesofpollenzones the climate oftheAtlanticandSubboreal generally colderandmore continentalthan landscapes. semi-desert The climate was later (from 900BPto thepresent time)by (Fraxinus S1 and2,3–2,75minS2). b a ). Xerophytes dominated ). During the next phase thenext ). During c ). sp.), andlinden a (oak, (oak, petraea Sea thatis transgressiveUlluchayskaya stageoftheCaspian ~2000–1500BPcorresponds to the the interval andhumidizationof climate,warming dated to sagebrush communities. This longphaseof andhaze- was composedofherb-gramineous grass-small-shrub cover ofthesteppe coenoses in rivervalleys, ravines, anddepressions. The hazel intheundergrowth ofthewooded areas linden rough elm (English andsessileoak even greater spread ofmixed oakforests an is reflected in the interval ~1300–1100 BP ~1300–1100BP is reflected intheinterval and humidizationofclimate New warming regressionDerbent oftheCaspianSea. 1300 BPcorresponds to thefirstphase ofthe ~1500– ofclimate intheinterval aridization ispossiblethatthisstageofcoolingand It and otherplantsofwet floodplain ecotopes. of theeutrophic sphagnum moss, horsetail, ledto thewaterlogginglakes andto thegrowth expanded. Decrease inthemirrors ofoxbow the prevalence ofsagebrush andsomespeciesof sites, the area ofsteppe communitieswiththe stands. Onplacoric species intheriparian promoted thedevelopment ofwillow trees in reduced the inter ofclimate in that coolingandaridization indicateother palynological characteristics moss prevails amongthespores. These and and shrubassemblages, whilesphagnum family dominate inthepollenofgrass of sagebrushandthe the dominanceofwillowpollen. The grains spruce, pine, andbroadleaf species)and of thetree andshrubpollen(including m inS2)withtheoverall reduced amount subzone 10 is reflected intheassemblagesofpollen phaseinthelandscapedevelopment The next drop causedbydecrease inprecipitation. ~1800–1700 BP, sealevel there wasashort-term al. [22].Perhaps withinthistrangressive stage 1570 ±100BPaccording to S.I. Varuschenko et Chenopodiaceae , elm Tilia cordata the role ofconiferous andbroadleaf the forests ofthe Volga Valley and val ~1500–1300BPsignificantly 14 Ulmus glabraUlmus C dated to the interval 2000 ± 140 – 2000±140– C dated to theinterval b (0,8–1,05minS1and1,15–1,55 Ulmus carpinifoliaUlmus , etc.) andthegrowth of family (as subdominants) family(assubdominants) / scabra Quercus robur Chenopodiaceae /, cardiophyllous /, cardiophyllous / foliaceae and Q. Q. /, /,

by the assemblagesofpollensubzone 10 willow ( while therole ofsmallleaftree pollen(i.e., decreased thattime dramaticallyduring the amountofspruce, pine, andoakpollen high content ofthe from the small-shrub communities(judging the growing role ofthepollengrass- bypollensubzonecharacterized 11 vegetationphase ofmodern development is m inS1and0,0–0,95S2). The initial climatic conditions(pollenzone 11,0,0–0,6 the studyarea remained underunstable (SA-3), i.e., thelast~1100years, during Throughout theLate Subatlanticperiod sagebrush. in thegrass-shrub cover dominated by of gramineous plantsandsedgesincreased stands.oak-elm Atthesametime, therole and were oak, dominated byspruce-pine, thisphase,During thefloodplainforests (0,6–0,8 minS1and0,95–1,15S2). subzones 10 The combinedassemblagesofpollen m inS1and0,2–0,65S2). of willowstands(pollensubzone 11 Volga-Akhtuba forest beltcomposedprimarily disappearance ofbroadleaf speciesfrom the associationsandalmostcomplete and desert by the ~900–700BPwasmarked in theinterval Subatlantic climate coolingandaridization 1500–1300 BP. The maximum oftheLate oftheinterval of coolingandaridization ~1100–900 BPwere closeto theinterval that reflectsclimate coolingandaridization phytocoenotic conditionsofthisdry-phase B. pubescens –35 masloccurred ~900–700BP. the regression to thelowest level of–34to humidization ~1300–1100BP; itispossible sea levels and causedbyclimate warming 700 BP))wasprobably aggravated byrising (~1550– to the XIV century V century et al. [1987]from themiddleof 1400–800 BPandbyS.I. Varuschenko [1982]intheinterval and G.I.Rychagov Caspian basin(isolated byD.C. Leontiev regressivethat theDerbent stageofthe absolute prevalence of the semidesert absolute prevalence ofthesemidesert Salix sp.) andbirch ( b )) increased. Climaticand , 10 c , 11 Chenopodiaceae a , and11 Betula pendula b b suggest – 0,3–0,4 –0,3–0,4 a grains), . Amid c , and moisture (seeFig. availability 3). ofheat these phasesreflected fluctuations phytocoenotic were alternations identified; landscapes, for which atleastfour climato- anddesert of development ofdesert-steppe oftheLower territory Volga becamethearea phytocoenoses. thelast900years, During the the transformation ofzonal andintrazonal BP, there were eightphasesthatreflect ~2500–900 Late Holocene, intheinterval the theirdevelopment.phases during In steppe andseven steppe non-consecutive seven forest-These landscapesunderwent time)climate inthestudyarea.the modern a more favorable andhumid(compared to and steppe landscapesdominated under ~10000–2500BP,the interval forest-steppe Holocene, in andMiddle theEarly During landscapes andclimate ofthisterritory. phases intheevolution oftheHolocene Palynological dataindicate atleast26 and climate oftheLower Volga region. several changesinthevegetation cover thepast10,000 years,1. Over there were Holocene. the oftheCaspianSeaduring fluctuations sealevel region andinclimate-dependent climatic changesintheLower Volga the following dependenciesinlandscape- The research presented herein established Caspianregion. in theNorthern coniferous speciesinto thefloodplainforests 400–200 BPandthegreater expansionof ~ humidization ofclimate intheinterval the cedarpinepollen),reflectcoolingand increased (inthearboreal group, dueto the amountofpollentrees andshrubs Sample 2inS1and4S2,where subzone 11 on analysisoftheassemblagespollen territory. This conclusionwasreached based landscapesofthestudied semi-desert that are autonomic closeto themodern landscapes semi-desert occupied bythearid 800 BP)the Volga-Akhtuba region hasbeen date of900±60yrBP(cal.radiocarbon 900– Since thetimelevel specifiedbythe CONCLUSIONS c . The pollenassemblagesfrom

93 ENVIRONMENT 94 ENVIRONMENT humidization were alsoidentifiedinthe spruce andfir. The phasesofcoolingand and isolated forest standsdominated by there were sparsepineforests wide-spread Caspianregion free fromNorthern thesea, ofthe stagewhen,withinthepart Sartass 10000–9200 BP, whichcorresponds to the of theforest-steppe ~ phaseintheinterval climate. First, thisisexpressed in thepresence by thephasesofcoldandrelatively humid stages oftheCaspianSeaisalsosupported 3. ofexistence ofthetransgressiveThe fact confidence. New Caspianbasinwithahighdegree of to themaximaltransgressive stagesofthe ispossible to correlate thesethreeIt phases not exceed 21–23%. did theseperiods assemblages thatdescribe of pollenbroadleaf speciesinthepollen of thebroadleaf speciesinforests. The amount stands, conditionsandbylesserparticipation favorable, for thegrowth ofbroad-leaved tree differed from the Atlanticoptimumbyless phases, ofsteppe landscapes. However, they the dominanceofforest-steppe and, insome moisture supply. by They were bothmarked and greaterby alesserheatavailability were andwere closeincharacter characterized Subboreal (~4200–3700BP)optimums Middle The Late Boreal (~ forest beltoftheLower Volga floodplain. and coniferous forests the comprised linden ( species ofelm( beech( oriental ( hornbeam ofcommonandCaucasian with admixture reached oakforestthis period 31%.Mixed in thepollenassemblagesthatrepresent arboreal pollen The amountofthermophilic development offorest-steppe landscapes. BP) wasthemainoptimumandtimeof The Late Atlanticoptimum(~6100–5000 maximums ofheatandmoisture supply. climatic optimumsthatcorresponded to the the Holocenewasexpressed inthedistinct climatic processes inthisregion during 2. The mainfeature oftheevolution of Tilia cordata Carpinus betulus Fagus orientalis Ulmus laevis Ulmus ), birch, andothertrees, 8500–8300 BP) and the 8500–8300 BP)andthe , , C. caucasica U. foliacea ), different ), ), century (seeFig.century 3). 1500–400 BP, aswellthelast asduring 5500–5400, 2700–2500,2100–1700, and of ~9700–9200,8500–8300,7600–7400, evolution theintervals ofclimate during Sea withwater indicates multidirectional the RussianPlain thatfeed theCaspian development ofnaturalhumidareas of stages identifiedherein withthestagesof The oflandscapeandclimatic comparison 5. vegetation. and haze communitiesdominated the study region; there, xerophitic sagebrush withinthe steppes andsemideserts of dry of climate bytheprevalence were marked BP. Allphasesofcoolingandaridization ~7600–7400and3700–3500 the intervals The mostsignificant decrease relates to pronounced drop intheCaspianSea level. but that may correspond to ashort-term 5000–4800, 3700–3500,and2300–2100BP) ~8300–8000,7600–7400, (in theintervals ofclimate coolingandaridization of sharp of climate (~2700–2500BP)andfive phases andaridization one phaseofrapidwarming 8500–1500BP,Within theinterval there was regressionDerbent (1500–700BP). the secondminimumcorresponds to the the CaspianSea(~9200–8500BP),while regressionthe timeofMangyshlak of period. The firstminimumcorresponds to oftheLate Subatlanticsub- first one-half andto the Subborealthe Early sub-period heat andmoisture correlate availability with Two ofthemostsignificant minimumsof climate). ofrelativelyperiods anddry warm (the of significant andaridization warming climate), aswell asto theintervals and dry of heatandmoisture ofcold (theperiods correspond to thereconstructed minimums 4. Regressions ofdifferent ranksmay 1500, 1300–1100,and700–400years BP. ~8000–7600, 3500–2700,2100–1800,1700– and humidizationofclimate intheintervals correlate alsowiththephasesofwarming 200 BP. The trasgressive stages ofthesea ~4800–4200,2500–2300,and400– intervals developed bydeveloped O.K. alternative modeliscloseto themodels respect. phases inpaleo-climatic The close to regressive andnot to transgressive the development oftheCaspianbasinis last (thenewest) 700-year-long phaseof shouldbealsonoted thatthe Holocene. It BP.) from ofthe theentire preceding part phase oftheSubboreal ~2700–2500 period respect (withtheexception ofthelast different inphytocenological andclimatical landscapes, isvery anddesert semidesert bythedominanceof characterized interval, thattheLate Subatlantic based onthefact proposed (seeFig. 3). The firstmodelis timemay be Sea inthepostMangyshlak paleogeographic modelsofthe Caspian and vegetation successions, two 6. Based onthereconstructed climatic 7. Bolikhovskaya, N.S. and N.S. Kasimov (2008).Landscapeandclimaticchanges intheLower N.S.andKasimov Volga Bolikhovskaya, 7. (2010).Environmental andclimatic evolution N.S.andKasimov ofthe Bolikhovskaya, 6. N.S.(1990) Palyno-indication ofchanging landscapes oftheLower Bolikhovskaya, Volga 5. N.V. Blagoveschenskaya, (1986) ofvegetation offorestsThe history andwetlands ofthe 4. Abramova, T.A., and V.I. Turmanina. (1988)Climate changeintheCaspianSearegion intheLate 3. Abramova, T.A. (1985)Paleogeographic region conditionsoftheAral-Caspian inthelate 2. Abramova, T.A. (1980)Changeinmoisture oftheCaspianregion theHolocene during 1. REFERENCES N.S. Bolikhovskaya andP.A.N.S. Bolikhovskaya (Eds.). M.:Geography Kaplin, Press, University Issue2.pp. 99–117. thelast10,000years:during Problems ofpaleogeography andstratigraphy ofthePleistocene. Geographical FacultyMoscow: Press, pp. 73–78. Consequences oftheClimate Change. Proceedings Conference. oftheInternational Lower Volga // riverregion thelast10kyrs during The Caspian Region: Environmental pp. 52–68. Nauka, Caspian Sea.Moscow: region inthelastten thousandyears: ofthe Issuesofgeologyandgeomorphology Dis. Cand. Biol. Science. L.,24p. Ulyanovsk Predvolzhiye intheHolocene(according analysis):Abstract. to thespore-pollen ofGeography Institute oftheUSSR,pp. 182–191. oftheUSSR.Moscow: European territory Holocene (from palynological, historical, andarchival data)//HolocenePaleoclimate ofthe Holocene time(from palynological data)//Reliefandclimate.VGO, Moscow: pp. 91–100. pp. 71–74. Nauka, region intheHolocene. Moscow: identified basedonpalynological data//Fluctuations ofmoisture intheAral-Caspian Leontiev andG.I.Rychagov Volga floodplain. species inthefloodplainforests oftheLower broadleaf last thousandyears) to support conditions (formost optimalthermal the that inthelastcentury, there were the andKasimov, 2008]indicate [Bolikhovskaya assemblages ofthe Volga region Akhtuba 7. ofsubrecent pollen The vastmajority Sea level ~3700–3500BP. pronounced pulsedecrease intheCaspian phase ~4800–3700BPfollowed byanew This phasewasreplaced byatransgressive from thepalynological data)~5000–4800BP. as apulseregressive phase(asdetermined We suggestthatthisphasewasdeveloping of~5000–3500BP.phase intheinterval except for theinterpretation ofaregressive [1982], andA.N. Varuschenko etal. [1980],

95 ENVIRONMENT 96 ENVIRONMENT 21. Varuschenko A.N.,S.I. 21. (1980)ChangesintheCaspian Sealevel Klige. Varuschenko andR.K. Svitoch, A.A.(2006)Hierarchy oftheCaspian andchronology oftheHolocenefluctuations 20. 19. E.A.(1991)Evolution ofvegetationSpiridonova, in the intheupperbasinofDon Rychagov, G.I.(1997) 18. oftheCaspianSea.M.:MGU,The Pleistocene history pp. 268. 17. (2010)Palynology ofPre-Holocene andHolocene andN.S.Bolikhovskaya. Richards, K. 16. Nikolaev, of ofthediscovery (toV.A. 100-thanniversary (2007)Eurasiansemi-desert 15. Mamedov, A.V. andS.S. Veliyev. (1988)Climate ChangeinEastern Transcaucasia inthe 14. Lower Volga: geomorphology, palaeogeography andriverchannelmorphodynamics. 13. Leont’ev, O.K. oftheCaspianSea andG.I.Rychagov. (1982)OntheHolocene history Leont’ev12. O.K., P.A. G.I.Rychagov, A.A.Svitoch, Kaplin, and T.A. Abramova.(1976)Newdata 11. Kroonenberg, S.B., (2008)Field R.M.Hoogendoorn Excursion to the Volga delta//Field 10. Klimanov, V.A. and intheHolocene// V.K. (1988)Climate changeinBashkiria Nemkova. G.F. Bukreeva, and V.A. Vronsky. (1995.)Palyno-stratigraphy andpaleogeography ofthe 9. N.S.,A.N. Varuschenko, Bolikhovskaya, and V.A. Klimanov. (1989)Newdataongeochronology 8. the Holocene. Moscow: Nauka, pp. 79–89. Nauka, the Holocene. Moscow: region oftheAral-Caspian in //Moisture fluctuations in theLate Pleistocene-Holocene Press, pp. 125–132. Media Sea //Changesinenvironmental systems intheareasMoscow: ofhumanimpact. 221p. Nauka, Moscow: Pleistocene-Holocene. GeographicalConference. Faculty Moscow: Press, pp. 126–129. Environmental Consequences oftheClimate Change. Proceedings oftheInternational zones, depositionalenvironments andCaspianSealevel // The CaspianRegion: shallow cores from theDamchikregion ofthe Volga delta:palynological assemblages, Herald. zone), University 5.Geography. Series Moscow natural semi-desert №6.pp. 3–9. ofGeography Institute oftheUSSR,pp. 170–181. 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Molodkov) of theloess-palaeosol International records //Quaternary e the last200ka: the InternationalSymposium. Pleistocene (Eopleistocene –Neopleistocene) //Theearliest humanmigrations inEurasia. Proceeding of of Eurasia. 4(32). 2008 (editor andauthor). A.I. Perel’man), and (author andeditor); Landscapes including, landscapes. Heistheauthorofabout300scientificworks, andaquatic ofurban paleogeochemistry, and geochemistry current research oflandscapes, interests are: geochemistry Geography ofM.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow His Soil Geography. oftheFaculty 1990,hebecameDean In of and ofLandscapeGeochemistry Head oftheDepartment landscapesin1983.Since1987,hehasbeen and deserts ofsteppes of Sciencedegree inthefieldofpaleogeochemistry offaultzones in1972andhisDoctor landscape geochemistry Nikolay S.Kasimov in thelower reaches oftheUralRiver. 136p. Ufa, Holocene //BulletinoftheUSRRAcademy ofSciences. Geology, №2.pp. 73–82. pp. 74–79. Nauka, regionof moisture intheAral-Caspian intheHolocene. Moscow: 239p. Nauka, Moscow: Caspian Seaandthedrainagebasinsinpaleo-time. onsky, V.A. oftheCaspianSeafrom palynological data//Fluctuations (1980)Holocenehistory , 1988; Landscape Geochemistry of Steppe and Desert ofSteppeandDesert Landscape Geochemistry vidence from mollusc-basedESR-chronostratigraphy andvegetation successions 2007; Ecogeochemistry ofUrbanLandscapesEcogeochemistry Oil andEnvironmentOil ofKaliningrad Region Landscape Geochemistry received hisPh. D. (geography) studying Changes inflora andvegetation oftheEastCaucasian Forelands duringthe Novosibirsk, 2009; Novosibirsk, Nataliya S.Bolikhovskaya Eurasia intheNeopleistocene temporal patterns in the evolution of vegetation and climate of North temporal ofvegetation patternsintheevolution andclimateofNorth EurasiaNorthern publications (e.g. book glacial epochsofthePleistocene. Sheistheauthorof220scientific theHolocene andallinterglacial Eurasiaduring and Northern and vegetation changesthatoccurred indifferent regions of Her current research focus isonreconstructionofclimatic Eurasia)in1996. of theloess-paleosolformation ofNorthern Science degree (paleoenvironments andclimatostratigraphy received herPh. D. (geography) of in1975andDoctor Geography ofM.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow She palynologist, andLeading Researcher attheFaculty of Climate change dynamics in Northern Eurasia over Climate changedynamicsinNorthern , 1995).Recentlypublishedpapers: , 1999 (co-author , 1999(co-author Evolution oftheLoess-Paleosoil Formation of // Archaeology, Ethnology&Anthropology , 1995 . N 201. 2009. (co-author . N201.2009.(co-author isapalaeogeographer, ; Spatial and Spatial and

97 ENVIRONMENT 98 SUSTAINABILITY 1* resources, geographic information systems four beaches. Crimean by theauthorsofthispaperwere appliedto approach developed andunique algorithms recreational resources ofthepeninsula. The options for amore efficientuseofthe in theenvironment, butto alsoidentifying changesoccurring of notonlycapturing developed usingESRIArcGIS formats capable The paperpresents asystem thatwas recognized. changes inthecoastalzones iswidely of timelyreflectingnaturalandmanmade a specialized information system capable developed quite chaotically. The needfor however, thecoastalzone isbeing ofCrimea status ofthepeninsulaasawhole. Currently, and, therefore, theeconomic determine They are thebasisfor recreational tourism resources for thecoastalzone ofCrimea. ofnatural type represent themostimportant level.international The recreational resources attheassessments are alsosupported of consumptionnaturalresources. Such andrate the assessmentofreserves issustainable development ofterritories steps towardsOne oftheimportant 2 Vyacheslav V.Dolotov mhi.iuf.net 2,99011, Kapitanskaya, Sevastopol, Ukraine; Tel. +380692542528,vaivanov@alpha. ofshelfhydrophysics,Department Hydrophysical Director oftheMarine Institute, Corresponding author 99011, Tel. +380692442622, [email protected] 2, of NationalAcademy Kapitanskaya, Sevastopol, ofUkraine, ofScience Ukraine; KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT SUSTAINABLE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT BEACHES AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR CADASTRAL ASSESSMENT OF CRIMEAN Academician oftheNationalAcademy Headofthe ofUkraine, ofSciences Senior scientist, Shelf Hydrophysic Department, Marine Hydrophysical scientist,ShelfHydrophysic Marine Senior Institute Department, cadastre, beaches, recreational 1* Vitaly A.Ivanov 2 have been studiedinsufficiently. ofindividual components, however,impacts onthe humanbody.impact The particular forms oftherecreational potential andits this endeavor isassociated withdiverse effective utilization. of The maindifficulty and recommendations for theirmost and quantifiedto identifyintegral resources ofnaturalresources,type shouldbezoned aswellpotential ofCrimea, asany other Tverdokhlebov, 1981]. The recreational inagiven andactivities area [Mironenko for organization ofrecreationalimportant conditions historical, andsocio-economic means anaggregate ofnatural, cultural, thispaper,In therecreational potential region. represents acrucialeconomicgoalfor the the useofnaturalrecreational potential development thatfacilitatesInfrastructure such regions peninsula. istheCrimean Oneof importance. are ofaparticular for economicdevelopmentis apriority Regions where theuseofnaturalresources areas ofscientificresearch.most important the sametime, itrepresents oneofthe sustainable development ofterritories. At environmental managementis crucial for Assessment ofnaturalresources and INTRODUCTION recreational facilitieswithin the sameterritory. This, helps to of create inturn, subtypes various ofrecreational types activities. developing certain of naturalandculturallandscapesthatallow combinationsofthecomponents functional reality, therecreationalIn resources existas • • • • following elements: 1980]. This recreational potential includesthe and health-improving value[Geography..., value, originality, or artistic aestheticappeal, due to suchqualitiesasuniqueness, historical leisure, healthimprovement, tourism, etc., andforms ofrecreationaltypes – activities thatcanbeusedfor various of humanactivity i.e., componentsoftheenvironment andobjects recreational potential are recreational resources, componentsofthe The mostimportant media. advertisement and various beaches, development ofmapdocuments, of This GISwould aidinfuture certification economic, andsociological components. (geomorphological), ecological, climatic, shouldincludenatural It of Crimea. cadastre oftherecreational resources consistently updated andmaximallyvisual the investigation. SuchGISshouldbea of beaches, shouldbethefirstpriority The mostpopularrecreation i.e., objects, potential of differentthepeninsula. parts individual componentsoftherecreational precise quantitativeofthe description This GISshouldincludeadetailedandmost targets therecreational potential ofCrimea. information system (GIS)thatspecifically development ofaspecialized geographic The solutionmay befound inthe POTENTIAL COMPONENTS OF THE RECREATIONAL tourist andrecreationaltourist infrastructure. landmarks); cultural, historical, andarchitectural resourcestourist-excursion (natural, forested areas); recreation beaches, (riversandreservoirs, health-improving resources ofactive hydro); therapeutic resources (climate, mud, methods, it is necessary to examineand methods, itisnecessary standard setofgeomorphologic research additiontoassessed inmuchdetail. a In recreational resources, beaches, shouldbe componentofthe The mostimportant assessment ofitsbeaches. from thecadastral shouldstart of Crimea the cadastre oftherecreational resources rush to thesea. Thus, thedevelopment of is why inthesummer, millionsofpeople oftherecreational potential.crucial part That is quite clear thatbeachesare themost It can beexpressed asshownin Table 1. general, allthecomponentsof potential In and lower healthcare costs. in enhancedproductivity, reduced sickleave, transitions into theeconomiceffect manifested other socialindexes. This socialeffect always efficiency, and andmortality, reduced morbidity is thehealtheffect expressed inincreased The result ofrecreational useofnaturalresources Table 1. The oftherecreational listfactors of ASSESSMENT METHOD characteristics of microclimate 8 presence of uniquespecies, natural 6 presence andcharacteristics of beaches 5 presence, size andquality of water bodies 4 diversity of floraandfauna(numberof 3 diversity andalternation of relief forms 2 scenic value of thelandscape(alternating 1 availability of balneological resources 7 etc.) (phytoplankton, mineralwater, mud, brine, monuments of history, cultureandart features (parks, waterfalls, etc.), пляжей (see Table 2) (sea, rivers, lakes, andponds) species) steepness of slopes) (depth anddensity of differentiation, scenic views,etc.) open andclosedspaces, presence of Crimea Factors

99 SUSTAINABILITY 100 SUSTAINABILITY Table 2.Maincharacteristics ofbeaches . numberof daysinupwelling numberof sunny, rainy, andstormy daysduringswimmingseason average water andairtemperature duringswimmingseason 5.4 numberof daysinchildrenandadultswimmingseason climatic characteristics 5.3 5.2 frequency of clean-upwork inthebeach zone 5.1 availability andnumberof garbagecontainers 5 distance fromthemaintraffic arteries 4.4 distance form water andairpollutionsources environmentalcharacteristic 4.3 4.2 4.1 availability of balneological resources (mud, mineralwaters, etc.) 4 presence of uniquenaturelandmarks presence of uniqueplantspecies 3.11 presence of archeological, historical, landmarks architectural andart 3.10 numberof water andshoreamusementrides 3.9 availability, numberandtheareaof tent sites 3.8 numberof gearrentalcenters 3.7 availability of guardedparking 3.6 availability of public transportation 3.5 distance fromthecity ortown center 3.4 accessibility andcost of admittance socialcharacteristics 3.3 3.2 approximate numberof vacationers duringtheswimmingseason 3.1 distance fromthebeachesto dormitories (only for therapeutic beaches) 3 distance fromthebeachesto build-upandbuildable zone andindustrialfacilities 2.7 infrastructurefacilitiesinthebeach zone 2.6 presence, lengthandaverage widthof pedestrian zone (lane) 2.5 beachaccessibility (private, commercial, public) 2.4 ownership (health-improving andmunicipalorganizationsrecreational centers) economic characteristics 2.3 2.2 2.1 presence of individualfeatures (rivers’ mouths, gullies, etc.) 2 shareof green areainthebeach zone 1.15 lengthandslopeof thepathto thebeach 1.14 zoning andpartitioning 1.13 areaof safe childrenandadultswimming 1.12 areaof thebeach, itscoastal zone and waters composition andsize of bearingbeachmaterial 1.11 heightandaverage slopecliffof thebeachwithincomplete 1.10 direction of exposure 1.9 elevation gradientof thecoastal beach zone 1.8 average gradientof thecoastal andunderwater areasof thebeach 1.7 of coastline curvature(tortuosity) 1.6 lengthof coastline 1.5 profile) type(fullorpartial 1.4 dimensions(lengthon thegroundandaverage width) 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 Geomorphologic characteristics characteristics Geomorphologic 1 presented inFig. 1. procedureThe work isschematically with aseven cmresolution.transparency profiles of water vertical measuring 2A” meter allowed turbidity portable the aquaticzones ofthebeaches, “TM- and bedrock were material identifiedin The depthoftheswimmingzone, slope, determined. ravines, cliffs, estuaries, etc, were also ofthebeaches, includingcharacteristics theirnumber.determined The individual length ofthebeachanditsheterogeneity to thewater’slines perpendicular edge;the ofcross-sectional onaseries performed radar “AB-400”. The measurements were were obtainedbyground-penetrating and volume ofbeachforming material measurement accuracy.vertical Thickness with afew centimeters horizontal and ourstudies, weIn used “Trimble-4600LS” andtheirelevations.points ontheterrain locationsofused to obtaintheexact Global positioningdevicesare nowadays Composition ofbeachforming material. 2). including theirinfrastructure(Table recreational areas surrounding beaches, ofevaluate theindividualcharacteristics Figure 1.Schematic representation oftheassessment procedure differences inelevation,slopes, etc. of beachcoastline, area to ratio, perimeter values; theseparameters were thecurvature the recreational areas andincludedderived was usedintheanalysisofstate of calculated andevaluated. The firstgroup information andcontrol parameters, were parameters. Two ofdata,specifically, types design included calculationofnecessary Furthervillage Lyubimovka). dataprocessing one ofSevastopol beaches(thebeachofthe an exampleofthemeasurement results for obtained from Google Maps. Fig. 2presents resolution satellite maps, includingmaps facilitated bytheuseofgeoreferenced high- layers. canbe The identificationofobjects were fed into theGISasseparate map thesecondphase, theobtaineddata In consuming step. wasthefirstandmosttime- these activities were alsorecorded. The implementationof of airandwater pollutionlocated nearby described. Potentially dangerous sources latrines, sources offresh water, etc. were and itsappearance, landfills, waste sites, all infrastructureelements, green space carefully examined. Within theseboundaries, roads orresidential development were also The recreational areas boundbythestate

101 SUSTAINABILITY 102 SUSTAINABILITY be possible to conduct atestingbe possibleto procedure conduct standards necessary, tables. itmay regulatory If cadastral GISincludedasetofeffectual the recreational areas. For thispurpose, the standardsindicators for oftheregulatory thecompliancewithselected determined in additionto theirinformation load, also contrast,thecontrol characteristics,In Figure 2.Schematic representation oftheassessment procedure at thevillageLuybimovka beach of usetherecreational potential. quality,rapid decision-making, andconditions clothes, etc.). This undoubtedly to contributes containers, tent shelters, cabinsfor changing (capacity, numberofeateries, toilets, garbage recreation areas standards from theregulatory ofthe characteristics deviations ofactual with theresults compiledinto atableof cadastral GIS. georelational databaseas the basisfor the the tablesand, consequently, developing a between requiresin turn, linkages insuring number ofadditionalspecialized tables. This referencing, whichinvolves thecreation ofa of water andairquality, may nothave spatial measurable parameters, suchasparameters etc. Furthermore, itisobviousthatsome onshoreriverbeds, construction, facilities, items, asroads,may includesuchsurvey “results ofindividualsurveys”. The former or relatively stableover time, andthe data shouldbedividedinto the “background” The lastpointsuggeststhatavailable cadastral • • • • • • into accountthefollowing considerations: The design took ofthecadastralstructure thatarealgorithms commonlyusedinGIS. usingevaluationandpresentation performed resources ingeneralfor agiven region was the individualcomponentsandrecreational quite considerable, sotheassessmentof above, thetotal numberofparameters is of calculated valuesaspossible. As shown and detailedsetoffielddataderivatives recreational resources mustbeascomplete any otherinventory,Like thecadastre ofthe FOR THE INFORMATION SYSTEM BASIC REQUIREMENTS different objects. ofmeasurements for intervals varying with through repeated periodic surveys thecadastre to support it isnecessary the analysisaccording criteria; to various ofstudiedrecreationalselection facilitiesfor to provide amulti-level isnecessary it processing; processing ofthefielddataandlimitpre- to maximallyautomate it isnecessary over time; estimates andvary data,whichmay affect the regulatory the cadastre shouldnotbebasedon andCrimea; population ofUkraine three languagesdueto ethnicallydiverse atleast the cadastre shouldsupport regionsCrimean thathave spatialreferences; of orparts should beappliedto objects the assessmentofrecreational potential • • • • • • following: module, theauthorstook into accountthe the implementationofGISanalytical programming languages. When choosing for separate modulesusing modern inArcGISwritten environment ordeveloped available information. This shellcanbe facilitate aquickinputandanalysesof shellofthecadastreThe electronic should values, andsomeotherentities.regulatory parameters, linguisticanaloguesofrows, measurednames ofthestudiedobjects, also includedadditionaltablesofcodesand were compiledinDBFformat. The cadastre Z-parameters; theassociated tables attribute i.e., point,polylineandpolygonal, including datainESRISHAPEformat, of cartographic georelational database, consistingonlayers this system. Thus, thecadastre represents a designed therequirements considering of andtabulardataformats werecartographic inUkraine. the maximumsupport The andprovides popularworldwide extremely analytical operationssincethissystem is and theimplementationofnon-standard ESRI ArcGIS iswidelyusedfor dataprocessing procedures. accordance withthedeveloped loading andprocessing ofdatain it isdesirableto maximallyautomate projections andre-projection; objects, there isnoneedto usedifferent given arelatively smallsize ofthestudied reports; generating pre-defined data processing methodscapableof there shouldbestandard cadastral the ESRIdataare opensource formats; cities; municipal organizations ofthecoastal the cadastralGISwillbeprovided to many from devices; themeasuring in theform ofready-made dataderived potential to create downloaded objects practically, itdoesnotfullyutilize its ofitscapabilitiesbecause,portion to useasignificantcadastral GISisunlikely the objects; analyzing spatiallydistributed capable ofcreating, processing, and ESRI ArcGIS system isamulti-purpose

103 SUSTAINABILITY 104 SUSTAINABILITY of various ownership. accordanceof various withthe In beaches themselves, belongto organizations that therecreational areas aswell asthe assessment isalsocomplicated bythefact body hasbeeninsufficientlyexplored. The (mostlypositive) onthehuman its impact of therecreational potential isdiverse, but We have already noted thatthecomposition features oftherecreational areas isamajortask. The assessmentofconditionsandnatural environment. appropriate tools exclusively inArcGIS improving. isalsopossibleto develop It of therecreational potential are constantly forThe prospects theanalysisandassessment • • • • • • the following: with aspecialcadastraltoolbar, including resulting program represents auniversal GIS Delphi_7”.Theenvironment “Borland tabular ArcGISusingprogramming objects fortheir ownaccessdrivers and cartographic into account. Thus, theauthorsdeveloped their considerablecostshouldalsobetaken to computer’sArcGIS and packages capacity Undoubtedly, therequirements ofESRI RECREATIONAL AREAS ASSESSMENT OF CONDITIONS OF the regulatory standards forthe regulatory beaches. generation oftablesdeviationsfrom formats; of beachesinaccordance withapproved generation ofdocumentsfor certification calculations; basedontheresultsmaterials of ofillustrativepreparation types ofvarious beaches; ofselected characteristics automatic calculationofcadastral ownership; and ofbeachmaterial the structure orregions, into account by districts taking creation ofthelistbeachesmonitored beaches; outcadastralvaluationof for carrying minimal setofmapdatanecessary of filestructuresandformation ofa eTrex”“Garmin withautomatic detection such devicesas “Trimble-4600LS” and usingdownload ofGPSdatacollected a five-point scale (Table 5). scale(Table a five-point compounds are on determined mostoften reality,In onlyabout20water-polluting compounds reaches several hundreds. number ofregulated analyzed environmental therecreationalanalyses during period. The are to constantenvironmental subject andespeciallytheirwater component objects conditions ofrecreational objects. Recreation based ontheevaluationofenvironmental of classifications, including, thosethatare differentof assessmentreflecting types systems usingvarious potential ofCrimea it ispossibleto evaluate therecreational Thus, already atthisstage, itisclearthat improving developed factors bythisauthor. Table 4presents thelistofnaturalhealth- onthehumanorganism.factors ofenvironmentalbased ontheimpact balneologyphysicians byCrimean derived “ideal beach” ineachclass. The valuesare to the is doneinpointsandcomparison beachconditions assessment oftheactual class ofthe “ideal beaches” 3);the (Table forpresents alistofcharacteristics each Healso beach withthebestcharacteristics. the conceptofa beach”,“perfect i.e. the each class, theauthorproposes to introduce steppe zone. andsouthern periphery, For of subtropical zone, subtropical zone dividing beachesinto three classes:beaches the humanbody[Efremov, 2003]suggests individualrecreationalCrimean on factors devoted of to theassessmentofimpact The authorofonethefew research works group. individuallyfor each current performance to beaches basedontheassessmentoftheir documentsassign categories the regulatory alsodifferfactors significantly. addition, In assessments oftherecreational potential considerably.vary The recommended requirements appliedto different categories public accessbeaches. Many oftheregulatory organizations, hotels andopen andresorts, into three groups: beachesofhealthcare approval ...,2002],beachesare classified requirements the [Concerning certification Table 4. Physicians-balneologists’ assessmentoftheinfl expert Table 3.Listofnatural features that defi № Benchslope(%) 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 onanfrs i 2 12 1 3 1 3 sunbathinginthewoods andfields mountainforest air 8 emotionalimpactof subtropicalflora emotionalimpactof the sea 6 seaair 5 sunbathingonbeach 4 seabathing 3 2 1 mtoa mato onan 2 emotionalimpactof mountains 7 improving processes aiu ubro ons2. 0017.0 20.0 24.0 Maximum numberof points baths Beach sun structure Bench material beach-forming Structure of characteristics Cliff swimming season(%) Number of sunny daysduring during swimmingseason(t, °C) Average water temperature during swimmingseason(t, °C) Average airtemperature Categories that defi beach’s category ne the ad–20–18–1.7 0.3 1.1 – – – 1.8 0.5 1.3 – – – 2.0 1.6 2.0 – – – large gravel fine gravel sand ito ly–03–02–0.1 1.1 0.2 1.5 – – 2.0 – 0.7 0 – 2.0 0.2 1.3 – 0.3 – 1.7 – – – – 2.3 – 0.9 – 0.4 2.3 0.3 2.5 – 1.5 – 2.5 – – – – 3.0 – 1.0 – 1.5 3.0 silt orclay large gravel – – – fine gravel – sand large gravel fine gravel sand rock vegetation absence of vegetation availability of ne the “ideal beach” erainlfcosScore Recreational factors au on au on au point value point value point value aeoy2ctgr 3category 2category 1 category 58 . 07 . 57 2.1 3.1 65–70 3.2 19–20 3.3 18–19 3.3 70–75 3.4 20–21 3.5 19–20 3.5 75–80 3.5 21–22 20–21 . . – – – – 1.6 0.5 . – – – – – – – – 1.8 2.0 1 2 . . 0.6 3.0 – – 0.8 3.7 – – 2.0 4.0 – – uence oftherecreational onhealth- factors

1 105 SUSTAINABILITY 106 SUSTAINABILITY Table 7.Classifi Table 5.Point-value assessmentofthequality assessment parameters. classification systems andlarge numberof would facilitate handlingsuchdiverse Specially developed computer programs recreational 7). facilities(Table environment ofhealth-improving and 6)andvalueofnatural uniqueness (Table There are also classificationsbasedonthe Table 6.Classifi ihyplue 0,5 0,9 0,7 1,5 1,2 highly polluted medium polluted low-polluted relatively clean clean improving andrecreational: Coeffi body ofwater(environmental importance) Coeffi etcat5,4 7,6 4,5 West coast coast South-eastern South coast including Autonomic Republic ofCrimea, )uiu ae ois2,0 1,2 objects в) environmentally important objects important б) environmentally especially а) uniquewater bodies cient of objects withhealth- cient ofobjects cient ofenvironmental value on theirnatural value of thewaterbody uniqueness hrceitc Value Characteristics hrceitc Value Characteristics cation ofrecreational based objects cation objects basedonrecreationalcation objects aaee Value Parameter 1,5 3,6 natural oranthropogenic impacts. The dynamic changescausedbydescribes (culturological). The naturalcomponent attention: natural, economic, andsocial recreational special orregion facility deserve [Kuskov, 2004],three majorcomponentsofa the fundamentalsofrecreational geography thiscase, andinaccordancelist. In with integral indicators, calculated from thefull we suggestusingtheminimal numberof should belimited to adozen. Therefore, thenumberofindicators decision-making, process.in thedecision-making For timely list ofdozens orhundreds ofparameters that itisquite difficultto operate witha 1992]indicate[Integrated ...,1993;Koptyug, The recommendations ofthe World Bank in individualregions. about thedevelopment ofrecreational areas decisions effectivebe extremely inmaking on theground). This methodofanalysiscan in thetablecorresponds to theirlocation region ofobjects (assumingthedistribution level ofdevelopment ofthewhole particular the samecolorcellswould highlighta needimprovement;and objects grouping indicatebe would whatindicators clearly ofresources. types certain This tablewould substantially highor, conversely, low levels of assigns different colorsto cellswith method ofconditionalformatting, which thelatter case,In itisfeasible to usethe even theentire group (Fig. 3). (seeFig. down),or their majority 5further results canrelate to eitherindividualobjects, ofrecreation. thiscase,each object the In different ofrecreational types potential for The mostfeasible methodistheanalysisof these recreational objects. by supported sector of consumerservices intheorganizationaddressing shortcomings would helptoobjects develop measures A comparative assessmentofthestudied state and dynamicsofrecreation objects. resources aidsinassessmentofthecurrent The cadastralvaluationoftherecreational ASSESSMENTS VERSIONS OF CADASTRAL Figure 3. The resultant table of characteristic parameters of Sevastopol beaches in Crimea

107 SUSTAINABILITY 108 SUSTAINABILITY FRI ( value oftherecreational facility occupied byrecreational facilities( should becalculated: components oftherecreational potential economic additional equallyimportant landvalueinany regioninterval, ofCrimea, given for arelatively agiven certain, time thisregard the economiccomponent.In and ( and ( objects: main integral indicators oftherecreational islogical to compute thefollowingIt three have to share thesamedatasources. indicators listed above donotnecessarily facility. theauthors’ In opinion,theintegral the prestige ofarecreational andattractiveness potential and, characterizes to someextent, oftherecreationalthe level ofaccessibility parameters. The socialcomponentreflects be shownbelow, are thewell-founded of therecreational resources that,asitwill This group canalsoincludecostindicators themselves.of objects,andtheobjects and theadministration,infrastructureentities financial relationships amongholidaymakers economic componentincludesmultiple Table 8.Point-value assessmentofrecreational zones ofCrimea[Main…,2004] its individualcomponents: Furthermore, GMPcanbesubdividedinto duration oftherecreational period. multipliedbyFRIandthe in thecountry natural attractiveness ( prestige index GMP CND CRR erainlzn oenm itnet e,k Points Distance to sea,km Zone name Recreational zone VRF ) defined as savings in the average wages ) definedassavings intheaverage wages ), generalized measure ofprestige ). However, thislistdoesnotfullyreflect factor ofrecreationalfactor impact ), and eta oeta 51–2 4–6 7–12 11–13 14–16 More than25 5–25 0,5–5 0–0,5 0–5 Mountain-forest Central zone Second First zone № 6 Nearsea № 5 Subtropicalя № 4 № 3 № 2 № 1 coefficient ofnatural dynamics cost ofrecreational resources ( cost ofparcel ofland CPI ), and ( INA indicator of ), CPL including including climatic service ), total ), total ( FRI )

specific components that contribute to natural tospecific componentsthatcontribute natural assessmentof RNA represents thesummary requirements for ownership. facilitiesofvarious into accounttheregulatory facilities, taking ofinfrastructure the numberandcapacity andSCI–from eachobject, characterizing of positive andnegative climate indicators iscalculated fromCPI, inturn, theamount of multiplicationCPLbyFRI[Efremov, 2003]. similarly, VRF canbecalculated astheproduct itsuseforconsidering agricultural purposes; documents bytheregulatory CPL isdetermined andslopesinthebeachzone. curvature took into accountchangesintheshoreline toperimeter area ratio. Ourcalculationsalso current to former areas ofbeachesandtheir bytheratioof index valueisdetermined to the suggests thatthemaincontribution beaches analyses ofthedynamicsactual geomorphologic indicators. ofthe The history can becalculated from anumberofdifferent above can beeasilycalculated. Thus, CND methods. Someoftheindicators listed system mayalgorithmic involve different The implementationofthecomputational only someparameters are usedintheanalysis. parameters for calculations;itispossiblethat All theseindexes represent agenerallistof comfort index in thesociety objects: role inchoosingrecreationalan important these parameters are notintegral, butplay be supplemented more bytwo parameters; orregion, ofafacility description thelistmay and level ofcrimeandpoliticaltensions index ofnatural hazards –5 ( ( LCPT SCI ). Finally, for acomplete ). ( INH ) locations (Tables 7 and 8) and the category 7and8)thecategory locations (Tables assigned basedonthe “ideal factor” 3), (Table the naturalrecreational potential, andpoints for separate componentsthat characterize multiplication oftheindividualparameters parameter andmay from bedetermined the FRI represents themostcomplexcalculated scale. INH andLCPT are assessedonaten-point into accountFRI. implicitly takes thereforeCrimea corresponds to VRF asit value” frequently appliedto coastalareas of regional characteristics. The parameter “market ofindividual attractiveness, includingallkinds Table 9.Point-based assessmentofbeachesunderdiff Point values ownership category Beach Beach Beaches ofhealth-improving , , , , , , , , , , , 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0 IIII IIII IIIIV III II I IV III II I IV III II I and resort institutions and resort Figure 4. The andFeodosiya studiedSevastopol (left) (right) beaches and retreat facilities, hotels, Beaches ofrecreational erent ownership camps, etc. the distanceto thesources ofpollution– an exampleofindexinthefirstgroup and as vegetation inthebeachzone may serve orlogarithmically.proportion Percentage of indirect of itsvalueanddependingifitvaries influence ofaspecificindicator asafunction parameters reflected changesinadegree of into three groups. groupsThe firsttwo of the integral index.Allindexes were divided of phases:independentlyand aspart two The individualindicators were evaluated in 10). (Table standards [Standards...,the regulatory 2003] were definedfrom theircorrespondence to 9). (Table ofthebeaches The categories Municipal, town, public, etc. beaches

109 SUSTAINABILITY 110 SUSTAINABILITY

Table 10. Parameters used in the assessment of the beaches categories

Beaches of health-improving and resort Beaches of recreational and retreat facilities, Municipal, town, public, etc. beaches institutions hotels, camps, etc. N Parameters

I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV

1. Distance to build-up >1000 1000-700 700-500 500-400 >500 500-300 300-100 <100 N/A and buildable zone, main traffi c areas, railroads, and industrial facilities (m))

2. Distance from the <300 300-500 500-800 800-1200 <500 500-800 800-1200 1200-1500 N/A beaches to dormitory (m)

3. Slope of the path to the 3 4 5 7 7 9 12 15 N/A beach (degrees)

4. Average slope value of 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 the beach water zone in the swimming zone

5. Mechanical composition of beach forming material (mm)

а) sandy beaches 0,5– 1,0 0,5-1,0 0,25-0,5 0,1-0,25 0,5–1,0 0,5-1,0 0,25-0,5 0,1-0,25 0.5–1,0 0.5-1,0 0.25–0.5 0.1–0,25

б) gravel-pebble <20 25–50 50–100 50–100 <20 25–50 50–100 50–100 <20 25–50 50–100 50–100 beaches

6. Beach width (m) >35 35–30 30–25 25–20 >35 35–30 30–25 25–20 >35 35–30 30–25 25–20

7. Water properties in the According to sanitary standards and regulations (SSaR) (Table 5) swimming zone Note: the category is assigned based on specific parameters as the mean arithmetic value defined from the first six rounded parameters. perimeter andlengthareperimeter somewhatgreater that its 1,5 timessmallerdespite thefact area; beachis about the villageLyubimovka shows that “Zolotoy” beachhasthegreatest (Fig.geomorphologic characteristics 5) are given in Table 11. of The comparison basic parameters ofthestudiedbeaches perennial riverBelbek. The valuesofthe beach isthepresence ofthemoutha A specialfeature ofthevillageLyubimovka municipal beachesare indifferent size bays. located ontheopenseashores, whilethe limits(Fig.the city 2). These beachesare ofFeodosiyabeach ofthecity are outside andthefamous village Lyubimovka “Zolotoy” limits.are insidethecity The beachofthe ofFeodosiya)Municipal beachofthecity Beaches “Omega” and “Kameshki” (the1st each region (Fig. 4). limits)wereoutside thecity within selected Sevastopol). Two beaches(municipaland regionsconditions Crimean (Feodosiya and other, butsimilarinrespectto climatic located insufficientlydistantfrom each the integral parameters. These beachesare forevaluation ofthealgorithms computing individual indexes were for selected the valuesof beaches withmaximallyvarying ratio. Four performance regulatory Crimean todocuments andcalculated astheactual indicators bytheregulatory determined in thesecond. The third group combines Figure 5.Comparative analysis ofthebeachesbasedongeomorphologicfeatures beaches. comparedof comfort to publicmunicipal theleveland 12;thecoefficientreflects of beacheswere from determined Tables 10 ownership, coefficient category, andcategory economic, andsocialcharacteristics. The large numberofadditionalenvironmental, of thebeachesincludedmeasurement ofa The calculationofthecadastralcharacteristics of thesebeachesismuchsmaller(Fig. 6). beaches, thatthesize despite oftwo thefact respectively,one-third, oftheareas ofother They are and onlyapproximately one-fifth beach. on thevillageLyubimovka for children andadultswimmingare minimal same reason, theareas ofzones thatare safe “Omega” isthebestinthisrespect.For the of thesea,especiallyfor children. Beach itdifficultgettinginandout which makes beach insomeareas are quite noticeable, village nichesintheLyubimovka of wave-cut beaches are alsoinsignificant, buttheslopes elevationdifferencesMean withinthe traffic. shallow slopes, whichincreases thefoot of “Omega” beach.Allstudiedbeacheshave although itisslightlygreater thantheextent isthesmallest, Feodosiya (“Kameshki”) The area ofthe1stMunicipalbeach due to intense unevenness ofitsshoreline.

111 SUSTAINABILITY 112 SUSTAINABILITY Table 11. Values ofthemaincadastral parameters ofthebeaches used byZenkovich [1962]. The valuescan The total FRIvaluescorrespond to ascale beaches belongto thesecondcategory). werefactors 13)(allstudied assessed(Table beneficial the beachesandFRI,first,actual order toIn calculate therecreational potential of Table 12.Categories ofthestudiedbeaches * In thecliff In * 4Epsr ere203 3126 83 31 0,054 0,30 280 0,026 0,35 degree 0,0183 0,192 0,0136 0,407 tg Area ofwater zone ofthebeach tg 15 Exposure 14 niche Average slopeofwave-cut 13 Average benchslope 12 0Average diff 10 1Average beachseabottom 11 2Preto genae 871 4 11 0,2 7 0 2/0,1 18 0 1,5/0,1 % 5/0,2 0 pebble/ cm 10 Percent ofgreen area 22 Size ofbeachgrain material 21 % Type ofbeach-forming material 20 Cliff 19 Cliff 18 andravines Rivers density 17 Area ofwater zone ofthebeach 16 aaeesUisAeain“mg”“aehi “Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Arenation Units Parameters № aaee Village Parameter № eiee 3116 593872 1569 1863 1466 1860 751 4311 724 690 m 2097 630 m 2083 m m Perimeter 4Area Length3 ofthecoastline lengthinastraightline Beach 2 1 vrg it 81 271 1,002 12 1,037 18 1,0952 48 1,0067 m Average diff Coastline7 tortuosity Average6 width 5 vrg lp nsoet ,2 ,0 ,9 0,026 0,096 0,106 0,029 tg Average slopeofnear-shore Average9 slopeonshore 8 ec aeoy2331 3 resort municipal 3 municipal 2 resort coeffi Category 3 category Beach Ownership 2 1 shallower than0,5m slope shallower than1,5m zone for thebeachseabottom on shore lp g08 – – – – 0 0 0,8* 12* tg m slope height zone. erence inelevation erence inelevation cient Lyubimovka , , , 2,4 1,4 1,4 2,2 m m g004009 ,2 0,064 0,029 0,0196 0,084 tg g00700600 0 0,066 0,097 tg ,809220 2,23 2,03 0,982 4,18 m ,71961101,860 1,150 1,916 1,37 m 2 2 2 the studiedbeaches. Despitetheapparent Table 15showstheadjusted results for 14). considerations (Table and increase ifthere are additionalpositive comply withtheenvironmental requirements decrease ifconditionsofthebeachzone donot 25 62 08 118835 10286 16329 72854 79 25 40 7968 3171 34605 16690 32957 12070 27898 14645 sand Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” pebble/ sand ebesn sand pebble/sand estimated at30–42thousanddollarsper land occupiedbythestudiedbeacheswas values. the actual Thus in2000,thevalueof FRI and, therefore, itispreferable to use However, thelatter already often includes value.documents andacurrent market for bytheregulatory abeach,isdetermined are notsurprising. The costoflandallotted values of “Omega” and “Kameshki” beaches villagebeach.RelativelyLyubimovka lowFRI than, for example, thesameindexof factors, itsintegralimpact FRIvalueislower values of of popularity “Zolotoy” beachandhigh Table 13. Values ofrecreational factors’ impact п/п № cpntr 0,5 0 2 2 0,9 0 0 2 10 0,5 0,8 0 2,5 0 3 1 0,7 0,6 1,0 2 0 0,9 0,4 3 1,5 Acupuncture 0,8 7 Stone therapy 8 2,5 6 Arenation 5 ofthesea Emotionalimpact 4 air Sea 3 Sunbathingonshore 2 swimming Sea 1 Figure 6.Analysis ofzones safe for children andadultswimminglandarea ofthebeaches oa 52767116,7 7,1 7,6 15,2 Total the corresponding recreational Parameter Lyubimovka Village (Table 16). (Table and sites ingeneralisasfollows perunitareathe price ofthebeaches we willacceptthelatest dataastrue. Then, parameters ofthebeaches,of comparing exclusively for thegoalsandobjectives Without and going into details ofpricing higher. cities centers canbeanorder ofmagnitude meters. The costofthesamesize plotinthe thousand dollarsperonehundred square of landhasincreased 100timesto about5 hectare [Efremov, 2003].Recently, thevalue Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega”

113 SUSTAINABILITY 114 SUSTAINABILITY Table 14.Environmental parameters ofthebeaches Table 17.Cost oftherecreational resources ofthebeaches (inthousandsofdollars) Table 16.Cost oflanddesignated for beaches(inthousandsofdollars) Table 18. The cost ofrecreational resources ofthebeaches Table 15. The ofrecreational resultant considering factor theenvironmental impact situation inthebeach clean beach(dailyclean-upeven winter). during beach(grass onshore); 1,2–cleanbeach,presence containers;1,5– ofgarbage 0,8–dirty criteria: *Assessment / Parameter № п/п aaee Units Parameter № uaino wmigsao as101016146 146 150 150 Thous. Days Cost ofrecreational resources 2 Durationofswimmingseason 1 Cost ofthebeachasan niomna tts1008081,0 0,8 1,5 0,8 0,8 1,0 0,8 1,2 7 Environmental status 6 ofcleannessthecoastalzone* Index 5 Coeffi 4 Coeffi 3 Coeffi 2 Value coeffi 1 object ofrecreationobject Parameter oto ao ec 0 0050 500 5000 5000 500 Cost of1habeach Total costofbeach Parameter zone R 0 71 170 14 17 205 FRI euto utpiaino aaees1, , , 10,2 2,0 2,2 13,5 Result ofmultiplicationparameters Reduced coeffi Parameter in fwtrqaiy1507071,5 1,2 0,7 1,5 1,0 0,7 1,5 1,0 1,5 1,5 1,2 1,5 cient ofenvironmental value cient ofwater quality cient ofstatustheregions in , , , 4,5 4,5 5,4 5,4 cient in fgenae ,70650650,56 0,665 0,605 0,77 cient ofgreen area Lyubimovka Village Lyubimovka Village 460180 20 1010140 72002 138805 746610 Lyubimovka Village 6286 135942 5143 8165 3642 dollars Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Lyubimovka Lyubimovka Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Village Village 7965516452 531 645 7779 Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Table 19.Parameters ofnatural attractiveness ofthebeaches hryvnas) [Kinakh, 2007]. and [Kinakh, The summary hryvnas) 253 dollarspermonthin2007(i.e., 1265 Table. 18. wasThe average wageinUkraine climatic data[Company..., 2008]isgiven in swimming seasonfor adults according to the calculationperiod. The durationofthe beaches andtheaverage wageduring of theswimmingseasonfor different to have dataontheduration necessary resources ofthebeaches(CRI),itis To calculate thevalueofrecreational results are presented in Table. 17. by multiplyingthecostoflandFRI. The ofitsrecreationalthe beachinterms value is then possibleto estimate thecostof It Parameter № te trcieesfcos–––– – – - – - Zone ofexcavation – – – factors attractiveness Other 4 landmarks Historical Uniqueplantspecies 3 2 1 Individual natural features River Belbek River naturalfeatures Individual 1 oa cr 1 0 1 1 Total score Figure 7.Comparative analysis ofcost indicators ofthebeaches Lyubimovka Village mouth attractiveness areattractiveness summarized in Table 19. The Several available indicators ofthenatural used thesecondmethod. thisstudy the absenceofsociological surveys, of scores for affecting theresult. eachfactor In methodinvolvesThe objective acalculation beach. evaluationmethod. This isasubjective ofpeoplethatusethe of sociological surveys thisindicatordetermine isthrough theresults ofthebeaches. Oneoftheways to externality theeffects ofabeneficial characterizes The indexofnaturalattractiveness is showninFig. 7. comparative ofthecostvalues description Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” of ancientsettlement – – Unique attractive Uniqueattractive – – –– properties of sand ofsand properties

115 SUSTAINABILITY 116 SUSTAINABILITY Table 21.Parameters ofinfrastructure development ofthebeaches Table 20.Climatic parameters ofthebeaches aaee Units № Parameter ubro peln asdy 434 34 2 2 days Numberofupwelling days 6 Numberofstormy days inthe 5 Numberofrainy days inthe 4 Numberofsunny days inthe 3 Durationoftheswimming 2 Durationoftheswimming 1 18 Amusement rides on Amusement rides number 18 Water amusementrides 17 5Graecnanr ubr1 10 5 12 3 7 10 number 5 number тентовых Площадь пло- number 16 containers Garbage number 3 15 Toilets 14 Rentalcenters number 13 Play grounds number 12 Cabinsfor changing 11 sites service Other 10 aaeesUnits Parameters № aé n etuat ubr02 7 0 20 2 0 0 20 30 10 0 0 100 number Cafés andrestaurants number number 9 Distancefrom thebeach number number 8 Guarded parking 7 Openparking 6 Access roads 5 Transfers 4 ec cesblt cr 0,75 1 19806 1714 1 2114 1 12142 score persons Distanceto thecity 3 accessibility Beach 2 capacity Beach 1 P ,312 ,70,47 0,47 1,23 1,23 CPI swimming season swimming season swimming season season for children season for adults C ,861570,62 5,7 6,1 0,48 SCI shore щадок stops to publictransport center number m 6 0 0 150 200 4,7 100 0 360 0 m 5,4 km 2 %12/ 9/ 201 480/1 1280/12 490/3 1625/2 /% as661 15 20 15 50 20 6 74 50 10 146 74 6 100 146 10 days 102 100 days 150 102 days 150 days days Lyubimovka Lyubimovka Village Village 0111 2212 0216 0201 0221 0002 3555 2001 Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega” have themost developed infrastructure. The limits that thebeacheslocated nearthecity requirements. Analysis ofthetableshows developed andtheregulatory algorithms usingspecially index wasperformed The computationoftheresultant integral 21). (Table beach andtheirlocationsaccessibility onthe a numberofinfrastructureobjects SCI islargely definedbythepresence and diverse. very regionsbecause theclimate ofCrimean is all casesoftheassessmentbeaches to this conclusionshouldnotbeextended values oftheindividualparameters. However, since eachpairofbeacheshadthesame informative,studied beacheswasnotvery [1988]. As expected, theintegrated CPIfor the parameters were from taken Podgorodetsky parameters 20). (Table The valuesofindividual CPI wascalculated from therelevant climatic attractiveness. ofthenatural offactors andvariety richness of which,oncontrary, have theextraordinary beaches,not applyto otherCrimean many factor.the attractiveness This statement does studied beachesdonotdiff Table 22.Integral parameters ofthebeaches’ conditions for 2007 Parameters № ne fntrlhzr 0 0,62 0 0,47 5,7 1 0 0,47 6,1 0 1,23 0 0,48 170 1 1,23 Level andpoliticaltensions ofcrime 9 14 ofnaturalhazard Index 1 8 index comfort Service 7 Climaticprestige index 17 6 ofnaturalattractiveness Indicator 5 Cost ofrecreational resources (thous. 205 4 for Cost ofthebeachasanobject 3 Factor ofrecreational score impact, 2 Cost ofparcel oflandunderthe 1 in thesociety dollars) recreation (thous. dollars) beach (thous. dollars) er sig nificantly by Lyubimovka Village 460180 20 1010140 72002 138805 746610 7965516452 531 5942 645 5143 7779 8165 3642 0000 of thesefacilities. Furthermore, thisstudy method allowsto alsohandlingthecapacity was usedinthecalculations, althoughthe toilets, and cabinsfor changing clothes example, sites, onlythecountofcatering calculated usingasimplifiedprocedure. For The SCIvaluesgiven in thelasttablewere mass use. their beachesduring to survey is necessary assessment oftheindividualSCIfactors, it order to provide acomprehensive cadastral awnings canbeinstalledatthebeaches. In into account,whereas inreality, additional to have awnings inthesummerwere taken tent sites, onlystructuresthatare required when evaluatingareas oftheawnings ofthe summer, couldbeclosedfor thewinter. Also, much oftheinfrastructure, operatinginthe outindifferentwas carried seasonsand ofthebeaches estimates, sincethesurvey does notpretend ofthe to absolute accuracy only for ofademonstrationand thepurpose The calculationofthisparameter wasmade transfers. by itslocationthatinvolves atleasttwo of Feodosiya may bespecifically explained with beach, incomparison “Zolotoi” beach village low valueofSCItheLyubimovka Oea Kmsk”“Zolotoi” “Kameshki” “Omega”

117 SUSTAINABILITY 118 SUSTAINABILITY 9. Main directionsofdevelopment (recreational) ofspaandtourist Main 2010 complexARC 9. Kuskov,A.S., V.L. Golubeva,O.V.8. Lysikova, Ye.B. Lopatuhina. to (2004) Introduction Koptyug, V.A. (1993)UNConference onEnvironment deJaneiro, (Rio andDevelopment 7. timeslessthaninRussia.–http://podii.com.ua/ istwo average salary Ukraine A.K. Kinakh, 6. Integrated Environmental andEconomicAccounting (1993)United Nations. –New York. 5. Geography ofrecreation systems oftheUSSR(1980),Ed.VS Preobrazhenskyi, V.S. and V.M. 4. Efremov, A.V. (2003)Somethoughtsregarding economicevaluationofbeaches. Economics 3. theapproval Concerning oftheprotocol for recording locationsofmassrecreation of 2. Company ofideas. http://crimea.naiti.ru/temperature.html RestinCrimea 2008]. [26Mar 1. paper isto summarize andsystematize these the beachesofCrimea. The maingoalofthe of therecreational resources, specifically, authors inthefieldofcadastralassessment research anddevelopment bythe work This studyistheresult ofathree-year 22). (Table characteristics summary set ofparameters, aswell asasetofgeneralized assessment ofthestudiedbeachesisalarge The combinedeffect ofthecadastral ofpotentialterms hazards andcrime. values, i.e., thesituationiscompletely safe in studied beaches, theseindexes have zero for eachbeachandtheregion. For the individually bytheexperts but determined (UPR), astheseindicators are notcalculated, intheregionof politicaltension andcrime and technogenic hazards (INH)andthelevel does notincludetheassessmentofnatural REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS March №849-3/04. (2004). Resolutionofthe oftheAutonomous on17 Rada RepublicofCrimea Verkhovna Recreational Geography. Lectures. Saratov, 506p. review.June 1992):Inform. SBRAS. –Novosibirsk: business/2007/ [12Sep2007]. (Eds.) M., Krivosheeva “Nauka”, 219p. №6,pp.of Crimea, 57–60. population onwater bodies. (2002) March 6,№264. ofUkraine. The CabinetofMinisters the assessment. componentsforrepresent theimportant provided, andotherparametersservices organizations, of theircategories, types ofhealthcare capacity Data onservice facilities shouldbealsocharacterized. Organizations thatusetheserecreational by theevaluationofrecreational load. mustbe accompanied facilities ofCrimea The assessmentoftheindividualrecreational andassessment. but constantmonitoring resource potential needsnotjustone-time, development priority, therecreational whereCrimea, recreational facilitiesare a beaches asanexample. Undoubtedly, in demonstrated usingthefour studied recreationalof Crimean resources was The scopeofthecadastraldevelopment method. detail themainassumptionsofproposed research aswell in as to activities describe  13. Z Standards andequipmentofbeachesatwater bodiesintheAutonomous ofconstruction 12. Podgorodetsky,11. P.D. Nature. (1988)Crimea. Simferopol.“Tavria”, 179p. Mironenko, N.S.andI.T. Tverdokhlebov.10. (1981)Recreational geography. M. University “Mosk. 2006, 368p. Hydrophysical Marine Institute. Sevastopol,NAS ofUkraine, ofoffshorewater quality ecosystems. marine Ivanov, V.A. (Ed.) and Yu.S. Tuchkovenko. Applied mathematical modelingof Hydrophysical Institute. Sevastopol, 2008,806p. 3.Ivanov, V.A. Ivanov, workbook. Two-part V.A. Marine (ed.) NASofUkraine, processes. riversandestuarine ofUkrainian Sea estuaries Sevastopol, 2008,363p. 2.Ivanov, V.A. andR.Ya. Minkovskaya. Ivanov, V.A. Hydrophysical Institute. Marine NASofUkraine, modeling ofdynamicprocesses inthesea–landzone. publications:1.Ivanov,Main V.A. and V.V. Fomin. Mathematical shore water. of interest includeshydrophysical processes inseaandnear Vitaly A.Ivanov Forum “AQUA-UKRAIN-2008” Kiev, 2008.pp. 41–42. conferencescientific –practical andtheEnvironment”“Water oftheIVInternational Water of Crimea on 21 May №567-3/03. on21May of Crimea (2003)Resolutionofthe Republic ofCrimea. oftheAutonomous Rada Republic Verkhovna Press”, 207p. yankovich, yankovich, V.P. ofthedevelopment ofsea-shore. M. (1962)Basictheory “AN SSSRPress”, 278p. , academician of Ukrainian NAS. His area NAS.His , academicianofUkrainian Vyacheslav V. Dolotov ecological state ofwaters oftheBlackSea.Proceedings of The effect ofprecipitation onthehydrological regime and Sevastopol, 2007,194pp. 2.Repetin,L.N.and V.V. Dolotov. Hydrophysical NASU, Institute Marine beaches ofCrimea. the recreational cadastralvaluationof potential ofUkraine: publications: 1.Dolotov,Main V.V. and V.A. Ivanov. Increasing his research Systems development isonInformation andGIS. NAS. Hydrophysical ofUkrainian Institute Marine The focus of 1993,heisseniorscientistof in1981.SinceJanuary University (Russia)andreceivedIvanovo hisPh. D. from thesame and ofChemistry He studiedattheUniversity Technology in was born inIvanovo, wasborn Russiain1952.

119 SUSTAINABILITY 120 News and Reviews place atthefollowing locations: conference took InterCarto 1994, whenthefirstinternational place. These conferences took such events were rare, 23–25, meetingshadnotbeenheldatalltillMay andinternational annuallyaroundconducted Russiaandtherepublics theworld. oftheformer In SovietUnion, Hundreds ofconferences more andGISare withcartography orlesscloselyconnected being Information Supplement oftheconferencethe materials 10 inRio the 2002. In inJohannesburg,Sustainable Development and reinforced attheUN World Summiton (Brazil, 1992) inRio-de-Janeiro Development the UNConference onEnvironment and (Agenda 21) Century for theXXI hasbeenencouragedinthe countries Wide useofinformation technologies byall sustainable development ofterritories. systems (GISs)aseffective tools for achieving and useofgeographical information problems geography ofmodern –creation organized to target oneofthemostpressing conferences areThe InterCarto thematically number of international organizations,number ofinternational development. Committee sessionsofa andsustainablefield ofgeo-informatics inthe –scientistsandexperts participants invite presentations from themostknown countries. conferencesThe InterCarto Association (ICA)thatencompasses83 Cartographic bytheInternational supported program ofwork. directions is The InterCarto has beendeclared oneofthemostrelevant INTERCARTO CONFERENCES InterCarto/InterGIS 16 Rostov-on-Don (Russia), Salzburg (Austria), July3–8,2010. Rostov-on-Don Perm (Russia),Ghent(Belgium), June26–July 6,2009; 16 InterCarto/InterGIS Saratov (Russia),Urumqi(China),June24–July 1,2008; 15 InterCarto/InterGIS (Russia), Khanty-Mansiysk Yellowknife (Canada),August 12–24,2007; 14 InterCarto/InterGIS (Germany), August (Russia),Berlin 25–31,2006; Kaliningrad Novorossijsk June25–29,2003; (Russia),Sevastopol (Ukraine), 13 InterCarto/InterGIS 3,2005; September 25–October Stavropol-Dombai (Russia),Budapest(Hungary), (Finland), Helsinki St.-Petersburg 28–June (Russia),May 1,2002; 12 InterCarto/InterGIS Vladivostok (Russia),Changchun(China),July12–19,2004; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (Russia),July30–August 1,2001; 11 InterCarto/InterGIS Apatity, Province Murmansk (Russia),August 22–24,2000; 10 InterCarto/InterGIS Yakutsk (Russia),June17–19,1999; 9 InterCarto (Russia),July1–4,1998; Barnaul 8 InterCarto 27–31,1997; Novosibirsk (Russia),January 7 InterCarto (Russia),June26–29,1996; Irkutsk 6 InterCarto 23–25,1994; (Russia),May Moscow 5 InterCarto 4 InterCarto 3 InterCarto 2 InterCarto 1 InterCarto Russian National Report Russian NationalReport , development ofGISs adopted by Agenda and participants from 51countries participants theyears,Over from 1994to 2009,1872 oftheconferences.within theframework exhibitions, andseminarsare conducted which were 31 different sections,mostpopularof presentations. The conferences hosted from 1340 49regions ofRussiamaking conferences. There were 1508participants cities, attended whomade1494reports, the Regions 217 presentations), andMethodology Theory attendees, 210presentations), andInnovativeDevelopment Project attendees, 204presentations), andExperience Development 1 Uzbekistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, andZaire. Spain,Sweden,South Korea, theUSA, Switzerland, Ukraine, Poland, South Africa, Slovakia, Romania,Russia,Serbia, Montenegro, theNetherlands, NewZealand, Norway, Nigeria, Mongolia, Kyrgystan, Moldova, Lithuania,Malaysia, Kazakhstan, Ireland, Israel,Hungary, Indonesia, Japan, Iceland, India, Finland, France, Ghana,Georgia, Germany, Great Britain, Canada, China,Croatia, Czech Republic, Egypt,Estonia, Fiji,

Including Australia, Austria, Belarus,Including Belgium, Bulgaria, (185 attendees, 90presentations), Environmental GIS-Projects: Projects forRussiaand (312attendees, 1 Sustainable and156 (386 GIS: the s (349 Russia andMethodology GIS Theory (Russia). The conference hadseven sessions: of Geography, State University Moscow S.Kasimov, oftheFaculty Dean and Nikolay (Russia), Survey andCartography D.by Nikolay Zhdanov, HeadoftheFederal the ICA. The meetingwasalsoaddressed (USA) greeted themeetingonbehalfof The former ICAPresident JoelL.Morrison language oftheconference. and 2 1994, 144p. Conference Proceedings, 1994,Moscow, 23–25May Russia, USSR Atlas ofProblems intheFormer andRisks Russia anditsNears:TheRussian-French Russian-French projectimplemented jointly Russia]) andcompleted (e.g., projects the andOlgaA.Novoselova, G.Rybalskij [Nikolay Russia’s Integration System intoGRID-UNEP System inRussia ofFiberDevelopment Loop Communication given to (e.g., both plannedGISprojects addition,agreatIn deal ofattention was methodological problems facingthefield. The conference discussedtheoretical and Education andTraining, andGISApplications Sensing, GIS:RegionalAspects, Cartographic conference published thefirstproceedings ofthe from RussiaandtheUSA. most representative delegationswere intheevent. and Estonia) took part The formertwo republics oftheUSSR(Georgia from including ten countries participants Studies andMapping GIS World was Inc., State incollaborationwith University the Faculty ofGeography oftheMoscow Commission onGISandorganized by Geographical Union’sand theInternational was heldundertheauspicesofICA The themeofthefirstconference, which conferences.highlights oftheInterCarto thispaper,In to Iwould share like the attendees, 51presentations). InterCarto: GISfor Environmental InterCarto: StudiesandMapping GIS-Technologies Mapping andDigital [Vladimir A.Kolossov, RogerBrunet, [Vladimir , Technological Aspects 2 . English has been the working . Englishhasbeentheworking [Robert F. [Robert Austin, USA]and GIS forEnvironmental . More than100 , , GIS andRemote GIS World Inc. GIS Projects for (99 .

journey to afuturejourney ofgreater cooperation inthe landmark meeting asanimportant I believe thatpeoplewilllookbackon that opinion ithas, overall, been agreat success. andinmy inNovosibirsk, first ofitskind 3,thevery attend thismeetingofInterCarto specialpleasure forbeen avery meto Wood attheclosing ceremony, has “It in thespeechbyICAPresident Michael winter event whichwasexpressed inSiberia, enjoyed this that time. Many participants general hasincreased considerablyduring ofRussiain Novosibirsk part andtheeastern of themagnitude ofGIS-related in activities range ofGISfields. my Indeed, appreciation presentationsand international onawide technical program includedmany national Mayer (Austria), President ofPROGIS. The Commission oftheICA;and CET Walter H. of Chairman Netherlands), (The Ormeling Republic), Vice-President oftheICA;Ferjan President (Czech Konecny oftheICA;Milan includingMichael Woodparticipants (UK), The conference more attracted than200 27–31,1997. in Novosibirsk onJanuary challengesfor washeld critical theworld. It sustainable development –oneofthemost 3conference emphasizedThe InterCarto its applications. GIStechnology,up-to-date of anddiversity the hightechnical level ofthepresentations, Overall, review oftheconference marked are atsuchconferences. usuallyarranged subjects, butthere were noexhibitionsthat indiscussionsofplansandconferencepart inconference andtookparticipated activities others) attended theconference. They Leica, Spans, Ilwis, Trimble Navigation, and Huber,International, Andrew Corporation, organizations (e.g., andfirms AM/FM Numerous representatives ofvarious disaster.the Chernobyl pollution, especiallytheconsequencesof thattarget ecosystemsindividual efforts in environmental studiesandmapping, and implementation ofremote sensingmethods on Russiansoftware, development and interestedwere inreports particularly and D enis Eckert]). Foreign enis Eckert]). participants

121 News and Reviews 122 News and Reviews a technical oracademicnature, butusually are oflocalauthorities) notof often activities have to beexpanded andintegrated into failure (e.g., ofGISprojects partial whenthey the West, majorreasons for acomplete or ofGIS.In papers onorganizational aspects The firstwasassociated withthelackof However, there were ofconcern. aspects two standards. produced ofexceptionally software high programming implemented inlocally also saw thedemonstrationofcompetent could beadopted inotherregions. We offered conceptsandstructuresthat ofComputational Institute Technologies, of Kemerovo Oblast example, the lead insomefieldshasbeenshown.For potential a toalso theenormous take technologies hasbeendemonstrated, but only evidenceofcatching upwithnew in the West were totally unaware. Not in theNovosibirsk region, ofwhichmany and itsapplicationinRussiaespecially ofGISresearch ofthevitality participants conference. The tours have convinced the and thetours were thehighlightsof there. conducted work The exhibition the excellent research andproduction in particular, whentheysaw someof a revelation for theoverseas delegates, excursions participants. These tours were enthusiasm ofbothdemonstrators andthe and positively received, judging bythe The technical tours were completed done”! were, “Congratulations, jobwell Novosibirsk, andorganizerswords to theparticipants breaks thepresentations. andafter final His caterers ofthefinefoods offered the during the directors, receptionists, interpreters, and made theconference possiblereferring to He alsocomplemented allpersonswho issue oftheICANewsletter thatfollowed. onthatmeetinginthe published areport impressions withhisICAcolleaguesand the conference, heshared thesepositive and otherregions ofthe World”. After and involvement Russia,Europe, between Electronic Ecological Atlas , presented atthe and Tourism (S.A. Buzmakov), inSustainableDevelopment Aspects E.B. Soboleva), and Geophysical Problems Ecological, Geomorphological, Geological, ofWater- forSolution Information Support oftheEarth Sensing Data A.M. Korobejnikov), Management) Geopolitical Processes, andTerritorial ofTerritoriesDevelopment ofSustainable Support Geo-Information were covered inthefollowing sections: problems geography thatfacemodern seminars, andround tables. Different andthematicsections, included plenary and several foreign countries. The program they camefrom regions various ofRussia attended theconference; participants sixty (Perm,University Russia).Onehundred 26 through July2,2009,atthePerm State of theconference took placefrom June (Belgium component). The Russianpart in Perm (Russiancomponent) andGent this presentation istheconference held T and generosity. ofkindness accompanied bytheoldvirtues technological were advancesinSiberia still were trulypleasedto seethatparticipants societies. stressed-out, their own,often The in hadexperienced of theparticipants werecontacts thanmany muchfriendlier differentwinter) was remarkably andthe The environment (andespeciallyin to Russianscientificdisputes.so typical and followed bylively exchanges ofviews The presentations were highlyinformative adventure.deprived themofatrueSiberian despite a totally heatwave unexpected that able to enjoyNovosibirsk anditsvicinities well organized. wereThe participants there. The conference wasexceptionally delegates whomissedsomuchbynotbeing related to apoorattendance byoverseas properly addressed. was The secondconcern helped usto findoutifthesematters were of anorganizational origin. 4 The InterCarto he third event to Iwould cover like in (S.A. Miller andA.V. (S.A.Miller Koshkarev), (A.I. Zyrjanov),and (co-chairmen V.S. (co-chairmen andTikunov Ecologic andGeo-Information Sustainable Development Infrastructure ofSpatial (N.A. Kalinin), (N.A.Kalinin), (I.N.Rotanovaand

(Theory, Remote Geo- GIS-

for sustainabledevelopment, etc. sustainable development, GIS-education for analyzinglanduse, vegetation, and on mobileGIS,remote sensingtechniques Kornienko). There were alsopresentations Geo-Informatics andI.N.Rotanova), Koshkarev inHydrologicalSpatial Data Researches of continuousmigration ofgeo- cartography, for example, theprocess changes inmethodsandtools ofmodern illustrated theprocess offundamental seven conference thathave sections five presentations were delivered during infrastructure anditscomponents. Twenty training, anddevelopment ofspatialdata natural catastrophes, demography, remote land use, prevention ofconsequences andmapping,monitoring dynamics of system economicsandnavigation, space protection andecological studies, road different fields, suchasenvironmental coveredsections GISapplicationsin from Russia,attended themeeting. The many ofwhomtravelledparticipants, took placeonJuly3–6,2009.Fifty The Belgian componentoftheconference resolution). website be found onthePerm State University oftheconferenceThe materials can the Perm State University. and Professor V.V. President Malanin, of ofthePermChairman Government, Kray ofPerm,city M.N.Shejfel, Adviser ofthe welcomed byI.N.Shubin,Headofthe were session,theparticipants plenary conferences since1994.AttheInterCarto presentedRussian materials atallprevious of withauniquecollection to obtainaDVD of theevent. The attendees were alsoable conference atthebeginning participants the conference were available to the Printed proceedings (three-volumes)of Business table discussionswere devoted to (S.V. Several seminarsandround- Pjankov). FORMATION forSustainableDevelopment (S.A. Miller), (S.A.Miller), (http://www.gis.psu.ru/InterCarto/ (V.N. (V.N. Vladimirov andS.I. Infrastructure ofthe Historical GIS and (A.V.

(Problems andPerspectives) andTourismSustainable Development Territories of andSustainableDevelopment Sensing and Territorial Management) Territories Geopolitical Processes, (Theory, of ofSustainable Development Support oftheconferencesections included: (Austria) onJuly 6–8,2010. The thematic (Russia) onJuly3–4,2010,andinSalzburg conference washeld inRostov-on-Don 16 The mostrecent InterCarto-InterGIS ancient science. were so uncontrollable intheageof information managementprocesses that in automobile navigators, i. e. geo- communicators, devices andcartographic phonesand insmart LBS-services web applications, cartographic modern maps, technologies, geo-information He hadforeseen thefirstcomputer information technologies incartography. hadanticipatedA. Kolachny useof muchtowho contributed thefiled. byA.Kolachnycommunications andworks inthefieldofcartographicworks recently. F. discussedtheoretic Ormeling thathave cartography modern occurred about essentialchangesintheepochof in theworld. alsotalkedThe speaker changes ofthedemographic situation mapsofglobalbasicanamorphose ofanimatedwas illustrated withaseries demographic processes. The presentation modeling, andGIStools for studying of maps, mathematical-cartographical V.S. emphasized Tikunov theimportance org” (F. Ormeling). The presentation by Openstreetmap. to Service ofOrtelij Maps of history “neocartography”, entitled “From andthesecondwason Tikunov) of globaldemographic processes (V.S. technologiesgeo-information instudies made: thefirstonedealtwithuseof presentations were plenary Ghent, two the mainorganizer oftheconference in theopeningspeechbyF.After Mayer, De environment. informatics from GISparadigm to SDI , Mobile GIS , GIS andBusiness, , Spatial Data , Remote GIS

123 News and Reviews 124 News and Reviews general, andeducationthatspecifically near-border cooperation,educationin also discussedoutcomes ofresearch on sustainable development. Participants of aspects and medical-geographical development,of sustainabletourism modeling, problems andprospects andgeo-informationalof cartographic Several presentations addressed methods problems, andinfrastructureofspatialdata. of GISuseinaddressing ecological Russian andotherterritories, experiences promoting sustainabledevelopment of for support also includedgeo-information information modeling. Conference topics andtemporal-spatialof cartography geo- theoretical andmethodological problems The conference presentations covered Sustainable Development Infrastructure , and GIS-Education for . net/) –http://intercarto17. (Website Indonesia followed byanothermeetingonBali, conference willbeheldintheAltay Kray 2011. The Russiancomponentofthe conference placeinDecember willtake annualInterCarto-InterGIS The next significance.scientific andpractical stressed thattheseprojectsare ofhigh management, andeducation. They further planning andmanagement,environmental increasingly inlanduse incorporated forecastcartographic modelingare being technologies, GIS-basedprojects, and that thedevelopment anduseofGIS conference stressed thefact participants targets sustainabledevelopment. The Vladimir S.TikunovVladimir October 14–16,Moscow StateOctober University, Russia CASPIAN REGION:“THE ENVIRONMENTAL THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE CONSEQUENCES OF THE CLIMATE CHANGE” organized theInternational the Faculty ofGeography To discussthe obtained results, and Ukraine. Kazakhstan Canada, Azerbaijan, Great Belgium, Britain, Iran, scientists from theNetherlands, outincooperationwith carried number ofscientificprojectswere significantly. hasrisen warming A consequences ofglobalclimate level asamodelofpossible rise under conditionsofhighsea- the Caspiananditscoastalareas to theevolutioncommunity of the interest scientific oftheinternational this problem. Within decades thelasttwo devoted multiannualstudiesto solving State University’s Faculty ofGeography have the region. Scientistsfrom theMoscow a strategy for sustainabledevelopment of the region isthedefiningconditionfor building development ofthenaturalenvironments of change, theCaspiansea-level changeand climate between Revealing thelinkage these conditions. climate changebeing conditions atitsouter boundaries, withthe of theenclosedbodywater withchanging phenomenonoftheunstablestate normal insea-level variations arethat periodical a tenscovering ofthousandsyears, indicate as theresults ofpaleogeographical studies evidence throughout times, historical aswell archaeological, andother cartographic up to –26,66min1995.Geomorphologic, m in1977wasfollowed of bythesea-level rise level drop thatreached itslowest level of–29,01 forcharacteristic thisregion. sea- The observed environments. Abruptsea-level changeis The Caspianregion hasuniquenatural the most important of the mostimportant and others–addressed fundamentaland paleogeographers, geochemists, biologists geologists, geomorpholog hydrologists, oceanographers, marine different –climatologists, areas ofexpertise ofthestudycase. Specialistson complexity Scientific presentations showed the participated. andUkraine, Netherlands along withGreat Canada,the Britain, Russiaand Turkmenistan,Kazakhstan, Iran, of theCaspianregion –Azerbaijan, community. Scientistsfrom allcountries drew alotofinterest from oftheconferenceThe objectives and coastalarea to theseclimaticevents. the response ofthenaturalbasinenvironments opposite trends, andallowsfor understanding includes climaticevents ofdifferent scaleand oftheregion for iscritical in thehistory it development –theHolocene. This timeinterval conference focused onthefinalstageofCaspian Committee. As ascientifictimeframe, the the faculty, becametheleaderofOrganizing Change”. of –Dean Academician N.S.Kasimov Environmental Consequences oftheClimate Conference on C “The ists, cartographers, aspian Region: aspian Region: the scientific the scientific

125 News and Reviews 126 News and Reviews On October 15 On October projects IGCP, INTAS andRFBR-NWO. and presented thedatafrom theinternational multiannual research intheCaspianregion They summarized theresults ofthe (S. Leroy) andCanada(V. Yanko-Hombach). Kroonenberg, Great R.Hoogendoorn), Britain (S. theNetherlands Alieva, R.Mamedov), (E. Azerbaijan A. Svitoch, N.Alekseevskyi), from Russia(S.Kislov, N.Kasimov, M.Lychagin, region research lectures: presented plenary The following leadingscientistsintheCaspian Technological (theNetherlands). University Professor S.B. Kroonenberg from theDelft of the Chairman University, Academician N.S.Kasimov, andby Faculty ofGeography State oftheMoscow of theOrganizing Committee ofthe and Dean 14 sessiontook placeonOctober The plenary development oftheCaspianregion. applied questionsassociated withsustainable sea-level changeinthe Late Pleistocene and on thereconstructionofCaspian Reports for forecasting theirfuture development. scaleand of climaticchangesvariable natural environments underconditions of theevolution oftheCaspianandits fundamental for understandingthepatterns on different ofthistheme, whichis aspects Caspian Searegion” presented thereports palaeoenvironmental changesinthe open. The session “Palaeoclimatic and th . The sessionwasopenedbytheChairman the ScientificCommittee – th sixsessionswere for studyingfast sea-level changesandtheir why researchers consideritanaturallaboratory of changeswitharangeof3mthatis full cycle a theCaspiansea-level underwent XX century climate changeandtheCaspianSealevel. the In geochemical evolution undertheinfluenceof of changesthecoastallandscapes, their oncoastalprocesses, included reports patterns The session “Evolution ofthecoastalzone” researchers andМ.Ownegh. H.Khoshravan sea-level waspresented variations byIranian coastal zone underconditionsof Iranian (MSU).Evolution ofthe and A.Kalashnikov byE.Badukova coast ofDagestanundertaken reconstructing thedevelopment ofthe Turali geophysical datawasusedasabasisfor of geological, geomorphological and and archaeological evidence. Acomplex referring to paleogeographicand Azerbaijan, prehistoriclink between cultures ofEgypt the Caspianandpointed to thepossible coastof development oftheAzerbaijanian 155 mandreconstructed thelandscape intheLate Pleistocenerise thatreached Caspiansea-level view oftheextraordinary (Great presented Britain) ahighlydebatable (MSU).R.Gallagher and N.Bolikhovskaya the Volga (Great byК.Richards Delta Britain) (MSU);on andN.Kasimov Bolikhovskaya Lower Volga region waspresented byN. vegetation andclimate evolution ofthe M. Lychagin onthe (MSU).Anoverview N.Kasimov, A.Gennadiev,M. Kasatenkova, change were discussedinpresentations by zone, causedbysea-level changes inthenear-shore Geography). Geochemical and O. of (Institute Borisova A. Panin, A.Sidorchuk (MSU) waspresented by time interval inthesame Caspian basinrivers evaluating therunoffof Geography). on The report ofA. Chepalyga (Institute ofOceanology),(Institute G. Pedan (Ukraine), V. Putans E.Konikov, colleagues (Iran), and А.Kаkroodi Netherlands), by S.B. Kroonenberg (the Holocene were presented the Caspianregion, whichisoneofthe state anddevelopment ofriver deltasof of climate changeandsea-level onpresent deltas” ontheinfluence includedreports The session “Evolution oftheCaspianrivers and colleagues(Ukraine). and Blackseaswaspresented byG.Pedan Caspian study ofthecoastsnorthern wasdescribed. ComparativeNetherlands) S.Kroonenberg, Iran; (А.Каkroodi, Iran (F.Kazakhstan Kazakhstan), Akiyanova, G. Abdurakhmanov, Makhachkala), G.Solov'eva,MSU; Dagestan (S.Luk'yanova, MSU), S.Luk'yanova, Kravtsova, (V. of Kalmykia presentations thedevelopment ofthecoasts consequences for thenear-shore zone. the In Yu. Kaliningrad). Gorbunova, ofOceanology,Institute Moscow; P. Khlebopashev, T. Alekseeva, V. Svalnov, P.Reserve; E. Makkaveev, Vinogradova, Biosphere Astrakhan A. Gorbunova, A.Gorbunov, ofAstrakhan; M. Iolin,University N. Kasimov, M.Lychagin, MSU;A.Barmin, (E. Baldina,I.Labutina,A.Kur'yakova, separate components ofitsenvironment the problem of Volga evolution Delta and ofpresentations weremajority devoted to economy andecologyoftheregion. The role inthe important system, playing very is the Volga –auniquenatural Delta the Caspiancoastmostimportant economies. For of theRussianpart most cr itical problems ofthenational

127 News and Reviews 128 News and Reviews 21 timeanditsforecastwithin historical for the the analysisofCaspiansea-level change (MSU)with ofR.Klige was drawn to thereport systems to thesechanges. The mostinterest response oftheCaspianSeaanditsnatural climate changeintheregion, aswell as number ofpresentations ontheforecast of and environmental changes” includedasmall The session “Forecasts oftheCaspianSealevel V.I. Kalinkin, Semin(MSU). region were given byI.Lurie, A.Alyautdinov, information databaseontheCaspian Suggestionsto developMoscow). the S. Lebedev (Geophysical center RAS, University), (OilandGas by N.Kas’yanova these regions. wereThe reports presented ofecological management in characteristics on theshelfofCaspianSea,aswell as of hydrocarbons inthecoastalzone and caused byintensive explorationandmining geochemical state ofnaturalcomplexes, range ofdifferent ofecological and aspects included presentations awide covering Environmental problems andmanagement” The session CaspianSearegion: “The the CaspianSealevel. significant influenceofunderground waters on assumed ofGeosphere(Institute Dynamics) B. Golubov sediments (H.Lahijani,Iran). ofmarine indistribution patterns Moscow); ofFisheriesInstitute andOceanography, V. Sapozhnikov, N.Zozulya, N.Mordasova, (N. Solov’eva, ofOceanology; Institute development biological ofmarine communities Oceanography); geochemicalevolution and L. Ostroumova, of Institute V.Polonskyi, S. Lebedev, Geophysical Center RAS; ofOceanography; Institute R. Nikonova, structure (A. Kosarev, V. Tuzhilkin, MSU; hydrological fields,the thermohaline vertical the linksinseasystem: reorganization of and theirinfluenceonthe hydrometeorological changesintheregion Sea” wasdevoted to different problems of The session “Current conditionsoftheCaspian mathematical modelsofsea-level change. presented his colleaguesfrom Kazakhstan inwhichheand (Pulkovo Observatory), st century and the report of N. Makarenko ofN.Makarenko and thereport century functioning ofall functioning (38 caspian_conference_2010.pdf) (http://media.geogr.msu.ru/Caspian_2010/ Faculty ofGeography,Moscow: 2010.352p. Proceedings Conference. oftheInternational of theClimate Change” waspublishedasthe Caspian Region: Environmental Consequences of theconference thevolume ofabstracts: “The thebeginning By a total of~180participants. As were awhole, 102reports presented, with spoke. S.B. Kroonenberg andN.S.Kasimov At theclosingceremony oftheconference from ofthenearandfarabroad. countries scientists notonlyfrom Russia,butalso region require closecooperationbetween investigationsModern intheCaspian natural environments oftheCaspianregion. regional scales, andtheirinfluenceonall to climaticchangesatglobaland linkage the causesofsea-level changeandtheir research inorder to better understand out thefuture tasks-to continuethe theconferenceand during helpedfiguring beforeworkshops, thattook placeshortly years, ishigh.Presentations, discussions, accumulated withintherecent twenty environments oftheentire Caspianregion, sea-level changeandtheevolution ofnatural studying theinfluenceofclimaticchangeson potential for cooperationin international waspointed out,thatthe organization. It level andtheexcellent overall conference received appraisalfor thehighpresentations’ discussion onthepresentations. Allspeakers At theendofmeetingthere wasa unstable level oftheCaspianSea. in thecoastalzone underconditionsof ofeconomicactivity on thecharacteristics (MSU)madespecialemphasisG.I. Rychagov of theregion (M. V. Iran). Moghaddam, and thestate ofnaturalenvironments (G.N. Panin, of Institute Water Problems) forecasts,change theCaspiansea-level sessionpresented lecturesonclimate plenary sessionwere held. closing plenary The On October 16 On October posters and theirdiscussions)andthe Tamara A.Yanina, theExecutive Secretary ofthe ConferenceSecretary th theposter session 4. of The present conditionofthenetwork 3. Causes andeffects ofcentennial climate 2. Environmental problems ofaquaticand 1. areas:conference onsixmostimportant sections Ecological-social problems ofthenatural sessionsandthe were theplenary madeduring intheconference.participated About80reports andKazakhstan Israel, theUSA,Uzbekistan, 220 scientistsfrom Germany, Russia,Mongolia, Biosphere Reserves). ofUNESCO behalf oftheEastern-Asian Network Biological Sciences(IUBS);andDr. R. Yakumar (on Unionof Bernardi (onbehalfoftheInternational Science, andEducationC.Kulanda;Professor G. ofCulture, oftheDepartment Minister Deputy Nature, Environment, and Tourism, C.Jargalsaikhan; of oftheDepartment Minister Osipov); Deputy (on behalfoftheRASPresident, Academician Y.P. RelationsS.S.Markianov ofExternal Department of theGreat HeadoftheRAS Hural, G.Bayarsaikhan; of theCommittee onFood, Agriculture, andNature amember presentationsKey-note were madeby: oftheconference.the participants D.S. Pavlov, delivered welcoming speechesto member oftheRASPresidium, Academician of theMAS, academicianD. Regdel, anda the Organizing Committee, First Vice-President resources of ofMongolia. The co-chairmen research ontheenvironment andbiological oftheExpeditionin to efforts thelong-term MAS, Academician B. Enhtuvshin,paidtribute hiswelcoming speech,thePresident In ofthe Academythe Mongolian ofSciences(MAS). the RussianAcademy ofSciences(RAS)and of Complex Biological Expedition(JRMCBE) oftheJointRussian-Mongolian 40-anniversary The conference wastimedto coincidewiththe September, 6–8,2010,Ulaan-Baatar, Mongolia “ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF SOUTHERN SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA” BIOSPHERIC PROCESSES IN ECOTONE ZONE prospects of itsdevelopment; especially protected and naturalterritories dynamics; basin; Lake wetland ecosystems oftheBaikal environment pollution; to fifteen libraries ofMongolia. to libraries fifteen directions ofitsresearch onvarious transactions of more than500volumes oftheJRMCBE conference activities, includingthetransfer widelycovered mediaofMongolia Mass all menues1/index_rus.html. of EcologyandEvolution: http://www.sevin.ru/ can befound onthesite oftheRASInstitute conference. oftheconference The materials volumestobeen publishedintwo the prior Germany,Mongolia, Israel, andtheUSAhad organizations ofRussia, departmental various from 90academicinstitutes, universities, and 186 conference by365authors abstracts andtheMAS.ministries ofhonorfrom differentas certificates Mongolian 5 governmental, and4academicawards aswell members oftheJRMCBEreceived 8state, He alsonoted thatbothRussianandMongolian that targets assessment ofpastures’ condition. ecology and, especially, to theappliedresearch the JRMCBEto research onMongolian efforts of highlyofthecontribution very He spoke addressed theconference withaspecialspeech. Narankhuu, the Parliament Kh. ofMongolia, Before closingtheconference, amemberof wasaccepted. The UlaanbaatarDeclaration session. atthefinalplenary reports summary oftheconferenceThe chairmen made sections of2011–2015wereperiod alsodiscussed. undertheJRMCBEProgramactivities for the followed bydiscussions. Future research of poster presentations subjects onvarious additionto there oralreports, wereIn anumber 6. Floristic, faunistic, andbiogeocoenological 5. Ecological inanthropogenic risks (agricultural and forest) ecosystems; Siberia andCentral Asia.Siberia intheecotonediversity zone ofSouthern The RASInstituteofEcology Yuliy I.Drobyshev and Evolution

129 News and Reviews 130 GES 02|2010 or reviews involume upto 0,7–1author’s sheet. words). Onoccassionincoordination witheditioncanbe accepted methodological, problem 4. is0,2–0,5ofauthor’sThe optimum volume of manuscript sheet(orabout3000–5000 vitae. points ofcurriculum as theCorresponding Author. We encourageauthorsto includetheirsphotograph andmain addresses, telephone andfaxnumbersemailaddresses. Oneauthorshouldbeidentified the 3. All may beused. 2. Papers are Englishspellingandpunctuation orAmerican accepted inEnglish.EitherBritish Board.decision oftheEditorial published,earlier oraccepted to thepublicationinothereditions, are accepted under the according to thescopeofJournal, reviews Mater (onlyinvited) articles. andbrief 1. Authors are scientificpapers encouragedto submithigh-quality, original work: development. environment andhealth;educationfor sustainable andbiodiversity; nature conservation and environmental mapping; oil andgasexplorationenvironmental problems; regional development; appliedgeographical andenvironmental studies;geo-informatics regional environmental andclimate change;environmental regional planning;sustainable environment andnaturalresources; globaland human(economicandsocial)geography; science; fundamentalsofsustainabledevelopment; environmental management; willbe:basicsofgeography ofthejournal Among themajorsections andenvironmental welcome. particularly science. Publications thatare interdisciplinary, theoretical andmethodological are social andpoliticalgeography, andalso– onfieldstudiesinthesphere ofenvironmental resource usage, educationfor sustainabledevelopment, GIStechnology, cartography, –geographers, ecologists, natural specialistsinenvironmental conservation, scientists in thechanging world. Publication willbeaimedatforeign ofthejournal andRussian the sphere ofgeography, andsustainabledevelopment environmental conservation aims ofinforming andcoveringtheresults ofresearch andglobalachievements in The scientificEnglishlanguagejournal ‘GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY’ I. AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY” CONTRIBUTING TO “GEOGRAPHY, FOR AUTHORS,INSTRUCTIONS GENERAL GUIDELINES GENERAL authors ofapapershouldincludetheirfullnames, positions, affiliations, postal ials be sentasemailattachments to [email protected] Authors are electronically. encouragedto submitmanuscripts Electronicsubmissionsshould style” athttp://www.geogr.msu.ru/GESJournal/author.php 10. for AuthorsAs canbechanged, Instruction please, seetheLast “Example ofmanuscript Acrobat pdffiles. electronic versionwithembeddedfigures oftheirmanuscripts of “screen” revie of expediting 9. For must usethesymbol®or TM. 8. authors ortrademark, term toWhen usingaword beaproprietary whichisorasserted 7. Authors mustadhere to SIunits. Unitsare notitalicised. Editor(s), title, In: publisher,brackets, titleofacontribution. location, inclusive pagenumbers. Author’s for inabook: Style contribution lastnamefollowed byinitialsfor eachauthor, year in forStyle books:Author(s), year in brackets,title, publisher, location,pagenumbers. brackets, papertitle, publicationname, volume/month,inclusivepagenumbers for journal Style articles Author2, 2008].References shouldbecomplete inthefollowing style: (Author, shouldbedenoted inHarvard the text year) system insquare brackets,e.g., [Author1, Whenever possible, total numberofreferences shouldnotexceed 10points. References in 6. 5. file inanoriginal format MS Word, Excel, etc. numbered separately from theillustrations. Eachtableshould berepresented asaseparate 4. should benotless300dpiinthenaturalsize. Captionsshouldbegiven astheseparate list. 9 versions), Adobe Photoshop (upto 6versions), Adobe (upto images 9versions). Illustrator Raster represented informats ofprograms used for theircreation: CorelDraw (up to 3. 2. Authors shoulduseword processing for preparation. software manuscript references; andphoto) CV authors(brief appendixes (asappropriate); acknowledgments; maintext; Keywords; affiliations, Abstract; 1. shouldbecompiledinthefollowing Manuscript III. MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION III.MANUSCRIPT PREPARATIONII.MANUSCRIPT Figures References Captions Tables shouldnotbetoo bulky. title. Eachtableshouldhave ashort Tables are to be shouldbeproduced asnearto thefinishedsize aspossible. Pictures canbe should follow thereference to figure. to namesoftables.The sameconcerns shouldbenumbered inthealphabeticalorder, usingArabicnumerals. : Author’s: lastnamefollowed by wing ofapaper authors are encouragedto prepare alsoan order initials for eachauthor, yearin : authorsnames;title; quality asquality A dobe

131 GES 02|2010 132 GES 02|2010 “GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, No. 02(v. 03)2010 ISSN 2071-9388 Circulation 300ex. Digital print 55 p. sh. Format 32 Order Ngi210 22.09.2010 issent into print It E-mail: [email protected] Fax 7-495-9167673 Phone 7-495-9167574 Nizhnyaya Syromyatnicheskaya, 5/7,2 105120Russia Moscow andPublishingAdvertising Agency “Advanced Solutions” E-mail: [email protected] Fax 7-495-9328836 Phone 7-495-9392923 Faculty ofGeography, 2108a Gory,Leninskie 119991Russia Moscow M.V. Lomonosov State University Moscow EDITORIAL OFFICE registration: ПИМФС77-29285,2007,August 30. in sphere ofmasscommunicationsandprotection ofaculturalheritage. of The certificate ofthelegislation The magazineisregistered ofobservance inFederal onsupervision service ofGeography andInstitute University oftheRussianAcademy ofSciences FOUNDERS OF THE MAGAZINE: DESIGN & SUSTAINABILITY” SOCIALLY SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE ½ PRINTING 46cm/2 Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov State Moscow