RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
FACULTY OF GEOGRAPHY, LOMONOSOV MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY, RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
No. 03 [v. 07] 2014 GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
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2 2 GES 03|2014 Russia University, Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov State Moscow Kasimov Nikolay S. Faculty ofScience, Czech Republic University, Masaryk Konečný Milan ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, A. Kolosov Vladimir Geology, Sweden Physical Geography andQuaternary of University,Stockholm Department Jarsjö Jerker China ofRemote SensingandDigitalInstitute Earth, Chinese Academy ofSciences, Guo Huadong ofOceanology,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Gulev Sergey K. ofSocialSciences, UK Department Oxford BrookesUniversity, Haigh Martin Faculty ofGeography, Russia Lomonosov State University, Moscow Dobrolubov Sergey A. ofGeography,Department Belgium Ghent University, De Maeyer Philippe ofPlymouth,University UK Brian Chalkley Faculty ofGeography, Russia Lomonosov State University, Moscow Chubarova Natalya E. Pacific ofGeography, Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, PetrBaklanov Ya. Denmark Danish Meteorological Institute, AlexanderBaklanov Faculty ofGeography, Russia Lomonosov State University, Moscow S. Tikunov Vladimir EDITORSINCHIEF: EDITORIAL BOARD
(Secretary-General) Russia ofGeography,Institute Russian Academy ofSciences KotlyakovM. Vladimir Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute, Zilitinkevich Sergey S. Natural Resources Research, China ofGeographical Sciencesand Institute Chinese Academy ofSciences, Wuyi Wang ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Tishkov A. Arkady ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, OlgaN. Solomina Serbia Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić”, AcademySerbian of SciencesandArts, Radovanovic Milan The Netherlands Wageningen University, Pedroli Bas ofBehavioral Sciences,Institute USA ofColoradoUniversity atBoulder, O’Loughlin John ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Nefedova TatyanaG. South Africa of Environmental andGeographical Sciences ofCape University Town, Department Meadows E. Michael Faculty ofGeography, Russia Lomonosov State University, Moscow Malkhazova Svetlana M. Sciences,Atmospheric Finland Divisionof ofHelsinki, University Kulmala Markku The Netherlands Sciences, ofAppliedEarth Department of University Delft Technology Kroonenberg Salomon Belgium Université Libre deBruxelles, Vandermotten Christian 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 Alexander F. Finaev Valentin N.Golosov, XinbaoZhang, Tang Qiang, PingZhou, XiubinHe Nella A.Shpolyanskaya Vladimir S.Tikunov, PhamHoangHai S.Lukyanetz, NguyenArtem Canh Toan, ElenaE. Pismennaya, V. Sergei Ryazantsev, Arkady Tishkov Vladimir Kolosov Sergey A.Sokratov, AleksandrL.Shnyparkov Vyacheslav A.Gavrilova, L.Baburin,Sofia Peter Koltermann, Yury G.Seliverstov, Dharmaveer Singh,Rajan Jain D. K. Gupta,Sanjay Schweitzer,Christian JürgenHofmann,JörgPriess, Mikhail Lychagin Marcus Malsy, Lucas Menzel, PhilippTheuring, MelanieHartwig, Karthe, NikolayDaniel S.Kasimov, R.Chalov, Sergey GalinaL.Shinkareva, GEOGRAPHY NEWS AND REVIEWS SUSTAINABILITY ENVIRONMENT CONTENTS THE MODEL OF DUST AEROSOL ACCUMULATIONAEROSOL DUST OFIN MODELTAJIKISTAN THE ...... 97 . . . PASTDURING THEUPLAND RUSSIAN CENTRALAND 60THEBASIN . .YEARS ...... 39 . . . QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF SEDIMENT REDISTRIBUTION IN THE SICHUAN HILLY . . .PLEISTOCENEHOLOCENE INCONTINENT .AND THE .THESHELF ON .THE . . . .22 . . . FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF CRYOLITHOZONETHE RUSSIAN ARCTIC MIGRATIONCLIMATE OFVIETNAMESE CONTEXTIN THECHANGE ...... 4 ...... CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY IN RUSSIA .RUSSIA .CONSERVATIONIN . . .BIODIVERSITY . .OF ...... 125 ...... KRAKOW .INCONFERENCE .REGIONAL . IGU ...... 123 ...... COASTALSEACAUCASUS BLACKFOR THENORTHERN OF THEREGION . . . . . 108 ...... QUANTIFICATION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL RISKS OF DEBRIS FLOWS HIMALAYANNW .REGION ...... STUDY OF LONGTERM TREND IN RIVER DISCHARGE OF RIVER SUTLEJ SYSTEM RIVER SELENGA ORKHON . KHARAAIN . THEQUALITY . .AND ...... 65 . . . INTEGRATING MULTISCALE DATA FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF WATER AVAILABILITY ...... 87 . 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 4 GEOGRAPHY Sergei V.Ryazantsev Moscow, 119991,Russia; Tel: [email protected] +74959391339, e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: Moscow, 32-a,Russia; 119991, Leninskyi prospect, Tel +74995302884, Political Studies); Tel: [email protected] +7(499)943-95-77,e-mail: of theRussianFederation; Moscow, 125993,Leningradskyi 49,Russi; prospect, Vietnam; Tel: [email protected] 84435370811,e-mail: Tel [email protected] +74995302884,e-mail: Political Studies);Moscow, 32-a,Russia; 119991,Leninskyi prospect, 1 blocks thatprovide for acloselinkbetween AIS theyare developing. This AISconsistsof change in Vietnam. an The authorsdescribe and demographic consequencesofclimate (AISs) for theassessmentofsocial-economic Systemsthe potential ofAtlasInformation provinces of Vietnam. The paperdiscusses regions Delta andCentralout oftheMekong force ofthepopulation significant portion severe storms, tsunamis, andflooding in globalmeantemperatures couldleadto integrated into thehost countries. Increase Europe; thesecommunitiesare relatively well have grown ofEastern inthecountries long history. Large Vietnamese communities people. Vietnamese migration hasarelatively demographic potential exceeding 90mln of Vietnam. hasasignificant The country for theeconomy important are extremity withmostdensepopulationand territories The areas ofpotential floodinginclude oceans associated withglobalwarming. most vulnerableto water level inthe rise change. Vietnam isamongthefive countries, from Vietnam ofglobalclimate inthecontext [email protected]: +084438361202,e-mail: 6 * Coresponding author 5 4 3 2 S.LukyanetzArtem ABSTRACT. CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE MIGRATIONVIETNAMESE IN THE Institute ofGeographyInstitute VAST; Hanoi,Fam Van Dong, 06/24, Vietnam; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty Gory, Leninskie ofGeography; Center for Demography Social for (Institute andEconomic Sociology Socio- of Department Theoretical Sociology, Financial University undertheGovernment forInstitute European Studies, VASS; Hanoi, 358/57B,Thanh Suan,BuiSiongChak, Center for Demography Social for (Institute andEconomic Sociology Socio- The paperexaminesemigration 1 , Nguyen Canh Toan 4 , Vladimir S. Tikunov, Vladimir 2 flow offorced migrants –environmental could result inasignificant migration andreproductionsettlement pattern trends, density, thespecificsof considering withhighpopulation territory the country’s are notrelocated gradually, areductionin and, possibly, beyond its borders. people If relocation ofthepopulationincountry of Vietnam. Flooding may require mandatory threat cannotbelocalized within theborders response level, atthe international asthe However, theproblem requires animmediate climate changeandsealevel in rise Vietnam. was commissionedto create of ascenario of NaturalResources andEnvironment to respond to climate change. The Ministry in 2008,approved thestate target program this problem, the Vietnamese authorities, Giang, Vinh Long andCan Tho. To address Giang, HauGiang, Dong Thap, Long An, Tien such populated provinces asAnGiang, Kien events showsthatthefloodzone couldaffect of theprovinces of Vietnam. Simulationof components for theintegrated assessment natural resource, andenvironmental economic(production),socio-political, , ElenaE. Pismennaya 5* , PhamHoangHai 6 3 , 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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5 [Nigmetov, Filatov, Pchelkin, Yuzbekov, 2003] oftheRussianFederation”in theterritory growth trend of catastrophic floods “The Filatov, V.I. Pchelkin, andN.S. Yuzbekov in examinedbyG.M. Nigmetov,further Y.A. tsunamis,hurricanes, etc. This problem was number ofnaturaldisasters, suchasfloods, relationship thesetrends between andthe 2012]. The paperalsoidentifiesthe current trends ofclimate change[Izmalkov, presents adetailedexaminationofthe events, andtheirpossibleconsequences” number ofnaturaldisasters, andcatastrophic change, to theincreasing itscontribution of V.I. Izmalkov inglobalclimate“Trends Arctic. For example, thefundamentalwork studies related to themeltingoficein problem oftheoceansasawhole, including focusedstudies are primarily onthebasic Academy ofSciences. However, these oftheRussian ofOceanology in theInstitute extensive research out inthisfieldiscarried Russia,themost demographic In impacts. and given to theanalysisofsocio-economic consequences, butsofar, littleattention is study ofclimate changeandnatural areglobal warming devoted to the ofscientificpaperson The vastmajority Europe, Russia,migration policy, integration. Systems,countries, AtlasInformation Eastern warming, Vietnamese communitiesin host economically. way that would benefitRussiasociallyand and using inaregulatedVietnamese workers Russia’s aimedatattracting migration policy The papersuggestsmeasures to improve for respect. Vietnam inthesocio-economic labor emigration would beeven beneficial the negative scenario. Besides, organized may bepossible to anticipate andmitigate the form oforganized labormigration, it if theresettlement nowin program starts be directed outofthecountry. However, immigrants and, asaresult, theflowwould theentirebe sufficientto absorb flowof refugees. of The territory Vietnam may not INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: Vietnam, emigration, global
climate and weather conditions for military climate andweather conditionsfor military methods andtechniques ofmanaging case 60years ago, stillattempt to develop agree thattheUnited States, asit wasa oftheUSA.Many experts national security by theCIAto improve thepoliciesof secretary, theresearch results willbeused For example, according to theCIApress (CIA). Many ofthem are ratherpragmatic. Agency (NAS), andtheCentral Intelligence (NOAA), theNationalAcademy ofSciences Administration andAtmospheric Oceanic Space Administration (NASA), National foundations: The NationalAeronautics and through anumberoforganizations and for thesestudies, providedfinancial support because ofsubstantialgovernmental scientists is possible ofAmerican activity and Vietnamese scientists. Increased studies on Vietnam are donebyAmerican Most situation are notyet sufficientlyknown. Russia,thestudieson In Vietnam ofglobal warming.epicenter oftheimpact location. isliterally atthe The country associated withitsuniquegeographic of research withrespectto Vietnam is relevant. Relevance become particularly frommaximal risks globalclimate change situations inregions thatface andcountries recent years,In thestudiesofspecific living inareas ofpotential threats. behavior andway oflife ofthepopulation demographic processes, as well asofthe ofglobalclimate changeon the impact analysisof in-depth completely lacking the significance oftheseworks, theyare 2012].Despite from [Vladimirov, climate risk andterritories the populationofcountries of disaster prevention andprotection of inthecontext impacts of socio-economic address onlyisolated aspects development”) (in: “Disasters andsocio-economic situations”) [Faleev, 2012]and V.A. Vladimirov disasters andnaturalemergency large-scale ofdealingwith theexperience considering protection ofthepopulationandterritories, Makeev, 2012].M.I.Faleev (in: the “Improving of emergenc y situations” Dolgin, [Vladimirov, V.A. in Makeev “Global problems asasource and by V.A. Vladimirov, N.N.Dolgin, and 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 6 GEOGRAPHY flooding, have notbeenyet examinedin facingpossible population oftheterritories possible relocation andresettlement ofthe country. Potential threats associated with could have consequencesfor serious the thatglobalwarming high andimportant demographic potential of Vietnam isso isclearthat the sufficiently addressed. It demographic processes have notbeen and change onthesocio-economic forecast ofglobalclimate oftheimpact obviously, theissuesofassessmentand conducted. However, ontheotherhand, research onclimate changeisbeing organizations, andfoundations, extensive agencies, government various international of On theonehand, withthesupport and demographic processes in Vietnam. onsocio-economic change anditsimpact situation inthearea ofglobalclimate Thus, today we are dealingwithacertain living in Vietnam. ultimately may leadto lower standards of which for prices rising productsandservices, note thethreat ofeconomicslowdown and Vietnam, becomesthereality. also The works number ofspeciesinthecoastalwaters of ofthecrop,part aswell asreductioninthe of thedestruction underrice), (primarily the problem ofreductiontheacreage main conclusionoftheseauthorsisthat in change onfood security Vietnam. The natural disasters causedbyglobalclimate ofA. Almeyd [2011]discusstheimpact P. Adams, N. G. Gisek, Tren, A.Agroel, and 2010]. Also, scientists ofAmerican theworks forlevel scenarios rise Vietnam” Bank, [World Environment (MONRE) “Climate change, Sea ofNaturalResources and of theMinistry adaptation to climate change” andareport ofthe 2008], areport World Bank “Economic Delta”“Flooding oftheMekong [Nguyen, of a Vietnamese scientistNguenHuuNinh Delta” [Doyle, Dey, 2010],thework Michot, climate changeassessmentsoftheMekong for“Development ofsealevel scenarios rise T.W. Doyle, R.H.Dey, and T.C. Michot list amonograph scientists byAmerican and interesting on works Vietnam, we can purposes. Amongthemostfundamental 1 thof Vietnam –about –about3th,andBulgaria Slovakia Poland –10th,Austria –5th, – 7th,Hungary Czech Republic ishometo about70th, Federation) isabout100thpersons. The and Central Europe (excluding theRussian number of Vietnamese peopleinEastern (OECD) andthenationalstatistics, the Economic Cooperation andDevelopment migrants. According to theOrganization for regions oftheresettlement of Vietnamese Soviet Unionhave alsobecomesomeofthe Europe ofEastern countries andtheformer 2011].Historically, [Migration, in theworld dollars US), Vietnam place took sixteenth received from abroad (more than7,2bn of the volume terms ofremittancesIn Cambodiaand well asneighboring Thailand. France, as SouthKorea, United Kingdom, as USA,Japan,Australia, Canada,Germany, economically developed such countries destination for Vietnamese migrants were population. country’s of The maincountries 2,5%ofthetotalcountry, whichcomprises more than2,2mlnpeoplelivingoutside the in2010;there intheworld were country emigrants, twenty-thirdVietnam ranked of the absolute terms numberofIn migrationinternational asadonorcountry. of Vietnam participant isanactive number ofpeople. which may affect, inthenearfuture, alarge consequences offorced climate migration, level, to minimize thepossiblenegative atthegovernmental mechanisms, primarily detail. Therefore, itisnotpossibleto develop of residence. This process wasparticularly i.e., acquired thecitizenship ofthecountry Europepeople inEastern are naturalized, Statistical datashowthatmany Vietnamese at least350-400thpersons[Ryazantsev, 2007]. republics oftheformer SovietUnion,there are According tonot known. rough estimates, inall of Vietnamese peopleinRussiaandtheCISis MIGRANTS IN HOST COUNTRIES THE INTEGRATION OF VIETNAMESE INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION AND THE ROLE OF INVIETNAM ese people. number The exact 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 integration relevant is extremely since conditions. ofthe This aspect Vietnamese to climate andnaturalgeographical 3) Environmental integration –adaptation data existintheofficialstatistics. with ahighdegree ofreliability, becausethe the parameters ofeconomicintegration ispossibleto assess success ofintegration. It of incomelargely theoverall determine positionandthelevel the socio-economic oftheoverallstructure integration, since Economic integration iscentralto the rights. acquisition, andproperty property implementation ofentrepreneurial potential, higher incomes, accessto socialbenefits, 2) Economicintegration –accessto jobs, the hostcountry. of andgainingcivicidentity rights electoral ofrealizationthe country, andpossibility of onmovement within absence ofrestrictions naturalization andacquisitionofcitizenship, 1) Civicintegration of –thepossibility into thehostcountries: of theintegration ofthe Vietnamese people 2013]. They have identified sixcomponents EuropeEastern [Ryazantsev, Nguen, Manshin, of Vietnamese immigrants insomecountries study oftheprocesses ofintegration ofthe Social Scienceshave acomparative conducted European Studiesofthe Vietnam Academy of Academy for ofSciencesandtheInstitute of SocialandPolitical StudiesoftheRussian into society. 2011,scientistsfrom theInstitute In Vietnamese people are successfullyintegrated However, despite this, Europe, inEastern notall successful integ business, and,and conducting therefore, to dynamic people, prone to gettingeducation men ofyoung andmiddleage, mobileand Vietnamese communitiesare dominated by terms, socio-demographic communities. In professional groups, andreligious andethnic of different socialclasses, politicaltrends, conglomerates composedofrepresentatives Europein Eastern are quite complex showed thatthe Vietnamese communities Czech Republic, andPoland. The ourstudy intense in thelastdecadeinHungary, the ration into the host countries. ration into thehostcountries. employment services, andgovernmentemployment services, European inmigration countries services, were infive Eastern taken interviews Eighteen byexperts. a sociological survey intheformThe studywasconducted of complicate theprocess ofintegration. surrounding populationand, ultimately, will ofthe to acautiousattitudeonthepart rise concentration ofresidence, for sure, willgive isolationand inturn, the hostsociety; the rapidandsuccessfulintegration into to contribute willcertainly to thecontacts the “openness” and “readiness” ofmigrants the integration ofmigrants. particular, In may have dramaticallyopposite effects on factors andobjective ofsubjective impact status ofmigrant etc. workers, Obviously, the of migrants bythelocalpopulation;legal of migrants; religious affiliation;perception situation of educationandsocio-economic andthenumberofmigrants;patterns level in thenewplaceofresidence; settlement are thelengthofstay the mostimportant by migrants andahostcountry. Among several thatshouldbeconsidered factors of theintegration process dependson social, andmany otheraspects. The success process thatinvolves economic, cultural, isarathermultifaceted the hostcountries The integration process ofmigrants in and theway oflife ofthelocalpopulation. willingness andadopttheculture to learn and 6) Cultural integration –knowledge population. themigrants between andthelocal conflicts population, andabsenceofreligion-based worship, adoptionofthereligion ofthelocal 5) Religious integration to –theability residence. language ofthemigrants’ of country intheprimary andfluency knowledge level ofthemigrants’ accessto education, 4) Socialandpsychological integration –the Europe.than inEastern fundamentally different climaticconditions with the migrants comefrom thecountry 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 8 GEOGRAPHY The state policy intheCzech RepublicThe state policy Europe. ofEastern years inthecountries migrants haschangedsignificantly inrecent authorities’ inrelation to policy Vietnamese shouldbenoted thattheintegration. It scored thehighestfor thecivicandeconomic 50 pointsoutof60possible. These countries assessmentwas score basedontheexpert Czech Republic andHungary. The overall people have successfullyintegrated into the The studyshowed thatmost Vietnamese presented in Table 1. Europe wascalculated. The results are inEasterneach ofthestudiedcountries responses. theintegrated Next, score for values for eachparameter for allexperts’ returned questionnaires andthemean the integration for eachoftheexperts’ scores basedonthesixcomponentsof responses were usedto derivetheaverage evaluation wasdeveloped. The experts’ of parameters thathelpto refine expert the componentsofintegration, aset at thetimeofsurvey. For eachof countries, for whichtheyhave information integration of Vietnamese peopleinthe each ofthesixcomponents to evaluate,asked ona10-pointscale, weremigrants inhostsocieties. Experts degree ofintegration ofthe Vietnamese wasto assessthe ofthesurvey purpose Czech Republic, Poland, andHungary. The the relationsinter-ethnic inRussia,Ukraine, agencies ontheissuesofintegration and Table 1. Expert assessment of Vietnamese migrants’ integration level in the countries of Eastern Europe Eastern of countries the in level integration migrants’ Vietnamese of assessment Table 1. Expert utrl87776 7 7 39 7 8 7 5 7 50 9 8 8 8 50 7 9 7 7 7 9 34 8 10 4 8 7 5 40 integration –0points. Note: Final Integration Score 10 5 6 7 Cultural Religious Socio-physiological 4 Environmental Economic Civic 6 yeo neaainRsi kan zc eulcHnayPoland Hungary Czech Republic Ukraine Russia Type ofintegaration The studyusedthefollowing scale:maximumdegree ofintegration –10points, theminimumdegree of a stereotype of Vietnamese migrants have EuropeEastern andtheformer SovietUnion, As aresult,markets. of inthecountries of business, e.g., goto thetradein migrants were forced to changetheirline the informal economy. Many Vietnamese legal statusandwere forced to existin many Vietnamese were of deprived in 1990s, circumstances, becauseofvarious EuropeEastern andtheformer SovietUnion Unfortunately, of specificallyinthecountries points. –34 Russia scored 40pointsandUkraine components ofintegration low. remain very environmental, andsocio-psychological wheremigrants civic, inRussiaandUkraine, is theintegration ofthe Vietnamese Vietnamese migrants. Muchlesssuccessful forand accessto the thelabormarket doing business, professional qualifications, high entrepreneurial activity, penchantfor economic integration isassociated witha citizens ofthesecountries. The successof legal immigration status, buttheybecame most Vietnamese peopledonotjusthave Today, andtheCzech Republic, inHungary obtained citizenship ofthehost country. of significant part Vietnamese migrants have andtheCzech Republic, a Hungary In The studyshowsthatithasbeensuccessful. entrepreneurship andintegration programs. throughlocal society thedevelopment of integrate the Vietnamese peopleinto the isaimedattheneedto and Hungary 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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9 realizes thehypermedia principle, whenthe representation atdifferent scales. The AIS into accountthespecificsofphenomena taking and globalclimate change)to thelocallevel, hierarchal changes–from theglobal(Vietnam allowforranks. Allthematicsubjects tracking environmental systems ofdifferent territorial Together and socio- various theycharacterize assessment oftheprovinces of Vietnam. and environmental blocksfor theintegrated economic (production), naturalresource, socio-political, is acloselinkbetween AIS thatisbeingdeveloped by theauthors The specificfeature ofthe ofthestructure forwarming Vietnam. demographic consequencesofclimate and assessment ofthesocio-economic for important others], whichisextremely Ormeling, 2005;Ormeling, 1995,and Kraak, society-economy” [Tikunov, Yanvareva, 2002; options for suchcomplex systems as “nature- and even development and ofscenarios analyzes,simulation, visualization,various ofinformation resources,of avariety integration multimedia design. AISssupport systems andformalized asafull-fledged thatcanbeintegratedfunctions into expert and otherpurposes. They have modeling for development for ofscenarios territories systems and and are usedasdecisionsupport offunctionality electronic atlasesinterms Systems (AISs)Atlas Information are top-class depth oftheintegration process. entirely, largely progressively affects the though doesnotremove alltheproblems of statusandnaturalizationmigrants showsthatthelegalizationof theworld ofmanyexperience developed countries former SovietUnion.Meanwhile, the Europehost societiesinEastern andthe integration of V etc. Ultimately, allthisgreatly slowed the illegal immigrants withoutlegal documents, formed: theyare onlytradersinthemarkets, OF TERRITORIES MAKING ON ORGANIZATION A TOOL FOR INTEGRATED DECISION- ATLAS INFORMATION SYSTEMS AS ietnamese peopleinthe that canbemodified, supplemented, or will beutilized to separate logical blocks in thecountry. The block-system principle would represent different oftheareas types regional components ofthesystem, which The authorsintend to create several measures for protection ofthe population. identified; thesegroups require specific (industrial, agricultural, etc.) have been representativestypical groups ofvarious province. The provinces were classifiedand for eachmanagement decisionmaking development ofstrategies and priority The compiledmapswillbeusedfor resources.based ontheuseofinternal capableof self-developmentunity boundaries) as aself-sufficient(incertain a larger formation, i.e., thecountry, aswell ofThese provinces willbeanalyzed aspart Vietnam are inmostdetails. characterized of andCentral Delta part of theMekong whereis aregional theprovinces block, ofthesystem hierarchical section The next display themindifferent ways. development ofthephenomenaand status,actual butstress inthe patterns aswell) notjustshowthecharacteristics individual themes(andtheintegrated Evensome othergeneralizingsubjects. environment to humandisturbance, and economic development, resistance ofthe stability, sustainablesocio-demographic with quantitative integral estimates of changes. The blocksare supplemented migration processes andthenature ofthe system withafocus ondemographic and of the “nature-economy-population” ofallcomponentscomplete description the climatictheme, theAISgives afairly of comparableparameters. Alongwith basedoncomplexes ranking multivariate set. For thesepurposes, thesystem utilizes they are treated asthesingleinformation in Vietnam andothercountries, where system allowsfor ofprovinces comparison alltheirdetailedfeatures.but alsoreflect The specific of lower hierarchical levels notonlyrepresent (semantic) relationships; for example, subjects themes are through connected associative thematic subjects onthesescales,thematic subjects 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 10 GEOGRAPHY 0 is basedonthemulti-media principle Finally, itshouldbenoted thatthesystem system. form afull-scaledecision support ofthewholesystem,intellectualization will relatedfinal stageoftheproject to the demographic andmigration scenarios. The targetdeveloped various willprimarily of events. Simulationtools thatwillbe in order to prevent developments critical expenditures and assessmentofnecessary options associated change withextreme whose managementincludesdifferent structures, system usercanmodelcertain environmental systems modeling. Thus, a the integrated system approach to socio- phenomena. This modelingisbasedon simulationofcomplexa meaningful The AISthatisbeingdeveloped canoffer tasks. defined andnotquite clearly complexity feasible results inconditionsofhigh facilitates obtainingwhen theexpert for ofthesystem, theintellectualization more complex,there anurgent arises need becomingincreasinglythese scenarios optimistic, pessimistic, etc., scenarios. With end useranumberofsolutions, suchas isrealized,principle whichoffers the provinces. thiscase, themulti-variant In andits the development ofthecountry forsystem isthesimulationofscenarios applicationofthe The mostimportant climate change. atdifferentflooding scenarios rates of several thematicanimations, suchas analysis, theauthorshave developed For inretrospective anumberofsubjects oryears.for thebaselinetime-intervals ofthemainphenomena the characteristics dynamicsintheAISs. evolutionary These are in accordance of withtheprinciples thematic subjects,whichisimplemented dynamic assessmentofalmostallthe requiresand migration aspects a The themerelated to thedemographic of theentire system. expanded withoutchanging thestructure Resources, ofCan University Tho) states: ofEnvironment and Natural (Department his scientificpapers, Dr. Nguyen HuuNinh oneof sea-level rise. In change, particularly were ofclimate causedby theimpact River inthedeltaofMekong occurring ofdisastersto somescientists, themajority whosesharerice), exceeds 75%.According aquaculture (primarily all crops, particularly for more thanhalf of theproduction per year. general, theseareas In account with ayieldofmore than20mlntons fieldscover about 3,8mlnhectaresrice strategy in Vietnam andtheworld. Here, area plays avitalrole inthefood security ofthecountry, this Being thelargest granary preliminary. Note thatthesedemographic estimates are 2). (Table Delta flooding intheMekong about 6mlnpeoplemay beinthearea of estimates indicate thatOur preliminary areas of Vietnam withabout20mlnpeople. isoneofthemostdenselypopulatedDelta Delta. region oftheMekong The Mekong hazardWarming to the posesaparticular and Can Tho. Dong Thap, Lon An, Tien Giang, Vinh Long, in Vietnam: Giang, AnGiang, HauGiang, Kien the floodzone willaffect several provinces The simulationofthisforecast showed that increase inwater level couldreach 30cm. the forecasts ofthe by2040, World Bank, consequence, to flooding. According to storms, tsunamis,hitherto and, asa in temperature willleadto unprecedented flooding. In Vietnam, theaverage increase Vietnam, areas are inthezone ofpotential for populated andeconomicallyimportant, due to globalwarming. The mostdensely vulnerable to water level intheoceans rise Vietnam isamongthefivemost countries According bythe to thereport World Bank, process.making (hypermedia), whichfacilitates thedecision- OF GLOBAL WARMING FOR VIETNAM AND DEMOGRAPHIC CONSEQUENCES ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 disasters-have-been-exposed.html). (http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/special-reports/96662/ per 1 in of food security Vietnam andtheregion Southeast Asia. Anotherproblem interms in ofrice strategic exporter an important by increasingly growing role of Vietnam as cultivation. compounded isfurther This fact themunsuitablefor which willmake rice willleadto Delta increasedRiver soilsalinity, crops. Flooding lands intheMekong offertile offruittreesthousands ofhectares and 2009, resulting infloodingofhundreds of accompanied byhighrainfallinDecember stillcannotforgetDelta thestrong tides, River Residents ofthearea oftheMekong seasonaswell. rainy season,butinthedry is thatthefloodingoccursnotonlyin were heavily flooded. concern Aserious ofruralroadsand hundreds ofkilometers thatabout70thhectaresoforchardsfact intheriver level rise hasledto the A sharp contaminated withsalts”. soilsand and 1.6mlnhectaresofdry there are 2,1mlnhectaresofsalinesoils greater. Delta, Throughout theMekong metalsaltsisgettingincreasinglywith heavy area ofsaline, dry, andcontaminated soil climate change. With eachpassingday, the severeexperiencing consequencesofglobal is River area ofthedeltaMekong “The 1 Disasters have been exposed, VietNamNet Online Newspa- oa 85. 8262557103 901 1447 ... 985 24555 ...... 2096 3312 2469 5882.6 1505 2219 1203 3377 3303.1 3537 348 568.9 18651.4 348.5 ... 4492 2358 ... 7681.7 ... – 1409 1301.9 *** Source: Can Tho University. The Climate ChangeResearch Institute 873.4 ** Source: The General StatisticsOffi 720.4 641.8 1033.6 Notes: 43 Total 1676.3 43.7 299.9 2153.7 39.9 HCM City* ... Soc Trang 1458.2 1258.5 Bac Lieu ...... Vinh Long 1214.1 49.4 Thap Dong 51 An Giang 24.7 Long An Ben Tre Can Tho Provinces
* Offi cially, provinces oftheSouthestern of part Vietnam. Table 2. Table 2. % fl area*** ooded The Mekong Deta provinces most vulnerable to sea level rise fl rise level sea to vulnerable most provinces Deta Mekong The 1 Total** In thefl In Total** ouain hpol,21 .Territory, sqkm Population, thpeople, 2012г. ce of Vietnam http://www.gso.gov.vn/ ooded area Total** In thefl In Total** ooded area in 2010, in the county Namcan,province in 2010,thecounty flooding.villages becauseofriver Thus, areas in Vietnam lostentire streets inthe thepastfive years,habitation. Over some suitableforand thesize ofterritories human the numberofpopulation Vietnam There between isasignificant discrepancy andQuangNinh. Delta the RedRiver willbefloodedandmoreDelta than10%of may beflooded. About40%oftheMekong 105 cm,seven coastalprovinces of Vietnam –upto some coastalareas ofthecountry if thesealevel averages rise 78–95cm, of 6%theterritory. According to theforecast, number offloodsin Vietnam may bethe itself. territory The result ofincreasing as well asthereductionof Vietnam identify strengtheningandstorms, typhoons associated withglobalwarming, we can threats additionto theabove-mentioned In inhabitants ofthesecountries. and seafood are thebasisofdiet ofSoutheastAsia. of thecountries Rice accounts for upto 16%ofthe total catch fish andshellfish. The Vietnam water area reefs and, asaconsequence, of many types balance may leadto disappearanceofcoral andacid sea levels andchangesinalkaline areasmarine designated for fishing. Rising as awholewillbethefloodingoflarge ooding ooded area and in loss loss 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 12 GEOGRAPHY 2 beyond itsborders. therelocation ofpeople If and, possibly,the populationincountry Obviously, floodingmay require relocation of the borders of Vietnam. level, asathreat cannotbelocalized within an immediate response attheinternational the impendingthreat. The problem requires peoplecannotcopewith and thecountry’s circumstances, of thegovernment Vietnam However, itisobviousthatunderthe climate changeandsealevel in rise Vietnam. commissioned to create of ascenario Natural Resources andEnvironment was to climate change. of The Ministry targetgovernmental program to respond Vietnamese adopted the authorities To solve thisproblem, backin2008,the again builtandstrengthened. significant damageto dams, whichmustbe stronger tropical isableto storm cause diminishing positive effect. Apotentially people realize thatthismechanismhasa with eachpassingyear, more andmore strengthening theexistingones. However, ofnewdams,is theconstruction aswell as and bythepeopleto mitigate theseevents way of usedbythegovernment Vietnam there oftheearth. wasafracture The only village, situated onthebankofriver, to occuronlyinthelast10years. one In to thelocalresidents, suchincidentsbegan a few homeandpeople’s lives. According Camau, bankcollapsedandtook a20mriver ** Source: The General StatisticsOffi Provinces oa 40140792 4740 5153 10438 8065 5061 1285 7460.1 6050 608.1 1227.9 1450.1 857.2 877.2 973.8 Total 1501.8 Quang Tri Quang Ngai Quang Nam Quang Binh Phu Yen Da Nang Binh Dinh Table 3. Provinces of the Central Vietnam aff Vietnam Central the of Table Provinces 3. ce of Vietnam (http://www.gso.gov.vn/) ouaint epe(02 Territory, sqkm Population thpeople(2012) population changedin recent years 2 mlnpeople. oftheThe agestructure but thebiggestwasregistered in2005: were different rates ofpopulationgrowth, period, there thereporting mln. During 33mlnpeopleandreachedby nearly 86 Vietnam, 1980and2009,increased between the Russia-oriented. The populationof migration potential of Vietnam, including The studyhasapproximately estimated the migration. stone”, i.e., itwillavoid forced environmental will the country birds two withone “kill fromfrom atrisk flooding, theterritories of programs oforganized labormigration of labormigration. With thedevelopment effects already seeingthesesocio-economic economic benefits. now, Actually Vietnam is emigration couldeven bring Vietnam socio- negative scenario. Besides, organized labor is possibleto anticipate andmitigate the the form oforganized labormigration, it if theresettlement nowin program starts be movingoutofthecountry. However, of immigrants and, asaresult, theywill theentirenot besufficientto absorb flow refugees. of The territory Vietnam may flow offorced migrants –environmental reproduction trends cancausesignificant density, thespecificsofsettlement,and the withhighpopulation Vietnam territory does nothappengradually, areductionin MIGRATION POTENTIAL OF VIETNAM ected by typhoons and storms and bytyphoons ected Key parameters 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 Table 4. calculations, whoseresults are presented in inRussia. work the Thus, we performed Only 3,3%ofourr occupy asignificant placeinthisrespect. countries. Russia,unfortunately, doesnot that theywanted to abroad work indifferent said 35,7% ofrespondents ofoursurvey population. 12,5% oftheworking Then, andstudyingabroad.isabout It working ofnumber ofpeoplewhohadexperience statistical sources. First, we calculated the limited in2009andsomevery conducted made basedonthedataofsurvey Assessment ofmigration potential was in thestudiedprovinces. population and calculated theworking-age we relied onthenumberspresented above provinces in Vietnam, for ourcalculations, obtain officialstatisticsonpopulationby of thepopulation.Sinceitisdifficultto Vietnam isabout58mlnpeople, or67.9% people. populationin The working-age andtheretirement-ageworking-age children andincrease intheshare ofthe towards of oftheproportion reduction 3 aTy12038541443. 1.2 0.8 3.4 37.3 1.6 1.7 23.9 103.2 1.8 104.4 47.3 1.8 1.0 51.7 67.0 1.0 289.0 55.8 835.4 6.4 132.4 54.1 30.4 144.9 2,312.0 535.7 31.1 1,230.3 156.3 196.1 1,059.4 85.3 inces 3,405.0 1,158.9 151.4 789.0 studied prov- 85.1 Overall inthe 1,250.5 87.1 1.560.2 Ha Tay 549.3 2,584.5 1,706.8 Thanh Hoa 1,211.3 681.0 1,841.7 Hoa Binh 697.1 Bac Giang 4,394.6 7,239.6 Hai Duong 1,784.0 1,003.0 Hai Phong 1,026.7 57,917.0 6,472.2 Nam Đi Bình Thuan 86,024.6 Vinh Phuc Bac Ninh Hanoi Vietnam City, province . h186312011505. 1.8 55.3 155.0 1,240.1 1.826.3 nh Table 4.Assessmentofmigration potential oftheprovinces in Vietnam Total popula- th people 26521,1. ,2. 2. 23.9 723.4 2,026.4 16,211.5 22,645.2 espondents wishedto tion, Working-age population be 85,3 th people. In thestudiedprovinces,be 85,3thpeople. In potential focused specificallyon Russiamay Calculations showthatin Vietnam, migration employmentagencies.private ofstate bodies, companies,activity and ofthehostcountry, the migration policy which may change. Much dependsonthe different economicandpoliticalpriorities, from migrant workers attract Vietnam have oftheworkforce,part that whilecountries asignificantdeveloping andisabsorbing The Vietnamese economy isnowactively both in Vietnam andreceiving countries. systems depends onanumberoffactors, However, theimplementationofmigration become laborandeducationmigrants. Hanoi. Specificallythatmany peoplecould 200 thin Vietnam’s of capital–thecity was about720thpeople, includingabout studied provinces, themigration potential the study, the itwasabout2,6mlnpeople. In significant migration potential: atthetimeof hasa Our calculationsshowthatthecountry intraining. oflaborandworkers for theexport demographic profile, whichisagoodbase The populationof Vietnam hasayoung ence working with experi- Population abroad study abroad, Migration po- for work and th people tential migration po- for Russia, th people Including Including tential 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 14 GEOGRAPHY 4 and Western Siberia. and Western force were intheCentral and Volga regions ofthe centers ofattraction Vietnamese labor Vietnamese migrants intheUSSR. The main throughout ofinvolvement theperiod of wasquiteVietnamese stable workers ofemployment structure The sectoral the coal, chemical, andotherindustries. andtherest16% –inconstruction, industry, 15%–inengineering,and textile of oflight atenterprises Vietnam worked 70 occupations. About50%ofthecitizens time. Vocational for trainingwasconducted beginning oftheprogram to 30over some increasedVietnamese from workers 4inthe receiving anddepartments of ministries program wassosuccessfulthatthenumber 15% ofthetotal numberofemployees. This share of reachedVietnamese 10– workers (83%). Atsomeindividualenterprises, the republics, especially, theRussianFederation oftheseven Soviet enterprises industrial accepted over 103thpeople at370 country to theUSSR.UnderthisAgreement, the of large flowsoflabormigrants from Vietnam thebeginning signed 2,1981,marked onApril workers. AgreementThe Intergovernmental Vietnam ontheinvitation of Vietnamese itsigned anagreementlabor shortages, with When, inthe1980s, theUSSRexperienced specifically onRussia. to enhancethemigration potential focused transition to form theactive ofthemigration towardsthe migration policy Vietnam and system. Russia needsaconceptualchangein andtheeducation Vietnam, thelabormarket, to themanagement ofmigration from approachthan ithasnowwiththemodern any morecannot take Vietnamese migrants meansthatRussia and educationmigrants. It 2008, Russiahad99,2thof Vietnamese labor its migration policy. We shouldrecall thatin Vietnamese migrants atthecurrent level of forhas exhausted itscapacity receiving 6,4 thpeopleinHanoi. We cansay thatRussia the potential was23,9thpeople, including IN RUSSIA MIGRANTSATTRACTING VIETNAMESE HISTORY OF AND PROSPECTS to Vietnam, andthedebt continued to has beendisrupted. Russiabecameadebtor system ofremunerationthe earlier for labor reformscourse ofthestructural inRussia, formally remained valid untilrecently. the In executed,of 1981hasbeenactually it 10–15 thpersons. Althoughtheagreement total numberof “defectors” amounted to 5 thpeopleavoided returning home, the these data,we canconclude thatifabout and received Russiancitizenship. Basedon jailed, and93were to thelocals married the agreement, 278died, 81peoplewere enteredVietnamese workers Russiaoutside addition,17.6thremained inRussia.In of repatriation, however, someillegally people went through theformal process onone’ssurvive Overall, 81th ownrisk. conditionsofexistence, to socio-economic Vietnamese migrants to adaptto thenew in place). The circumstances forced the the managersofdebtor companieswere Vietnam and no mechanismfor punishing did nothave to themoneyto buytickets pay employees return fairs(mostcompanies Vietnam have notfulfilledtheobligationsto to assistmigrants to return home. Russiaand didnotwant ofbothcountries governments in Russia(asarule, theywere dismissed). The officially, no remainedVietnamese workers group of Vietnamese migrants expired and, ofthelast 1996,thecontracts early In markets. wereVietnamese workers forced to tradethe to legallyreside inRussia. opportunity The re-registration, whichdeprivedthemofthe althoughmanydeparture, have beendenied anddidnothelpwiththe their return tickets Germany, Russiadidnoteven provide for livelihoods. contrastto theformer East In of theUSSR,theyhave losttheirjobsand collapse the migrants. Withof Vietnamese in1991,theUSSRhad150th Nevertheless, nointermarriage.there waspractically or study, themigrants returned to Vietnam; ofwork rotation ofpersonnel. Uponexpiry by nomore whichcaused thanoneterm, women and6for menandcouldbeextended wereemployment contracts 4years for sending newmigrant groups. The existing USSR, the Vietnamese sidehassuspended Since 1991,following thecollapseof 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 workers is being widelydiscussed. Givenworkers the migrant to attract countries of priority Currently, inRussia,theissueofselection 2oftheProtocol(Article oftheAgreement). finding jobsby Vietnamese citizens inRussia the Agreement istheclauseofindependent of part inRussia.Animportant permit work registration attheEmbassyof Vietnam and a Agreement to their 2,1981,subject ofApril of citizens of Vietnam, underthe arrived agreement recognized ofstay thelegitimacy quantitative parameters ofimmigration. This drawback wasthatitdidnotspecifythe main was signed onAugust 18,2003.Its employment of Vietnamese citizens inRussia The Third Agreement ontemporary entrepreneurship. were engagedintrade, shuttlebusiness, and enterprises, manyin industrial Vietnamese legal residents. Sincethere wasnowork residence andbecame permits temporary have registered withtheaimto obtain justclosed. Many migrantto work, workers businesses, where Vietnamese citizens came in theconditionsofeconomy, many not existinRussia).However, dueto changes and Nationalities(currently, does thisagency ofFederal Affairs oftheMinistry authorization basedonthe indicating thescopeofwork withtheiremployers,employment contracts Russia atall. hadtoVietnamese sign workers Vietnam to has ceased to supplyworkers to Russiaand, of since1994,thegovernment ministries. 1,3thof Vietnamese citizens moved and and thereorganization ofdepartments changesintheRussianeconomy structural becauseofthebeginningdid notwork ofthe signed onSeptember 29,1992,essentially of Vietnamese citizens for inRussia, work anddirections ofreceptionon theprinciples AgreementThe secondIntergovernmental homeland. to their were transferring 10%oftheirsalary addition, In selection. Vietnamese citizens reimbursement ofexpensesforpartial their amounts for socialinsurancefor and workers income to Vietnam, included60%ofthe grow. payments byRussiaand, Initial thus, 5 territory ofRussia. territory will allowpeopleto feel more secure inthe for and corruption, reduce theopportunity themoutoftheinformalbring economy, the statusofmany Vietnamese workers, ourview,In theagreement willfinallysettle into force theentry ofthisdocument.after meet theseconditionswithinsixmonths and also have avalidnationalpassport embassy orconsulate of Vietnam. One must the laws ofRussia,andto register withthe migration registration inaccordance with for on to embark obtainingthispermit), protocol establishesasimplifiedprocedure toto in Russia(andthe work getapermit continue theircareer inRussia. They need 2,1981,to intheUSSR,can work April Vietnam, undertheAgreement arrived of three conditionsunderwhichcitizens of no officialstatus. The protocol identifies of theUSSRand, for alongtime, had who remained thecollapse inRussiaafter regulates thestatusof Vietnamese migrants was supplemented withaprotocol that In and freedoms. andguaranteeing themrights workers migrantdefines theissuesofattracting agreement, for thefirsttimeever, clearly Russia andRussiancitizens in Vietnam. This employment of Vietnamese citizens in The firstagreement isontemporary signed. weremigration countries thetwo between Vietnam to Russia,three agreements on thevisitofPresident2008, during of October management oflabormigration. In number ofdocuments, allowingbetter Russiahasprepared Service, a Migration oftheFederalWith participation theactive havein thisdirection beenmaderecently. needs to beimproved. Somepositive steps of migration Russiaand between Vietnam thisregard,In themechanism ofregulation labor migrants midterm. from organized whichRussiacouldattract Vietnam couldbecomeoneofthecountries, ofthe adaptive capacity Vietnamese people, aswellgeopolitical impacts, asthesubstantial experience,long historical economicand addition, theagreement 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 16 GEOGRAPHY 6 visas is very significant andreaches 14%. visas isvery We ofvisitoron educationvisas. Aproportion in Russiathrough visasand33%– work about 46%of Vietnamese migrants were hasidentifiedthat invitations. Oursurvey colleges. Visas are granted basedonthese to educationmigrants, itisdonethrough quotas for foreign labor. When itcomes is donebypotential employers under the When itcomesto migrant this workers, Affairsbythehostorganization. of Internal on theinvitation madethrough theMinistry are required to obtainaRussianvisabased and visaprocedures. Vietnamese nationals country”. This isreflected inthepassport regards Vietnam asa “migration dangerous On thecontrary, theRussianmigration policy Vietnam for businessandscientificpurposes. totourists iteasierto stay in Vietnam, making onincreasing theflowofRussian impact for nolongerthan15days. This hasapositive requiring visasfor Russiancitizens whostay in 2009, Vietnam unilaterally stopped from Vietnam isthevisaregime. Beginning The specificfeature ofmigration to Russia relations inthearea ofmigration. “breakthrough” for theRussian-Vietnamese canbecalled This area ofmigration policy to getthrough Russiato Western Europe. the transitofillegalmigrants whoare trying law. This document willresolve theissuewith ofanotherstate inviolationofthe territory one statewhoare to inthe anotherworkers the transfer of bythecompetent authorities agreement. The term “readmission” refers to Finally, thethird documentisthereadmission flows. measuresbut alsoto take to prevent such not onlythefightagainstillegalimmigrants, for coordinatinginthefieldof theactivities responsibility Vietnamese to take authorities Russia wassuccessfulto persuadethe this regard,is illegal. that In itisimportant ofthemigration from that part Vietnam to prevent isknown illegalmigration. It Russia and Vietnam to implementmeasures expresses theintentionmigration. of It on cooperationinthefightagainstillegal The seconddocumentisanagreement steps andinvest inthedevelopment of development. Russiacanmove to concrete it isemerging as adonorofinternational The RussianFederation hasdeclared that as agreat power andself-sufficientcountry. Vietnam mustmeetthemissionofRussia Second, towards theliberal migration policy country. the growth ofmigration ofthe attractiveness the eyes of Vietnamese peopleandpromote enhance theprestige ofRussiaasastate in regard to Vietnamese people, whichwould ofRussiashouldbemore liberalwith policy Russian-Vietnamese relations. The migration regarded asdefinitely ofthe positive aspect step ofthe Vietnamese canbe authorities in Vietnam for businessandacademics. This totourists iteasierto stay Vietnam, making onincreasing theflowofRussian impact to time.Vietnam for ashort This hasapositive abolished visasfor Russian citizens whocome 2009, to visitRussia.In Vietnam unilaterally and visasare required for Vietnamese people can stay in Vietnam 15days withoutvisas visarelations:asymmetric Russianpeople Unfortunately, have countries thetwo Russia’s inSoutheastAsia. strategic partner Federation) it wasstated that Vietnam is (including thePresident oftheRussian many timesatthehighestlevelin fact, in RussiameetsRussia’s geopoliticalinterests; First, theinvolvement of Vietnamese people migration Russiaand between Vietnam. improve themechanisms regulating the There are atleastthree reasons to efficiently countries.two the development ofrelations the between now, hampers seriously thestiffvisapolicy The situationhaschangeddramaticallyand, towardsreconsider theirvisapolicy Vietnam. Vietnam. shouldThe Russianauthorities time to obtainavisafor scientistsfrom highly bureaucratized; along andittakes transparent procedures for issuingvisasand towards Vietnam ithasnon- isasymmetrical; should admitthattheRussianvisapolicy CONCLUSIONS 229.09.2014 13:01:28 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 2. Doyle Doyle T.W., Day R.H.andMichot T.C., for ofsealevel scenarios Development rise climate 2. . BRICSJointStatisticalPublication 2011(http://ru.worldstat.info/Asia/Viet_nam 1. should beallocated, theareas considering for andregion ofRussia Vietnam byindustry level ofthemigration policy, individualquotas for example, theChinese migration. Atthe economic andpoliticalpointofview, than, more efficientandmore profitable from the of theRussianeconomy isneeded;itmuch The Vietnamese migration for somesectors in anorganized way. and preparedness Vietnam to regulate flows organization of Vietnamese migrant workers, experience,practices, historical highlevel of and entrepreneurs already inRussia,positive the presence ofthe Vietnamese investment becauseof of many countries neighboring is muchmore efficientthanthemigration interests ofRussia. Vietnamese migration Vietnam corresponds to thepragmatic Third, focused themigration on policy that promotes development. international enhance thecredibilityofRussiaasacountry importantly,countries. Most thiswould strengthen therelations thetwo between would have mutualeconomicbenefitsand welcomed. This approach to labormigration the organized labormigration shouldbe centers in Vietnam. However, precisely Russian languageandopeningtraining inputsforwill require studying monetary Vietnam too. course, canbeattracted this Of from provinces thesouthern workers of geography nowcanbroaden andmigrant provinces of the northern Vietnam, the Russia were receiving from migrant workers of globalwarming. AndiftheUSSRand of Vietnam offloodingasaresult atrisk organized labormigration from theregions 7 REFERENCES Report 2010–1165,2010. Report Delta, change assessmentsoftheMekong Vietnam, USGeological Survey, Open-File, special-reports/96662/disasters-have-been-exposed.html) been exposed, Viet NamNetOnlineNewspaper(http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/ ment (MONRE), Viet Nam,2009 (http://preventionweb.net/go/11348) Disasters have change, for Sealevel scenarios rise ofNaturalResources andEnviron- Vietnam, Ministry Scientific Fund (№13-22-09001). (№ 15-55-54006)andRussianHumanitarian of theRussianFoundation for BasicResearch withthesupport The studywasconducted statistical error. insignificant withinthe variations some very education migrants, whichithasnow, with be content and withthenumberofwork Russiawould Vietnam to Russia.Otherwise, increasing migration potential from Only suchdrasticmeasures would enable grants for studentsfrom Vietnam. allocate sufficientamountofscholarshipsand information ontheRussianuniversities, and Russian language, literature, distribute tion need to restore thelostscientificandeduca- migrants shouldbeenhanced. Bothcountries increasing for efforts recruitment ofeducation streams ofeducationmigrants. Work towards prepare migrants for life inRussiaandgenerate basics andculture in Vietnam, whichwould centers forlearning theRussianlanguage isfeasible to organize inRussia.It their arrival to prior the migrantsskills canreceive certain migrants shouldbedeveloped in Vietnam, so companies andorganizations thatcantrain of is1year).maximum period Anetwork for example, for 3to 4years (currently, the visasfor with issuingwork longerperiods, shouldbeconsidered contracts long-term migration inspirationsof Vietnamese people, between Vietnam andRussiamore stable economically justified. Given the longdistance where Vietnamese workers’ laborisneededand ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ties; it is necessary to open courses in to opencoursesin ties; itisnecessary ) Climate 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 18 GEOGRAPHY 8 1 . Theways to organize andprotect inagriculture migrant workers andrelated industries. 17. Statistical Yearbook for Asia andthePacific 2011,United NationsPublication, №E-11-II- 16. Ryazantsev, S.V., R.V., Manshin, Nguen,Canh Toan. Comparative analysisofthe Vietnam- 15. Ryazantsev, S.V. Trafficking for laborexploitationandillegalmigration intheRus- 14. Ryazantsev, S.V. Labormigration trends, intheCISandBalticcountries: implications, and 13. F. Ormeling Cartogr. Systems –17thInt. AtlasInformation Conf. and10thGen.Assembly 12. Nigmetov, G.M.,Filatov, Y.A., Pchelkin, V.I., Yuzbekov, N.S. The growth trend ofcatastrophic 11. Delta, River Flooding Nguyen, HuuNinh, inMekong Viet Nam,HumanDevelopment 10. andRemittancesFactbook Migration 2011. The 2011. World Bank. 9. LaborandEmploymentinRussia2011:Statistical Yearbook. –M.:Rosstat,2011. 8. Kuznetsov, N.G.,Ryazantsev, S.V. The ways to usemigration potential of Vietnam inRus- 7. Kuznetsov, N.G.,Ryazantsev, S.V. The ways to usemigration potential of Vietnam inRus- 6. M.J., Ormeling, Kraak F. Visualization Cartography: ofgeospatialdata. Translated from 5. Izmalkov, V.I. Trends inglobalclimate changeanditseffect onincreasing thenumber 4. Faleev, of withtheexperience M.I.Improved protection ofpopulationandterritories 3. Geneva: International Union ofFood,Geneva: International Agricultural, Agriculture, Hotel, Restaurant,Cater- F-1, 2011. ese andChinesemigration Law. to Russia//Immigration 2013,№1. ect “ADSTRINGO”. 2013. –Stockholm, sian Federation: theforms, trends, oftheproj- intheframework andresistance: Areport regulation. M.Formula Prava, 2007. ICA. Barcelona, Sept.3rd –9th,1995.Proceedings, vol. 2,Barcelona, 1995,pp. 2127–2133. 29.06.2014). neniy-na-territorii-rossiyskoy-federatsii) (Viewed: № 1–2(http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tendentsiya-rosta-katastroficheskih-navod- oftheRussianFederationfloods ontheterritory // Technologies ofcivilsecurity. –2003, 2007–2008(http://www.tiempocyberclimate.org/annex/cered/HDR07.pdf) Report 1)//Asia today. andAfrica part sian (article, –№6,2011pp. 33–35. 1)//Asia today. andAfrica part sian (article, –№6,2011pp. 36–42. English. V.S.Tikunov (Ed.). –Moscow, Scientific World, 2005,325p. ynyh-bedstviy-katastrof-i-ih-vozmozhnye) (Date ofapplication:29.06.2014). globalnogo-izmeneniya-klimata-zemli-i-ego-vliyanie-na-uvelichenie-kolichestva-stihi- Issues andresearch. –2012,№1(http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tendentsii- Strategy: of naturaldisasters, catastrophes, andtheirpossibleconsequences//CivilProtection 29.06.2014). (Viewed: katastrof-i-stihiynyh-bedstviy) zaschity-naseleniya-i-territoriy-s-uchetom-opyta-preodoleniya-krupnomasshtabnyh- Issues andresearch. –2012,№1(http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sovershenstvovanie- catastrophes andnaturaldisasters dealing withlarge-scale //CivilProtection Strategy: 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 2 . Vladimirov, V.A., Dolgin, N.N.,Makeev, V.A. Globalissuesasasource //Civil ofemergency 21. Vladimirov, V.A. development strategy //CivilProtection: Disasters andsocio-economic 20. Vietnam –Economicsofadaptationto climate change, Washington DC, World Bank, 19. Tikunov, V.S. Yanvareva, L.F. Atlasinformation systems –thebasisfor theadoptionofinte- 18. 9 consequences of global warming in consequences ofglobalwarming Vietnam. Vietnamese migration, Vietnamese communitiesabroad, anddemographic andmigration research ScientificFoundation projectsfunded bytheRussianHumanitarian and VASS on journals. roundtable discussions. Hepublishedover innationalandforeign 40works scientific globalnye-problemy-kak-istochnik-chrezvychaynyh-situatsiy) (Viewed: 29.06.2014). (Viewed: globalnye-problemy-kak-istochnik-chrezvychaynyh-situatsiy) Issuesandresearch.Protection –2012,№1(http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ Strategy: 29.06.2014). (Viewed: ekonomicheskoe-razvitie) Issues andresearch. –2012,№1(http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/katastrofy-i-sotsialno- nomics –adaptation-climate-change) 2010 (http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2010/01/16441103/vietnam –eco- and Methodology Technology, Moscow: Electronic Moscow, IPIRAN,2002,pp. 46–52. grated ElectronicRussia, solutionsfor Digital theorganization Earth, oftheterritory. –In: 29.06.2014). (Viewed: ing andAllied Workers. Geneva2008(www.fpkk.ru/text/migrantsbook.pdf) NguenCanh Toan S. Artem scientific works, including5monographs. Currently, heleads3 andothercountries.Korea, Dr. Nguenistheauthorofover 90 inanumberofconferencesparticipated in Vietnam, Russia, migration”“International atuniversities of Vietnam andRussia.He relations andtheglobaleconomy”“International and Russiaand between Vietnam. Dr. Nguen teaches courseson communities abroad, migration policy, andeconomicrelations in integration,international labormarket Vietnam, Vietnamese Academy research His ofSocialScience(VASS). isfocused on Researcher for attheInstitute European Studies, the Vietnam conferences, scientific-practical international symposiums, and ScientificFoundation.Humanitarian in Heparticipates Foundation for Fundamental Research andtheRussian leads anumberofresearch bytheRussian supported projects the President oftheRussianFederation for talented youth. He The sameyear, Dr. becamearecipient Lukyanets oftheaward by intheUSA:trends“Immigration andapproaches to regulation”. 2009,hedefendedeconomics. In hisPh.D. dissertation 2006,hegraduated fromIn Stavropol State inglobal University of Socio-Political Research oftheRussianAcademy ofSciences.
Lukyanets is Doctor ofSciences(Economics),Leading isDoctor is SeniorResearch Associate attheInstitute 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 20 GEOGRAPHY 0 adaptation ofmigrants intheRussianFederation. presentations scientificconferences atinternational ontheissuesofmigration and of educationandlabormigration, includingmonographs, scientificpapers, and Hitotsubashi University (Japan), and European University Institute (Italy). andEuropean Institute University (Japan), University Hitotsubashi (Brazil), ofState University ofRio-de-Janeiro (Japan), University Professor), Hokkaido number ofuniversities, including, ofCalifornia, theUniversity Davis (USA,asaFulbright Council oftheBalticSeeStates, andotherorganizations. Hewasa Visiting Professor ata ofEducationandScience, ILO,development, theRFMinistry IOM,UNFPA, UNESCAP, ofHealthandSocial inanumberofresearchparticipates projectsfundedbytheRFMinistry and RFState DumaLaborandSocialPolicy Committee. Dr. leadsand Ryazantsev of theScientificCouncil oftheRF, ofFederal Service Migration ofLabortheRF, Ministry regulation” (2010), Atlasofdemographic development ofRussia”“The (2009).HeisMember Sergey V. Ryazantsev, ElenaE. Pismennaya She istheauthorofmore ontheissues than100scientificworks Grant ofthePresident oftheRussianFederation for young D.Scs. Foundation, theRussianFoundation for BasicResearch, andthe research Scientific projectsfundedbytheRussianHumanitarian and adaptationofforeign migrants inRussia. She leadsseveral are inthearea ofsociologymigration, education migration, Sociology, RussianAcademy ofSciences. Herresearch interests Researcher oftheCenter for SocialDemography andEconomic Academy undertheGovernmentofRussianFederation, Leading Professor of attheDepartment Theoretical Sociology, Financial migration to Russia:consequences, trends, andapproaches to oflabormigration“Modeling inCentral Asia” (2013), Chinese “The publications, includingmonographs “Russians Abroad” (2014), foreign countries. Heistheauthormore than400scientific processes inRussiaand ofmigratory and demographic aspects Sciences. The area ofhisscientificinterests issocial-economic ofSocio-PoliticalInstitute Research, theRussianAcademy of Center ofSocialDemography andEconomicSociologyofthe Sciences (Economics, Demography), Professor. Heisheadofthe Academy ofSciences(SociologyandDemography), of Doctor Corresponding memberoftheRussian is Doctor ofSciences(Sociology), is Doctor 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 1 in 14languages. works, including14monographs, texbooks, and oftheworld andmanualsin28countries Experience” placebothinRussiaandabroad. thattake Hepublishedover 500scientific InterCarto-InterGIS of “Sustainable Development Territories: GIS andPractical Theory universities. Hehasbeenorganizing, beginning conferences in1994,annualinternational journals.Russian andinternational Helecturedatanumberofnationalandinternational Geographical boards Union.Hehasbeenamemberofthe editorial International ofnine Association andamemberoftheCommission onGeographic Scienceofthe Information
languages in6countries. 7 monographs, textbooks, publishedin andtutorials Vietnamese, Russian,andEnglish boards offour scientific magazines. Prof. Pham 100works, hasnearly including been scientificadvisorofPh.D. ofseveral work students. Hehasbeenamemberofeditorial Education. Prof. Pham hastaughtanumberofcoursesinuniversities andinstitutes andhas country. HeisProfessor of andHanoiNationalUniversity ofHanoiNationalUniversity and Technology for hisachievements inresearch onthe naturalenvironment ofthe PhamHoangHai from theAcademy, andtheCommittee theMinistry, onScience National Atlasof Vietnam). Healsoreceived numerous awards Map, Chemical-SoilMap, andSoilRegionalization inthe Map three mapsoftheNationalAtlas Vietnam (Chemical-Landscape received theHô President oftheAssociation of Vietnamese Geographers. He Institute. Atpresent,and SustainableDevelopment heis Vice- Science and Technology, andDirector ofthe Vietnam Environment Geography, ofGeography, Institute the Vietnam Academy of ofEnvironmental Director oftheDepartment former Deputy Vladimir S. Vladimir Chairman of the commission of the International Cartographic Cartographic ofthecommissionInternational Chairman atlases ofRussia.Hewas Vice-President and, currently, is for thedevelopment ofenvironmental andnatural-resources Science and Technology oftheRussianFederation Government modeling.cartographic Heisalsoarecipient oftheAward in of theD.N. AnuchinAward for inmathematical hiswork – Autonomous District Khanty-Mansi Yugra, etc. Heisarecipient ofRussia,Atlasthe Development Atlas ofSocio-Economic of Russia (editor-in-chief Vol. 3),Environmental AtlasofRussia, been usedinmany thematicmapsandatlases:NationalAtlasof has work projects.led anumberofRussianandinternational His of theCenter ofthe World DataSystem for Geography. Hehas Laboratory,Mapping MSUFaculty ofGeography, andDirector
Tikunov Chí Minh Prize ChíMinh foron (inco-authorship) hiswork isProfessor, ofSciences(Geography), Doctor is Professor, HeadoftheIntegrated 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 22 GEOGRAPHY 2 Leninskie Gory.Leninskie 1,119991; Tel: [email protected] +74959393673;e-mail: Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow State University; Russia,GSP-1, Nella A.Shpolyanskaya the elements of the Arctic zonethe elementsofArctic natural Permafrost isone of (cryolithozone) Arctic permafrost. oftheRussian history zone, Quaternary polygonal wedge ice, subseapermafrost Peninsula.plains to theEastofKanin absent ontheRussianArcticandSubarctic andwas intheRussianNorth distribution sectors.eastern The glacialcover haslimited regime oftheRussianArcticwestern and as different transgressive andregressive identified different aswell geological history Analysis ofthemassive ground icegenesis dislocated sequenceswithmassive icebeds. plains(ancientshelves)marine composedof sediments ofshelfandthePleistocene of the bottom sections analyzes ofcertain by The proposed mechanismissupported natural transformations inseabedsediments. soil freezing andiceformation dueto constant suggests amechanismthatinvolves bottom the mechanismofitsformation. The author submar permafrost formingis alsomodern under now existsasarelic zone. However, there thesubsequenttransgression,during and draining intheLate Pleistocene, wasflooded shelf conditionsduring under subaerial the present-day shelf, whichwasformed accepted thatrecent permafrost existson Russian Arcticshelf. hasbeenwidely It ofthepermafrostnonuniformity ofthe ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: IN THE PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENEIN THE (ON THE SHELF AND THE CONTINENT) CRYOLITHOZONERUSSIAN ARCTIC FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF THE ine conditions. The paperconsiders The paperaddresses age massive ground ice, sheetice, Rekant etal, 2005].PermafrostRekant tablecanlieat from 0to 230 m [Bondarev etal, 2001; Bottom permafrost wasfound atdepths seas(seeFig.shelf –theBarents andKara 1). spread inthewestern oftheArctic sector Permafrost withmassive ground iceiswidely of theArctic. parts two differences ofthe indevelopment history different formations, pointsto andthisfact dominates. Genetically, theseare essentially in the Western sector, themassive icebed wedge iceisspread almostexclusively, while sector, theEastern the Arctic. In polygonal the between Western of sectors andEastern ground distinction isasharp icedistribution 2011]. However, themainfeature ofthe etal, 1999, seas[Romanovskii East Siberian and greater, for example, intheLaptev and ofupto 500m 1981,1988] withathickness the Arctic seasasarelic permafrost [Solov'ev, shelf. Atpresent, istracedin thecryolithozone and thickpermafrost wasformed withinthe drained to abottom contour of100–120m, thesearegression,During theshelfwas Late Pleistocene –Holocenetransgression. the and wassubsequentlyfloodedduring the deepLate Valdai searegression, (Sartan) within theshelfisrelic, wasformed during researchers assumethatthecryolithozone rocks, ofhighicecontent often (Fig. 1).Most shelf bottom ismostlycomposedoffrozen shelf development. The present-day Arctic conditions, which substantiallycomplicates SHELF) (WESTERN SECTOR OF THE ARCTIC MATERIALS AND DISCUSSION 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 been encountered [Kassens etal,been encountered 2000], [Kassens frozen syngeneticsedimentshave marine Laptevand intheeastern Sea,where and Spesivtsev, etal, 1995;Rokos 2009], Sea[Mel'nikov Sea, southwestern Kara e.g., fact, inthesoutheaster Barentsknown bottom sediments isa The formation oficy in subseaconditions. where permafrost musthave formed directly with aseadepthfrom 100–120to 230m conditions,subaerial there are stillvastareas m, whichledto theshelfsoilsfreezing in sea regression to theisobathof100–120 if we accepttheideaof Late Valdai indicates itsheterogeneous nature. Even occurrence atdepthsfrom 0to 230m However, ofpermafrost fact thevery permafrost to berelicthere. 100% (Fig. 2).Many authorsconsider the large amount ofice, sometimesreaching permafrost there sedimentssections, isa base sinksto 100mandlower. bottom In Permafrost to thebottomor rise surface. approximately 20–40mundertheseafloor 3 3–8 – ground ice –ground thickbeds; 3–subsea genesis;3–8 genesis; 4–mixed genesis; genesis; 5–coastal-marine 6–injected Fig. 1. Map of ground ice. Compiled by N.A. Shpolyanskaya and I.D. Streletskaya; the shelf is shown shown is shelf the Streletskaya; I.D. and Shpolyanskaya byN.A. Compiled ice. ground 1. of Fig. Map 7 – buried (primarily surface); (primarily 7 –buried ice; wedge 8–polygonal according toaccording V.A. Solov 12 island permafrost –cold formed soils withnewly 1 –Late Pleistocene 2– marineplainboundaries; 10 withtemperature 0to of thicker; –2°С, permafrost to mor up 200 –relict 11 withtemperature 0to of permafrost –1,5°С, –modern 80–100 mthick; ' ev and S.I. Rokos with some modifications by N.A. Shpolyanskaya. byN.A. modifications some with Rokos S.I. ev and Third, thedirectional evolution oftheshelf host rocks Leibman, [Streletskaya, 2002]. massive icebeds,cryopegs, andmarine data onthegeneticrelation between regions. in theArctic observed There are negative frequently temperature (cryopegs) shelves), at and identifytheorigin ofbrines the Pleistocene plains (i.e., marine ancient massive ice encountered insedimentsof of types can explaintheorigin ofcertain cryolithozone, wethe initiallysubmarine offormation of accepting thepossibility form immediately onseabed. Second, by resolved ifwe assumethatpermafrost can the Arcticshelfpaleogeography canbe issuesofRussian Arcticregions: certain ofthe history genesis andQuaternary problems ofthethickPleistocene sediments First, itcanhelpsolvingmany fundamental for theseveral reasons.shelf isimportant ofthepermafrostnonuniformity withinthe formed, permafrost. Understandingage zone includesbothrelic andrecent, newly nonuniform shelf. within theArctic This is which indicates thatthecryolithozone Pleistocene lacustrine-alluvial plains boundaries; Pleistocene lacustrine-alluvial 9 – shelf outer boundary; 10–12 9–shelf outer boundary; –shelf cryolithozone; s withtemperature 0to of –1,5°С, 80–100 m thick. 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 24 GEOGRAPHY 4 b 2 – rhythmical interbedding of sand, sandy silty loam and clayey silty loam; 3 – clayey silty loam; 4 – clay; loam; 4–clay; loam; silty 3–clayey silty andclayey loam silty sandy sand, of 2 –rhythmical interbedding Fig. 2. Bottom sediments section on the Barents-Kara Shelf [Melnikov and Spesivtsev 1995]. Spesivtsev and [Melnikov Shelf Barents-Kara the on section sediments Bottom 2. Fig. – bore-hole 240 (sea intheBaydaratskaya Bay –bore-hole is 13–14 depth m). loam; 3–clay; 1–sand; silty 2–clayey a 2 – clay; 3–6 cryogenic structure; 3–horizontally la structure; cryogenic 3–6 2 –clay; – bore-hole 481 intheKara –bore-hole Strait area(sea depth 4–7 cryogenic structure; 4 – sheet ice; 4–sheet 5–ataxitic; structure; 4–7 cryogenic 5 – argillite-like firm clay; 6 – sheet ice; 7 – massive cryogenic structure; 8 – permafrost table; 8–permafrost structure; ice; 6–sheet clay; 7–massive cryogenic firm 5 –argillite-like 5 – ataxitic (sheet5 –ataxitic ice); table; 6–massive; 8–negative-temperature deposits. 7–permafrost c – bore-hole 253 intheKara –bore-hole SeaontheRusanovskaya Field (sea is 130 depth m). 1–silt; 9–negative-temperature deposits. 9 –negative-temperature deposits. is 65 m). 1–sandwithorganic material inclusion; 6 –reticulate; table; 7–massive; 8–permafrost yered; 4–dislocated large-schlieren; subvertical 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 bottom sediments(T temperature oftheupperhorizons of Temperature. thefollowingthis respect, dataare available. 1989,1999].In sediments [Shpolyanskaya, pore andtemperature water salinity of depends ontherelationship the between ofbottom sediment freezingThe possibility the shelfcryolithozone. for criteria agedifferentiationwith certain of formation conditionsalong undersubmarine suggests amechanismofthepermafrost now form shelf. withintheArctic The author sediments canfreeze andpermafrost can viewpoint thattheArctic seabottom The paperproposes theconceptualauthor’s shelf development. shelf and, thereby, for theconditionsof geoenvironmental conditionswithinthe respectively) isresponsible for the relic andrecent permafrost, submarine permafrost (degradation andgrowth of directional development oftheshelf the degree oftheirstability. Fourth, the the dynamicsofArcticcoastsandassess and, therefore, itpossibleto predict makes the shelfoffshore andnear-shore parts affects thedevelopmentcryolithozone of starts decreasing againandcrosses 0°Сonce starts depth continuesto increase, temperature sea considerable summerheating ofshoals. If of 2–3m,where icefloats. This iscausedbya and reaches itsmaximum (2,8°С) atdepths continues to increase, becomespositive, increase inseadepth,temperaturefurther equalsto seadepth. maximal thickness With reaches 0°Сatthefasticeboundary, whose depth to 2m,temperature increases and lowest atzero sealevel. With increasing sea [Zhigarev,1997]. Negative temperature isthe depends ontheArcticseadepth has beenstudiedindetail. The temperature layer, ofthespatial variations whosepattern to thetemperature ofthebottom water 5 SEDIMENTS SYNGENETIC FREEZING OF BOTTOM ANALYSIS OF CONDITIONS FOR
The average annual s ) is, asarule, equal minimal values(–1,6 a depthof30–35m,where itreaches the temperature. The temperature decreases to 18 m,bottom water hasastablenegative of 7–8m.Beginning from aseadepthof16– again (becomesequalto –0,2°С)atadepth Sea. andD.S. ofI.А.Komarov The works and nearthecoastofopen Norwegian 8–10 m) a depthof4,5mandto 4–6‰atadepth of Black (from layer to 15,1‰atadepthof4,3m),inthe depth of3000m(from 19,3‰inthesurface Atlanticatasea coast inthenortheastern the Atlantic, atalarge distancefrom the continentin slope oftheSouthAmerican depth inmany regions: ontheoffshore content decreaseschlorine withincreasing shelf.by 2,12‰ontheSeaofOkhotsk The coastofCalifornia,0,7‰ ontheeastern and the Peruvian offshore slopeandshelf, by0,5– southwestern shelf, African by0,7–2,3‰on of thebottom water by0,6–1,1‰onthe layer ofsedimentswashigherthanthat content oftheupperthat thechlorine silt water indifferent seas. Sheobserved content ofpore inthechlorine variations both theseeffects whenshestudiedthe downward. O.V.surface established Shishkina decreasespore solutionsalinity from bottom 1972].Atthesametime, 1972; Shishkina, the saltcontent ofbottom water [Horn, bottom sedimentsisusuallyhigherthan layer of The mineralizationinthesurface isnotuniform. over thesection distribution on themineralizationcharacter. The salt possible to draw ratherdefinite conclusions content it ofbottom sedimentsmake Salinity. 40–250 m. are formed atratherlarge depthsofabout seas,Arctic stablenegative temperatures bottom water layer indicates thatinthe temperaturedescribed inthe distribution increases to 0,8°Сatadepthof500m. The Below thesedepths, temperature gradually there are noannualtemperature variations. remains unchangedatthesedepthswhere 250 m;i.e., thebottom layer temperature atdepthsof35–40through is observed and Balticmarginalcontinental seas, The publisheddataonthesalt 12,5 in the surface layer to 9,5at 12,5 inthesurface ò –1,8°С).Homothermy 229.09.2014 13:01:29 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 26 GEOGRAPHY 6 disagrees with the fact that the salinity inthe disagrees thatthesalinity withthefact However, considersthatthis R.Horn sediments. mineralcomponentofmarine is theknown other cases, e.g., inmontmorillonite, which in the ionconcentrationcanbeobserved andadecreaseand negative absorption in insomecases, solution canbeobserved increase intheionconcentrationpore and,positive absorption consequently, an suchexchange,in thesaltcontent. During seawater” cancauseadecrease interface considered thationexchange atthe – “seabed been discussedinliterature. [1972] R.Horn been determined, althoughthiscause has hasnotyet The causeofsuchsaltdistribution depth isauniversal phenomenon. with changingthe bottom sedimentsalinity in data indicate thatthedirectionalvariation (Fig.decreases downthesection 3). These water concentrationinbottom sediments А.V. thatthepore [2003]alsoreport Brushkov and [2001]andА.N.Khimenkov Lukovkin Fig. 3. Vertical variations in the pore solution salinity in bottom sediments: а –BlackSea[Shishkina, 1972], Sea[Komarov b–Barents andLukovkin, 2001] open sea,where glacialwater couldhardly alsodecreases atlow latitudesin salinity assumption for thefollowing reasons. First, However, itis difficult to agree withthis thawed water was discharged into sea. and seawater becamelesssalinesincefresh geological stage, whenglaciersthawed earlier increasing depthreflectsacertain other, assumedthatdecreasewith insalinity Several researchers, O.V. [1972]and Shishkina sediments. inmarine distribution salinity explanationoftheexistent a satisfactory didnotfind toward R.Horn theirsurface. bottom sedimentsbecomelesscompact equalized any concentrationgradients since Moreover, iondiffusionforces shouldhave not affect thecompositionofwater inclay. indicatingthatpressureexperiment does However, presents R.Horn results ofthe as aresult ofsedimentconsolidation decreases withdepth that sedimentsalinity viewpoints ofotherresearchers, whoassume the seawater salinity. alsopresents R.Horn upper layers ofsiltwater remains higherthan 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 (S = 35‰) density atatemperature(S =35‰)density of–1 4°С is1.00163g/cm atatemperaturewater (S=2‰)density of seawater densities. Thus, themaximalfresh explained bydifferences inthefresh and [Zhigarev, 1997]. This phenomenoncanbe Sea the heavier salinewater oftheKara bywater isunderlain oftheObRiver deepGulfofOb, thefresh thenotvery In several [Fedorov, hundred kilometers 1981]. flow into theopenseaover adistanceof more than10–15m,althoughtheserivers rivers, andAmazon, suchasOrinoco isnot ofeven thelargest world lens thickness intheform oflenses. Afresh-watersurface saline water andusuallyfloatsover thesea Second, fresh water isalways lessdensethan pronouncedly affect seawater mineralization. I Groot, Mazur, 1964] This process bytheformula isdescribed [De- gradient originates inbottom sediments. of ionsdirected oppositely to temperature in additionto thediffusionprocess. The flux oftemperatureaction gradient, proceeds means thatmassistransferred underthe case, theprocess diffusion,which ofthermal this In to theheatfluxwithinEarth. of concentrationandtemperature related bygradientsis simultaneouslycharacterized The analyzed medium(bottom sediments) inbottom sediments. distribution salinity can explainthecauseofconsidered seems thattheprocess diffusion ofthermal It process. be maintaineddueto somepermanent A stablemineralizationgradient should no matter howslowthisdiffusionmay be. geologicalof sedimentsduring epochs, deglaciation, shouldhave equalized salinity the concentrationgradient formation after would inevitablyhave originated during water areas oftheshelf. Third, diffusion,which isolated casesinthenear-shore shallow- sediments. placeonlyin This couldtake not hardly affected bottom water andcould freshening intheepochofdeglaciation is 1.028126g/cm 7 =– D’ influence mineralizationofbottom ρ C (1 – c )grad 3 T 3 . Therefore,seawater – , whereas theseawater ρ D grad C , (1) о С diffusion, isspecifiedbytheformula andthermal usually dependentonordinary oppositely directed saltconcentrationfluxes, oftheseThe conditionofequilibrium diffusion. the fluxofthermal concentration gradient andtends to balance diffusion,whichoriginatesthe direct dueto thefluxdirected oppositelydescribes to intheright-handterm sideoftheequation layers toward thesoilsurface). The second oppositely to thisgradient (from lower soil by temperature gradient anddirected diffusion,i.e.,thermal asaltfluxcaused the processthe equationdescribes of intheright-hand sideofThe firstterm coefficient. T of amedium, diffusioncoefficient, thermal these conditions, saltsmigrating from below disappears inthebottom water layer. Under sincethetemperature gradientinterface flux terminates at the soil–water”“bottom diffusion thatcanresult ina pronounced ion At thesametime, theprocess ofthermal insignificant, especiallyatlowtemperatures. related only to the concentrationgradient is As wasnoted above, ofdiffusion theintensity which isstillabsent)canalsobeexplained. explanation forwater salinity, asatisfactory soil upperlayer ascompared to bottom inthebottommentioned (increased salinity phenomenon related to theabove- Based ontheseconcepts, another maintained. salt fluxfrom bottom to top isconstantly isnotformed,such equilibrium andthe accumulationofsediments,to permanent sediments – seawater system” isopenowing (2), isestablished. Since marine“the gradient, corresponding to thecondition sediments willdecrease untilthestationary The saltcontent ofpore water inbottom where rd gradT gradC isthetemperature, and =− I istheconcentrationflux, CC DC ′ C () D isthesolutionconcentration, 1 − D . (2) isthediffusion ρ is the density isthedensity D’
is the 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 28 GEOGRAPHY 8 sequence willthaw from belowaccording temperature sincethis gradient andsalinity can benotmore than40–50 mattheabove indicates thatthefrozen sequencethickness growing sequencereaches 0°С.Figure 4 continues untilthetemperature ofthe gradient. Therefore, thisgrowth isfinite and increases inaccordance withthetemperature the temperature ofthelower frozen layer As thefrozen sequencegrows upward, soil sequence. wet bottom soilschangeinto alayered ice- process. Therefore, slightlylithifiedandvery slow accumulating sedimentsisavery of thatdewatering to top. isknown It grows from inthesamedirection, bottom surface. The frozen sequencesyngenetically with theupward motionofthe seabed upwardis satisfiedshifts synchronously where theconditionofpore water freezing As sedimentsaccumulate, thedepthinterval 4,5 to 10–11m. such conditionscanoriginate atdepthsfrom plotted versus depth(Fig. 4)indicate that 1972]) (according toand salinity [Shishkina, soil temperature (with inthebottomThe combinedvariations becomes sufficientfor sediments to freeze. depth depth, andtemperature atacertain pronouncedly decreases withincreasing depth.However,to acertain thesalinity sediments are alsocooled, ratherthanfrozen, therefore, iseven higher; upper section these ofbottom sedimentsinthe The salinity –1,8°С; therefore, thiswater never freezes. in thebottom layer is oftheArcticOcean data,thenaturalwater temperaturefactual of35‰is–1,91°С.Accordingsalinity to the The freezing temperature ofseawater witha calculation basedonthepublisheddata. byasimple This may besupported decreases downthesection. ofpore watersalinity inbottom sediments depthbelowtheseabedsince certain Thus, bottom sedimentscanfreeze ata upper layer ofbottom soils. are andare adsorbed reliably retained inthe grad t
= 0,04°/m) moves upward with accumulation of sediments with surface; interval upward 4–depth theseabed motionof freezing temperaturesoil withaccumulation and sediments of bottom sediments. This interval also in thiscase. temperature ofthiswater doesnotincrease into bottom water layers. the Nevertheless, should propagate from thefreezing front Heat released pore during water freezing to considerone more problem. isnecessary It can remain inafrozen condition. and salinity, ofdepositsto 100m thickness positive ones. Atothertemperature gradient to achangeofnegative temperature into soils (vertical grad T=0,04°/ surface; 2–recent1 –seabed temperature bottom of in temperature ( temperature in Fig. 4. Joint graph of vertical variations ( sediments in the Arctic Shelf. Arctic the in sediments T°С ) and salinity ) and м ); 3–variation inbottom
( S‰ ) of bottom Z 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 м . 0 ) 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 ice streaks the form always inherit ofeven growth ofcrystals. Therefore, theemerged the and saltinclusionsare during adsorbed in sedimentationlayers, where dissolved gas ofmineralparticles bases alongthesurface continues mostlydueto thegrowth of becomesslower and growth oficecrystals Because ofmineralparticles, soil particles. and ishindered byadjacent crystals crystals correspond to thistemperature. Growth of solution freezing temperature would shouldbesuchthatthe solution salinity conditionissatisfied:pore only necessary at many pointsofthiszone, where the can originate simultaneously Ice crystals the zone withnegative temperatures. replaced here bythefreezing zone, i.e., (seeabove), thefreezing frontinterval is depth Since bottom soilsfreeze inacertain rapidlygrow andform basalice.crystals into onesystem; therefore, emerging ice ofallparticles combines thesurface mineralparticles between distributed to V.I. Golubev’s [2000]experiments, water mineralized water. thiscase, according In ofhighly saturated soilsandcrystallization asfreezingcharacterized ofcompletely Freezing ofbottom sedimentscanalsobe siltwater crystallization. during distributed sediments; 2–howsaltionsmigrate andare andicebodyisformed inbottom crystallizes 1–howporemain questionsarise: water freezingWhen submarine isconsidered, two recover inwater. and temperature stratificationratherrapidly As aresult, astabledensity seabed surface. is replaced bycolderwater comingto the due to the influxofphasetransitionheatand water moves upward andbecomeswarmer temperature values, atclosesalinity bottom andwithdecreasingwith increasing salinity seawater. Sinceseawater increases density placein mixingconstantlytakes density lowest atthesedepthsbecausevertical temperature isalways constantandthe According this to theobservations, 9 MARINE SEDIMENTS WATER CRYSTALLIZATION IN BOTTOM increasing ice crystals, andunfrozenincreasing icecrystals, zones Pore solutionconcentrationincreases with isnotobserved. ofmineralparticles surface ofsaline poredistribution water over the energy are formed,low total surface uniform sedimentswithusually mostly sandy-silty the conditionsofashallower sea,when and grow withoutinterruptions. Under originatetemperature, andicecrystals always corresponds to agiven freezing Therefore, free pore water concentration ofmineralparticles. bythesurface adsorbed are completely pore solutioncrystallization formed andfreeze, saltspressed outduring thereby, energy are withahighsurface and, specificsurface with ahighskeleton sea, whenthefinest(muddy)sediments conditions. Undertheconditionsofadeeper is inevitablycloselyrelated to facial infrozenSalt distribution bottom sediments remains fresh. sequence. of mineralsintheice-soil The ice onthesurface and isuniformly adsorbed saline water ispressed outofthesebands theicecrystals, between Atcontacts crystals. uniformly the inbandsbetween distributed andconcentrated salinewater ice crystals system isformed. This system includesfresh steady rate. As certain aresult, thetwo-phase continuegrowing ata conditions, crystals diffusion. Underconstantthermodynamic decrease intheconcentrationdue to salt layer and dueto growthboundary ofcrystals increase intheconcentration solution theprocessesis establishedbetween of the growth onset,adynamicequilibrium layer andliquidmedium. Sometimeafter saltconcentrationintheboundary between intense due to theincreased difference layer into theliquidmediumbecomesmore hand, diffusionofsaltsfrom theboundary layer.in thefluidboundary Ontheother down dueto increase insaltconcentration slows in thiscase. Growth oficecrystals growth withtime. Two processes proceed andits solution concentrationnearcrystals in theformation ofthezone ofincreased molecules ofdissolved salts, whichresults facesforce outionsand crystal ice crystals, folded theprocess soilbeds. ofgrowth In of 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 30 GEOGRAPHY 0 Field [Bondarev, 2001;Rokos, 2009]comply StraitoronRusanovskaya example, attheKara Shelf,sediments oftheBarents-Kara for bottom featuresthe structure ofice-rich analysisshowsthat The shelfcryolithozone accumulated inshallower water. elements incontrastto coarsersediments sedimentsare intrace enriched fine-grained particles. absorbing Therefore, deep-water more intense withdecreasing grain size of becomes [1972]notes thatabsorption R. Horn atthe absorption –seabed”“water boundary, example, theprocesses whenconsidering of also discussedinsomepublications. For onfacialconditionsision distribution The considered dependence of salt formed inthisway. lenses infreezing bottom sedimentsare concentration originates again.Cryopeg The unfrozen highsolution zone withavery pressed outsolutionreaches value. acritical growing untiltheconcentrationof continue forming. Icecrystals and icestarts thiscase,value. water In begins to freeze to acertain salinity diffusionbrings thermal iceisnotformed untiltheprocesssection, of that are newlyaccumulated intheupper dissolved. Iceformation stops. sediments In are gradually formed sincesaltsremain highsolutionconcentration with avery Fig. 5. Massive ground ice bed. Western Yamal Peninsula. Photo by G. A. Rzanitsin A. byG. Photo Yamal Peninsula. Western bed. ice ground 5.Massive Fig. alternation of ice beds of thickness 10–15 10–15 oficebedsthickness alternation conditions As represents arule, thissection beds were fo sequence structureandindicate thatthese oftheentirereflect thesedimentationtype the authorinnorthern Western Siberia) ofsimilaricebeds(studied by structure recent shelf. and The occurrence character the formation ofthepermafrost onthe ofsuchasequenceindicatesThe structure (forthese sections example, Fig. 5). definedin isratherclearly cryolithozone formation oftheshelf(submarine) plains, indicates thattheabove schematic beds, whichare widespread withinsuch dislocated frozen withmassive ice sections of therecent shelf. Arctic The studyofthe conditions –canbeconsidered ananalog processes thatproceeded undersubmarine shelves, showevidenceof whosesections ofEuropean Russia)–ancient and North-East the sector: Western Siberia Eurasia (Western The Pleistocene plainsofnorthern marine described. with theinitiallysubseafreezing mechanism (ANCIENT SHELVES) WITHIN MARINE PLEISTOCENE PLAINS SECTIONS WITH MASSIVE ICE BEDS ANALYSIS OF CERTAIN FROZEN rmed undersubaqueous 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 that massive icebedswere formed often At present, many researchers accept formation are syngenetic. indicates thatsediment deformation andice relationship between hosting dislocated sediments(Fig. 6).Such and massive alongsedimentationfoldsice distribution dislocations are accompaniedbyaregular frozen In meters invertical. sequences, these andseveral hundredmeters alongthestrike distance ofseveral tens andhundreds of here. Plicative dislocations are traced over a steep, folds dimensions are ofvarious formed regular butalsoreverse anddrag, gentleand andnotonly sequence becomesshrunken, movement ofsuchsediments, theentire As aresult ofchanging seabedslopeduring offloatingandthixotropicproperties soils. sedimentsshowing almost noncompacted sediments withexcess moisture content and sediments. Suchdislocationsoriginate in results inplicative dislocationsinbottom landslideprocesses, which by underwater accompanied sedimentation isprimarily [1984]. that The ideaisbasedonthefact ice bedswasfirstsuggested byPopov genesis andrelated growth ofdislocated The hypothesis cryolitho- onsubmarine accumulating bottom sediments. syngeneticfreezingduring of conditionsunder submarine complex,couldform only very even whentheconfigurationis highly coordinated layers, present sequencewith marine ice-soil several centimeters. Asimilar to oneanother, atadistanceof of acomplexshape, located closely horizontal, inothercasesarched or complicated manner, sometimes layers orlayers ina interlacing parallel show acomplexpattern: The layers are deformed and bedding, parallelto oneanother. ice microstreaks along extended not monolithicandalsoinclude less than1cm.Soilinterlayers are cm andsoilinterlayers ofthickness 1 ice bedsare integrated with dislocations andice [Melnikov and Spesivtsev 1995, Bondarev et al. 2001]. al. et 1995, Bondarev Spesivtsev and [Melnikov Fig. 6. Ground ice in the Barents-Kara Shelf Shelf Barents-Kara the in ice Ground 6. Fig. however, thediscussionofdifferences differently explainorigination ofcryopegs; andLeibmanbe noted thatStreletskaya should frequently It occurinthesand section. andare ofthesection in theclay part are notpresentdemonstrates thatcryopegs generally salinized. However, Fig. 7clearly the sedimentationtype. The sequenceis oficeandsoillaminas by alternation lenses. Iceisrepresentedbed andcryopeg sedimentswithathickmassive ice Kazantsev (Fig.work 7)showsthesequenceofmarine [2002]. fromThe geological this section Yamal, andLeibman studiedbyStreletskaya ofmassive icebedsincentral in thesection defined isclearly cryolithtozone submarine The above mechanismofformation ofthe freezing. sediments andsilty silty-sandy-loam during for intheiceformation that–interruptions Spesivtsev, 1995]. There isonlyonereason wereinterbeds found [Mel’nikov and Bay area, sections,12cryopeg in42drill Forfacts. example, intheBaydaratskaya bynumerous This mechanismissupported 2003]. andBrushkov,for example, [Khimenkov conditions,immediately undersubmarine dislocated bottom sediments 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 32 GEOGRAPHY 2 on western Gydan inthe bed section Tadibeyakha basin River inthe ice a changeinlithologyisobserved following structure change inthecryogenic Pleistocene marine are ofthe alsotracedinothersections Features oftheproposed mechanism sediments. inmarine water crystallization the proposedconfirm mechanismofpore data,which,inouropinion, use thefactual ofanindependentpaper.subject Here, we in opinionswiththeseresearchers isthe same clay decreases to 189mg/l, andthe the mineralizationoficeinterlayers inthe near theicebedis20542 mg/l, whereas mineralization ofpore solutions inclays cryolithogenesis. submarine Thus, thetotal theproposedconfirms mechanismof alongthesection mineralization distribution demonstrate thaticeandhosting sediment andLeibmanThe dataofStreletskaya [2002] pore solutionconcentrations. accumulation terminated dueto increased massive structure, whichindicates thatice ice bedsare separated bysoillayers witha andpronouncedly dislocated8b), thicker growing frozen layer. thesandy-loam(Fig. In that icewascontinuouslyaccumulatingina (Fig.the clay section 8а),whichindicates Ice andsoillaminasregularly alternate in 1999] (Fig. 8). in Quaternary deposits compiled for Central Yamal, across Mordy-Yakha, Se-Yakha, Naduj-Yakha rivers rivers Naduj-Yakha Se-Yakha, Mordy-Yakha, across Yamal, Central for compiled deposits Quaternary in [Streletskaya and Leibman, 2002]. The uniform ice body cutting by river valleys is visible. is valleys byriver cutting body ice uniform The 2002]. Leibman, and [Streletskaya Fig. 7. Schematic geological transect with tabular ground massive ice and cryopeg lenses lenses cryopeg and ice massive ground tabular with transect geological 7.Fig. Schematic Peninsula [Shp plains. Thus, adistinct olyanskaya, olyanskaya, differs from theseawater composition, calcium water, thecompositionofwhich of lowsulfate content. Chloride-sodium- water is transformed into chloride-alkaline of S decreases andisfollowed bya replacement a result, sulfate concentrationinsiltwater seas, asarule, inorganic enriched matter; andinner in bottom sedimentsofnorthern substantially changes. Sulfates are reduced ofseawater inmuddysediments chemistry According to O.V. [1972],the Shishkina bed formation conditions. undersubmarine theice alsodoesnotcontradict the section A changeinthesaltioncompositionalong are bysandparticles. absorbed zones, lenses, ratherthan forming cryopeg accumulate inclosed growing icecrystals because saltionspressed outofpores by pore solutionsinsandare desalinated whereas ofsoilmineralparticles, the surface these sediments. Allsaltionsare retained by ofclay,high salinity are absentin cryopegs isclearthat,despite ofa only 2407mg/l. It pore solutioninsandoutsidetheselenses is 58 507mg/l, whereas themineralizationof lenses)reaches solution insand(cryopeg rocks containingice. The mineralizationof of and from byclay particles saltabsorption growth during oficecrystals crystals between This results from saltpressing outofthezone most ofitsbodyisnothigherthan78mg/l. mineralization ofthemassive icebedin O 4 − ionbyCO 3 and HCO 3 ions. Siltwater 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 water ionstructureinbottom sediments corresponds to thetransformation ofthe clay increases compared to seawater. This composition structureofpore solutionsin and sand. The amountofHC from seawater to pore solutionsofclay The amountofS the ionstructureofconsidered section. exchange processes. Precisely thisisseenin is formed diffusion thatcauses during iceof laminasover andsoil theentire evident structure inthecryogenic A change which indicates thatice accumulation was terminated sediments. pore solutions. The role ofNa in thesamedirection:from seawater to 3 Fig. 8. Dislocated massive ice bed of the subsea genesis in the “Tadibeyakha” section section “Tadibeyakha” the in genesis subsea the of bed ice massive Dislocated 8. Fig. b –
silty section: thicker and pronouncedly dislocated section: massive thicker andpronouncedly of areseparated by ice soil, layers silty layers O 2 4 − ions sharply decreases ionssharply (Western Gydan). Photo by Shpolyanskaya N.А. O + section indicatessection thatice continuously ac intheion 3 − increases ly follows a change inthelithology. followsachange ly dueto concentration increased solutions. pore of decreases saltprecipitation temperature. joint presence ofdifferent ionsinsolution that [Doronin andKheisin,1975] known is can alsobeexplained. It in cryopegs precipitated iceformation) during presence ofsaltions(which,seemingly, One more issueshouldbeconsidered. The of massive ice, andcryopegs. pore water ofclays, iceinterlayers, mainbeds definedin ofionsisclearly spectrum marine byO.V.described thiscase, the In Shishkina. cumulates in a growing layer of frozencumulates of inagrowinglayer а – clay section: uniform alternation section: uniform –clay 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 34 GEOGRAPHY 4 and hydrocarbonates (HCO solutionfreezingsoon after –carbonates components precipitating from solution in thepure solutionofthissalt. The only place rather thanat–3,5°С,whichtakes from solutionatatemperature of–7,6°С For example, sodiumsulfate precipitates consists entirely of relict permafrost (Fig. 1 1 consists entirely(Fig. ofrelictpermafrost cryolithozone sector shelfeastern Arctic western contrastto sector, theshelf’s In the in cryopegs. OF SHELF THE ARCTIC THE EASTERN SECTOR 5 – permafrost boundary; 6 – ice complex; 7 – sheet ice; 8 – cryopeg lenses; containing 9–deposits ice; 7–sheet 6–ice gas; 8–cryopeg free complex; boundary; 5 –permafrost 10 withgashydrates; –deposits 11 lake; –thermokarst 12 –fast ice; 13 –young ice; 14 lead; –open 2 – soil average annual temperature; 3 – bedrock; 4 – the Quaternary deposits genesis index; genesis deposits index; 4–theQuaternary average2 –soil annualtemperature; 3–bedrock; A – 20000–18000 years ago, B – present time. 1 – sea level as related to modern; Fig. 9. The Laptev Sea shelf structure [Romanovskii et al, 1997]. al, et [Romanovskii structure shelf Sea Laptev 9. The Fig. 15 – cold salt brine; 16 – greenhouse gases streams. 3 ) –are absent penetration into thecracks. andsubsequentwater cracking contraction thermal- a result ofrepeated soilsurface polygonal fracturesystem formation as conditions for icewedge formation are the floodedsurfaces. on periodically The basic They form onlyincontinentalconditions and form apolygonal system inplanview. orcolumn-shapedinsection wedge-shaped et al, 2008]. Those are icewedges, whichare and Romonovskii Tumskoi, 2011;Schirmeister etal,transgression 1997; [Romonovskii Epochsfloodedbyapostglacial and Sartan wedge complexoftheZyryan ancient icy and Fig. 9). Here, there isevidenceofan 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 Polygonal wedge ices complex. icy ice thatforms theso-called entirely represented bypolygonal wedge to thewestern sector, ground iceisalmost plains, Siberia On theEastern incontrast marine plains formed in northern Russia(on plainsformedmarine innorthern within origin are submarine observed Frozen dislocated sequences oftheapparent depth. conditionsandataratherlargesubmarine massive ice bedscanform undershelf with analysis:the cryolithozone performed The mainconclusionfollows from the climate andtheabsenceof glacialcover. in theconditionsofconsistently severe development thewholePleistocene during (as opposedto thewestern sector) This pointsto theregion’s continental years old. [Bolshiyanovetal, 2009]. 1992] andformed terrace, amarine 138000 mouth to theChaunBay etal, [Alekceev approximatelystrip from theLena River transgression thatfloodedanarrow coastal Pleistocene,Middle there wasasmallsea etal,deposits [Alekceev 1992].Onlyinthe represented exclusively bycontinental time, isalso from theKazantsev starting 2002; Tumskoi, 2012]. The Late Pleistocene, years ago, etal, by230Th/U[Schirmeister Pleistocene age–200000–180000 Middle strata withpolygonal wedge iceagehasthe Island,coast andonGreat the Lyakhovsky Laptev Strait Basilyan, 2002].OntheDmitri and etal, 1989;Nikolsky [Arkhangelov pseudomorphscontain ice-wedge Pleistocene) Suite deposits(Early Olerskaya deposits. alluvial, andlacustrine-bog The are represented bythelacustrine-alluvial, LowlandPliocene, deposits thePrymorskaya withthe marine, andlagoontypes.Starting belong to thealluvial, alas, slope, coastal- enclosing sedimentsare continentaland inthewestern Arcticsector,unlike theice lowland, islands. andtheNewSiberian Here, lowlands, theCentraland Kolyma Yakut in thefollowing areas –the Yana-Indigirka 5 CONCLUSIONS
are mostwidespread be nolower than–1,5 c) The recent permafrost temperature should permafrost canreach several hundred meters. oftherelic 80–100 m,whereas thethickness from 50to canvary permafrost thickness gradient inthesesediments, therecent of bottom sedimentsandthetemperature can beonlyrelic. onthesalinity b)Depending larger than40m. Permafrost atsmallerdepths permafrost canbeencountered only atdepths stage ofresearch. a)Newlyforming (recent) the relic zone canbeproposed even atthis and the newlyforming shelfcryolithozone ofdifferences criteria flooded. between Certain conditionsandwas subsequently subaerial the r forming conditions, undersubmarine and differences thecryolithozone, newly between At present, the main problem isto find the Arcticshelf. alsoforms on cryolithozone the submarine interglacial. Therefore, we canassumethat allepochs,shelves during bothglacialand these sequenceswere formed onancient stages ofthePleistocene. This meansthat almostall the Arcticwestern during sector) and transgressive–regressive regime was evolvedsectors differently inthePleistocene, andwestern eastern andSubarctic The Arctic occurred onlyinmountainareas. sometimes changing into reticulate glaciation, Peninsula. Kanin Mountain-valley glaciation, plains, mostlikely,North to theEastof the Pleistocene andHoloceneontheRussian genesis indicate theabsenceoficesheetsin inrelationThe icespatialpatterns to their salinization. Iceshouldbefresh. of emerging type iceshouldreflectthemarine layers e) ofsedimentscontaining The chemistry downward rarefaction ice should observed ofstructure: it reflect theepigenetictype formation,permafrost isasubaerial itshould configuration iscomplex.Sincetherelic oflayers and highconformity even iftheir uniform oficeandsoillaminas alternation offreezing: should reflectthesyngenetictype be even lower. d) structure The cryogenic the temperature oftherelic permafrost can elic cryolithozone, which formed under elic cryolithozone, whichformed under ò –1,6°С, whereas –1,6°С,whereas 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 36 GEOGRAPHY 6 1. Alekseev M.N., Arkhangelov A.A., Grinenko O.V., A.A.,Grinenko AlekseevM.N.,Arkhangelov B.I., I.G., Patyk-Kara Kim N.G.,Plakht 1. period –searegression”,period “interglacial period The currently accepted synhronism “glacial proceeded simultaneously. Epoch) andtheHolocenetransgression ofthelate Pleistocene (theSartan part conditions. Only theregression ofthelast andlagoonsedimentation lacustrine-alluvial formed undercontinental, predominantly conditions, plains sector while theeastern under predominantly sedimentation marine Epoch), thewestern plainsformed sector the entire Pleistocene (excluding theSartan manifested in different ways. almost During 1. K 10. 9. Horn, R.(1972). Horn, 9. Golubev, V.N. IceScience. Congelation (2000).Structural IceStructure. State Moscow 8. Fedorov, (1981).Many-Sided Coexistence ofSalineandFresh K.N. Water. Priroda, Journal 7. Doronin, Yu.P. D.E. andKheisin, (1975)SeaIce. Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad. 318p. (inRussian). 6. S.R.andMazur, De-Groot, P. (1964)Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics, Mir, Moscow, 5. Bondarev V.N., Loktev A.S.,DrugachA.G.,Potapkin Yu.V. ofResearch (2001)Methods and 4. BolshiyanovD.Yu., Grigorev M.N.,Shnayder V., A.S.,GusevE.A.(2009)SeaLevel Makarov 3. A.A.,Konishchev V.N., Arkhangelov Region. Rozenbaum G.E.(1989)Primorsko-Novosibirsky 2. REFERENCES tion: Laptev SeaSystem, №8,Program andAbstracts, St.Petersburg, pp. 39–40. (inRussian). “Laptev SeaSystem 2000”. Proceedings In: oftheSixth Coopera-Workshop onRussian-German Wessels M.(2000) The Transdrift VIII Expeditionto theLaptev Sea: CompaignThe ShelfDrilling of Cenozoic. AtlasofPaleogeographic GRUP-GIN ANSSSR, Maps, Robertson Reynin I.V. (1992) SeasshelfintheMesozoicThe Laptev andthe andtheEastSiberian Univ. Press, Moscow. 88p. (inRussian). No. 8,pp. 46–56.(inRussian). 453 p. (inRussian). nauchnyy tsentr,tity, Kolskiy Volume 1,p. 15–19.(inRussian). Sedimentological Processes Periglacial, Ecosystems Evolution inMarine andMarine Apa- ofSubaqueousPermafrost.Determination Proceedings In: Conference, ofInternational seas,Sea andtheadjacentArctic State Press, University Moscow Moscow, p. 349–356. Variations andIceComplex Formation System oftheLaptev ontheLaptev Sea coast.In: Regional cryolithology, State Press,In: University Moscow Moscow, p. 128–151.(inRussian). Alekseev). (inRussian). assens H., Bauch H., Drachev S., Gierlichs A., Niessen F., A.,Niessen assens H.,BauchDrachevS., Gierlichs Taldenkova E.,RuodoiA., Thiede I.and
Marine Chemistry, Mir,Marine Moscow, 398p. (inRussian). processes. higher thantheeffect oftheglacioeustatic their influenceappearsto beconsiderably intheArctic basin,and irregular fluctuations Amerasian tectonic plates influencethe oftheEurasianand basin andthejunction withintheArctic Ridge) (theGakkel ridge isobviousthatthemid-oceanic statement. It this structure oftheArcticBasinsupports The complexheterogeneous tectonic forefront oftectonic processes. theimpact role insealevel variations, bringing to the castdoubtonglacioeustaticleading facts – seatransgression” isnotdetected. Allthe
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3 24. Shpolyanskaya, N.А.(1989).OnthePossibility of Bottom Shpolyanskaya, SedimentFreezing inArctic 24. Sludge О.V. andOceanic ofMarine Shishkina, Water. (1972).Geochemistry Mos- Nauka, 23. L.,Kunitsky Schirrmeister V.V., Grosse G.etal. (2008). The Yedoma Suite ofthe Northeast- 22. L.,Oezen D, Schirrmeister GeyM.A.(2002).30Th/Udatingoffrozen peat,Bol’shoy Lyak- 21. N.N., Romanovskii, Tumskoi, V.Е. (2011).Retrospective Approach to theEstimationof 20. N.N.,Kholodov, А.L.,Gavrilov, Romanovskii, А.V., Tumskoi, V.Е., G.-V., Hubberten, andKac- 19. 1. R 18. D.A., S.I.,DlugachA.G.,Kostin S.N.,Loktev Rokos Kulikov A.S.(2009).Permafrost ofthe 17. P. Rekant G., Cherkashev Vanstein P. B., Krinitsky permafrost inthe (2005).Submarine 16. Popov, Eur- А.I.(198).OnDislocationsandLithogenesisinthePleistocene ofNorthern 15. P.A., Nikolskiy Proceedings Nos. BasilyanA.E.(2002).Cape Svyatoy In: ofIII Vserosijsky 14. Mel’nikov, V.P. andSpesivtsev, V.I. Con- (1995)Engineering Geological andGeocryological 13. Komarov, D.S. I.А.andLukovkin, (2001). Technique ofQualitative Assessment ofSalt 12. 11. Khimenkov, А.N. and Brushkov А.V. Khimenkov, А.N.andBrushkov 11. 7 Seas, Journal Vestnik University, Moscow Ser. 5:Geography, No. 5,pp. 72–78.(inRussian). cow, 228p. (inRussian). Conference International the Ninth onPermafrost, Fairbanks, p. 78–80. Alaska, andConcept ShelfRegion ofFormation. Siberian –Characteristics ern Proceedings In: of research, Quarternary Vol. Journal Siberia), 57, issue2,P253–258. Island(North hovsky the Earth’s Cryosphere, Vol. XV, No. 1,pp. 3–14. (inRussian). inEastArctic. andStructureoftheShelfCryolithozone Journal Extension Contemporary theEarth’sJournal Cryosphere, Vol. III,No. 2,pp. 22–32.(inRussian). cenc H.(1999). ofFrozenThickness ShelfoftheLaptev SequencesintheEastern Sea, Glacioeustatic Cycle. theEarth’s Journal Cryosphere, Vol. I,No2,pp. 42–49.(inRussian). ofPaleogeographicstruction Conditions ofLaptev SeaShelffor Late Pleistocene-Holocene 38–41, (inRussian). Geotechnical investigation. Journal, No10,pp. Vserossiyskiy inzhenerno-analiticheskiy Pechora Seashelves: Genesis, andOccurrence. Composition, Distribution andtheKara 1007/s00367–004–0199–5. P. 183–189, Letters.nearshore GeoMarine zone Sea.Journal ofthesouthwestern Kara Vol. 25.DDI10. asia. Journal Vestnik University, Moscow Ser. 5:Geography, No. 3,pp. 3–9.(inRussian). of North Yano-Indigirkaya Lowland. Russia,p. 186–188.(inRussian). Smolensk, sedimentsofthe Conference Period, ofQuaternary Section onstudyingQuaternary 195p. Novosibirsk, (inRussian). SeaShelves,ditions oftheBarents Nauka, andKara Univ., Moscow, Vol. 2,pp. 154–163.(inRussian). Sea Shelf, Proceedings ofthe2ndConference State Moscow ofRussianGeocryologists, Transfer Effect onDegradation ofSubaqueousPerennially Frozen RocksontheBarents 335 p. (inRussian). omanovskii N.N., Gavrilov A.V., Kholodov A.L., Khubberten Kh-V., Kassens Kh. (1997).Recon- Kh-V., Kh. A.V., N.N.,Gavrilov Kassens A.L.,Khubberten omanovskii Kholodov
(2003). Oceanic Cryolithogenesis, Nauka, Moscow. Nauka, Cryolithogenesis, (2003). Oceanic 229.09.2014 13:01:30 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 38 GEOGRAPHY 8 3 . Zhigarev, State Press, University Cryolithozone. Moscow L.А.(1997).Oceanic Moscow. (in 30. Tumskoy V.E. innorthern (2012).PeculiaritiesYakutia ofcryolithogenesis Neo- (Middle 29. I.D., Streletskaya, Massive between Interrelation Leibman, M.О.(2002).Cryogeochemical 28. Solov’ev V.А. (1988).Barents SeaShelf, oftheUSSR. European Part. Nedra, inGeocryology 27. Solov’ev V.А. (1981).Prediction oftheRelicSubaqueousFrozen Zone Arc- (UsingEastern 26. Structure ofDislocated SequenceswithMassive N.А.(1999).Cryogenic Shpolyanskaya, 25. Russian). pleistocene Earth’s to Holocene),Journal Cryosphere, Vol. N1,pp. XVI, 12–21.(inRussian). Earth’s Cryosphere, Vol. VI, No. 3,pp. 15–24.(inRussian). andHostingSedimentsoftheCentralIce Beds, Cryopegs, Yamal Peninsula, Journal The Moscow. (inRussian). (in Russian). Zone oftheArctic Shelf. Cryolithic tic SeasasanExample).In: Yakutsk, Russia,pp. 28–38. Cryosphere, Vol. IV, No. 4,pp. 61–70.(inRussian). oftheirGenesis(Northern Western Ice BedsastheIndication Journal Siberia), The Earth’s NellaAShpolyanskaya problems (2005). oftheArcticshelfcryolithozone future G.E.Rosenbaum);Modern development (2000,co-author ofits andatendency oftheArcticcryolithozone Permafrost History bed icesasanindicator oftheirgenesis(1999);Late Cenozoic withunderground structureofthedislocated thicknesses Cryogenic asanindicator ofregional paleogeography. publications: Main shelf) permafrost andunderground (continentand iceinRussianArctic Scientist of degree in1981.SinceFebruary 1990,shehasbeenLeading received herPh.D. degree (inGeography) in1965andD.Sc. the Faculty ofGeography. The focus ofherresearch is studied at the Moscow State University,studied attheMoscow 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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3 1 3 2 Valentin N.Golosov Xiubin He 610041, China Hazardsof Mountain andEnvironment, ChineseAcademy ofSciences, Chengdu * [email protected]+7-495-9395044; e-mail: substantial proportions of sediment delivery ofsedimentdelivery substantial proportions and connectivity regions. slope-channel High streams through different pathways for both sediment wastransferred from hillslopesto of soilerosion onhillslopes. However, eroded to hadcontributed thealleviation practices precipitation changesandconservation repeated measurements indicated thatboth found to be6–7tha–1-yr–1. Long-term andsoilerosion rates were0,25 km2), catchments (withdrainagearea lessthan small inthezero-order were undertaken sediment dating. Field measurements discharge andsedimentmonitoring, and mathematic modeling, sedimentbudgeting, empirical- comparison, soil morphology multiple approaches including137Cs tracing, Upland wascomprehensively assessedusing southwestern ChinaandtheCentral Russian regions Basinin oftheSichuanHilly and catchment agricultural scalesintwo To thisend, sedimentredistribution atfield catchment soilerosion andsedimentdelivery. of naturalandanthropogenic agents on allows for explicitunderstandingtheeffects assessment ofsedimentredistribution problems.eco-environmental Quantitative soil erosion andresultant on-andoff-site globe have affected beenseriously by 9 ABSTRACT. DURING THE PASTDURING THE 60 YEARS AND THE CENTRAL RUSSIAN UPLAND IN THE SICHUAN HILLY BASIN OF SEDIMENT REDISTRIBUTION QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT University ofChineseAcademy of Sciences, Beijing10049,China Processes Surface ofMountain andEcological Regulation,Institute Key Laboratory Faculty ofGeography, Moscow State University, Moscow 119991,Russia; Tel.: Corresponding author 2 Agricultural landsaround the 1,2, *, XinbaoZhang 2 , TangQiang Central RussianUpland. delivered into adjacent riverchannelsinthe 4–12% ofthegross sedimentloadwas bottoms andonly dry-valley on first-order ofsedimentwasredepositedLarge quantity onuplandcatchments. sediment delivery yield were indicative ofsoilerosion and suspendedsediment Changes ofriverine Basin. intheSichuanHilly were observed would allowfor anexplicitunderstandingof sediment redistribution withinacatchment disturbances. Quantitative assessmentof settings andtheexistence ofanthropogenic temporally according to regional physical sediment redistribution differ spatiallyand etal.,Oost 2007].However, soilerosion and etal., 2005; contamination) [Syvitski Van loss, channelsiltation,freshwater problems (landdegradation, productivity resultant on-andoff-site eco-environmental affectedbeen seriously bysoilerosion and Agricultural landsaround theglobehave connectivity ratio, slope-channel sediment delivery Cesium-137 tracing, sedimentbudget, KEY WORDS: INT RODUCTION 2, 3 , Ping Zhou sediment redistribution, 2 , 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 40 GEOGRAPHY 0 in anattempt to compare sediment Upland were comprehensively assessed, Southwestern ChinaandtheCentral Russian Basin in physical settingsoftheSichuanHilly small catchments contrasting intwo in sedimentredistribution within patterns was rarely reported. To thisend, changes of thissituationfor aspecifichotspotregion scales, at various acomprehensive overview large bulkofstudieshave beenconducted Althougha timeinterval. relatively short climatic andanthropogenic changes over budget canbeconsiderablytransformed by in theUnited thesediment States ofAmerica, inrelationdescribed to theCoon Creek Basin Belyaev etal., 2005b ].As Trimble [1983] andPoesen, 1995; fluvial systems [Vandaele slopeandlinearelementsof de-coupling 1976; [Trimble, Walling etal., 2006],and sediment storage inpondsandreservoirs et al., 1999; Walling etal., 2002],evaluating ratio[Golosovetal., 1992;Owens delivery can begiven to quantifyingthe sediment and scalesofinvestigation, more attention strategies. Basedonenvironmental features andsedimentmanagement conservation be considered whenimplementingsoil 2001; Rommensetal., 2005],whichmust etal., and anthropogenic changes[Walling catchment responds to environmental the ways inwhichsedimentwithina isalsousefulfor understanding 2011]. It 1983; [Trimble, Walling, 1983; Walling etal., withinacatchment deposition occurring and sediment mobilization,transport, for processes studyingthevarious of provides avaluableintegration framework factors. The sedimentbudgetapproach diverse between controllinginteractions of cultivated lands, dueto thecomplex andahighproportion population density aproblem inareas withhigh particularly is changes. It tocontribute theobserved ways inwhich different influencingfactors However, itisdifficultto evaluate thespecific and sedimentdelivery. etc.)practices, oncatchment soilerosion change, channelclosure, soilconservation agents (precipitation change, landuse the effects ofbothnaturalandanthropogenic of 0,22and0,09km Basin,have drainageareasSichuan Hilly catchments inthe Yanting County, central (seeFig. 1). yield (SSY) The Wujia andJiliu evaluate themeanannualspecificsediment Jiliu, and Tianmawan) were to selected small catchmentsThree (Wujia, typical mostly usedaspaddyfields. steep wastelands.very Valley bottoms are small catchment landsare underforest or rotations for counties. various The rest ofthe differentregulations generated very crop and wheat.Before the1980s, government sweet potato,1980s includescorn, rape, Crop rotation for theslopearea since the total area ofthesmallslopecatchments. orchards) changesinarangeof20–60% and of agricultural land(uplandterraces of Agriculture [Heetal., 2007,2009]. The area by thesoiltaxonomy oftheUSDepartment covered soil, bypurple classified asEntisol landis widening downstream. Surface catchments withflatvalley permanently the catchment outletsthatform thelarger from 20°–25°nearthetop to 5°–10°at steep concave slopeswithgradient ranges have similar physical geographic and land- drainage areas lessthan0,25km by numerous smallcatchments with China. Regional topography ischaracterized upper Yangtze Basininsouthwestern River Basinislocated withinthe The SichuanHilly The Sichuan HillyBasin subjected to ofcultivated landsandhave proportion been both ofwhichare byahigh characterized Upland(Fig. (Srednerusskaya) Russian 2), Southwestern China(Fig. l)andtheCentral regions: Basinin theSichuanHilly contrasting attwo The studywasconducted the past60years. contrastingregionscoupling intwo during sedimentdelivery changes inslope-channel evaluate thedifferent influencing factors redistribution insmallcatchments and T Y AREA STU DY severe soilerosion 1). (Table 2 , respectively. They 2 and 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 of 25–30°separated bygentle mudstone and steep sandstonecomprises cliffs withslopes Penglaizhen Group. The landform typically siltstones, andsandstones from theJurassic by horizontally beddedmudstones, of 140m. The catchments are underlain 420and560marelativebetween relief use conditions, withelevationsthatvary 1 land Russia Up- The Central Basin Hilly The Sichuan Reg ion Table 1. Geographic characteristics for the study regions of the Sichuan Hilly Basin Basin Hilly Sichuan the of regions study the for characteristics Table 1. Geographic 105 000 40–60 250–650 540 Horizontally bedded Horizontally 540 250–650 40–60 105 000 0006–010304 Horizontally bedded 40 130–300 60–70 105000 (km Area Fig. 1. A sketch map of the Sichuan Hilly Basin in Southwestern China, China, Southwestern in Basin Hilly Sichuan the of map 1.Fig. Asketch 2 ) with the study sites and the Tuo River basin also indicated. also basin Tuo the River and sites study the with of agricultural in Southwestern China and the Central Russian Upland Russian Central the and China Southwestern in Percentage land (%) graphy Topo- (m) (persons km Population since the1970s. The Tianmawan watershed gradually beenafforested trees withcypress originally covered bywildgrasses, but have centuries, whereas thesteep slopeswere haveThe gentleterraces beencultivated for thirds ofthecatchment area, respectively. andtwo- and steep slopesaccountfor one- siltstone of<10°. terraces The gentleterraces density density –2 ) loess by chalk overlaid Mesozoic limestone, stones siltstones andsand- Mesozoic mudstones, elg Soil Geology soil grey forest chernozem, leached Typical and ing rocks fast weather- Purple soilof 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 41 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 1 ggi314.indd 42 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
4 42 GEOGRAPHY 2 in Nanchonghasadrainagearea of0,19km meters andare covered bywildgrasses and The steep cliffs have heightsofafew typical gentleterraces.steep cliffs separated byshort dozens comprises landform ofsmall typically Jurassic SuiningGroup [Lietal., 1991]. The bedded mudstones andsiltstones from the byhorizontally The catchment isunderlain and elevationsranging 310–420m. between Fig. 2. Schematic map of the Central Russian Upland in the European part of Russia Russia of part European the in Upland Russian Central the of map Schematic 2. Fig. and the locations of the study sites. study the of locations the and 2
relatively highand lowerosion resistances, of thePenglaizhen andSuiningGroup have ofsandstone, soils proportions thepurple depend onparent lithology. Dueto different differences inerosionimportant resistance dominate inthethree studycatchments, but 10–30 mare mostlyrain-fed areas. Purple soils withslopesof<10°andlengths terraces scattered trees. young cypress The gentle 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 1 ggi314.indd 43 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
4 volumes ranging 1,5–5,1 between 10 dam, 4,5mhighandstorage by anearth of thestudycatchments wasimpounded to September. From 1949to 1956,each which occursinthewet seasonfrom June Nanchong and826mmin Yanting, 70%of 0,25. Annualprecipitation is1010mmin while thatfor catchments theother two is ratio inthe Tianmawan catchment is0,45, respectively [He, 2003]. The cropland drainage density (1,5 km km (1,5km drainage density byarelativelyUpland ischaracterized high The topography oftheCentral Russian The Central Rus sian Upland concentrations away from thepond. floodswithhighsediment used to divert management system thatyear, ithasbeen reorganization1981, butafter oftheland a floodspillditch thatwasseldomuseduntil The pondinthe Tianmawan catchment has catchment hasaditch thatisseldomused. flood spillditches andthepondin Wujia The pondintheJiliucatchment hasno andsummer.used for inspring irrigation intakes. The storage water inthepondsis with weirs orbottomcomprising culverts facilities ponds have simplewater delivery the valleybottoms withintheponds. The The damswere madeofsoildugfrom interfluves. Most oftheinter-fluvial Most slopesareinterfluves. 800–1200 m,dependingon theorder of and lengthsincreasing from 300–500mto have gradients increasing from 1°–2°to 3°–5° from 50to hilltopselevation between andvalleysranges valleysystems.represented bydry The 3 land Russian Up- The Central Basin Hilly The Sichuan einClimate Region Table 2. Regional climatic conditions for the study areas of the Sichuan Hilly Basin Basin Hilly Sichuan the of areas study the for conditions climatic Regional Table 2. 110 m. Inter 110 m. continental Temperate cal monsoon Wet subtropi- -fluvial convexslopes Annual aver- age precipi- tation (mm) 0–10100–120 900–1100 0–0 09 Jl)– 1 220–230 +18 –8 80–90(July) 500–700 and the Central Russian Upland Russian Central the and –2 ), largely 4 m precipitation (mm-day Maximum 3 . (May) on 70%oftheGrachevaLoschina catchment measures have beenemployedconservation for bothcatchments. addition, soil In calculation ofdetailedsediment budgets and 1956,respectively. These enabledthe outlets, whichwere in1986 constructed damsattheir Both catchments have eart·hen oftheKurskRegion (Fig.part 3). oftheSeimRiver,tributary drainagecentre within theRiver Vorobzha basin,left-hand orderfirsts andthird catchments Hortonian catchment (15,2km catchment (1,98km were attheGrachevaLoschina conducted intheCentral RussianUpland periods two Assessments ofsoilredistribution rates for the Central RussianUplandinMarch–April. in erosion snowmeltwasobserved during September for bothareas, butadditional events storm heavy occurred inMay– during Soil lossesfrom thecatchment area mainly of bothregions are presented in Table 2. 20 years. The mainclimaticcharacteristics over thelast prices Soviet times, andmarket decisionsduring government road network, depending onfieldlocationrelative to the grasses, fallow, sugarbeets, andpotato, sunflower,corn, annualandperennial ofwheat,barley, proportions buckwheat, thelast60yearstimes during withvarying fields. Crop rotations have changedseveral breaks, whichare notusedascultivated more) convex valleyslopesbysharp slope andrelatively steepto (10–15°and short forest ormeadows. These are connected cultivated withareas ofshallowsoilsunder –1 ) temperature in January in January Mean 65+75280–330 +27,5 +6,5 (°C) temperature in July(°C) 2 Mean 2 ), whichare typical ) andtheLebedin Frost-free period (days) 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 44 GEOGRAPHY 4 C – topographical map of theVorobza of map C –topographical River basin and A – topographical map of theGracheva of map A –topographical Loschina catchment samplingpoints; andlocation of Fig. 3. Location of the Vorobza River basin within the European part of Russia: of part European the within basin River Vorobza the of Location 3. Fig. Loschina catchment withintheVorobza River basin. B – schematic map of the European part of Russia; of part theEuropean of B –schematicmap A-1, A-2 andA-3 numbers; –sub-catchment location of the Lebedin catchment theLebedin location of andthe Gracheva 229.09.2014 13:01:31 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 redistribution. onsoilerosion andsediment conservation it ispossibleto evaluate theeffects ofsoil in thetraditionalmanner(Fig. 3,A-3). Thus, the catchment slopesremained cultivated inhollowbottoms. waterways The rest of lowgradient towardsvery thegrass-covered under isdiverted Runoff alongthoseterraces belts intheLebedin catchment (Fig. 3,A-2). m were forest between constructed shelter- contour lineswithrelative heightsofabout1 addition,contour parallelto terraces the In intercepting runoff. pathways for surface and usedaserosion-protected andsediment- hollows were sownwithperennial grasses rowsthe two oftrees. The bottoms ofthe dug withineachforest shelter-belt between A water retention ditch, about1mdeep, was introduced withinbothsub-catchments. alonghollowbottoms werewaterways slope topography contour linesandgrassed shelter-belts planted inparallelwiththe catchments (Fig. 3-A). Two-rowed forest measures were sub- appliedwithinthetwo since 1986.Different setsofsoilconservation 137 137 profile. of distribution The vertical deeper penetrationof of of 30–60cm,to assessthepossibility from afew samplingpoints from adepth 30 cm.Additional sampleswere collected of 80or70mm,upto aconstantdepthof using steel tubeswithaninnerdiameter the reference sites from 4to 28points, from soilcores were at eachof collected al., 2011;Golosovetal., 2013].Bulksamples et al., 2003;Belyaev etal., 2009;Golosovet flat cultivated fields, [Zhang andoldterraces conditions from flatgrassland, non-irrigated depending onlocallandscapecollected samples for local and He, 1997;Hughesetal., 2010;].Core and sedimentdepositionrates [Walling 1998; Mabitetal., 2008; et al., 1997; Walling andHe, 1998;Zhangetal., quantitatively evaluate soilerosion [Owens 5 METHODS Cs tracing Cs tr acing ha s beenwidelyusedto 137 Cs references were 137 Porto et Cs alongthesoil al., 137 2011;] Cs in the total were intheselocationto collected evaluate cultivated cores andundergrass). Sectioned andslopetoesploughed terraces (both andon along thelower fieldboundary located withinpotential depositionalareas addition,somesamplingpointswereIn layer andinitialfalloutvariability. thickness, micro-topography,surface plough variable drilling [Zhang etal.,drilling 2006a]. The resulting mm wasusedto protect thecore the during pipewithadiameterponds. of100 APVC a diameter of98mmatthecentre ofthe water acore were bydrilling with taken floodplains). Samplesfrom pondswith ponds, and valleybottoms, dry sinks (dry for thedifferent curves distribution sediment weight were thenplaced into plastic Representative ofsufficient sub-samples grinding, sieved to 2mm,andhomogenized. disaggregated drying, after re-weighed by Samples were weighed, air- oroven-dried, sink area. detailed longitudinal profiles orsediment a digital tacheometer, to documenttheir a differential positioning system (DGPS)or forwas conducted eachsamplingsite using Subsequently, adetailedgeodeticsurvey sediment sinksover different timeintervals. sediment volumes deposited withingiven weresampled section usedto calculate the 137 redistribution of approach wasusedtoThe transect assessthe 30–40 cmfrom oneofthesamplingpoints. increments of3-5 cmdownto adepthof area anddepth- samples withafixed surface depth-incremental examined bycollecting the soilprofile ateachreference locationwas 137 to ofthe accountfor thelocalvariability were thoroughly mixed into asinglesample an innerdiameter of70–80mmandthese each samplingpointusingsteel tubeswith bulk samples(0–30cm)were at collected the slopeprofile complexity. Three to four according alongeachtransect, toselected slope. From 3to 18samplingpointswere follow of thedetermination Depth-incremental samplingwasusedto Cs inventory associated withcultivatedCs inventory Cs vertical distribution curves for each curves distribution Cs vertical 137 Cs inventory inthesoilprofiles.Cs inventory 137 Cs alongthecultivated 137 Cs vertical Cs vertical 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 45 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 46 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
4 46 GEOGRAPHY 6 convert convert individual sample).Conversion modelsusedto by gammaspectroscopy. The for analysis containers ofspecificgeometry depending onthe the 95%level ofconfidence(0,5–24hours with amaximumrelative error of±5–10%at was sufficientto theisotope determine activity analyser. The countingtimefor eachsample coupled to anamplifier coaxialgamma-ray detectorgermanium background, low-energy, hyperpure N-type usingahigh-resolution, low- 661,66 keV wasmeasured atin thesub-samples and landusecrop rotation information. precipitationlocal soilproperties, records, runoffflow lines, alongthesurface oriented topographical parameters ofslopetransects the modelcalculationinclude detailed et al., 2001]. The inputdatarequired for etal.,coefficients [Larionov 1998;Krasnov with alarge datasetof spatiallydistributed under conditionsinRussiaandsupplied The modelwasdesigned for application sheet erosion from snowmeltrunoff. State Hydrological for Institute estimating and themodeldeveloped intheRussian estimating rainfall-inducedsheeterosion Loss Equation(USLE)-basedapproach for utilizes acombinationoftheUniversal Soil The em model(EMM) pirical-mathematical Empirical-mathematical model b; Rommensetal., 2005;Golosovetal., 2011]. soil redistribution [Belyaevetal., 2004,2005a, disregarding theprocesses responsible for the entire ofcultivation,although period us to estimate thetotal soillossorgainfor profile isregarded allows asundisturbed. It processes to thoseinlocationswhere soil areas affected soilredistribution byvarious andhorizon compositionofsoilin thickness themethod isbasedoncomparing The soil profile comparison morphology Soil morphologycomparison et al., 2006b;Golosovetal., 2011]. elsewhere described [Zhangetal., 2003;Zhang redistribution rates for cultivated slopeswere 137 Cs concentration in soil to sediment Cs concentrationinsoilto sediment 137 Cs activity in each ineach Cs activity and multichannel and multichannel 137 Cs activity Cs activity sedimentation was determined based on the basedonthe sedimentation wasdetermined dependedonwater bodysize.sections Total cross-sec detail depthmeasurements along taken werereservoirs basedon determined The sedimentvolume s inpondsand Sediment dating Basin. catchment intheSichuanHilly the sedimentbudgetfor the Tianmawan about landuse, wasappliedto calculate from ananalysisofthe sedimentation rates andvolumes obtained were comparatively tested againstthe the mainvalleyofLebedin catchment resulting into valuesfor sedimentdelivery erosion rates usingtheerosion model. The ofmorphological units andestimating types catchments basedondistinguishingsimilar to sedimentbudgetsfor determine larger a smallercatchment, andwere thenused for different geomorphological unitswithin ratioswere determined sediment delivery outlet. Values for soilredistribution rates and damatthecatchment from theearthen upstream deposition inthesmallreservoir valleybottoms, alongwiththe and dry the aggradation ofuncultivated valleybanks redeposition withincultivated slopes, and losses from arablehillslopes, sediment budgets basedontheevaluationofsoil the calculationofcatchment sediment of eachtechnique applied, whichenabled it waspossibleto checkthecorrectness and erosion modelcalculation.As aresult, method,profile comparison morphology 137 including the dry reservoir infill. Onlythe reservoir including thedry bottom sedimentmicrostratigraphy, determined using determined gain withineachmorphological unitwas the studiedcatchments. soilloss/ Mean of different morphological unitswithin mapping wasusedfor thearea evaluation techniques. geomorphological Large-scale methodsand of alltheabove-mentioned drainage catchment includestheapplication Sediment budgetcal culation withina Sediment budget Cs technique, together withinformation tions. The number ofcross- 137 Cs techniques, thesoil 137 Cs-based valley 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 47 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
4 with atotal area <0,25km close to circle from catchments zero-order gradients ranging from 5–35°withinslope are located onsteep concave slopeswith Basin Cultivated fieldsintheSichuanHilly Soil erosion individual from fields case oftheCentral RussianUpland. were for taken eachsmallfieldpondinthe measurementsDetailed ofsedimentdepths were the1960s–1970s. during constructed whereas theCentral RussianUplandreservoirs Basinwere the1950s, during Hilly constructed survey. intheSichuan ofreservoirs The majority atthemomentoffield and bottom area surface differences theinitialbottom between area soil lossesrangefrom 200to 2000tha Long-termunpaved annual road network. valleysystem configuration and on thedry fields have areas of10–50ha,depending 250–900 mand1–6°,respectively. Individual lengths andgradients changeinarangeof banks andvalleybottoms. Typical slope cultivated, withtheexception ofsteep valley oftheslopesare in whichthemajority cultivation intheCentral RussianUpland, There isacompletely different of type the total catchment zero-order area. of suchfieldsdoesnotusuallyexceed 10%of mean annualsoillossof500–700tha 10 mandagradient <5°islow, amountto a fieldwitha length of< erosion from ashort slopes. data, According to theobservation are thatmainlyoccupythesteep terraces of of slopingfieldsare 5–35m,parts woodland andwastelands. lengths The typical order sub-catchments. The otherlandusesare occupy 30–40%ofthetotal area ofthezero- recurrence. The cultivated fieldstypically except in extr a gradient closeto 0°andthere isnoerosion bottoms. Paddy fieldsinvalleybottoms have 35 m up to 7000tha up m 35 steep slopeswithlengthranging from 10– However, soillossincreases considerablyon rotations for 3),with thefields(Table depending onthe relief features and crop 7 RESULTS emely high flooding with rare emely highfloodingwithrare –1 yr –1 2 andwithinvalley . The proportion proportion . The –1 –1 which yr yr –1 –1 . ,
Table 3. Mean annual net soil losses from cultivated fi elds in the Central Russian Upland based on 137Cs technique (CS) and soil profi le morphology comparison (SPM)
Annual Mean Average Mean net soil Net soil ero- Number Time Site location precipita- slope slope Method erosion rates sion rates Reference of transects interval tion (mm) length (m) gradient (°) (t · km–2 · yr–1) (t · km–2 · yr–1)
Plavsk district, Tula region 650 700 2 Cs 4 1986–2009 875 210–1490 [Golosov et al., 2013]
Kromy district, Orel region 570 550 3,5 Cs 2 1986–2010 1085 580–1510 [Golosov et al., 2013]
Kursk district, Kursk region 570 470 3,3 CS 2 1986–2007 1165 360–1970 [Golosov et al., 2013]
Novosil distrct, Orel region 536 660 2,2 SPM 3 1700–2000 1070 850–1470 [Golosov et al., 2011]
Zheleznogorsk district, Kursk region 570 300 1,5 SPM 5 1780–2010 955 410–1780 [Golosov et al., 2012]
229.09.2014 13:01:32 Mean value 300–700 1,5–3,5 1030 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
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4 48 GEOGRAPHY 8 both studiedregions beevaluated. The in budget for thesmallsub-catchments thatthesediment valley connectivity significance for understandingthesl ope- The Basin. SichuanHilly Sediment redistribution within catchments century.of thetwentieth increased thesecondhalf to 15–25%during root crops inthecrop-rotation, whoseshare 0 t ha 900 losses for theCentral RussianPlain are 800– Hence, itismore thatmeanannualsoil likely and Larionov, 1988;Poesen etal., 2001]. a rah 0–0 tha 400–500 reach can ofroot crops losses accompanying theharvest rates calculation.According to existingdata,soil be separately evaluated bytheneterosion of sugarbeetandpotato. The latter cannot erosion andsoillossesdueto of soilredistribution bywater and tillage are bythecombinedeffect characterized soil lo Field-based results canoverestimate actual calculation ofbothuplandandlowlandareas. associated withinclusionintheregional model calculated usingerosion 4)is models(Table for individual soil lossesobtainedfrom fieldmethods The difference themeanannual between 600–700 t ha mean for cultivated slopes during 1970–1980s calculated Russia, located within the Central Russian Upland Upland Russian Central the within located Russia, and State Hydrological Institute model (erosion (erosion model Institute Hydrological State and during snow-melting) for regions of European European of regions for snow-melting) during using modifi using Mean forMean Central Russian Upland Table 4. Mean annual soil erosion rates rates erosion soil annual Table Mean 4. sses, becausebothappliedtechniques values onregional scaleofaround empirical model (rain-fall erosion) erosion) (rain-fall model empirical egrd780 Belgorod Region us 600 Kursk rl530 Orel ua750 Tula –1 yr [Sidorchuk et al., 2006] al., et [Sidorchuk –1 –1 ed version of the USLE-based USLE-based the of version ed transects (Table 3)andthose (Table transects yr , due to the proportion of , dueto theproportion –1 (Table 4). (Table –1 yr –1 soil erosion rate Mean annual (t [Belotserkovsky [Belotserkovsky It isofg It reat ∙ km the harvesting the harvesting 670 –2 yr –1 ) 1963–1981 period was determined basedon wasdetermined 1963–1981 period tracing. The total sedimentvolume for the areas. (1,4t-m 3), andcatchmentbulk density trapefficiency,construction, sediment deposition volumes, theelapsetimesince in thepondswere estimated from the 6). (Table County The SSYs for deposition andJiliu),located inthe (Wujia Yanting technique for othercatchments thetwo using137CsThe SSYwasalsodetermined closeto 1.catchment in1963–2004isvery ratio (SDR)coefficientfor thestudiedsub- within paddyfields, thesedimentdelivery evaluation ofpossiblesedimentdeposition the sedimentbudgetestimationand source of and sedimentationrate, whichare additional were usedtointervals calculate soillosses paddy fieldbeyond thepond. Different time of thesedimentredeposited withinthe itshouldbeconsidered90%. Likewise, part that ittrapsthepond’s about efficiency ismorefor likely thecatchment 5).It (Table roughly estimate thetotal sedimentbudget Based ontheavailable data,itispossibleto (Fig. 5). paddy field, whichislocated nearthepond for the curve on 137Csdepthdistribution limitedto depositionbased have avery pond wascreated wasfound solongago. It paddy fieldsfrom theoldfieldsbecause werefarmers unableto distinguishthenew the Tianmawan catchment. However, local brought undercultivationaspaddyfieldsin at theupstream deltaofthepondhas been the ponds. The newlandcreated bysilting for thepaddyfieldslocated upstream from possible sedimentdepositionwaschecked in thecatchment outlet.Additionally, area. and pondsurface The pondislocated 137 on terraces wereon terraces using determined slopes lengthsof15–20m. The soillosses steep withslopesof10–11°and terraces lengths oflessthan10m,andrelatively withmeanslopesof5°andslope terraces groups inthecatchment: ofterraces gentle forselected suchevaluation. There are two Tianmawan catchment inNanchongwas Cs chronology inponddeposits(Fig. 4) uncertainty. uncertainty. Therefore, basedon 137 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 Cs . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 49 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
4 99% of the particles less than 0,5 mm in lessthan0,5mmin 99% oftheparticles fine, with The eroding soilisvery purple bysteep terrain. smallandcharacterised very of4,75m. height The a Wujia catchment is damwith anearth byconstructing purpose outlet ofthe Wujia catchment for irrigation wasmadeatthe 1956,asmallreservoir TIn 9 Fig. 5. 5. Fig. Fig. 4. 137Cs depth distribution along the deposited sediment profiles in the ponds at: ponds the in profiles sediment deposited the along distribution 137Cs 4. Fig. depth 137 Cs depth distribution along two sediment profiles on the paddy field in the Tianmawan Tianmawan the in field paddy the on profiles sediment two along distribution depth Cs (a) Wujia catchment, (b) Jiliucatchment, (c) catchment; Tianmawan (d) content Clay catchment. atTianmawan intheponds catchment of the Sichuan Hilly Basin. Hilly Sichuan the of catchment has a 3.0 m of 25 000 m 25 000 of hasacurrent storage capacity The reservoir gully bottom upstream from thereservoir. no significant depositionoccurred inthe diameter. Field investigation indicated that spillway and bottom culvert with several withseveral spillway andbottom culvert and a surface area of9200m and asurface 3 with a maximum water depth of withamaximumwater depthof 2 . This dam . This 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 49 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 50 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 50 GEOGRAPHY 0 average SSYis584t in thecatchment area. The estimated annual the pondin1984,whenaroad wasconstructed associated withsedimentdeliveredlikely to layer wasfound is inthesedimentprofile. It theJiliucatchment, agrey-greenIn finesand 642 t of thestudiedcatchment isestimated to be (since1956),theSSY volume inthereservoir in 1985.Basedonthedeposited sediment were areasthe fringe inthereservoir dredged changes initswater storage volume. Parts of the reservoir, whichwasestimated from the 1,3 mand5000 deposition depthsince1956hasbetween side. ontheleft intakes The maximumsediment Table 5. Sediment budget estimated for the Ti eietdpsto ntepn 107 124 53 71 7,03 1,52 * Basedon 7,6 47 Sediment depositioninthepond Annual soillosses Cultivated withmeanslope10–11° terrace Cultivated withmeanslope5° terrace ii ,920 291512 713 701 1826 566 4409 145 1384* 60 1259 25 7349 2003 5534 2003 0,09 2004 0,22 *For of1963–1981. theperiod 0,19 Jiliu Wujia Tianmawan ml eevi –59968923 16680 65 676 19 474 60 71 142 306 686 2238 1780 632 849 733 958 79 9,6 39,3 762 1568 641 1,02 6 9 0,11 15–60 4 2–15 60 reservoir Medium 0,25–2 Small reservoir < 0,25 Large field ponds Small field ponds Catchment Sediment sink Sediment · km Table 7. Specifi –2 137 Table 6. Specifi · Cs technique (see Table 3). yr –1 Catchment area (km . 3 ofsedimentd · ment area c sediment yields calculated from pond deposits in the Sichuan Hilly Basin Hilly Sichuan the in deposits pond from calculated yields c sediment km Catch- (km in the Sichuan Hilly basin observed using observed basin Hilly Sichuan the in 2 c sediment yield for the three selected zero-order small catchment small zero-order selected three the for yield c sediment –2 ) 2 ) · yr –1 Sampling Sampling of ponds for the1984– Number time eposited in eposited in (t ·km nual soillosses anmawan catchment in the Sichuan Hilly Basin catchment area (km Mean an- Mean area (nr) Deposit –2 ·yr 2 range of 641–849 t km t 641–849 of range values for thedifferent groups change withina forreduction medium reservoirs. The mean withasubsequent ponds to smallreservoirs However, themeanSSYincreases from small thecatchmentsspatially between ineachgroup. survey, are presented in Table 7. The SSYvaries calculated sediment from thereservoir The SSYdatafor the79catchments, pathways.sediment transport ofupland have disrupted theconnectivity thatmayratio causedbyroad construction toattributed areduced sedimentdelivery 1963–1983. The decrease inSSYmay be the 2003, whichislessthanthatduring similar for allgroups. Furthermore, there –1 ) )* Specifi enMxMin Max Mean Depth ofthe 1963 137Cs Area (ha) (t ·km c sedimentyield peak 137 –2 Cs dating ·yr –1 (1963–2004) ) (1963–2003) Soil LossSoil Annual Sediment Sediment volume –2 (m yr 3 ) –1 deviation Standard andisrelatively (1963–1981) (t ·km Specifi iment yield*
Sediment Sediment Storage Annual –2 c sed- ·yr 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 (%) Cv Cv . 0 –1 9 . ) 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 51 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 up to 1,2 cm gradients ofweathering andhighintensity given therelatively highchannel particularly responsible for someofthisincrease inSSY, <15 km inacatchmentto area small reservoirs of is someincrease inSSYfrom smallponds approaches. Analysisofbomb-derived the applicationofmultiplemethodsand Loschina catchment (seeFig. 3-A)through rates int wasconducted he Gracheva of soillossandsedimentredistribution Central RussianUpland. Basin. are intheSichuanHilly typical cultivatedbetween slopesandriverchannels catchments. However, highconnectivity very ofSSYfor individualsmall the variability rotation, allofwhichare influencing factors high slopegradient, higherosion rate andcrop ofindividualcultivated fieldshaveproportion a uniform Basin. for the Sichuan Hilly The area arable lands, forests, andwastelands isnot for individualcatchments. of The proportion of landuseover thelast50–60years variability The secondcauseisthespatialandtemporal rocks andsandyloamsoil[Yang etal., 2009]. catchments zero-order withsandstone parent lowrunoff(runoffcoefficient<0,01)in very around intensity 80mmperhourproduce even withameanrainfall rain-storms heavy to differences inparent rocks. For example, first is causes. hastwo of pondsandreservoirs The ofSSYfor eachgroup highvariability The very catchment indifferent areas. with different oflandusefor proportions associated may bea rangeofuncertainty 1 eietdpsto ntevle otm37 1,5 3,7* through thecatchment outlet. notconsiderpossible sedimentexport *Does of137Cs) distribution (vertical Sediment depositioninthevalleybottom Erosion Calculation Model Comparison Soil Morphological 137 Table 8. Evaluation of gross (bold characters) and net erosion rates for diff for rates erosion net and characters) (bold gross of Table Evaluation 8. Cs budget high variability of soil erodibility due ofsoilerodibilitydue high variability 2 . Gullyandbankerosion may be · yr on diff ehd15–0616–961986–2006 1964–1986 1857–2006 Method –1 [Li,1991].However, there erent independent methods in the Gracheva Loschina catchment Loschina Gracheva the in methods independent erent Adetailstudy 15.7 of the Chernobyl-derived of theChernobyl-derived sediment budgetbasedontheredistribution to establishaclosedsystem opportunity Lochina catchment, thusprovided aunique 1997; Walling etal., 2002]. The Gracheva years [Loughran etal., etal., 1992;Owens in smallcatchments over thelast45–50 applied to evaluate sedimentbudgets landscape unitscanbeeffectively 137 map constructed anda map constructed basedonthegeomorphologicaldetermined The area ofeachgeomorphological unitwas redistribution them(seeFig. between 4-A). and,inventory subsequently, thesediment provided bytheerosion 8). model(Table data are ingoodagreement withthose cultivation obtainedfrom thesoilsurvey values ofsoillossesfor theentire of period valley bottom isabout150years. The mean length inthedepositionzone ofthemain spherules [Olsonetal., 2008],sedimentation ofmagnetic distribution to thevertical for theentire ofcultivation.According period allows sedimentredistribution to bedefined application ofsoilmorphological method different post-1986 landusepatterns. The catchments, distinguishedonthebasisof was compiledfor each ofthethree sub- geomorphic units in terms of unitsinterms geomorphic was usedto alloftheimportant characterize the catchment. The samplingprogramme of were parts inselect conducted surveys and additionalDGPSdigital tacheometer 000 scalemapwith1mcontour intervals) already available topographical data(1:10 was created basedonacombinationof geomorphological map detailed large-scale a representative samplingprogramme, a Cs inventories atdifferent geomorphic 536,0 15,3 erent time intervals based based intervals time erent 137 137 Cs. Todesign Cs budget 2,4 137 Cs 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 51 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 2 ggi314.indd 52 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 52 GEOGRAPHY 2 the sampling point, Bq ·m point, sampling unit, Bq; withinageomorphic 137Cs falloutinventory Cp =the R = conversionproportional model: following equationbasedonthesimple datausingthe the 137Cstotal inventory Loschina catchment wascalculated from The sedimentbudgetfor theGracheva slopes for 9). the1964–1986 (Table ofcultivated deposition alongthelower parts to usethisvalueto sediment determine measures. Hence,conservation itispossible layer, Bq ·kg layer, m · kg where R=themeanannualsoilloss/gain, unitdefined morphological good agreement withthevaluefor thesame slope toes 8),whichisin isabout8%(Table Sediment depositionalongthecultivated within the geomorphical unit,Bq; within thegeomorphical fallout of Chernobyl-derived fallout ofChernobyl-derived accumulation); ∆t=timeelapsedsince erosion andpositive valuesindicate area unit,m ofthegeomorphical *With bomb-derived *With bomb-derived bution of distri- valley bottom (vertical sediment depositioninthe Erosion modelcalculationand 137 olMrhlgclMto 8720 03510 35/,%32098 327505/81,2% 39220/9,8% 33650/8,4% bution of distri- valley bottom (vertical 400375/100% sediment depositioninthe 1857–2006 Erosion modelcalculationand Method Soil Morphological Table 9. Sediment redistribution in the Gracheva Loschina catchment obtained bydiff obtained catchment Loschina Gracheva the in redistribution Table 9. Sediment sbde*18–0659910 37/28 761,%0 8766/17,2% 33778/82,8% 50989/100% 1986–2006 Cs budget* 137 ∫∫ ss d dS A AdS –2 Cs budgetfor thearea withoutsoil
CtS 137 137 · yr ∫ 137 Method s − p Δ Cs) Cs) AdS = thetotal 137Csinventory –1 –1 Cs concentrationintheplough (negative valuesindicate ; A=the ref 137 , Cs. –2 137 ; ∫ Cs inventory atthe Cs inventory s 9620 20/0%1007,%55/46 0 5556/24,6% 17050/75,4% 43776/66,2% 22606/100% 1986–2006 15757/2,8% 6615/10% 66148/100% 1964–1986 A interval interval ref on the (year) Time dS 137 2 =thetotal . Cs, year; S basis of =the Erosion (t/%) Gross with contour terraces. inthesub-catchment especially important erosion andtillagetranslocation. The latter is of soilredistribution, includingbothwater technique provides anintegral evaluation soil transects, by the fact thatthe bythefact soil transects, thecasestudywithindividual explained, like by the137Csbudgetapproach can be and within-sloperedeposition provided The highervolumes ofgross erosion delivered into thevalleybottoms. ofSCMs,introduction whileonly<20%was redeposited the withintheslopesafter that eroded from arablehillslopeswas budget, more than80%ofthesediment sediment budgetderivedfrom the137Cs 2008]. Table 10showsthataccording to the over thepost-1986 [Golosovetal., period sediment budgetfor the entire catchment units were integrated to provide the Data for theindividual geomorphological 9620 , 191848 287769 83912 6,8 10,6 8,5 1956–2008 forMean 1986–2008 1964–1986 1956–1964 soil losses from cultivated slopes of the Lebedin Lebedin the of slopes cultivated from losses soil the entire period after dam construction in the the in construction dam after period entire the Table 10. Mean annual erosion rates and total total and rates erosion Table annual 10. Mean catchment for three time intervals covering covering intervals time three for catchment Deposition Period cultivated fi eld (t/%) within catchment outlet within hollows (t ·ha bottom (t/%) Deposition Mean annual and valley erosion rate –1 , 563529 8,6 · year erent methods –1 ) Output from ment (t/%) the catch- Total soil losses (t) 137 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 Cs . 2 0 1 4
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5 137 The applicationoftheChernobyl-derived within arangeof0,8–1,0cm-yr–1, whereas valleybottoms were different ofdry parts time intervals. The depositionrates for the us to evaluate depositionrates over different depths anddepositionallocations enabled of137Csatseveraldistribution incremental 10).Analysisofthevertical model (Table and crop rotations usingtheUSLE-based were cultivated calculated areas for known 1956–1964, 1964–1986,and1986–2008 hillslopes oftheLebedin catchment during The gross erosion rates for thearable method. 2,5, calculated basedonthe137Csbudget average soillossrates of byatleastafactor Loschina catchment since1986hasreduced The applicationofSCMsintheGracheva temporal resolutions [Golosovetal., 2008]. usingmethodswithdifferent periods earlier forthe sedimentbudgetsconstructed to beevaluated through with comparisons allows theeffectiveness SCMs ofvarious by independenttechniques. addition,it In results comparablewithdataproduced of asmallcultivated catchment provided 3 Cs to establishthesedimentbudget of the Lebedin catchment in the Central Russian Upland. Russian Central the in catchment Lebedin the of Fig. 6. 6. Fig. 137 Cs depth distribution in valley dry bottom valley side gullies). It isdifficultto accurately valley sidegullies).It ofslopehollows(infilled uncultivated parts valleysides, andthesteep grassed dry of cultivated fields (atploughedterraces), cultivated fields, redeposition alongthetoes includingredepositionwere within observed valley bottoms, othersedimentsinkzones additionto sedimentdepositioninthe In 11). valleys) (Table catchment valley(firstandsecond-order third-order valley)andGrachevaLoschina bottom oftheLebedin catchment valley(a based aggradation rates for themain on morphological unit areas and137Cs- sediment depositionwascalculated based and GPSsurveys. The total volume of orders, usingtacheometric wasconducted offirstandsecond-Hortonian tributaries order) oftheLebedin catchment andits the mainvalleybottom (third-Hortonian discontinuous valleybottom gullies)within main bottom level, levels, 1–2terrace and of different morphological units(including ofareasA detaileddetermination consisting 1,0and1,2cm-yr–1between (Fig. 6). for the1964–1986period, therates ranged 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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5 54 GEOGRAPHY 4 deposition in the uncultivated parts of slope ofslope deposition intheuncultivated parts within thesemorphological units. Sediment mobilized from cultivated land isredeposited 2002] showthatabout2–7%of thesediment [Litvin, snowmeltperiods 2008] andduring erosion extreme after events [Belyaevet al., random nature ofthisprocess. Dataobtained grassed valley sides, dueto theextremely is to estimate sedimentdepositiononthe Loschina catchment. The mostdifficulttask stored oncultivated fieldtoes intheGracheva remains material 8% ofhillslope-mobilized Belyaev etal., 2008]. We that determined [Kuznetsovaetal., 2007; and observations losses, according to different measurements 5%and30%ofgross between and varies soil cultivated fieldtoes isusuallymore significant [Golosov etal., 2008]. The depositionalongthe was around 10%ofthetotal eroded volume average within-fieldsedimentredeposition the with at slopecatchments wasalsosupported evaluation ofthegross andneterosion rates values for therespective fields. Adetailed withinarangeof2–25%grossvaries soil runoffeventssnowmelt andrainstorm usually according to measurements, direct after Redeposition withinthecultivated fields, within theGrachevaLoschina catchment. and detailedmeasurements undertaken in theKurskregion [Belyaevetal., 2008] erosionextreme events, whichoccurred dataduring each zone basedonobservation estimate theperce each ofthesezones, butitispossibleto calculate thesedimentationvolume for eevi 46769 289761 16773 22365 250 5 591 5044 1 260 95555 1 117951 Total 1 volume 29486 Reservoir Total volume invalleybottoms upstream reservoir from reservoir valleys Other Gracheva Loschina 137 Table 11. Total sediment deposition in valley bottoms of diff of bottoms valley in Table 11. deposition Total sediment Cs technique [Golosovetal., 2011]. The Valley ntage ofsedimentationin order ofthevalley Hortonian Hortonian for diff for 5 86528625 39579 28625 10553 50661 7156 11256 12665 2814 3 2 2 erent periods the percentage ofsediment reaching the reached thecatchment 1986 outlet.After before 1986about12%oftotal soillosses this respect,itisnotablethat catchment. In from theLebedinpotentially exported to thevolume ofsediment thus proportional atthecatchment outletis the mainreservoir The volume ofsedimentredeposited within and reaches thecatchment outletreservoir. downstream further sediment istransported the valleybottoms, andonlyabout10%of the pathways from thecultivated slopesto redeposited inthevalleybottoms, 33% along that erodes from cultivated slopesremains considered. intervals Thus, 57%ofthematerial differ significantly thedifferent between time valley bottoms from total soillossesdidnot ofsedimentdepositionin the proportion in thevalleybottoms alsodemonstrated that cultivated hillslopeswithsedimentdeposition ofthetotal soillossesfromA comparison Lebedin catchment byabout11%. total soillossfrom thecultivated slopesofthe erosionempirical modeloverestimated the soil losscalculations, we concludedthatthe theresults comparing withtheUSLE-based combiningalloftheabove dataand By in thevalleysidesofLebedin catchment. and thetotal numberofuncultivated hollows hollows oftheGrachevaLoschina catchment of thetotal sedimentvolumes stored inthe calculated basedondirectmeasurements valleysidegullies)was infilled formerly active representhollows (mostofwhichactually 9616 9418 1986–2008 1964–1986 1956–1964 erent orders (Lebedin catchment) Sediment deposition(t) Sediment 229.09.2014 13:01:32 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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5 as the mean net soil losses, which are usually as themeannetsoillosses, whichare usually infieldpondsare characterized deposition Russian Upland, sothevaluesofsediment the given slopecatchment oftheCentral (see Table 7). There is100%arablelandin Basin of thesamesize intheSichuanHilly ranges assoillossesfrom smallcatchments with anarea of<0,25km from slopecultivated catchments (ponds Interestingly, themeanannualsoillosses 2002],are presented[Litvin, in Table 13. sediment depositioninthesmallfieldponds [Shumakov, 2007]andtheevaluationof data sedimentsurvey from thereservoir The SSYdatafor the66catchments, calculated valleycatchments.redeposited withinthedry sediment thaterodes from cultivated fieldsis ofthe Sothemajority by aboutone-third. catchments fell valley from itsmaintributary of sedimentdelivered into theRiver Vorobzha decades, thelasttwo that during thevolume Consequently, itcanbe tentatively suggested [Petelko snowmelt period spring etal., 2007]. runoffanderosion the during lower surface threefold 12),mainlyasaresult (Table of Lebedin catchment outletdecreased atleast 5 ag eevi 0101 38 4 43 44% 52% 37 73% 53 24 96 86% 144 5 37 87 194 590 309 102 73 133 320 32 2230 4.5 686 17 28 0,12 11 50–100 10–50 10 0,25–10 Large reservoir reservoir Medium <0,25 Small reservoir Small in-field ponds b a Based on corrected empirical modelcalculations. empirical Basedoncorrected Based on 9620 775106 054% 12% 7015 39754 100465 189296 170745 330796 1986–2008 1956–1986 Table 12. Evaluation of proportion of sediment exported from the Lebedin catchment into the River River the into catchment Lebedin the from exported sediment of proportion of Table 12. Evaluation Sediment sink Sediment Period Vorobzha valley for two time intervals (if the catchment outlet reservoir did not exist) not did reservoir outlet catchment the (if intervals time two for valley Vorobzha 137 Cs datingandarea ofbottoms. Table 13. Specifi losses (t) Gross soil Catchment area (km a c sediment yield within ponds and reservoirs of diff of reservoirs and ponds within yield c sediment 2 ) are inthesame 2 ) in bottoms (t) of ponds Number Deposited in the Central Russian Upland Russian Central the in volume catchment area (km b Mean Sediment Sediment the smallcatchments withanarea of<10km losses. However, theSSYs decrease sharply for equal, butmore lessthanthegross often soil (see Table13). decreases 2002]andvariability snow-melt [Litvin, considerably influenceerosion rates during withincatchments alsoand Southern) ofthe a proportion “warm” slopes(Western et al., 1999; Vandaele addition, etal., 1996].In runoff alongtheephemeralgullies[Desmet catchments withahighconcentrationof ontheslope high soillossesare observed events. rain-storm extreme particular, In incrop-rotationand spatialvariations and be explainedbymorphological differences of SSYfor individualcatchment groups can floodplains.small river The highvariability valleybottoms and deposition onthedry area isalsoassociated withsediment decrease inSSYandincrease incatchment for theLebedin catchment. The subsequent results ofthesedimentredistribution study This wasdemonstrated inmore detailinthe valleybottoms. and, particularly, onthedry uncultivated valleybanks, slopetoes, dry (Table 13)dueto sedimentdepositiononthe valley 2 ) enMxMin Max Mean yield (t · km yield Specifi Pond-deposited with anincreasing catchment area sediment (t) c sediment –2 ·yr –1 ) erent sizes potentially exported potentially exported from theLebedin deviation Standard of sediment Percentage catchment Cv 229.09.2014 13:01:33 2 9 .
0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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0 55 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 3 ggi314.indd 56 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 56 GEOGRAPHY 6 reservoirs (acatchment areareservoirs of<60km with themeanannualSSYfor mediumsize 1950s–1960s ledto aconsiderabledecrease thelate during and, particularly, reservoirs increaseA sharp inthenumberofponds that soillosswasthehighest in1957–1966. studied ponds, where the to 10km increase withcatchment area growth ofup Basinfor intheSichuanHilly SSYto istypical It found to be40–60cmdeeper. The initial 137 23 283km mean annualSSYofthe Tuo (basinarea River However,confirmation. ifwe compare the channels into parent rocks provide partial land) andthedeepincisionoflocalriver floodplains ascultivated lands(mostlypaddy measurements, buttheintensive useofall bydirect suggestion shouldbeconfirmed Basin. basinintheSichuanHilly river This low floodplainsedimentationrates, likely by the high inthe1957–1966. This isalsoconfirmed soil lossesfrom catchments zero-order were any differences. Thus, that itismore likely from 1950–2000(see Table 7),we donotfind less than100km increase inrivercatchments withanarea of some decrease inSSYwithabasin area sediment yield. Thus, itispossibleto expect bottoms) thatare notproducing additional of flat paddyfields(valley proportion along withSSY, dueto theincreasing The rates ofbedandbankerosion decrease, natural processes insedimentbudgeting. for amore detailedunderstandingofthe under theforest and withoutcanopycover along withsedimentlossesfrom wastelands bank retreat for itsquantitative assessment, direct measurement ofgullywallandriver However, to organise the itisnecessary sediment production[Zhangetal., 2011]. technique, canreach 40–45%ofthetotal of theapplicationfingerprinting Basin,according toSichuan Hilly theresults erosion underforest andinthegullysof catchment area. The relative of contribution of gully/bankerosion withthegreater DISCUSSION Cs fallout occurred in 1954, so it is likely Cs falloutoccurred in1954,soitis likely 137 2 , dueto the increased contri bution Cs depth distribution profileCs depthdistribution inthe 2 ) (seeFig. l)for 1957–1966 period 2 , even given theextremely 137 Cs peakwas 2 ) 2010]. compared with1964–1986[Golosovetal., 1986–2008, most casesby3–4timesduring deposition hasdecreased noticeably, in derived andChernobyl- using bothbomb-derived Central shows, RussianUplandsmallrivers for the deposition ratesoverbank undertaken As adetailedinvestigationtime intervals. of through theriver valleybottoms indifferent indicator ofthesedimentquantitiespassed floodplains.river The later canbeusedasan subsequent sedimentdepositiononsmall from cultivated slopesto riverchannels, and sedimentsinksalongpathwaysin various river channel, dueto sedimentaccumulation eroded from cultivated landsenters the ofthesediment only asmallproportion within theCentral RussianUpland, where A completely different situationisobserved order catchments to riverstreams (Fig. 7). oferoded sedimentfrommajority zero- the slopes andriverchannelsto transport between highconnectivity by avery Basinischaracterized The SichuanHilly l985-2000. responsible for thedecreasing SSYduring measures are andsoilconservation factors etal.,stations [Xu 2008]. Thus, bothnatural on analysisofdatafrom meteorological 100 mm)insummerprecipitation, based There hasalsobeensomedecrease (about to meteorological data[Zhaietal., 2005]. Basinsince1990,according Sichuan Hilly thesummermonthsin during intensity decreasing trend inthemaximumrain-fall 1984. Simultaneously, aclear we observed 1985–2000,comparedduring with1967– toconsiderably contributed decreasing SSY crop rotation changessincethe1980s under forest Basinand intheSichuanHilly thatthegradual increaselikely inthearea with few ismore rain-fallevents. extreme It associatedin 1982,whichwasmore likely increase bythesharp inSSYconfirmed not decrease considerably. This ispartially that soillossesfrom cultivated fieldsdo However,time intervals. itismore likely 1967–1984,comparedduring withprevious in bothwater discharge andsedimentyield 137 Cs as time markers, floodplain Cs astimemarkers, 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 3 ggi314.indd 57 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 show thatSSYdecreases by oneorder for delivered to channels. theriver The results cultivated landsedimentbefore theywere oferoded sedimentfromhigh proportion bythe depositionofa ischaracterized It in someregions ofEurope, suchasBelgium. similarto that Central RussianUplandisvery channel. Sedimentredistribution withinthe of sedimentdelivered to thelarge river highproportion on floodplainsandthevery lowsedimentation explained bythevery river basinswithanarea of>20 000 km system is completely different. Even for alongthefluvialdrainage sediment transport and wastelands). However, thesubsequent ofnaturally-inducederosion (gully proportion given therelatively world, high particularly ofthe Russian Upland, andtheotherparts ofEurope, includingtheCentral USA, part (see Fig. inthe 7),whichare observed byrelativelyis characterized meanrates order catchments, Basin theSichuanHilly thetotalComparing soillossesfrom zero- Ba k–Sichuan al,2008], Hilly Ethiopian et [Haregeweyn Vente 2005], andPoesen, h–Tunisia 2004], j i–Ethiopian al., Highlands [Nyssen [Albergelet 2000], al., et – Northern 2001],and Poesen, e–Morocco [Lahlou, 1988], f–Central [Verstraeten 2001], Belgium andPoesen, g–Italy [de 1976],а –USA andBolton, [Dendy b–World [Fleming, 1969], S eces 0 tkm 400 exceeds SSY 7 Fig. 7. The documented relationships between specific sediment yield and catchment area area catchment and yield sediment specific between relationships 7.Fig. documented The –2 yr –1 . This canbe for studies around the world: world: the around studies for 2 , sin (this study), l–Central difference regions. thetwo between The isthemain connectivity Basin. Slope-channel intheSichuanHilly soil losses, particularly to alsocontributed thedecreasedpractices The implementationofsoil conservation the caseofCentral RussianUpland). decreasing snow-meltin soillossesduring Basin, and in thecaseofSichuanHilly (a decrease rains ofheavy intheintensity both regions dueto climate fluctuations inthelast20–25years in been observed decreasing trend insoilerosion rates has the riverbasinwithanarea of>100km ae antd (– t ha (6–7 magnitude same thelast60yearsduring have beenof the BasinandCent Hilly ral RussianUpland slopecatchmentszero-order intheSichuan climate condition,annualsoillossesfrom Although withcontrastinglandscapeand catchment. compared to theSSYfrom slope azero-order CONCLUSION c – Zambia [Sichingabula, c–Zambia 1997], [Verstraeten d–Spain Russian Upland(this study). –1 yr –1 ). Aclear 229.09.2014 13:01:33 2 9 .
0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 57 GEOGRAPHY 1 : 3 3 ggi314.indd 58 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
5 58 GEOGRAPHY 8 . de Vente, J. andPoesen, J. (2005).Predicting soilerosion andsedimentyieldatthe ba- 8. Belyaev, V.R., Wallbrink, P.J., Golosov, V.N., Murray, A.Y. A.S.andSidorchuk, (2005b).Acom- 7. Belyaev, V.R., Wallbrink, P.J., Golosov, V.N., Murray, A.Y.6. A.S. andSidorchuk, (2004).Re- Belyaev, V.R., Golosov, V.N., Kuznetsova,J.S. andMarkelov, M.V. (2009).Quantitative as- 5. Belyaev, V.R., Golosov, V.N., N.N.,Markelov, M.V. Ivanova, and E.V.Tishkina, (2005a).Hu- 4. 3 Belyaev, V., Golosov, V., (2008).Combining direct Kuznetsova, J., Markelov K., Kislenko, 3. Belotserkovsky, Y. andLarionov, ofpotatoes androot A.(1988).Removalofsoilbyharvest 2. Albergel, N.,Boufaroua, 1,Nasri, M.,Pepin, Y. (2000).BilandeI’erosion surlespetitsbassins 1. re-activation of secondary incisions in dry incisionsindry ofsecondary re-activation isthatthe and Central RussianUpland. It Basin theSichuanHilly SSYbetween riverine main reason for thesignificant differences in 10% delivered to channels. theriver This isthe valleybottoms), withlessthan (mostly indry was redeposited indifferent sedimentsinks cultivated fieldoftheCentral RussianUpland ofthesoilthaterodes fromThe majority the indicator ofsoillossesfrom thebasinarea. Basin. asadirect Thus, SSYserves riverine to theriver channelsintheSichuanHilly directly slope catchments wastransported ofthesedimentthateroded frommajority REFERENCES 95–125. Reviews, 71(1–2): models. Earth-Science sin scale:Scaleissuesandsemi-quantitative region, European southern Russia.Geomorphology, 65(3–4):173–193. ofmethodsforparison evaluating soilredistribution intheseverely eroded Stavropol Processes Surface andLandforms, 29(3):323–341. Russia).Earth (southern basin,Stavropol Region thedevelopment ofagullyintheUpperKalaus constructing tracerandconventionalradioactive techniques. Catena, 79(3):214–227. measures usingacombinationofCs-137 sessment ofeffectiveness ofsoilconservation Europeanin southern Russia.SedimentBudgets1,291:11–20. valleycatchmentman-accelerated soilredistribution withinanintensively cultivated dry 114–122. Continental Erosion, Christchurch, NewZealand, 2008.IAHSPubl. 1–5December 325, Davies, T.(Eds), Proceedings Commission on ofthe2008SymposiumInternational to Schmidt,J., sedimentbudgets. long-term In: Cochrane, T., Phillips, C.,Elliott,S.and observations, modeling, and observations, crops. Russian). UniversitetaVestnik 5:49–54.(In Seriia, Moskovskogo niques enHydrologie, vol. 51,pp. 63–70. 2000HydrologieMontpellier desRegions Mediterraneennes. Unesco, Documents Tech- versants deslacscollinaires deladorsaletuni PHI(Ed.),sienne. Seminaire In: International 137 Cs tracerfor evaluatingindividualevent contribution 91153). No 13-05-00162andRFBR-NSSF14-05- Foundation fo r BasicResearch (project RFBR No. bytheRussian KZCX2-XB3-09) andpartly by theChineseAcademy ofSciences(Grant Financial for thisstudywasprovided support to theriver channels. high amountofsedimentto betransported Russian Plain [Panin etal., 2009],hascaused thePleistocene during onthe as observed valley bottoms spurred byclimate change, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 6 . Zhang, X.B., Qi, Y.Q., Walling, D.E., He, X.B., Wen, A.B. andFu, as- J.X. (2006b).Apreliminary 66. 6 . Zhang, X.,Zhang, Y., Wen, A.andFeng, M.(2003).Assessment ofsoillossesoncultivated 65. 3 international per-reviewedinternational andProceedings journals ofsymposiaandconferences. sessment ofthepotential for using Tillage Research, 69(1):99–106. rates on cultivated slopes in the Sichuan Hilly BasinofChina.Catena,rates 68(1):1–9. oncultivated slopesintheSichuanHilly land byusingthe Control andSoilQuality, IAEA-TECDOC 1665:87–114. the upper Yangtze Measures onErosion ofSoilConservation basin,China.Impact River and sedimentyieldbyusingCesium-137 andexcess Lead-210 tracingtechniques in 137 Tang Qiang XinbaoZhang Valentin N.Golosov Cs technique intheUpper Yangtze BasinofChina.Soiland River are sediment tracing and fingerprinting atcatchmentare scale. sedimenttracingandfingerprinting HazardsMountain andEnvironment, research CAS.His specialties received Ph.D. degree inSoilSciencefrom of theInstitute environmental Sciences, ChineseAcademy ofSciences(CAS).He 20 indexed bySCI. evaluating soilerosion. Hepublishedmore than100paperswith research tracerofCs-137in isusingtheradioactive specialty are: soilerosion andmountainenvironment evolution. His mainresearch IAEA.His Hydrological interests Sciences, expert of Continental Association Erosion of oftheInternational Commission ofInternational Sciences (CAS).Heisvice-president Hazardsof Mountain andEnvironment, ChineseAcademy of ofIAEA.Hepublishedmore 150papersinnationaland expert (UNESCO) and World Association Soiland Water Conservation, SedimentInitiative Committeesof Steering ofInternational Association ofHydrologicalthe International Sciences, member Commissionpresident ofContinental Erosion ofInternational of redistribution intheriverbasins, radioecology. Heisformer soil andsedimentsediment-associated pollutants research interests are withfluvialgeomorphology, concerned Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Strate University. Moscow His Scientist of the Laboratory for SoilErosion oftheLaboratory andFluvialScientist Processes, is a Research Fellow Research attheResearch isa Center ofEco- 210 is Professor is ofphysical geography attheInstitute Pbex measurement to estimate soilredistribution , D.Sc. inGeography, Research Principal is 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 64 GEOGRAPHY 4 XiubinHe Ping Zhou in peer-reviewed journals. sedimentation.Hehaspublishedmore than120papers catchment interests are: and soilerosion process: soilconservation ofSoiland Institute mainresearchWater CAS.His Conservation, Sciences (CAS).Hereceived PhD. degree insoilsciencefrom the HazardsMountain andEnvironment, ChineseAcademy of ofthewatershed.of theslopeland, soilandwater conservation Her mainresearch interests are: restoration ecology, soilerosion ecology from ofSoiland theInstitute Water CAS. Conservation, Academy ofSciences(CAS).Shereceived PhD. Degree in Hazards ofMountain andEnvironment,at theInstitute Chinese is Associated ProfessorAssociated is ofsoilandwater conservation is Professor is of insoilscienceattheInstitute 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 Leninskie Gory,Leninskie 1,119991,Ph.+74959392238,[email protected] Ph: +49-341-235-1879,[email protected] Environmental Research, Permoserstraße 1,04318Leipzig, Germany. [email protected] Ecohydrology, Ph.+49-30–63924073, Müggelseedamm310,12587,Germany; Christian Schweitzer 1 Ph: +49-341-235-1962,[email protected] Environmental Research, Permoserstraße 1,04318Leipzig, Germany. Ph. +49-391-810-9670,[email protected] for Environmental Research, Magdeburg, Brückstr. Germany; 3a,39114Magdeburg, Ph. +49-391-810-9670,[email protected] for Environmental Research, Magdeburg, Brückstr. Germany; 3a,39114Magdeburg, Ph. +49-6221-54-5583,[email protected] Heidelberg, NeuenheimerFeld Im Germany; 348,69120Heidelberg, Ph. +49-391-810-9104,[email protected] for Environmental Research, Magdeburg, Brückstr. Germany; 3a,39114Magdeburg, limited water resources [WWAP, 2012]. severe inregionsparticularly withrelatively ofwater pollutionareenonomic impacts 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 2 Daniel Karthe 3 Marcus Malsy Leninskie Gory,Leninskie 1,119991,Ph.+74959394047, [email protected] Wilhelmshöher Ph.+49-561-804-6122,[email protected] Allee47,34109Kassel, Gory,Leninskie 1,119991,Ph.+74959394407,[email protected] * Corresponding author [email protected] Gory,Leninskie 1,119991,Ph.+74959391552, 5 ABSTRACT. AND QUALITY IN THE KHARAA – ORKHON THE ASSESSMENT OF WATER AVAILABILITY INTEGRATING MULTI-SCALE DATA FOR SELENGA RIVER SYSTEM Department ofComputational LandscapeEcology,Department HelmholtzCentre for ofAquatic Ecosystem Department HelmholtzCentre Analysis andManagement, ofAquatic Ecosystem Department HelmholtzCentre Analysis andManagement, ofHydrogeography Department andClimatology, Heidelberg University, ofAquatic Ecosystem Department HelmholtzCentre Analysis andManagement, Center for Environmental Systems University, Research, Kassel Germany; Kassel, Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Department ofComputational LandscapeEcology, Department HelmholtzCentre for Leibniz ofFreshwater Institute Fisheries Ecology andInland (IGB),Department Faculty ofGeography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; The environmental and socio- 5 1 , Lucas Menzel , Nikolay S.Kasimov 9 , Jürgen Hofmann 6 , Philipp Theuring 2 , Sergey R.Chalov 10 integrated managementapproaches. water ecology,for surface water use, and whi aspects interlinked Water are andquality closely quantity , Jörg Priess 7 , MelanieHartwig 11 3* , Mikhail Lychagin, Mikhail , Galina L.Shinkareva, Galina ch are relevant 8 , 12 – 4 229.09.2014 13:01:33 , 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 66 ENVIRONMENT its moderate size (15 000 km etal., 2013].Dueto development [Karthe physical environment andsocio-economic in many ways comparablewithregard to the buttheirbasinsare Baikal, draining into Lake ofthesamemajorriversystem only parts are Siberia, not andsouthern Mongolia 1),w (Table andSelengarivers Orkhon The Kharaa, Central Asia;Russia Mongolia; water quality; more inlarger extensivemonitoring areas. modelregions inselected monitoring with ofintensive character the complimentary On theotherhand, underpins itempirically inawidercontext. andquality water quantity interpretation ofexistingdataonsurface the onehand, this integration allowsan macro Basin)scales. (SelengeRiver On Basin)and River point data),meso(Kharaa the micro plots, (experimental individual system, this pa – –Orkhon Selengathe Kharaa River processesof underlying andcauses. For ifitin particularly is usuallyprohibitive large for areas, very However, anintensive ofboth monitoring draining from the western parts of the Khentii oftheKhentii draining from thewestern parts GolandSugnugurconfluence ofMandalin Gol, al., 2012]. originates River at the The Kharaa et 2009;Karthe Consortium, concept [MoMo the scientificbasisfor alocally adapted IWRM project whichaimedatthedevelopment of research ofaGerman-Mongolian the context Basincouldbeintensively River studiedin INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: egho ie 6 m16 m1 1066km Ca.15 000 km 362km Catchment area Length ofriver Average runoff ouainCa. MEGD, 2012; Thorslund etal., 2012 Sources: Population Mun et al., 2008; MoMo Consortium, 2009; Garmaev et al., 2010; Potemkina, 2011; Kasimov etal., etal., 2010; 2010;Potemkina, 2009;Garmaev 2011;Kasimov Consortium, Munetal., 2008;MoMo near outlet (MQ) 12.1 m 12.1 nearoutlet(MQ) hich are located in northern hich are located innorthern
hydrology; water availability; water availability; hydrology; Table 1. Characteristics of the Kharaa, Orkhon and Selenga river basins river Selenga and Orkhon Kharaa, the of Table 1. Characteristics per combinesresults from cludes theinvestigation 2 ), the Kharaa ), theKharaa 147,000 inhabitants Ca. 236 000 inhabitants Ca. 2 2 Ca. Ca.236000inhabitants 147,000 inhabitants hraOko Selenga Kharaa Orkhon 3 /s 124.5 m 2 change, which are to expected be stronger the region, ofclimate includingtheimpacts climatebetween andwater in availability links This chapter firstsummarizes important annual precipitation ofalmost3. byafactor potential evapotranspirationexceeds the The natural water [Menzeletal., availability 2011]. coldwinters andalimited climate withvery are byahighlycontinental characterized –Selengariver system islocated, Orkhon – where ofSiberia, the Kharaa part southern andthe ofMongolia part northern The Thorslund etal., 2012;Munetal., 2008]. scientists[Chalovetal., and Korean 2012; involving Swedish Russian,Mongolian, outbyresearchwas recently carried projects Synoptic research Basin ontheSelengaRiver etal., 2010]. [Kasimov Baikal draining into Lake andformsnorthward awidedeltabefore drains into theSelenga,whichthenflows border,Russian-Mongolian River theOrkhon andjustbefore 2012]. NearSukhbaatar the gaps)for thisbasin[MEGD,(and knowledge ofexistinginformation provides anoverview project andaDutch consultancy ministry environmental the Mongolian between was recently developed in cooperation Plan which BasinManagement A River mostdenselysettledregions.the country’s Tuul Rivers, meanderthrough andtheKharaa mostnotablythe and someofitstributaries, isMongolia’s River Orkhon longeststream, Mongolia’sDarkhan, secondlargest city. The River, into whichitflowsjustdownstream of oftheOrkhon isatributary mountains. It AND ITS DETERMINANTS WATER AVAILBILITY Ca. 54000km 3 s897m /s 2 024 km (1453 km incl. Ider) (1453km 024 km Ca. 450000km 439 000inhabitants 3 /s 2 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 annual precipitation increased by59mm, water body. thesametime, During mean oftheLake to thebalancingimpacts the entire riverbasinisprobably higherdue century. The airtemperature changeover area the20th by1,2Kduring in thelake annualairtemperaturesMean increased etal., 2007]. [Clarke marked are particularly where theeffects ofglobalclimate change Basin,isoneoftheregions Baikal Lake Plateau,The Central Siberian includingthe Change ofClimate Impacts Basin andExpected Water Availability inthe Selenga–Baikal is presented inthechapter’s lastsection. and landcover inthebasin’s headwater region discussion ofhydrometeorological processes their hydrological relevance. Amore detailed use changeatriverbasinscale, including subchapter analyzes thedynamicsofland Basin.ForRiver thismodelregion, athird model region for Selenga themacro-scale Basinisasuitable River Kharaa meso-scale river system anddemonstrates thatthe indifferentofthe trends observed parts following addresses hydrological section [IPCC, oftheworld 2007]. other parts The thaninfor Asian East-Central drylands and water usemodel WaterGAP3. WaterGAP3 hydrology withthe large-scale conducted 1971–2000)was(baseline timeperiod simulation ofrecent freshwater resources three globalcirculation models(GCMs). The 2100 using WATCH databasedon driving and precipitation were shownfor 2071to forcing dataand(2)changes intemperature Assessment andPrognosis) and WATCH the WaterGAP3 –Global model(Water freshwater resources were simulated using and trends ofwater availability, (1)recent order toIn assesstheregional pattern [Shimaraev etal., 2002]. decreased thisperiod notablyduring Baikal Lake (–24cm)on (–11 days) andicethickness century. Ontheotherhand, bothiceduration an inflowincrease the of17%during variability. Ontheonehand, thisled to with aconsiderableregional andinterannual 7 Baikal Baikal both last last to +6,5°Cfor A2,and–8,2to +4,5°Cfor B1). basin(rangesfrom –6,2 entire Baikal Lake of meanannualairtemperature for the predictasignificantBoth scenarios rise Chuluut riversaccording to theB1scenario. and intheheadwater region oftheIderand river basinaccording to theA2scenario lowest increase for isexpected the Tuul whilethe shoreBaikal, southern ofLake The highestincrease ispredicted for the respectively) untiltheendof 21st century. mm to 1109mmand211to 1015mm, an increase ofprecipitation (ranges241 predictmm. BoththeA2andB1scenario precipitation ranging from 188mmto 872 from –11,4°Cto +1,0°C,andmeanannual mean annualairtemperatures ranging a large regional variation. This isdueto Basinis83mm,butwith Baikal the Lake The meanannualwater for availability features basins, whiletheupperAngaracatchment water inthe availability Tuul river andKhilok inflows(Fig. Baikal Lake 1)showsthelowest meanannualwater of availability Modelled [Hagemann etal., 2011;Piani etal., 2010]. and three GCMs(IPSL,ECHAM5 andCNCM3) A2 andB1IPCC-SRES (IPCC Scenarios 2000) projections. This datasetisavailable for the climateof transientbiascorrected change setwasused, whichconsists data (WDD) 2071–2100the time period WATCH driving 2010; Flörke, 2013]. As datafor scenario the production[ausderBeek, electricity thermal domestic,livestock, and manufacturing, irrigation, inthesectors of water abstractions contains five submodelsfor thecalculation of five arc minutes. The water usemodel and wasrescaled to themodelresolution etal., 2011] grid indailytimesteps [Weedon The (WFD). WFD isbasedonahalfdegree meteorological dataset WATCH forcing data of themodelwasdonewithglobal been applied. The calibrationandvalidation riversystem has basins for Baikal theLake thisstudyalandmaskderivedfrom river In 2009]. timestepsin dailyinternal [Verzano, operates onafive arc minute grid (~6×9km²) [Alcamo et al., etal., 2003;Döll 2003]and development of is afurther WaterGAP2 the highestwateravailability. 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 68 ENVIRONMENT decline ofthesnowlayer. Anisimov&Reneva evapotranspiration, permafrost thawing, and regional hydrology, suchasincreasing directandindirect effects onvarious precipitation increaseto have islikely This substantialtemperature and Fig. 1. Modelled mean water availability in the Selenga-Baikal Basin (1971–2000). availability willincreaseavailability untiltheendof ofthebasinthatwater part the Mongolian model, etal. Malsy [2012]have shownfor Using simulationsbasedonthe WaterGAP3 permafrost willdecrease by18%until2050. thatthearea[2006] expect ofnear-surface 229.09.2014 13:01:33 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 as bythemeltingofaufeis. Sincesoilsand water aswell formed bysoilandsubsurface mustbe spring,during theremaining part uptheentire streammelt cannotmake flow due to thehighsublimationrates. As snow covers only5–6mmto contributes runoff et al. [2009]estimated thatthemeltofsnow al., 2000].For Basin, River theKharaa Wimmer icings [Sloan& Van Everdingen, 1988; Woo et andgroundwaterthe subsurface, stored in affecting snowcover, water inthesoiland andisrelatedto April to thawing processes Stream flowincreases rapidlyfrom March andJuly/August.April/May in discharge major runoff periods andtwo lowwinter byvery ischaracterized rivers 2). (Table pattern interannual intheirdischarge uniformity showalarge andSelengaRivers Orkhon absolute discharge quantities, theKharaa, Despite considerabledifferences in –SelengaRiverOrkhon System Hydrological regime ofthe Kharaa – ofthebasin. parts input datafor andRussian theMongolian differences of andavailability inthequality catchment is ofthistransboundary context challengeinthe land use).Oneparticular changes intemperature, precipitation and the interplay ofdifferent drivers(suchas based onamodelcapableofrecognizing Basinwould needto be Selenga –Baikal for future water intheentire availability 21st century. Similarly, arealistic estimate 9 eeg tKbnk17–09837 ,%2,%5,%15,6% 14,7% 51,3% 13,6% 53,8% 29,5% 51,0% 29,8% 3,5% 31,5% 1,7% 863,77 3,8% 124,5 1971–2009 Hydrometeorology and Environmental –Roshydromet Monitoring MEGD, ofHydrology andMeteorology; Sources: Institute 2012;RussianFederal for Mongolian Service 10,71 1950–2008 Selenga atKabansk atSukhbaatar Orkhon 1951–2001 atBaruunkharaa Kharaa ie Period River Table 2. Seasonality of discharge for the Kharaa, Orkhon and Selenga Rivers Selenga and discharge of Orkhon Kharaa, the for Seasonality Table 2. The hydrograph ofallthree Mean annual runoff , m 3 /s stream flowinlate autumnandwinter. storages andtheexponentialdecrease of in thedepletionofgroundwater andsoil Relatively lowamountsofsnowfallresult becomes thedominantform ofprecipitation. when temperature drops below0°C,snow etal.,[Berezhnykh 2012].From on, October precipitation ofsummertime the variability chief causefor intherunoffis thevariations summer season(June–August). Therefore, a the half oftheannualrunoffoccursduring andSelenga,about For Orkhon theKharaa, are filled.the water storages inthesubsurface thattime,in summer[Bolton 2006].During soils isincreased layer whentheactive thaws ofthe infiltration andwater holdingcapacity runoff.direct The reason for thatisthe covers produces aconsiderableamountof flow.direct Contrastingly, themeltofsnow mainly to groundwater flowandlessto events. insummercontributes Rainfall instantly inresponse to precipitation in JuneandJuly,period stream flowrises With thebeginning ofthesummerrainfall decreases. ice have melted inMay, river discharge stream flow.of observed Once snowand consistent withtheexponentialincrease discharge rate gradually increases. This is & Pollard, 1997].As meltingprogresses, the strongly discharge to contribute spring [Hu rivers thaticeshieldsonsubarctic is known ofrivericings. It points to theimportance soils are to expected remain inspring. This only smallvolumes ofexcess water inthe are depleted atfirst, the shallowsubsurface a–a p–u u–e Oct–Dec Jul–Sep Apr–Jun Jan–Mar Mean contribution of quarterly runoff Mean contribution ofquarterly to total annualrunoff
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0 70 ENVIRONMENT is known to et beinhomogeneous [Menzel is known ofprecipitationdistribution intheregion term mean: of12,4m term to 1994(21,4m Tolgoi, wascomparatively highfrom 1990 measured atthebasinoutletBuren contrast,annualrunoffofthe Kharaa, In mean:294mm). long-term Basin respectively; River located inthecenter oftheKharaa at Baruunk mm and338total annualprecipitation Basin(Fig. River Kharaa 2;onaverage, 343 from 2007to 2011were wet inthe similarly the five yearfrom periods 1990to 1994and runoff dynamics. Atfirstsight,itseemsthat interannuallinks between precipitation and itdifficultto analyze make the to dataquality relatedstations, datagapsanduncertainties ofgauges andmeteorologicalThe lowdensity & Myagmarzhav, 1977]. 4and5[Semenov rangesbetween this factor (Orkhon, Tuul,tributaries Uda) Khilok, Chikoj, low-water years. For theSelenga’s eastern years ascomparedin high-discharge to the meanannualflowis2–3timeshigher (Muren, Eg,tributaries Dzhida, Temnik), (Fig. 2).For anditswestern theSelengaRiver renewable water resources are significant oftheSelengabasin’s variations Interannual low from 2007–2011(4,5m Fig. 2. Annual precipitation and runoff in the Khar Khar the in Basins. runoff Tuul Selenga and and aa, precipitation Annual 2. Fig. haraa meteorological station, 3 /s) andcomparatively 3 /s).However, the 3 /s; long- characterized byrapidchangesintherecentcharacterized is spatiallystilldominated bygrazing, is by settlements(Fig. 3).Landuse, which 28% byforest, 9%bycropland and1% 62% ofthelandiscovered bygrassland, Basin(KRB),approximately River theKharaa In Relevance inthe Kharaa River Region Model Land Use Changes andtheir Hydrological a reductioninrunoffformation. appears to beanotherplausiblereason for evapotranspirationtherefore2005]. Higher in1998[Batimaaetal., inMongolia century summer, year ofthe andthewarmest by longerthanusualheatwaves inthe second halfofthe1990swascharacterized Tuul: –65%;Selenga:–28%).Moreover, the –44%;second halfofthe1990s(Kharaa: Selenga and Tuul thefirstand between in meanannualdischarge intheKharaa, would explainthesignificant decrease etal., Basin[Berezhnykh River 2012]. This anomalies throughout mostoftheSelenga bynegativecharacterized precipitation years 1996and2011were between Climatology Center suggestthatthe station datafrom theGlobalPrecipitation limitations, interpolated meteorological in mindtheabove mentioneddata al., etal., 2011;Berezhnykh 2012]. Keeping 229.09.2014 13:01:34 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 incentives to intensify based production, providesnational government financial amounts to 110,000ha.Simultaneously, the cultivation includingfallowsfor crop rotation sums upto 50,000ha,thetotal area under since 2006/7. While thesawn area currently inagriculture development canbeobserved population hasdoubledandasimilar ofthecentury, lifestockpast. Sincetheturn 1 Fig. 3. Land cover map derived from Landsat TM for th th TMfor Landsat from derived map cover Land 3. Fig. 2010,e year including areas affected by wildfires (MODIS). bywildfires affected areas including hydrological ofland terms consequences. In recent pastimplyseveral direct andindirect production. changesofthe The observed drive thefastexpansionofvegetable seemto in UlaanbaatarandDarkhan the sametime, conditions favourable market [Priessfood etal., self-sufficiency 2011].At lands” to withthefinalobjective achieve on the virgin“3rd Campaign ofre-claiming 229.09.2014 13:01:34 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 72 ENVIRONMENT [Tsogtbaatar, 2013].Satellite baseddetection and deficitsregarding law enforcement due to inefficientmanagementstrategies lack success often and protection efforts and succ addition,therate ofnaturalre-growth origin. In occurrence ofwildfires ofanthropogenic wood (timberandfirewood) andincreased livestock numbers, increased demand for deforestation isincreasing dueto thegrowing habitats [Tsogtbaatar, 2004]. However, andprovidingpermafrost distribution wildlife role inpreventing soilerosion, maintaining regime, forests Mongolian play animportant (Fig. 3).Besidestherelevance for thewater isstillforested part, intheeastern particularly oftheKharaa’spart headwater regions, consumerofwater,important aconsiderable processes andcurrently emerges asan agricultural landusealters hydrological While irrigation isintherangeof22–28mio.irrigation m theamountofwater usedforirrigation), technologies drip inuse(flooding, sprinklers, forwe make theratiosofdifferent irrigation onwhichassumptions 6,000 ha.Depending producers theirland, irrigate currently 5,000– increasing number ofwheatandpotato 2013]. Allvegetable producers, andan evapotranspiration andrunoff[Ishii&Fujita, butalso not onlybiomassproductivity degradation ofgrasslands, thereby altering the doubledlivestock populationcauses canbeassumedthat higher elevations. It towards lessfavourable slopinglandsand production from theriver plainsandvalleys fields, butalsoinexpandingagricultural not onlyinstrongly increased fencing of resulting canbeobserved, and farmers herdersand accessiblelandbetween use, anincreased competitionfor fertile to anaverage of80mio. m use to 35to 45mio. m technologies, anincrease we expect inwater area andtheuseof(improved)on irrigation landuntil2050.Depending ha ofirrigated inthepast,result in7000–8000 observed based onmore moderate rates ofexpansion areasof irrigated to 10,000ha,ourscenarios plansaimatdoublingtheareagovernment per year for theentire catchment. While essful reforestation isfar too low 3 . This figure compares 3 during dry years. dry during 3
as regional water towers where substantial the headwaters ofthebasinappearto act As expected, the ungaugedsub-catchments. was appliedto predictthewater balancein Menzel, calibration,themodel 2010].After hydrological modelapproach [Törnros & basin outletandtheapplicationofarobust discharge atthe ofobserved a timeseries few meteorological datafrom officialstations, investigations initiallyhadto bebasedon environmental information, hydrological oftheKRBlacks Since amajorpart Relevance atRiver Basin Scale Processes inaHeadwater Regionandtheir Investigation ofHy and reduced riverdischarge (seeFig. 2). orhotyears withhigherevaporation in dry discharge, avaluethatmay doubleortriple sum upto river about1%ofthelong-term 4.6 miom gold miningcompaniescombined(about andsedimentationpondsofirrigation for lakes ofartificial open water surfaces precipitation,normal theevaporationfrom years of (assuming well sealedponds).In water lossesfrom miningviaevaporation are sources considered ofnet thekey remaining inthecatchment. The ponds most oftheused(andcontaminated) water and opensedimentationcascades, with tend to useriverwater withmotor pumps smaller companiesandillegalextractors reuse from sedimentationponds, while (ground-)water, whichlarger companies gold miningrequires large amountsof in theregion are miningactivities.Especially driveroflandusechange A third important formation andwater holdingcapacity. such asevapotranspiration,infiltration,runoff careful explorationofhydrological components changes isgenerallydifficultandrequires implications ofgradual andabrupt forest cover 2012 (Fig. 3). The quantificationofhydrological degree 2000andMay April between varying area) have beenaffected bywildfires to a (which equates about14%oftheforested et al., 2003]indicates thatintotal 200 000 ha of wildfires basedonMODISfire data[Giglio 3 from ~550 ha water surfaces) from ~550hawater surfaces) drometeorological 229.09.2014 13:01:34 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 sites were according selected to aforest sites intheupperSugnugur valley. The coniferous forests were monitored atvarious parameters aswell asthestructureof temperature, soilmoisture, meteorological field campaigns in2011and2012,soil an altitudinalgradient (Fig. 4).During on hydro-meteorological behaviour along focusing in theSugnugur sub-catchment program 2011,amonitoring In wasstarted leaving extensiveareas forest. withburned areecosystem, themostserious forest fires, onthe andclimate variability human impacts However, there are several indicators of catchment. generating areas oftheKharaa asthemajorfreshwater assumed thattheyact borealpristine is andmountainenvironment. It availability. Parts oftheregion represent a hydrological processes, andwater water quality 2005] orforest whichdetermine distribution, storage, etal., permafrost occurrence [Ishikawa ofenvironmentala variety factors, e.g. snow and alpineecotones andtherefore includes thesteppe,the transitionbeltbetween taiga 2,800 ma.s.l. includes This sub-catchment catchment andpeakatabout of theKharaa whichstretch Mountains intheeast Khentii oftheremote Sugnugur riverdrainsparts oftheKharaa. mountainous sub-basin The investigations were outina carried Based onthesefindings, extensivefield formation. steppe forelands withlowto absentdischarge al., 2011]. contrastto thedry This isinsharp discharge volumes are produced [Menzelet 3 Fig. 4. Altitudinal precipitation gradient gradient Altitudinal 4. Fig. precipitation in the Sugnugur valley. However, localized concentrations of ofaroundpopulation density 5people/km standards, byarelatively characterized low Basinis,The SelengaRiver byinternatio nal entire Kharaa basin. entire Kharaa improved hydrological modellingofthe process understandingwillfinallyleadto environmental dataandtheimproved reduces available soilwater. The collected and adecrease ofsnowcover whichagain this process through additionalwarming zone. Climate changeprobably supports steppe and thuswater inthedry availability alters water retention intheheadwaters the hypothesis thatforest disappearance root canals. Thus, theinvestigations support flow pathswhichprobably originate from as well ofdeep asalonganeffective network dead organic cover andthemineralhorizon flow paths. Pipeflow the occursbetween generation isinfluencedbyarelocation of while soilmoisture tends to decline. Runoff soiltemperaturesaccompanied bywarmer to increase withdecreasing forest vitality, Besides, layer thedepthofactive seems layer andinthemineralhorizon dominates. organic flow inthewell-developed matrix potential are comparatively high.Delayed infiltration rates aswell asthewater retention soil permafrost iscloseto thesoilsurface), layer shallow(i.e., appearsto besurprisingly forest categories. Undervitalforest theactive there are cleardifferences thethree between precipitationhigh-intensity events. Further, flowduring mainly occursasfastsurface rates andsoilmoisture are low. Runoff are comparatively highwhile soilinfiltration intensities. Consequently, soiltemperatures exposedslopeswithhighradiation southern free ofpermafrost sincetheyare mostlyon Results showthattheunforested sites are for soilwater andtemperature monitoring. oftheforestthe vicinity plotswere selected dead trees. addition,unforested In sites in through2) harmed forest fire, 3)exclusively into three /vital, 1)undisturbed categories: in which theywere classified health survey AND ITS DETERMINANTS WATER QUALITY 229.09.2014 13:01:34 2 9 . . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 74 ENVIRONMENT suspended sediments. However, dueto concentrationsinmaximum permissible etal.area 2008],never exceeded [Batsukh, resources nearmining operations inthe is regarded threat asaserious to water metal pollution. Mercury,of heavy which sources (Russia)are important Zakamensk centers ofErdenetindustrial and (Mongolia) Mongolia. lignite depositsinNorthern The concentrations ofAs appearsto bethe solids. Onesource oftherelatively high bysuspended almost completely adsorbed dissolved load, whereas Cd, andPb are Mn as of AsMost andZnare transported 3). (Table elements, includingAs, Cd, Pb andZn Mn, (detected for dissolved load)withseveral concentrationsand maximalpermissible for suspendedandbottom sediments) to naturalbackground conditions(detected showed arelative incomparison enrichment Basin intheSelengaRiver samples taken Chemical analysesofwater andsediment Selenga andseveral ofitstributaries. 2008],includingthe [Batsukh, activities changed and/orpolluted dueto mining in8provincesrivers were morphologically in relatively condition,atleast23 pristine were even thoughmostrivers inthecountry in2003showed conducted that Mongolia water in forA state inventory surface Selenga River Basin Pollution andMining-Related inthe Industry purposes.understanding ofmonitoring and objectives discrepancies inwater policy water resources problems. This followed by of theriversystem, andthusfaceddifferent in theupstream anddownstream sections are countries located thatthetwo by thefact harmonized, whichismaybe bestreflected oftheriverbasinwasnot and Russianparts intheMongolian monitoring water quality therecent past, In Baikal. andLake tributaries to theaquaticecosystems oftheSelenga,its arescale miningactivities potential threats floodplains andlarge- densities intheriverine waste water infrastructures, highlivestock poorstatepopulation, anoften ofurban resulted ina good’‘very to ‘good’ chemical Surface Wateron Mongolian Guidelines The evaluationofconcentrations based food preparation inruralareas. water and isfrequently usedfor drinking latter references two are relevant sinceriver and WHO guidelinesascomparisons. The standard MNS900:2005[MNCS&M,2005] water drinking & MH,1997],theMongolian water classification143/a/352[MNE surface classeswewater usedtheMongolian quality evaluation ofresults of anddetermination picture ofrecent trends. nutrient For the total nitrogen) provides acomprehensive and nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, phosphorus, solublereactive phosphorus) speciesforthe nutrient phosphorus(total as blindtests. The systematic evaluationof withstandard(Hach-Lange Inc.) solutions andstandard cuvette testsby photometry wereNutrients filtration after determined assuredcreate ofquality data. atimeseries investigate butalsoto seasonalvariations summer andautumneachyear inorder to inspring, River outalongtheKharaa carried hasbeen This multi-year samplingsurvey the outletofriverbasinatBuren Tolgoi. to Mountains the headwaters intheKhentii from extending course anditstributaries, concentrationsalongthemainrivernutrient gradients of2006 to 2012to observe fromdataset withadditionalmonitoring complemented thismonthlyto bi-monthly and ofDarkhan) downstream ofthecity for sites monitoring two (upstream and data provided authorities byMongolian monitor thistrend, we have usedsurveillance River.and nitrogen intheKharaa order to In to increasing concentrationsofphosphorus recent have yearsIn humanactivities lead in the Kharaa River Basin Nutrient Enrichment Anthropogenic river) inMongolia. riverbasin(upto 20timesinBorroo Kharaa the DzidariverinRussia(upto 1,6times)and sediments nearmajorminingoperationsin high concentrationswere found inbottom for goldextraction, useofmercury historical 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 5 DL shouldbecompared to MPC;BSandSLshouldbecompared to C C concentrationsaccordingMPC –maximalpermissible to Russianlaws (mg/l) BS=bottomDL =dissolved sediments(mg/kg) load(mg/l), SL=suspendedload(mg/kg), Tolgoi) outlet (Buren riverat Kharaa Ulaanbaatar Tuul below river stream dow- river Orkon mining Modonkul River,Djida below borderMongolia Selenga, Russian- Selenga delta ucc –lithosphere averages according (mg/kg; to Wedepohl, 1995) ie eidSml sC nP Zn Pb Mn Cd As Sample Period River Table 3. Heavy metal loads of water and sediments in the the in System sediments and River water of Selenga loads metal Table Heavy 3. 00 etme L1.805 4401. 124.8 18.3 1404.0 0.53 13.38 SL 2010, September 2011, August 2011, August 2011, August 2011, August 2011, August P ,500500 ,0 0,01 0,006 0,01 0,005 0,05 MPC C 2012, June 2012, June 2012, June 2012, June 2012, June 00 a L1. .910. 28136.3 22.8 1305.0 0.59 12.9 SL 2010, May ucc L6700501 .50.5 0.05 0.15 0.005 0.5 6.7 0.05 DL 0.15 0.005 180 5.3 0.26 DL 93 1.1 53 0.25 0.64 DL 41 0.01 44 2.1 6,9 DL 51 0,01 1,5 DL L6700501 .50.5 0.05 0.15 0.005 1.5 6.7 0.45 DL 34 0.02 20 2.9 0.36 DL 6.2 – 0.077 – 0.4 – DL – 9.2 – 2 DL 32 0.027 0.4 DL S6602 4 666 16 643 0.24 59 6.6 14 BS 519 0.22 730 4.5 500 BS 1859 9.7 45 9.6 14 BS 581 0.19 95 3.1 19 BS 635 0.25 7.2 BS S6602 4 666 16 643 0,24 45 6,6 15 BS 565.49 0.15 81 5 36 BS 526.76 0.37 59 3.9 18 BS 666.20 0.2 48 3.6 19 BS 472.54 0.17 2.7 BS L2600 8. . 17.3 6.4 289.0 0.05 2.6 80.0 29.6 SL 1113.0 0.23 11.5 1639.3 704.9 SL 1803.3 10.82 10.0 125.7 38.3 SL 2155.7 0.42 22.8 534.1 219.6 SL 1483.7 1.81 16.6 SL L2600 8. . 17.3 6.4 289.0 0.05 2.6 67.07 SL 17.07 1890.24 0.09 12.20 156.67 40.00 SL 3033.33 – 2.13 – 8.33 – SL – – 85.91 SL 29.21 1237.11 0.34 12.71 SL ,0 2 752 17 527 0,102 2 ucc 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 76 ENVIRONMENT river bankerosion isanothersignificant emissions).With regard to phosphorus, (38% ofphosphorusand25%nitrogen ofthetotal emissions proportion important areas urban representunconnected an the riverbasinare to connected WWTPs, Since only35%ofthetotal populationin for phosphorus(15%of total Permissions). for nitrogen (30%oftotal Nemissions)than wasmuchhigher point sources (WWTP) [Hofmann etal., 2011]. of The proportion 52% (phosphorus)ofthetotal emissions about55%(nitrogen)contributing and for nitrogen andphosphorusemissions settlementsareurban themainsources modelling withtheMONERISmodel, et al., 2013].As aresult emission ofnutrient [Hofmann a similartrend couldbeobserved For total nitrogen concentrationsandloads to treatmentwithout connection plants. bydiffusesources,River areas mainlyurban the increasing release nutrient into Kharaa isanindicationfor yr orthophosphate-P increase from 33toThe remarkable 57t/ (Fig. period observation 5). show aconstantincrease the during at thebasinoutlet(Buren Tolgoi gauge) guidelines. The loadsoforthophosphate-P ‘poor’ statusaccording to theabove cited and total nitrogen leadto a ‘moderate’ or concentrationsoftotalRiver phosphorus oftheKharaa in thedownstream sections However, in themid-andmore significantly status for intheheadwaters. nutrients at the outle outle the at 2012). to (2007 KRB t of and orthophosphate-P loads and orthophosphate-P Fig. 5. Observed discharge vegetation is still intact intheseregions,vegetation isstillintact to thetotal load. Even thoughriparian is amore prominent (36,2%) contributor which are usuallyforested, erosion surface upstreampristine areas ofthecatchment, still have near-naturalthe vegetation. In inthe lower catchmentof theriverbanks only20to 35% fact, erosion.riverbank In high grazing intensities strongly enhances river, vegetation causedby alack ofriparian in aunregulated, lowland meandering catchment scale. Althoughnaturallyhigh is asignificant process (Fig. 6)at the erosion contrast,riverbank river system. By sedimentsrarely reach the surface-eroded floodplains inthevalleybottom meanthat precipitation, gentleslopesandwide vegetation cover andfallowperiods, low erosion dueto prone temporary to surface oftheKRBarein middleandlower parts the catchment. Althoughagricultural areas fine sedimentload(grain size <10μm)in toas themaincontributors thesuspended uplanderosion (21,7%) (74,5%) andsurface et al., erosion 2013]identifiedriverbank etal., 2012, techniques [Hartwig Theuring based sedimentsource fingerprinting catchment River usingisotopeKhaara sources of of sources Recent studiesonthemaindrivers and oftheir Influx and Impacts Sources Sediment Fine of Identification etal., 2013]. 19 μg/l[Sorokovikova reported, recent levels are 5and between 2and13 μg/lwereconcentrations between stem. While for the1970s, phosphorus downstream intheSelenga’sfurther main enrichmenthelp to explain thenutrient et al., 2011]. These upstream trends also alreadyhave [Hofmann beenobserved the macroinvertebrates andfishfauna of shifts andfunctional River the Kharaa significant eutrophication potential in waters. levels nutrient haveThe rising a densities withfree accessto therunning vegetation dueto highlivestockriparian triggered byanincreasing degradation of 2012; etal.,Theuring 2013]. This process is etal., source release ofnutrient [Hartwig fine sedimentinputinthe 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 sediment influxes. of determinant asakey animal husbandry prevention measures from agriculture to options, thefocus theyshift of erosion ofmanagement terms river basin.In Baikal fine sedimentgenerationintheSelenga- implications for theunderstandingof steppe regions,semiarid have important forare characteristic catchments in erosion.riverbank These findings, which this region, dueto thedominanceof fine sedimentinputinriversystems in are onlyoflimited useto investigate shown before, erosion estimates surface etal., 2013].However, askt/a) [Theuring well withmeasured data(mean:20,3 at thecatchment outlet,comparing flow of16,2ktsuspendedsediments loss equation(RUSLE)estimate anannual SedNet modelandtherevised universal soil Sediment budgetcalculationsusingthe from erosion. riverbank 63,8% ofthesuspendedsedimentsstem 7 Fig. 6. Riverbank erosion on the Kharaa. the on erosion Riverbank 6. Fig. the tributary drainingthesecondlargest and the tributary shown thatespeciallythesediment inputof was It water compartments. and subsurface andbiologyofboththesurface quality on thehydromorphology, hydrology, water The measurements includedparameters etal., 2012]. [Hartwig River of theKharaa 120and128,seeFig.(river kilometer 7) 79)to heavily stressedkilometer reaches scale spanningfrom relatively (river pristine program onthemicro- wasconducted habitat. Therefore, anintensive monitoring connectivity, and biogeochemicalturnover production,hydrological primary like water compartments andsubsurface surface causing severe ofthe effects onfunctions infiltrate into theinterstices oftheriverbed, fine sedimentseitherremain suspendedor ofphysicalterms clogging. riverbed The also affect theaquaticecosystem e.g. in increased suspendedfinesediment loads environment into theriversystem, metal pollutioninputfrom theterrestrial asanagentforBesides acting heavy 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 78 ENVIRONMENT riverbed sediment. riverbed The bigsedimentpore inthedeeper of finesedimentwasobserved regionpristine waslow, anincreased fraction mid-flow eventsload during atthemore and long-lasting. Althoughthe sediment that thesuspendedsedimentinputwashigh enough to break offtheclogging layer or the highdischarge events were notstrong This leadsto theconclusion thateither compositionofthecommunity.functional inthe asindicated byashift permanent [Hofmann etal., 2011],thisdegradation is macroinvertebrate revealed community affected aswell. As theassessmentof for higherorganisms wasconcludedto be andquality confluence. Habitatquantity to beinthesamerangeasupstream the as oxygen respiration rates were found areaprovided for more microbes surface may havethe higherfinesedimentfraction metabolism bymeansofdepth.However, thepotentiallowering for biogeochemical decreased,organic into theriverbed carbon inoxygen water and rich depth ofsurface declined. connectivity Thus, thepenetration sedimentlayerthe uppermost thevertical in fraction Through ahighfineparticulate to thereach upstream theconfluence. wasdecreasedproductivity compared The algaesuccessionandwholestream Gol affected almostallconsidered functions. ofZagdelin intensively usedsub-catchment (arrow indicates of confluence Gol). Zagdelin loads sediment 7.Fig. Total suspended in the Kharaa during medium flow cover changesonhydrologically relevant oflandhelp to understandtheimpacts field investigations atthesite scalecan suchchangesover large areas,survey only While remote sensingdatacanhelp to changes appearto beequallyimportant. and evapotranspiration.However, landuse temperatures theeffectsoutweigh ofrising predicted increase inprecipitation may Basin.ForSelenga River the future, a foronwards theentire wasunusuallydry water availability, from theperiod 1995 term (20 term contrasttoland usechanges. along- In most relevant drivers includeclimate and scale. With regard to water availability, the andmacro (Selenga-Baikal) meso (Kharaa) focusingactivities onthemicro (local), This paperintegrated findingsofresearch al., 2013]. et environment [Karthe and socio-economic comparable withregard to the(bio-)physical andSelengarivers whichare the Kharaa strategy seemsplausiblefor the basinsof inthelargersynoptic monitoring basin. This in arepresentative modelregion withamore approach isto combineintensive monitoring prohibitive. Therefore, onepromising ofwater-resourcesmonitoring isalmost suchasituation,comprehensivedata. In also result inascarcityofenvironmental to thepoliticalandeconomictransformation population densitiesandchallengesrelated thelargeharmonized monitoring; size, low basinwithalackof river transboundary donotonlyconstitute aits tributaries faces several challenges. The Selengaand freshwater anduniqueecosystem, reservoir asa Basin, whichisofglobalimportance Water managementintheSelenga-Baikal ecosystem. be controlled inorder to protect theaquatic inner clogging, finesedimentinputneedsto flood events. for Dueto thissusceptibility an during ofsuspendedmaterial the intake velocities found here may have increased downwardspace andhighvertical flow CONCLUSIONS th century) trend ofincreasing century) 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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7 . Anisimov, O., Reneva,S.(2006).Permafrost andChanging Climate: The RussianPerspective. 2. Alcamo, J.M., Döll, P., Henrichs, T. etal. andtesting (2003).Development ofthe Water- 1. selected model region selected (suchastheKharaa consist ofanintensive ina monitoring Basincouldmacroscale Selenga-Baikal an effective conceptfor monitoring the (sub)basins ofdifferent scales. Therefore, problems appearto becomparablein BasinshowsthatpresentRiver andfuture integration offindingsfrom theSelenga From amanagementperspective, the levels. nutrient of rising considered eutrophic, there isacleartrend water bodiescannotbe of thesurface plants are Even thoughmost ofconcern. and thepoorstate ofwastewater treatment loads, populationgrowth areas inurban mining activities. With regard to nutrient sediments canfrequently berelated to water bodiesandtheiraccumulationin release oftoxic substancesinto surface erosion.and consequentlyriverbank The causeofdegrading vegetation important floodplainsaredensities intheriverine an Basin,highlivestockthe SelengaRiver of for part theMongolian particular In but increasing levels- inputs. nutrient metals,with heavy and–atmoderate pollution ofwater andsediments stressors includefinesedimentinfluxes, With regard to water quality, important at riverbasinscale. is amajorthreat to water even availability clearance andwildfires) inonesub-region loss offorest cover (dueto logging, land Basin,indicate River thatthe in theKharaa valley, arelatively headwater region pristine intheSugnugurin detail. Observations runoff, evapotranspirationorwater storage) processes (suchasinfiltration,surface 9 REFERENCES 69:PACCTR%5D2.0.CO;2 Ambio, Vol. 35 (4),pp. 169–175.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35%5B1 48 (3),pp. 317–337. GAP2 globalmodelofwater useandavailability. Hydrological SciencesJournal, Vol. multiple stressors”.multiple rivercatchment with a transboundary of anintegrated conceptfor monitoring Basin:Development in theBaikal-Selenga 12/039 „Sustainable water management and Research ofgrant inthecontext RU ofEducation Federalthe German Ministry Bureau of bytheInternational supported cooperationwasGerman-Russian Fund for BasicResearch Grant12-05-33090. grant “Expedition Selenga-Baikal”, Russian RAS-MAS, theRussianGeographical Society complexbiological expedition Mongolian ofRussian- implemented undersupport Basinwas Work Baikal intheLake scheme. of the “Assistance for Implementation” (AIM) Bureau inthecontext the BMBF/International the Project and Administration Jülich(PTJ) provided by thesupport They acknowledge initiativeDevelopment) (grant no. 033L003). of theFONA(Research for Sustainable and Research (BMBF)intheframework ofEducation Federalthe German Ministry Asia: Region Model Mongolia”, fundedby Water Resources inCentral Management and development project „Integrated oftheresearch inthecontext conducted BasinwasWork River intheKharaa Basin. Selenga-Baikal duplication incomparablelocationsthe region have ahighpotential for successful have beenproven effective inthismodel large scale. Atthesametime, solutionsthat atthe Basin)andsynopticsurveys River ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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Daniel Karthe of water resources managementin Central Asia. andauthorofpapersrelatedGeographical Society to different aspects group ofHydrology oftheworking of the German He isthespeaker water andmedicalgeography. monitoring management,water quality (IWRM),water,Management sanitationandhygiene urban (WASH), of hisresearch isonhydrology, Integrated Water Resources Centre for Environmental Research inMagdeburg, Germany. The focus asascientistattheHelmholtz in 2009.Since2010,hehasbeenworking degree ofGeography atthe Institute atGöttingenUniversity, Germany, andobtainedhisdoctoral India and Presidency College, Kolkata, studiedGeography University, atMannheim Germany, 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 84 ENVIRONMENT author A.I.Perel’man) (2013). andLandscapeEcogeochemistry (1999,co- is theauthorofabout300scientificworks, including:LandscapeGeochemistry research. He project onSelenga-Baikal he istheleaderofRussianGeographical Society Galina L.Shinkareva Galina Sergey R.Chalov Nikolay S.Kasimov Marcus Malsy Selenga River basin(2012,withco-authors). Selenga River Environmentalwith co-authors); state of aquaticsystems inthe river system (2013, Resources assessmentoftheSelenga-Baikal ofaquaticlandscapes. publications: Main geochemistry Water Faculty ofGeography. Herscientificinterests are focused on andSoilGeography, ofLandscapeGeochemistry Department State in2012.Atpresent University sheisPh.D. studentatthe for rivers. papersand4books. Heistheauthorof90journal andsediment hazards, andenvironmentaltransport analysis risk rivers,communities andbiodiversity, sediment transboundary Sedimentation withspecialemphasisonhydrodynamics, stream resources, Fluvial processes, Environmental and Hydraulics respectively. research His interests are focused on Water Lomonosov State University, Moscow in2004and2007 Processes andHydrology from theFaculty ofGeography, Dutch-Russian (NWO),Flemish-Russian projectsetc. Atpresent Education andScience, educationalprojects, British-Russian Russian Foundation for Fundamental of Research andMinistry coordinated numerous fundedbythe projects international Heof subaqualecosystems, andpaleo-geochemistry. in environmental geochemistry, biogeochemistry, geochemistry Russian Geographical Society. Heisamongtheleadingexperts Academy asFirst ofSciences. Heserves Vice-President ofthe andSoilGeography,Geochemistry Full oftheRussian Member State ofLandscape University,Moscow HeadoftheDepartment the Global Water Challenge” Quality project. of theUNEPfunded “Assessment of World Water to Meet Quality Currently heworks onlarge RegionResources –Model Mongolia” Management project. hydrological modellinginCentral Asia withinthe “Integrated Water global changeonwater resources. onlarge scale Heworked degree inlandscapeecology. research His focuses of onimpacts University, von Ossietzky Carl Oldenburg, Germany withamaster Systems Germany Research, since2010.Hegraduated Kassel, from has been working attheCenter for hasbeenworking Environmental received hisM.S.andPh.D degrees inFluvial , Professor, oftheFaculty Dean ofGeography, graduated from theLomonosov Moscow scale water quality modelling as part modellingaspart quality 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 5 special focus onCentral Europe, EastandCentral Asia. theMiddle Melanie Hartwig Lucas Menzel Philipp Theuring Christian Schweitzer publications on fluvial sediment transport processes. publications onfluvialsedimenttransport mass wastingprocesses. Heisthe authorofseveral scientific processes, hydrological modeling, sedimentsource fingerprinting, Magdeburg, Germany. research His interests includefluvial at theHelmholtzCentre for Environmental Research in at Potsdam University. student asadoctoral Since2009,heworks towardsGermany andispresently degree hisdoctoral working Research, Magdeburg andDresden University, Germany. thesisattheHelmholtz-Centre fordoctoral Environmental hyporheic zone ofloticsystems, whichare ofher thesubject this basis, shehassincethenbeen doingresearch onthe hydrology, hydrogeology andenvironmental microbiology. On thestudiesincludeddisciplinesof specializations during Germany, nowholdingaDiplomainGeoecology. Her of globalenvironmental changeontheregional hydrology, with evapotranspiration, permafrost hydrology, aswell astheimpact research interests includewater scarcity, drought, where His heleadstheHydrology andClimatology Section. ofGeography,Department ofHeidelberg, University Germany, leader ofthe Water Group. Since2009heisFull Professor atthe Environmental as University Systems Research (CESR)atKassel before Research hejoinedtheCenter (PIK) forImpact a postdoctoral researcher atthePotsdam-Institute for Climate Technology From (Switzerland). inZurich ETH 1998–2004hewas Environmental Research Computational LandscapeEcology, Helmholtz Centre for received hisPhD attheFederal of Institute graduated from the Freiberg,TU Bergakademie studied Geography atJena University, is scientist at the Department of isscientistattheDepartment 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 86 ENVIRONMENT international journals.international development &analysis. Hehasauthored numerous papersonthesetopics inhigh-ranking Mikhail Lychagin Mikhail in the Caspian. Volga deltaandtheNorthern environmentalfluctuations, geochemicalstate ofaquaticsystems basin: environmental consequencesoftheCaspianSea-level involved into thecomprehensive research withintheCaspianSea environmental andGIS.For monitoring 20years hehasbeen interests focus onenvironmental geochemistry, aquaticsystems, Geography, Lomonosov State University. Moscow research His andSoilGeography,Landscape Geochemistry Faculty of Jörg Priess Jürgen Hofmann mechanisms in socio-environmental systems andscenario mechanisms insocio-environmental and society, integrated modelling&modelcoupling, feedback onenvironmentuse dynamics, GlobalChangeanditsimpacts Research inLeipzig, Germany. research His interests include land- senior scientistattheHelmholtzCentre for Environmental (GRID)researchDynamics center. asa Since2009,heworks University, where heheadedtheGlobal&Regional Integrated the Center for Environmental Systems Research atKassel Germany where hecontinuedasapostdoc until1998.Hejoined ofGöttingen, Science andPlant attheUniversity Nutrition monitoring, development inthewater andcapacity sector. water (IWRM)inAsia quality (China/Mongolia), Management MONERIS (www.moneris.igb-berlin.de), Integrated Water Resource emissionsinriversystems with include themodellingofnutrient research ofGeosciences).His (Dept. interests Berlin University professorhe isanadjunct for Physical Geography attheFree Ecosystem Research, Moreover, www.igb-berlin.de). Department. Freshwater Fisheries (IGB, EcologyandInland inBerlin received for hisPhD in1993attheInstitute Soil isAssociate Professor of oftheDepartment isaseniorscientistattheLeibniz-Institute of 229.09.2014 13:01:35 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 247667 (India); e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: 247667 (India); * Corresponding author 2541505/2271708 (R),Fax: [email protected], +91-532-2545341,e-mail: Allahabad –211004,UttarPradesh (India); Tel: +91-532-2271308(O); +91-532- e-mail:[email protected] (India); 1 3 2 Dharmaveer Singh at Kasol (0,02cumec/year) andSunniat Kasol (0,04cumec/year) andinsignificantRampur significant (95%confidencelevel) at sites. The trend inannualSDIisstatistically decreasing trends inSDI atallthegauging and seasonaltrend analysishave revealed also beendiscussed. The results ofannual inSDIhave(annual andseasonal)patterns seasonal SDIfor 1970–2010.Decadal periods applied to trend detect inannual and test method,a non-parametric has been test,at different (MK) sites. Mann-Kendall flowsofSutlejRiver between comparison order andfacilitate uniformity to preserve (SDI)hasbeenderivedinDischarge Indices The annualandseasonalStandardized have beenemployed for statisticalanalysis. (1970–2010) of41years riverdischarge data conditions. recordsThe dailyhistorical under different physiographic andclimatic namely, located SunniandRampur Kasol, over three gauging sites,been performed (middle catchment), India. The studyhas different gauging sites basin of SutlejRiver ofriverdischargeand seasonalpatterns at present paperhasaimedfor studyingannual flowinthisbasin. ofSutlejRiver pattern The temperature whichwillmodifysurface studies have revealed inmeanannual rise system. River Recent other basinsofIndus hydropower generationascompared to region. This basinhashighestpotential for river basinis 7 ABSTRACT. (N-W HIMALAYAN REGION) IN RIVER DISCHARGE OF RIVER SUTLEJ STUDY OF LONG-TERM TREND Water Resources Systems ofHydrology, Division,NationalInstitute Roorkee– ofCivilEngineering, of NehruNationalInstitute Motilal Department Technology, GIS Cell, of NehruNationalInstitute Motilal Technology Allahabad–211004,
Sutlej basin,amountainous located in N-W Himalayan located inN-WHimalayan 1 , Rajan D., Rajan Gupta 1, 2 *, Sanjay K. Jain *, Sanjay K. intensify hydrological andaffect water cycle and precipitation, may which will inturn may enhancerates ofevapotranspiration have claimed thatincrease intemperature et al., have [Loaiciga to attributed globalwarming and surface radiation reflected bytheEarth atmosphere [IPCC, solar 2007].GHGsabsorb Green (GHGs) intheEarth’s HouseGases havepractices) increased concentration of of fossil fuels, deforestation andlanduse Anthropogenic activities ( Anthropogenic activities trend analysis, N-W Himalaya test, discharge, (SDI),Mann-Kendall Indices basin. projects th useful for planningwater resources related water. The present to study isexpected be may beproblems related withdrinking productionaswell asthere and electricity flowmaydecline inriver affect agriculture decade of20 sites from decades1970–1980to thelast atallthedischarge hasbeenreported Before this, inannual continuousrise has occurred inthedecadeof2001–2010. sites discharge inriver showsthatreduction of annualdecadalchangeinSDIatallthe (0,01 cumec/year) respectively. The study INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: 1996; Srinivas 1996; Srinivas at can be undertaken intheSutlej at canbeundertaken th 3 century (1991–2000). century The Standardized Discharge et al. , 2013].Someauthors e.g. burning 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 88 ENVIRONMENT under hypothetical (doublingCO scenario by Vehvilâinen andLohvansuu [1991] snow cover inFinland hasbeenstudied Effect ofclimate changeondischarges and some regions may bebenefited. water resources however (inlong-term) ofclimatenegative changeon impacts derived from thesestudieshave indicated globe [Parry across theregional studiesundertaken the earth. byrecentThis hasbeenaffirmed well astemporally for different regions of 2011]. spatiallyas willvary These impacts resources systems [Arnell, 1999;Xu basin have beenscrutinized by Xu on headstream runoffinthe Tarim river line ofstudy, ofclimate change impacts Central Chile[Vicuna riverbasininNorth- melt drivenLimari inupperwatershed ofthesnow- observed of changeinstream flowhasalso been runoff for future period. Asimilarpattern and predicted reductioninmeanmonthly riverbasinin Aliakmon Western Macedonia of climatethe changeonthewater cycle Fotopoulos [2005]have impacts inspected andof changeinriverdischarge. Mimikou and andre1986–95 over Canada for thedecadesof1976–1985 examined climaticandhydrologic variations Finland. Whitfield andCannon[2000] vanishing ofwinter snowcover inSouthern increase inmeandischarge by20–50%and concentration). Their studyhaspredicted it determines snowaccumulationand it determines inclined to changesintemperature because and glacier-fed are riversofthe world more [2007], ithasbeenconcluded thatsnow From thestudy of Vicuna andDracup andGiorgi,[Gao 2008]. on bothagricultural and naturalecosystems These couldresult inincreased water stress the headstream may alsosloworlessen. andincreased trend ofrunoffin shrinkage be exhausted dueto continualglacier However, glaciermeltwater would of glaciersandresulted increase inrunoff. temperature whichhascausedmelting [2011]. Their results have revealed in rise et al. , 2007].Generally, results vealed mixed patterns et al. , 2011]. In this , 2011].In et al. et al. 2 ,
melt processes blessed withhugehydropower generation Sutlej basin,formed is bySutlejRiver the SutlejRiver. downstream of been measured atBhakara trend inannualandseasonaldischarge has respectively. However, for Sutlej River, the 1961–2004 discharge during ofSutlejRiver 1995 followed byinsignificant decrease in for 1961– been reported Beasriverduring in annualandmonsoonaldischarge has 1992. Opposite to this, significant decrease 1965– riverduring 1969–1998 andRavi monsoonal discharge ofChenabriverduring indicated insignificant increase inannualand West (NWH). Himalaya Their results have seasonal discharge offour riversinNorth- al. studies intheregion. Recently, Bhutiyani haslimited numberofinaccessibility inadditiontodata availability physical However, stations, lackinmonitoring poor resources riverbasins. intheHimalayan implications ofclimate changeonwater runoff ishighlyrequired for understanding Thus, trends thestudyoflong-term instream water shortages. flowing through thisregion andwidespread decline indischarge ofmajorriversystems Program, 2005]. This willleadto significant Nepal will vanishwithin40years [WWF present rate ofretreat, glaciersintheregion ispredictedCollins, thatatthis 2005].It inglacialmass[Rees and due to shrinkage ofwarming, runoffwillfallsharply period increase intemperature butfor prolonged Initially, increase inrunoffwilloccurwith on annualandseasonalrunoffoftherivers. glacier-melt would have profound impacts 2009]. The temperature snowand driven Shrestha [Singh andKumar, 1997;Naithani glacier volume across region theHimalayan ofsignificant retreatreports anddepletionof by haveSuch concerns beensupported [IPCC,the effects ofglobalwarming 2007]. haveHimalaya great potential to suffer from which originate from the glaciers ofthe runoff. andBrahmaputrarivers Ganga Indus, [2008]examinedtrends inannualand et al. , 2004;Berthier, 2007;Eriksson, i.e. timingofsnowmelt et al. , 2001; 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . et 2 0 1 4
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8 from North, Punjabfrom from North, West, Haryana States namely,Indian JammuandKashmir withfourThe State shares itsboundary Pradesh, in thehillyState ofHimachal India. basinthatisconfined ofSutlejRiver a part outin The present studyhasbeencarried Area Study NWH region, India. gauging sites in (upstream from Bhakara) of discharge atdifferent inSutlejRiver is to study annualandseasonalpatterns in mind, ofthispaper themainobjective theabove inthebasin.Keeping practices andagricultural production ofelectricity by globalclimate changemay affect ofriverdischargein patterns triggered been installedonthisriver. The variability Hence, several hydropower projectshave ofabundantwater.setting andavailability potential d 9 MATERIALS &METHODS ue toitsunique Fig. 1. Location map of the study region. study the of map 1.Fig. Location topographical latitudes and76°51 and lies between 31°05 and liesbetween Pradesh. This hasaspread of2457km ofHimachal Bilaspur andSolandistricts ofSimala,Kullu, Mandi, covers parts It (Tibet). borderand hasinternational withChina from South-East from South,Uttarakhand of 1500MW. Power Project Hydro-electric (NJHEP) Jhakari Power Project (RHEP)of412MWandNathpa Project of1080MW, Hydro-electric Rampur withinthestudyareaRiver are SunniDam hydropower installedontheSutlej projects basin is9226,75MW(megawatt). The major The identifiedhydropower potential inthis recorded 21,23°Cand103cmrespectively. temperature andprecipitation hasbeen high relief features. The meanannual steep slope, topography dissected and of 4,570m. by The basinischaracterized pass inthewestern Tibet atanelevation nearDarma lakes from Mansarovar- Rakastal whichoriginatesdrained bytheSutlejRiver longitudes (Figure basinis 1).SutlejRiver ’ 11 ’ 00 ’’ E and77°45 ’’ N and31°39 ’ ’ 26 17 ’’ ’’ N 229.09.2014 13:01:36 E 2 9 .
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0 90 ENVIRONMENT discharge, shown inequation1. 1970–2010from asperiod the timeseries their standard deviationaveraged over theirmeananddividingbysubtracting discharge data hasbeenstandardized by (foranalysis) andyearly annualanalysis) gauging sites. The monthly(for seasonal responses atdifferent (flows)ofSutlejRiver thehydrological between comparison andfacilitate uniformity been usedto bring study ofBhutiyani (SDI)hasbeenadopted fromIndices the The conceptofStandardized Discharge Standardized Discharge Indices (SDI). Methodology annual andseasonalvaluesateachsite. values ofdischarge are summedto obtain in described Table 1.For theanalysis, daily while thedetailsofdatahave been stations have beenshowninFig. 1earlier on dailytimestep. The locationsofgiven 1970 to 2010for of41years theperiod and Rampur. These dataare available from (BBMB) for three gaugingSunni sites; Kasol, Board BeasManagement supplied byBhakra present and studyhasbeencollected dischargeThe long-term datausedinthe Data Availability andSources Where, site hasbeencomputed. this way, annualandseasonalSDIfor each deviation ofdischarge thisperiod. In during 1970–2010andSDisstandardover period X ao 17–05 31°21 (1970–2005) Kasol un 17–05 31°14 Sunni (1970–2005) apr(9020)31°27 (1970–2005) Rampur SDI ⎝⎠ ⎜⎟ ⎛⎞ tto aiueLniueElevation (m) Longitude Latitude Station XX imean − X SD i X is observed time series of timeseries isobserved mean Table 1. Location details of the stations considered for the study in Sutlej basin Sutlej in study the for considered stations the of details Table 1. Location ismeandischarge averaged , (1) et al. [2008]. This has ’ ’ ’ 25 15 15 ’’ ’’ ’’ 76°52 77°06 77°38 ’ ’ ’ 42 30 40 ’’ ’’ ’’ observed valueattime observed ( withthealternative hypothesisis checked value attime Kumar, 2012]: and S statisticsofMKtest isdefinedas[Jain where nisthenumberofdatapoints, in which For samples( computed asshowninequation3: Method. Mann-Kendall (MK) Trend Analysis extent extent using a normal distribution and variance of andvariance distribution using anormal statistic isdefinedby: probability distribution [Zhang probability distribution stable, independentandrandomwithequal underresearchthat thetimeseries are against outliers[Hess other tests asitisdistribution-free androbust hasadvantageover 1945].It [Mann, variables analyzing trend inhydrologic andclimatologic based test andhasbeenusedwidelyfor In MKtest, nullhypothesisIn ( a S Var g ,0 0, sgn Sxx = H =− i nntiii i i t n mn ) ofincreasing ordecreasing trend. The () nn () ∑∑ iji ==+ ()( ()()( ) ) − xxx xx 11 1 6 23. 1976.9 12636.6 662 5 1751933.6 1177.5 655 7 03. 1903.4 10331.7 976 iji ji i + −+−+− . = =−= −= 251 5 12 5 12
MK test is a non-parametric rank rank MK test is anon-parametric t g , sgn i denote thenumberoftiesto n () ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧ i
. The valueofsgn( l −−< +−> Mean Annual ji 10),MKtest isconducted ,0. 0 0 1, 1, Discharge (cumec) 18 ∑ i = n et al. 1 xx xx i ji ji (2) j and , 2001]. It assumes assumes , 2001].It H o x et al. ) ofnotrend i () is observed isobserved () () Deviation Standard (cumec) (3) , 2005]. x j – 229.09.2014 13:01:36 x 9 (4) x . i 0 ) is j 9 is . 2 S 0 1
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9 Ho atgiven statistical interpretation oftherejection The test statistic where Ho isrejected at time series. indicates adownward (decreasing) trend in (increasing) trend andnegative valueof j Positive valueof Q [Xu isgivenfor asfollows thewholedataset.It the medianofallcombinationdatapairs magnitude of trend line. This isdefinedas Sen’s slopemethodisused to compute of significance (Z0.025=1.96). thisstudy,2012]. In Hoistested at5%level in several research studies[Patra 1%tobetween 10%level (mostly5%level) issueandhasbeen foundis asubjective rejection ofHo. The level ofsignificance inhypothesisas acriterion testing for identified. The significance level istaken a probability greater than in a two-sided test ifthevalueof| 1 M d a n QMedian i respectively. ZS isanestimate ofthetrend magnitude. == == et al. ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧ x a S Var S Var i S S and , 2008]: ,0 0, + − () () 1 1 ⎝⎠ ⎜⎟ ⎛⎞ α xx x Fig. 2. Annual trends in SDI at Kasol, Sunni and Rampur for 1970–2010. j level ofsignificance implies ji ,0. ,0 ji are datavaluesattime Z α − − α Z thatatrend isfalsely /2 S S is estimated as: Q < [Xu > α indicates anupward fr ,2 ., , 1,2,..., for level ofsignificance (5) et al. , 2008]. The (6) et al. i Z and | is Q ,
of 1970–2010 to whethertherate determine 1970–2010 of in SDIhasbeencomputed for theperiod (annualandseasonwise)change Decadal SDI for1970–2010 ChangeDecadal inAnnualandSeasonal of decrease summerseason. ishighestduring decreasing trends inSDIatallthesites. The rate are bystatisticallyinsignificant characterized seasons andMay) (March, April and spring The winter (December, andFebruary) January respectively.0,034 cumec/year atRampur cumec/year atSunniand0,47cumec/year, The rate ofchangeis0,32cumec/year, 0,031 (September, and November) seasons. October JulyandAugust) andautumn summer (June, during significant atSunniandRampur found atallsites. The trends are statistically Generally, decreasing trends inSDIhave been trend analysisofSDIfor 1970–2010. Table ofseasonal 2provides thesummary andminimumatSunni. at Rampur decrease inannualdischarge hasbeenfound respectively.(Rampur) thisway, In highest cumec/year (Sunni)and0,04cumec/year 0,01 of decrease is0,02cumec/year (Kasol), statistically significant atRampur. The rate andSunnibutitis of confidenceatKasol trend isstatisticallyinsignificant at95%level followed bySunniandRampur.at Kasol The decreasing trend inSDIhasbeenreported of 1970–2010hasbeenshowninFig. 2. The oftrendThe annualpattern inSDIfor period Using MKTest for1970–2010 Site Wise Trends inAnnualandSeasonal SDI RESULTS 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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2 92 ENVIRONMENT Fig. 4. Inter-decadal (seasonal) change in SDI (cumec/year) at Kasol, Sunni and Rampur for 1970–2010. (* indicates thatvaluesare statisticallysignificant at5%level ofsignifi cance). Fig. 3. Annual decadal change in SDI Rampur tto Season Station Sunni Kasol (cumec/year) at Kasol, Sunni and Rampur for 1970–2010. for Rampur and Table 2. Table 2. Seasonal trend analysis of SDI for 1970–2010 performed at all sites all at 1970–2010 for SDI performed of analysis trend Seasonal umr() 007Decreasing –0,047 (–)* Summer umr() 002Decreasing –0,032 Decreasing –0,021 (–)* Summer (–) Summer uun() 004Decreasing –0,034 (–)* Autumn uun() 001Decreasing –0,031 Decreasing –0,013 (–)* (–) Autumn Autumn itr()–,1 Decreasing –0,015 (–) Winter itr()–,0 Decreasing –0,008 Decreasing –0,002 (–) (–) Winter Winter pig()–,1 Decreasing –0,015 (–) Spring pig()–,1 Decreasing –0,012 Decreasing –0,007 (–) (–) Spring Spring Z s different gauging sites of SutlejRiver. at decreased annualtrends inSDIobserved discharge issolelyresponsible for having site. The recent inriver (2001–2010) reduction river dischargeatRampur hasbeenreported sites respectively. andfallin The maximumrise fall in2001–2010for SunniandRampur Kasol, 1990 and1991–2000followed byanabrupt indecadesof1970–1980,1981– observed rates hasbeen annual discharge withvarying dischargein river inlong-term. in The rise in Fig. 3. There isacontinuousreduction in SDIfor allthesites have been shown or not. The results ofannualdecadalchange stationisuniform change ataparticular of Q (Cya)Remarks (°C/year) 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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9 6. Gao X., Giorgi F (2008) Increased aridity in the Mediterranean region intheMediterranean X.,Giorgi undergreenhouse Gao aridity F(2008)Increased 6. M.,XuJ., Eriksson Shrestha A.B., Vaidya R.A.,NepalS.,Sandstr¨omK(2009) The changing 5. BhutiyaniM.R.,Kale V.S., Pawar N.J(2009)Climate changeandtheprecipitation variations 4. BhutiyaniM.R.,Kale V.S., Pawar N.J(2008)Changing stream intherivers flowpatterns 3. E.,Arnaud Berthier Y., KumarR.,AhmadS., Wagnon P., ChevallierP(2007)Remote sensing 2. Arnell W (1999) The effect ofclimate changeonhydrological regimes inEurope: Acon- 1. decade of20 the sites from decades1970–1980to thelast atall annual discharge hasbeenobserved thepresent study,In in acontinuousrise SDI reflectthedeclineinriverdischarge. and autumnseasons. The decreasing trends in summer during atSunniandRampur observed significant decreasing trends inSDIhave been and Sunnirespectively. Similarly, statistically andinsignificantsignificant atKasol atRampur 1970–2010. The annualtrends are statistically gauging sites for ofSutlejRiver of theperiod annual andseasonaltrends inSDIatdifferent The analysisofMKtest reveals decreasing uniform summerandautumnseasons. during nature ofSDIisnot ofchangeinpatterns seasons from 1970–1980to 1991–2000. The andwinter spring has beennoticedduring water.river However, more inSDI orlessrise in SDIinforms inflowof aboutreduction thedecadeof2001–2010. during The decrease ateachsite throughout allseasons observed respectively. AsubstantialfallinSDIhasbeen sites SunniandRampur in SDIatKasol, Fig. 4showsresults change ofinter-decadal 3 REFERENCES DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Global Planet. Change, Vol. 62,pp. 195–209. gas forcing estimated from highresolution simulations witharegional climate model. ICIMOD.Himalayas, Kathmandu, ofclimate changeonwater resources Impact andlivelihoodsHimalayas: inthegreater 10.1002/joc.1920. ofClimatology, Journal 1866–2006.International Himalaya: doi: in thenorthwestern Science, 95(5),pp. 618–624. inthe20th century. Current ofglobal warming Implications Himalaya: of northwestern Remote SensingofEnvironment, Vol. 108(3),pp. 327–338. India). Himalaya, Pradeshestimates ofglaciermassbalancesintheHimachal (Western tinental perspective. GlobalEnvironmental Change, Vol. 9,pp. 5–23. th century (1991–2000).However, century of globalclimate change. water resources intheSutlejbasinrespect for proper andmanagementof monitoring the hourto adoptofanappropriate strategy basin. Sutlej River Therefore, itistheneedof alteration inthebehaviour ofdischarge of present of studythusshowsthepattern temperature also. thisperiod during The there wasanincrease inmeansurface 2001–2010even theperiod though during decrease inthedischarge Sutlej of river the volume ofglaciers, there isasignificant in thelater stage,during dueto shrinkage to accelerated meltingofglaciers. However, resulted intheincrease ofdischarge due which thecorresponding period during temperature an increase inthemeansurface may thatthere to beattributed fact hasbeen from 1970–1980andthenfrom 1991–2000 The initialincrease intheannualdischarge of Bhutiyanietal[2009]. inthestudy over NWHhasalsobeenconfirmed meantemperature The increase inthesurface meantemperature over NWH. insurface to rise maydecline inflowofSutlejRiver beattributed dischargeriver inthedecadeof2001–2010. The change inSDIatallthesites in showsareduction the results ofthestudyannualdecadal 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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4 94 ENVIRONMENT 2 . Vicuna R.D., S.,Garreaud McPheeJ. onthe hydrology (2011)Climate changeimpacts of 22. Vicuna S.,DracupJ.A. (2007) The evolution studiesonhydrol- ofclimate changeimpact 21. Vehvilâinen B., Lohvansuu J(1991) The effect of climate changeondischarges andsnow 20. Srinivas V.V., (2013)Multi-site downscalingofmaximumand BasuB., KumarN.,JainS.K. 19. SinghP., assessmentofclimate changeonthehydrological KumarN(1997)Impact re- 18. Shrestha M.L., Wake A.B, Shrestha P.A (2004)Recent Trends andPotential Climate Change 17. ReesH.G.,Collins D.N (2005)Regional differences inresponse offlowinglacier-fed Hima- 16. P 15. M.,CanzianiO., Parry Palutikof JvanderLindenP., HansonC.(2007)Climate Change2007: 14. Nainwal H.V., Prasad NaithaniA.K., C(2001)Geomorphological evidencesofre- SatiK.K., 13. 1. Mimik 12. H.B.(1945) tests Mann againsttrend. Nonparametric Econometrica, Vol. 13,pp. 245–259. 11. Loaiciga H.A., Valdes J.B., J.,Vogel andthe Schwarz H(1996)Globalwarming R.,Garvey 10. Kumar JainS.K., V. (2012) Trend analysisofrainfallandtemperature datafor– India 9. Panel Intergovernmental 2007.Climate onClimate change(2007).Im- Change(IPCC), 8. H.,Malm HessA.,Iyer W (2001)Lineartrend ofmethods. analysis:acomparison Atmo- 7. 10.1007/s10584-010-9888-4. Chile. basininsemiarid a snowmeltdriven Climate Change, Vol. 105pp. 469-488,doi ogy andwater resources inCalifornia. ClimaticChange, Vol. 82,pp. 327–350. cover inFinland. Hydrological Sciences, Vol. 36(2),pp. 109–121. ogy doi/01002/joc.3782 ofClimatol- Journal vector machine.minimum temperature International usingsupport ogy, Vol. 193pp. 316–350. river.sponse ofasnowandglaciermeltrunoffdominated Himalayan ofHydrol- Journal Paris, France, OECD, pp. 5–14. OECD GlobalForum andClimate Development onSustainableDevelopment, Change onGlacierRetreat/Glacial inNepalandPotential Lakes Impacts Adaptation Measures, layan riversto climaticwarming. Hydrological Process, Vol. 20(10),pp. 2157–2169. State, (1871–2006)over Climate Change. Orissa India. century Vol. 111(3–4),pp. 801–817. Adaptation and Impacts, Vulnerability, Press. University 2007,1stedition.Cambridge Current Glacieranditscharacteristics. treat Science, oftheGangotri Vol. 80(1),pp. 87–94. Seventh IAHSScientificAssembly atFoz doIguaçu, Brazil, 2005).IAHSPubl. April 295. (Proceedings the Assessment Making ofsymposiumS6heldduring andDecision Impact ofClimatic Change– ter basin.Regional resources River Hydrological Impacts inAliakmon hydrologic ofHydrology, Journal cycle. Vol. 174,pp. 83–127 A review. Current Science, Vol. 102(1),pp. 37–49. Press,et al., University Cambridge UK. Panel oftheIntergovernmental sessment Report onClimate Change, edited byM.Parry grouppacts, adaptationandvulnerability. IIto ofworking Contribution theFourth As- Environment,spheric Vol. 35,pp. 5211–5222. atra J.P., rainfalltrends N.S.(2012)Detecting intwentieth A.,SinghR.,Raghuwanshi Mishra ou M.,Fotopoulos F(2005)Regional effects ofclimate changeonhydrology andwa- 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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9 27. XuZ.,Gong T., trends LiuC.(2008)Decadal ofclimate inthe Tibetan Plateau –regional 26. XuH.,ZhouB., Song Y. ofclimate changeonheadstream runoffinthe (2011)Impacts 25. NepalProgram. ofglaciers, WWF glacierretreat, (2005)Anoverview andsubsequent 24. WhitfieldP.H., CannonA.J. (2000)Recent Variations inClimate andHydrology inCanada. 23. 5 proceedings. Suzhou (China).Hehaspublished 60research papersinrefereed andconference journals including and academicinteraction Tampa (USA),Spain, Thailand, Atlanta (USA)and System”.Management Hevisited several foreign for countries research paperpresentation (NCP) on “GIS for development of Web & basedPublic Infrastructure HealthInformation asChiefCoordinator sponsored NationalCoordinatedpresently working for Project AICTE He has published 8 papers in international/national conferencesHe haspublished8papersininternational/national andjournals. Research (CSIR),India. SciencebytheCouncil ofScientificandIndustrial in thefieldofEarth Association ofHydrologistof Indian (IAH).Hehasbeenawarded JuniorResearch Fellowship from 1950to 2002inthe Yangtze basin,China.Hydrological Processes, Vol. 50(1),pp. 65–79. Zhang Q., Jiang T., S.(2005)Precipitation, GemmerM.,Becker temperature andrunoffanalysis temperature andprecipitation. Hydrological Processes, Vol. 22(16),pp. 3056–3065. Tarim Basin.Hydrology River Research, pp. 20–29,doi:10.2166/nh.2010.069. malayaglaciersreport2005.pdf. andChina;Available inNepal, athttp://assets.panda.org/downloads/hi- India impacts Canadian Water Resources Journal. Rajan D. Rajan Gupta started underGISCell from theacademicyearstarted 2006-07.Heis developed M. Tech. (GISandRemote Sensing)coursewhichwas asFoundingworked Coordinator for and GISCell oftheInstitute Ph.D. andM. Tech inthefieldofGeoinformatics. thesisworks He teaching andresearch ofover 26years experience andsupervised of Hehas Institute India. the Indian Roorkee, Technology (IIT) Engineering) in1990andPh.D. (Geoinformatics) in2002,allfrom B.E. (Civil)in1985, M.E.(Remote Sensing& Photogrammetric having specializationinGeoinformatics. Prof. Gupta of NehruNationalInstitute Motilal Technology, Allahabad(India) Dharmaveer Singh and remote sensingindisaster management.Heislife member modelling, water resource managementandapplicationofGIS research interest includeshydro-climatology, hydrological University, fromCartography) BanarasHindu Varanasi, His India. 2009 inGeography (withspecializationinRemote Sensingand received hisB.Sc. (Hons.) degree in2007andM.Sc. degree in of National Institute Technology, Hehas Allahabad, India. Nehru ofGISCell ofMotilal Geoinformatics attheDepartment isProfessor ofCivilEngineering, inDepartment iscurrently pursuingPh.D. inthefieldof
obtained his 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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6 96 ENVIRONMENT papers inrefereed Journals. International scientist award ofHydrology for ofNationalInstitute theyear 2000.Hehaspublished30 Association ofHydrologicalResources andInternational Society. Society Hereceived best ofRemote Association Sensing, Society ofHydrologist,Indian Indian Indian Water Sanjay K. Jain Sanjay K. climate changeonwater resources. Dr. Jainislife memberof of glacier mappingandsnowmeltrunoffmodellingimpact research dealingwithhydrological modelling, snowcover/ National Committee onClimate Change(INCCC). Heconducts oftheIndian Hydrology, andOfficer-in-Charge India Roorkee, Water Resources of System divisionatNationalInstitute asascientist-F infieldofresearch.experience in Heisworking Galway, five in1997.Hehasmore years Ireland of thantwenty and M.S.inHydrology from ofIreland, theNationalUniversity of Institute Science, Indian Technology, in2001 India Roorkee, hasreceived Ph.D. ofEarth from Department 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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9 Tajikistan. more than100m,are located inChinaand ranges. ofloesssedimentation Modelling locationofmountain districts, neighbouring factors, geographical positionofthis areas and reasons for suchdepositionsare climate Asia are situated intheSouth Tajikistan. The loessformations oftheCentralthickest etal., [Dodonov 1999]. fluctuations The paleoclimateinformation charactering Loess sediments containalotofgeologic atmosphere. the amountandcontent ofdustinthe sedimentation. Climate changeaffects andof transformation, transportation then are involved processes invarious which ofdustparticles, quantity enormous zonesArid oftheglobeproduce the convection level; Pamir. aerosol.due to atmospheric theconceptofloessformation supporting approaches. isoneofthearguments It independent thesetwo between provesloess sections good correlation modelling results andthereal datafrom Holocene.of theEarly ofthe Comparison to therecords obtainedfrom loesssection sediments is0,2mm/year. T ofdust to calculationstheaverage thickness drops outforming loesssediments. According western windsto valleysof Tajikistan where it oftheCentral Asia istr deserts in Tajikistan. Dustoriginated from huge aerosolatmospheric accumulationmodel became thebasisfor development ofthe ave. 33,734025Dushanbe, Tajikistan; [email protected] e-mail: of Institute Water Issues, Hydropower andEcology, Academy Rudaki ofSciences; Alexander F. Finaev 7 ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: ACCUMULATION IN TAJIKISTAN THE MODEL OF DUST AEROSOL Climatic andgeographical The thickest loessformations,The thickest
loess; aerosol; climate; his valueagrees ansported by by ansported factors factors (Fig. 1).Littlebylittle, aerosol precipitates onto air into themountainareas ofPamir-Alay Tajikistan. dusty transport Suchstorms located westwards fromthe deserts the reason for formation duststorms in is stagnated inclosedvalleys. That is Thus, theairoflower troposphere air streams from penetrationany further. 6000 ma.s.l. preventing form abarrier and southwest. of5000– ridges Mountain penetration ofairmassesfrom thewest outline theorographic nicheopenedfor organised into acertain “curtain” system, Kushinthesouth, and east,Hindu mountain rangesofPamir-Alay inthenorth circulation.global atmospheric The highest according to thelaws ofand northeast from thewest andsouthwest to theeast ofairstreams inthisregionmain part move geographical andclimaticconditions. The provided bythecombinationofphysical, andsedimentationaretransportation The specificfeatures ofdustaerosol [Finaev A.F. 2004]. “Archaeology andPaleoecology ofEurasia” forwas described thefisttimeinjournal Finaev, 1995],andtheconceptofmodelling on theconferences [Lomov &Finaev, 1994; wereThe results represented ofthissurvey onlywere usedforlast century modelling. mentioned hypothesis. Climaticdata for the loess formation rate, inorder the to confirm of sedimented dustlayer formation with ofthestudywastoobjective compare rate precipitated aerosol. atmospheric The main hypothesis aboutloessformation from understanding andconfir forand accumulationisimportant OF THE MODELLING OF THE REASONING AND CONCEPT mation ofthe 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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8 98 ENVIRONMENT 20–27 days/year – in the Hissar valley,20–27 days/year –intheHissar and intheNorthern Tajikistan,annually observed southwards. days There are upto 10hazy The numberofdays withhaze increases &Finaev,and more [Ivanov 1987]. intheairreaches 8,4 percm3 dust particles convective airstreams. The concentration of of anddependsonintensity reach 3–4km, ofthehaze2–4 km. extent may The vertical upto thenchanges fromVisibility 4–10km the airfor sometime, producing thehaze. while thefineonesremain suspendedin ground nearto aerosol generationsources, up into theair, backto drop outquickly valleys (Fig. 2). raised The coarseparticles, airisfillingmountain images howthedusty seenonsatellite isclearly by airstreams. It to thelongdistance later itistransported theepisodeisover; hangs intheairafter the windisfaint. upandstill The dustrises with soiloverdrying, causedeflationeven if lackofprecipitation,period incombination summer andautumnseasons.during Atthis oftheCentral Asia formation occurindeserts The favourable conditionsfor duststorms such episodes. recordsstations make ofdusthaze during whilemeteorological surface, the underlying Fig. 1. The duration of dust storms in the Cen tral Asia. sun heatingandthesummer thermal themostintensive soilduring over thedry strengthening andconvection ofstorms and inAugust to (Dushanbe)isconnected The maximumofhaze inJuly(Shaartuz) 1970]. Handbook, days (Fig.of hazy 3)[Climate oftheUSSR, of haze durationissimilarto thenumber duration of0,4hr/yr. The annualdistribution onceper25years withaverage is observed haze rare isanextremely event inthisarea. It 30–40 hr/yr. As for theFedchenko glacier, duration inPamir from varies 4–8upto in thefarsouth. The average annualhaze valleyandupto 500–600hr/yr the Hissar increases upto 200–400hr/yrin north, duration doesnotexceed 40hr/yrinthe southwards aswell. The average haze The durationofhaze episodesincreases thewinter season. during October, and theminimumisobserver days isrecorded inJuly– number ofhazy 1970]. of theUSSR,Handbook, The maximum rarely (only3–6days/year) [Climateobserved thePamir In in Gharm). mountainshaze is 26 days withhaze are annuallyrecorded to theeastalongriver valleys(upto 40–70 days atthefarsouth.Haze penetrates 229.09.2014 13:01:36 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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9 level ofconvection isthebiggestand inJune. the Atthisperiod haze isobserver the Fedchenko glacierthemaximumof On surface. above thedry activity cyclonic isrelatedOctober to thebeginning of depr 9 ession. The maximumofhaze in Fig. 2. Penetration of dust into mountain val leys of the southwest Tajikistan. Fig. 3. The duration of dust haze. Satellite image, 10/09/2011. their durationgetdowntoo. activity, theamountofhaze episodesand Thus, cyclonic inspite ofthewindduring moist andthelevel ofconvection reduces. winter seasonthegroundIn isgetting to highmountains. airistransported dusty 229.09.2014 13:01:37 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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0 100 ENVIRONMENT 0 the samealtitude. of convection andonglacierssituated at atalllevels are observed μm. Suchparticles lessthen25 mostly consistsofparticles as hightheconvection level. Aerosol aerosol inthetroposphere isdistributed 1978]hasshownthatglaciers [Anokhin, research, 1992]anddustsedimentsofthe for experiment aerosolAmerican thearid Study ofaerosol [Finaev, 1987b;Soviet- Fig. 5. The average annual aerosol distributi 5. Fig. distributi aerosol on. annual average The Fig. 4 Fig. . T T convection of level top he basic processes occurring inthisregion basic processes occurring during The analysisofavailable datahasrevealed the annual aerosol map(Fig. distribution 5). These datawere usedto create theaverage ground andconvective streams are thegreatest. recorded inJune(Fig. ofthe 4),whenwarming [Finaev, 1987a;1994]. The maximumlevel was investigations further during was determined The average monthlylevel ofconvection . 229.09.2014 13:01:37 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 convective speed gets weaker; itcauses convective speedgetsweaker; and meetsamountainbarrier, thevertical airmoves onoverdusty acoldersurface valleys belowtheconvection level. When aerosol to arrives Tajikistan andfillsclosed meters persecond). The airmasscontaining in convective currents may reach tens of speeds convection (horizontal andvertical in thetroposphere upto thetop level of almostevenly isdistributed Asian deserts aerosol thestorm During from Central stations. atmeteorologicaltime ofhaze observation duration ofthewholeprocess islimited by into account. vector isnottaken vertical The ofwind Influence on thesize ofparticles. ofaerosol precipitation dependsinterval top border oftheconvective level. The time thegroundthe distancebetween andthe air column. The aircolumnheightisequalto precipitated aerosol from aseparate vertical to estimate theamountof isnecessary It Thus, themodellinglogic israthersimple. a modelofloessaccumulation. helpedto well develop astheirmutuallinks. It andsedimentation,as aerosol transportation 0 1 Fig. 6 Fig. . The
diagram of the dust aerosol accum accum aerosol dust the of ulation. diagram per airvolume unit, where is calculated asfollows: The weight ofaerosol intheairvolume unit aerosol amount(Fig. 7). foran algorithm calculationofprecipitated represented above, itispossibleto make Using thediagram ofaccumulation precipitated (Fig. 6). and understand howaerosol istransported concepthelpstoThe above described duration ofhaze. of dustepisode. This process canexplain the theentire during continues to period arrive air. ofdusty later bynew portions Aerosol beingreplaced mountainridges overflows out. ofsuchcleared air The upperpart to dropair stagnation andaerosol starts THE CALCULATION TECHNIQUE mPPrNrdr = / , 4/3 m –istheweight (ormass)ofaerosol ia ∫ r r v 1 3 () P i =3,14..., Pa –isaerosol 229.09.2014 13:01:37 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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0 102 ENVIRONMENT 2 density, level ( elevationabove thesea and thesurface the topbetween level ofconvection ( layer. This valueexpresses thedifference where Mo columnis: atmospheric The total aerosol weight inthedust-loaded with number ofparticles Tv Sedimentation time( H = = = Hk H m Ho / – H V · r , – is the thickness oftheconvective –isthethickness ): – is the particle radius, –istheparticle Ho H , . Tv Fig. 7. Model for calculation of precipitated precipitated of aerosol. calculation 7. for Fig. Model ) iscalculated as: r . N ( r ) –isthe Hk ) (taken for quartz =2,65g/cm for(taken quartz of 20°C, atthetemperature (g/cm s)–istheairviscosity from the aircolumn. Time ofprecipitation is it isnotthetimeofaerosol precipitation ofdustairexistence,the wholeperiod but stations record theduration ofhaze for shouldbenoted thatmeteorologicalIt 0.000006sin density ofair( density at thelatitude V formula:the Stokes with particle where where =2/9 V g r –isthefree fallspeedfor anaerosol 2 =978,049(1+0,0052834sin Pa g ( – is the aerosol particle density density –istheaerosol particle 2 Pa (2 r F – Pw radius. It canbefound radius. from It F )) – , Pw w = 0,0012928g/cm
is acceleration of the gravity is accelerationofthegravity (20°C) =18,1 (20°C) )/ w 3 ). × Pw – 10 3 ). –5 2 is the Poise 229.09.2014 13:01:38 ( 9 F . 0 ) – ) – 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 of cycles” ( parameter may becalledasthe “number columns withprecipitated aerosol. This thenumberofdustused to characterise ofhazethe wholeperiod durationis thanthetotal time. be shorter Therefore, anditmay onecompleted cycle actually precipitation rate in Tajikistan. The above sea level were to calculate taken aerosol 1970] combinedwithelevation above the duration [Climate of theUSSR.Handbook, and data ondusthaze periodicity The actual 1970]. Handbook, T according to themodel[Finaev, 1994]; depends onseasonandisdetermined Hk Ho aerosol study1992]; forSoviet-American experiment thearid Asia region &Finaev, [Ivanov 1987; The size, for whichwasdetermined theCentral N Data setusedfor themodel: aerosol isspread (seeFig. 4). estimate thetop level ofconvection where thingisto suchcalculationstheimportant In where R where L the newlyformed loesslayer ( of iseasy thento calculate thethickness It M precipitated aerosol ( (month,year). period Thus, theweight of 0 RESULTS 3 = –thedurationofhaze [Climate oftheUSSR, = ( = r –thetop level ofconvection, which – surface elevationabove thesealevel; –surface ) – function of particles distribution by distribution ofparticles ) –function M/Pl T mHR / Pl T Tv –isthedurationofhaze over some – is the density ofloess(1,35g/cm –isthedensity , . R ): M ) perarea unitwillbe: L ): 3 ). level ( of meteorological stationsabove thesea station recording haze episodes. The altitude particular also madefor eachmonthatevery was The calculationofsedimentsthickness upto 4850minJune.950 ma.s.l. inJanuary from varied calculated for eachmonth.It purpose. The top level ofconvection was technique wasusedfordescribed this be approximated bythepolynomialof The dispersionofpointsonthe schemecan they didnotagree therelief requirements. of theNorthern Tajikistan were excluded as results are given inthe Tab. 1,however stations (Fig.elevation oftheterrain 8). The simulation accordingaccumulation rate distribution to The represented modelallowsestimating 0,27 mm/yr. calculated for three stationsof thisarea was mm/yr. The average dustaccumulationrate average rate per0,8millionyears was0,25 accumulation rate was0,31mm/yr, andthe first andthesecondpedocomplexes loess etal.,loess horizon [Dodonov 1999].For the 0,31 mm/yr, of anddependsonthetype situated inthesamearea,section, is0,11– loess accumulation rate ontheDarai-Kalon and 0,273mm/yraccordingly 1). (Table The stationswereand Khovaling 0,207,0,338 Kulyab of accumulationontheKangurt, hasshown0,22 mm/yr.section, The rates station, located nearto theKaramaidan mm/yr. The calculationfor theFaizabad from varies 0,05to 0,22 section Karamaidan proved thatloessaccumulationrate inthe Tajikistan etal. 1995]has [Shackleton studyinThe results ofloesssections [Lomov, 1991]. Holocene for Tajikistan (0,17–0,26mm/yr) oftheEarly was obtainedinloesssections is 0,2mm/yr. Almostthesameinformation accumulation rate over thewholeterritory 0,04 mm/yrto 0,683mm/yr from rangevaries The sedimentthickness the distancefrom occurrence). theduststorm anddislocationof elevation changesdependingon sediments thickness Table 1.From thetableitisobviousthat of dustsediments( Ho ) and the average annual thickness ) andtheaverage annualthickness L ) are represented inthe . The averaged . The the station(i.e. 229.09.2014 13:01:38 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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0 104 ENVIRONMENT 4 obtained on the Karmaidan andDarai- obtained ontheKarmaidan agrees data to1600 m.It experimental 0,3 to 0,2mm/yrattheelevationof900– 2600 m. fromThe accumulationrate varies that dustaccumulationoccurslower then R order withcoefficientofcorrelationsixth aau 90000Sahia 5 0.428 0.004 0.550 0.044 0.273 3143 0.221 852 363 0.029 pass Shakhristan 0.014 0.210 1004 1468 1215 Shakhrinau 0.338 Shaartuz 0.683 1981 1522 0.030 1616 0.207 Khovaling Ura-Tube Faizabad 604 0.554 0.036 362 0.193 0.086 3930 0.030 0.017 Sangiston 0.047 Rushan Tavildara 879 0.041 0.005 0.024 1015 0.361 0.018 369 1387 Kulyab 1284 3576 841 2524 Karakul 0.611 Pyanj Kanghurt 410 3290 Pendzhikent 2254 1283 2204 Kalaykhumb 0.248 Obi-Gharm Parkhar Ishkashim Murgab 0.356 426 0.022 Isfara Madrushkent Leninabad 0.009 0.318 Iskanderkul 822 Irkht 0.133 Kurgan-Tube 0.362 803 Iol 2564 Fedchenko 3410 Dushanbe, city 660 0.416 Dushanbe, agro 0.034 1359 1316 Dzhaushanghoz Dekhauz 318 Danghara 3373 Ghushary Gharm Anzob pass Aivaj 2 = 0,86. The polynomial curve proves proves =0,86. The polynomialcurve tto oasl,mL my.SainH ... L,mm/yr. Hoa.s.l., m Station L,mm/yr. Hoa.s.l., m Station Table 1. The average annual dust sediment thickness, L(mm/year). thickness, sediment dust annual Table 1. average The Fig. 8. The rate of aerosol accumulation. aerosol of rate The 8. Fig. glacier China). here from the (Western Taklamakan desert in theEastPamir, whichistransported 4200 mdemonstrates aerosol precipitation accumulation rate attheheightsof3000– of thesamealtitudes. The increase of located intherange loesssections Kalon 190.0004 4169 229.09.2014 13:01:38 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 (Fig. 11)proves goodcorrelation, though of thesimulation(Fig. in thesouthwest oftheterritory. Comparison sediments (Fig. 10). sedimentsare The thickest ofdust a mapofthemeanannualthickness Based ontheseresults itiseasythento make (Fig. 9). summerseason thedry accumulated during The maximumofprecipitated dustis not constantthroughout ayear period. accumulationis The rate ofdustparticles 0 5 Fi g. 9. The average monthly accumulation rate rate Fi accumulation stations. all for monthly average 9. The g. 10) and Fig. 10. Distribution of dust sediments thick ness. the real map influence. foothills notaffected byanthropogenic canbe foundgreat onlyinthe thickness Therefore, theentire loesssedimentsofa on loessdestruction. a significant impact rivers. The agriculture development alsohas erosion ofloesssedimentsiscausedby precipitation,hillsides byatmospheric while sediments are washedaway from steep geological ofloessformation. period Dust to erosive the during processes occurring there are differences still. They are related 229.09.2014 13:01:38 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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0 106 ENVIRONMENT 6 . Finaev, A.F. (1987a) inthemoun- factor profile absorption ofatmospheric The vertical 4. Dodonov, N.J., Zhou, A.E.,Shackleton, L.P., Lomov, S.P., Finaev, A.F.3. (1999)Quaternary Phenomena. CloudinessandAtmospheric (1970)Issue Climate oftheUSSR. Handbook. 2. Anokhin, Yu.A., G.N.,Kazakov, Vronskaya, Yu.E., Kislov, B.V., I.Ya., Nikolishin, Nosdrukhin, V.K. 1. the3-Dsimulationofsedimentsmake helpedtoThe analysisofsuchfactors and climaticfeatures. Alay are related to physical, geographical mountain ofthe Tien-Shan andthePamir- Central Asia anddustaccumulationin ofthe The deflationprocesses indeserts REFERENCES CONCLUSION tains of Middle Asia. Izv. Akad. Nauk Akad. Asia. Izv. tains ofMiddle Tadj. Dushanbe. Biol. Deposit. SSR.Otdel. Nauk. VINITI of Paleoenvironments. Stratigraphy andGeological Correlation. V. 7.N6,pp. 581–593. Loess-Paleosol Stratigraphy ofCentral Asia: Geochronology, Correlation, andEvolution 31, part V, 214p. (in Russian). cal studies. Moscow. Issue34,192–197(inRussian). pollutiondynamicsstudy. ofatmospheric (1978) Glacierasanobject Dataofglaciologi- Fig. 11. The actual distribution of loess. of distribution 11.Fig. actual The from loess sections of the Early Holocene.from oftheEarly loesssections yr. This parameter agrees to dataobtained throughout thewhole Tajikistan is0,2mm/ ofaccumulated dust The average thickness areassouthern andreach 0,5–0,6mm/yr. sedimentsarefor typical the thickest the The results of in thickness the area ofloessformation. calculation demonstrate that 229.09.2014 13:01:38 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 8 ggi314.indd 107 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 13. Soviet-American experiment for Soviet-American experiment aerosol arid study. Tajikistan, September 1989.(1992) 13. N.J., An,Z.,Dodonov, Shackleton, G.J., J., A.E.,Gavin, Ranov, Kukla, V.A., Zhou, L.P. (1995) 12. Lomov, S.P. andFinaev, A.F. (1994)Estimationofloessaccumulationprocess in Tajikistan. 11. Lomov, S.P. (1991)Evolution ofgrey andbrown theHolocene. soilsduring Conference of 10. Ivanov, V.A., Finaev, A.F. size ofaerosol distribution in (1987)Concentration andparticles 9. Finaev, A.F. (2004) andsedimentationforThe modelofdustaerosol transportation 8. Finaev, A.F. (1995)Processes andsedimentationofdustaerosol. In: oftransportation 7. Finaev, A.F. (1994) profile ofthe ofdiffuseradiationandannualdistribution The vertical 6. Finaev, A.F. (1987b)Estimationofaerosol pollutiontrends in Tajikistan. Nauk. Akad. Izv. 5. 0 7 observations in observations Tajikistan for of1990–2005 (2008). theperiod Ed.: Golitsyn,G.S.Gydrometeoizdat. Saint-Petersburg, 208p. (inRussian). Proceedings.ume Cycles. Quaternary V. 4,pp. 1–6. Accumulation rate ofloess in Tajikistan RelationshipwithGlobalIce andChina.In: Vol- pp. 166–168(inRussian). Krasnoyarsk, reports. workshop of theInternational Paleoecology Asia Summary andAmerica. In: andsettling ofancientpeopleintheNorth the Tajik Agric. Dushanbe, pp. Instit. 25–28(inRussian). mountain valleys. Trudi GGO, Iss. 507,pp. 121–125(inRussian). pp.i Etnograph. SORAN.Novosibirsk, 351–358(inRussian). areassouthern of Tajikistan. Archaeology andPaleoecology Archeol. ofEurasia.Izd. Inst. p. IGBPSecretariat ofGermany inBerlin, ber 1995,Garmisch-Partenkirchen. 22. FirstGlobal Analysis, andModelling: Interpretation, Scienceconference 25–29Septem- (in Russian). NaukoZemle. Otdel. Nauk. Dushanbe,top N3,pp. Akad. level ofconvection. 59–61 Izv. sian). Tadj. Dushanbe. Biol. Deposit. SSR.Otdel. Nauk. VINITI 3.09.87.N6480-B87,8p. (inRus- 3.09.87. N6479-B87,10p. (in Russian). Alexa nder F. Finaev (2003, with Glazirin G.E.);Review of hydrometeorological(2003, withGlazirin forecast ofmountainglaciationchangein Western Tajikistan GlacierAreaChanges intheMountain ofPamir (1999); The ontheenvironment.its impact publications:Climatic Main current scientificinterests are in thefieldofclimate changeand Ecology, Academy ofSciences oftheRepublic Tajikistan. The of Glaciology oftheInstitute Water Issues, Hydropower and forpresent Climatology and heistheHeadofLaboratory he hadgraduated asanengineer-meteorologist. earlier At from theLeningrad Hydrometeorological (LHMI),which Institute obtainedthePhD inGeography in1988 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 107 ENVIRONMENT 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 108 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 108 SUSTAINABILITY 0 8 1 Tel.: [email protected] +74959393151,e-mail: Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie Yury G.Seliverstov than 3,3 “acceptable” degrees [Vorob’ev, 2005]–less corresponds toof suchrisk “allowable” and showsthatthelevel flowrisk individual debris accounted for.the territory Estimationofthe of as economicalandsocialcharacteristics repeatability, flows’ debris regime, aswell isbasedontheirspatialdistribution, flows risk economic, debris individualandcollective loss ofhumanlives. Quantificationofthe economiclosses,bring andsometimes Polyana.and Krasnaya flows The debris year Novorossiysk between every reported Caucasus. Numerous flowreleases debris are the BlackSeacoastalregion oftheNorth among otherexogenic processes at frequent a * Corresponding author Tel.: [email protected] +74959391861,e-mail: Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie Tel.: [email protected] +74959392115,e-mail: Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie [email protected] e-mail: Moscow, 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie Tel.: +74959392240, Tel.: [email protected] +74959392115,e-mail: Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie Tel.: [email protected] +74959393812,e-mail: Lomonosov Moscow, Moscow 1,119991; State University; gory Russia;Leninskie 6 5 4 3 2 Vyacheslav L.Baburin Adler region –more than1mln.rub. peryear. are flowrisk estimatedeconomic debris inthe ABSTRACT. OF THE NORTH CAUCASUS FOR THE BLACK SEA COASTAL REGION AND SOCIAL RISKS OF DEBRIS FLOWS QUANTIFICATION OF ECONOMIC Laboratory ofSnow Avalanches Laboratory andDebrisFlows, Faculty ofGeography, Laboratory ofSnow Avalanches Laboratory andDebrisFlows, Faculty ofGeography, ofSnow Avalanches Laboratory andDebrisFlows, Faculty ofGeography, Assessment, F ofNaturalRisk Laboratory ofSnow Avalanches Laboratory andDebrisFlows, Faculty ofGeography, Geography ofEconomical andSocial ofRussia,Faculty Department ofGeography, × 10 nd disastrous naturalhazards Debris flowsare themostDebris –6 . The maximalvaluesofthe 4 , Sergey A.Sokratov 1 , Sofia A.Gavrilova, Sofia aculty ofGeography,aculty Lomonosov Moscow 5 *, Aleksandr L.Shnyparkov combination ofnaturaland technological on theregional specificassessmentand of UNEP[2012],whichis more focused is excluded from themore recent report change” [UNEP, 2002]. The “global increase” degradation andpossiblyglobalclimate environmentaland unplannedurbanization, population growth anddensity, migration increasing. This increase isexplainedby “high situations” inRussianliterature) are gradually economic costs(asaresult of “emergency mitigationmeasures,by various thereported natural hazards inmany regions ofthe World decreasing unfavorable consequencesof directed toDespite considerableefforts zone, flows, debris risk INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: 2 , Peter Koltermann
Black Sea,theCaucasus, coastal 3 , 6 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 Elkin, 2004]were developed.Elkin, Thus, the [Tolmachev,et al., 1995],andkarst 2000; processesdangerous [Kuznetsova cryological [Dzetsker, 2000],underflooding Buriva, 1995], et al., 2008],coastalerosion [Belov, 2000; 2000;Seliverstov 1994;Kazakov, Bozhinskii, estimation ofsnowavalanches [Andreev & 1997]. Ragozin, The methodsoftherisk came into focus in1990s[Myagkov, 1995; ofthenaturalhazards estimation risk aspects magnitude. The theoretical andpractical probability ofaseismicevent ofacertain wasunderstood asthe that timetherisk mathematical methodswere developed. At was formulated andthecorresponding problem ofprognosis ofgreat earthquakes wasdeveloped,of theseismicrisk the et al., 1984].Ageneralprobabilistic concept etal., [Kantorovich 1973;Keilis-Borok risks 1970s and1980s, firstinrelation to seismic inthe estimationinRussiastarted The risk Myagkov, 1992]. 1983; &Kasperson, [Kates the conceptofrisk the “risk-taking propensity” 1971]or [Kates, the naturalhazards isnaturallyrelated to inconsiderationof the economicfactors issues. The converging oftheclimaticand andtherelatedof vulnerability economic change adaptationpolicies, aspects various [IPCC, 2014]nowincludestheclimate of the WG IIIPCC 5 disasters. Ontheotherhand, thedraft 0 9 Fig. 1. Debris flow hazard zones in the Black sea coastal zone (yellow lines). lines). (yellow zone coastal sea Black the in zones hazard flow 1.Fig. Debris Territory of the presented debris flow risk assessment is shown by red line. byred shown is assessment risk flow debris presented the of Territory th Assessment report Assessment report flows risk assessmentisconceptuallysimilar flows risk one.being themostextensive The debris naturalhazardsto flows various withdebris Caucasus (Fig. 1). isexposed The territory the BlackSeacoastalregion oftheNorth Russian Federation inpresent timesis One ofthefastdeveloping areas inthe etal.,[Marzocchi 2012;Selva,2013]. ofnaturalhazardsof individualtypes of existingindexes for assessmentofrisk 2009] anddifficultiesinthehomogenization so-called “domino effects” etal., [Marzocchi ofinterest, complicated bythe on aterritory ofnaturalhazardseffect ofallpossibletypes etal, 2012]. [Kappes The latter combinesthe also required for assessment themulti-risk ongoing activity. The quantitative dataare inspecificregionsrisk ofRussiaisstillan natural hazardsassessment ofvarious Atlas, 2005–2011]. However, thequantitative endangered regions are [e.g. determined [e.g. Osipov&Shoigu, 2000–2003]and the RussianFederation are well documented 2004]. of The naturalhazards ontheterritory &Shnyparkov, et.al., 2004;Myagkov Kienholz consequences (events)” [Heinimann,1998; expressed as probabilityofundesirable “the et al., 2012],becameanestablishedparadigm accounted for [Fuchs etal., 2013;Shnyparkov dynamicsto be andtemporary ofrisk types separate natural hazards, upto different qualitative of understandingoftherisk 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 109 SUSTAINABILITY 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 110 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 110 SUSTAINABILITY 1 0 scales. The following parameters are usedfor al., et.al., 2013]andlocal[Delmonaco 2003] for regional [Chenetal., et 2010;Shyparkov assessment are flowrisk developeddebris etal.,Shyparkov 2013]. The methodsofthe [Bründletal.,a coefficientoflethality 2009; aday) and during corresponding territories duration ofthepopulationpresence inthe population density, populationdistribution, (population, ofthe territories characteristics flowhazard), to debris social of aterritory danger timeperiods, thedegree ofexposure repeatability, flow- durationofthedebris flowbasins(distribution, individual debris ofthe on thegeophysical characteristics et al., 2013].Suchestimationwasbased Caucasus[Shyparkov Sea Coast oftheNorth wasestimated forindividual risk theBlack flow.debris Finally, of interms thesocialrisk channel andtheheightofacorresponding flow bythewidthofadebris determined risk wasthedegree characteristic The selected of from Anapato Tuapse (theBlackSeacoast). for flowrisk estimate thedebris theterritory [2009]madeanattempt to[2009]. Barinov presented etal. atsmallscalebyShnyparkov For was thefirsttime, flowsrisk thedebris ofRussia. flowsforof debris theterritory relation to thequantitativeassessment risk Up to now, few attempts were very madein Fuchs etal., 2007;Staffleretal., 2008]. losses [Myagkov, 2000;Romanget.al., 2003; andinjured andthevalueofpossible victims values ofinterest areof thepossiblequantity general, timeperiod.the In area percertain to apotential damaging phenomenonfor an bypotential2013], characterized lossesdue [Totschnig &Fuchs,of thevulnerability flows, ofthedebris andestimation frequency by themagnitude andthecorresponding based onestimationofhazard, characterized region canbeproposed [e.g. Liu&Lei, 2003], atdifferentrisk areas insideananalyzed flows ofdebris quantitative comparison Various mathematicalconceptsallowing exposedto anaturalhazard.an object exposure, andprotection of vulnerability & Shnyparkov, dependson 2004].Risk hazards etal., [Kurbatova 1997;Myagkov assessmentofothernaturalto therisk and several settlements. to Adler andhig from theupperreach of the Tuapse river Republican andlocalstatuses, therailroad endanger thefederal road roads M-4, ofthe basin. river The releasing flows debris Tuapse, Lazarevskoe andintheMzymta flows occurintheregion ofNovorossiysk, entire database, themostfrequent debris thelisted etal. inShyparkov [2013].In most catastrophic flowsevents debris are 2013 inthesameregion. The previous of theregistered flow events debris in to that, Contrary Table 1presents anexample degree flowdanger(Fig. of the debris 2). the highmountainszones having amedium degree flowdanger, ofthedebris withonly bythelow Caucasusischaracterized North 2007] theBlackseacoastalregion ofthe At thecorresponding publishedmap[Atlas, exceeds 100years etal., [Shyparkov 2013]. Caucasus (Fig.of theNorth 1)already attheBlackSeacoastalregion observations flowevent ofthedebris The history for thelarge andfor thesmallspatialscales. per year. Thus themethodisapplicableboth ofeconomicloss is theprobability flow risk theeconomicdebris parameter describing and itsanaloguesfor themunicipalities. The is theuseofregional gross products estimation usedintherisk characteristics Lei, 2003]. The specificoftheeconomic the gross domesticproductvalues[Liu& [Chenetal.,the elementsatrisk 2010]or of andthephysical vulnerability objects valuesofspecificinvolves themonetary addition to thegeophysical characteristics, assessment,in flowrisk The economicdebris flows inayear. probable ofdeathsdueto debris quantity whichisthe risk, andthecollective a year; flowsduring of humandeathdueto debris astheprobability 2012]: theindividualrisk, etal., estimation[Shnyparkov the socialrisk OF THE NORTH CAUCASUS AT THE BLACK SEA COASTAL REGION THE DEBRIS FLOW ACTIVITY her along the Mzymta river,her alongtheMzymta 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 role flowsformation inthedebris plays and thelowest –in January. The leading temperatures are inJuly–August reported and 13,8°CinLazarevskoe. The highest al airtemperatures of3,7°CatAchishkho are byrelatively characterized highmeanannu- flowsformationClimatic conditionsofdebris 1 FLOWS FORMATION CONDITIONS OF DEBRIS 1 Sochi region, Lazarevskoe 26.05.2013 Intensive showers. Intensive Waterspout enters to theland. 26.05.2013 fl Debris ow release ontherailroad. 6 02.07.2013 Tuapse region, railroad Tuapse–Shepsi Sochi region, Lazarevskoe above river Rzhanoiriver of Mzymta PolyanaKrasnaya region, tributary left settlement Moldovka Adler–Krasnaya Polyana, closeto 27km Adler region, federal road A-149 Trout Farm A-149 Adler–Krasnaya Polyananear the PolyanaKrasnaya region, federal road Polyana, Rzhanoirucheiriver PolyanaKrasnaya region, Krasnaya chi Tuapse region, theroad Dzhugba–So- Fig. 2. Fragment of map of the debris flows danger [Atlas, 2007]. The colors correspond to low and and low to correspond colors The 2007]. [Atlas, danger flows debris the of map of Fragment 2. Fig. Site of a reported debrisfl Site ofareported medium degree of danger, the hatching corresponds to the showers-related debris flows. debris showers-related the to corresponds hatching the danger, of degree medium Table 1. The debris fl Table 1. debris The ow events at the Black Sea coastal region of the North Caucasus in 2013 in Caucasus North the of region coastal Sea Black at the ow events o Date ow 13.03.2013 Intensive showers. Intensive Technical road wasclosed 13.03.2013 showers. Intensive The road wasclosed 23.02.2013 07.09.2013 Intensive showers. Intensive fl 2debris ows release. 07.09.2013 24.01.2013 Intensive showers. Intensive fl 2debris ows upto 20000m 24.01.2013 20.02.2013 Intensive showers. Intensive Landslide-flow release on 20.02.2013 directed around. No injuries. Several carsare damaged;allthetraffi pletely flooded The ground fl houseswereoors ofmany com- apartment a road. about50m The damagedsection was 7hours. flthe debris ow. About10trainswere delayed. The delay 7 th cars of the train Adler–Vladikavkaz were exposedto carsofthetrainAdler–Vladikavkaz when 60–70% of the annual norm fallsin when 60–70%oftheannual norm winter seasonfrom November untilMarch, The maximumofprecipitation isinthe river (3200mmatAchishkho). of Mzymta formaximal valuesreported theupper reach mm) to(724 A Caucasusfrom Novorossiyskof theNorth increases inthe BlackSeacoastalregion liquid precipitation. The annualprecipitation and reported consequencesand reported Weather conditions dler (1377mm),withthe th and c was 3 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 111 SUSTAINABILITY 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 112 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 112 SUSTAINABILITY 1 2 of Cretaceous period, Palaeogene and by subplatformis constructed deposits from part The south-eastern Tuapse to Adler complicated bybreaks andsmall thrusts. into complexsmall, isocline, often folds, deposits are intensively dislocated, rumpled Cretaceousperiod andPalaeogene. The depositsof and terrigenous-carbonate byflyschandsubflyschcarbonate constructed from Anapato part north-western Tuapse is &Efremov, [Chernyavskii parts 2010]. The Caucasuscanbedividedontwo the North Lithologically, theBackSeacoastalregion of in themediumandlowparts. reaches 40–50°,flatteningupper parts, out inclination ofthetorrents, especially inthe several hundreds m cross theridges, withthe basinareas from Numerous water streams part. southern the region and2000–2500ma.s.l. inthe of part 600–700 ma.s.l. inthenorthen alongthecoastareThe mountainridges also favorable for flowsformation. debris Caucasusarecoastal region ofthenorth The orographic conditionsoftheBlackSea flows.flows orsnowdebris of liquidprecipitation favor formation ofslush with hightemperatures andhighprobability frequent thaws inwinter seasonscoupled formation [Barinov, 1967]. 2009;Shishkina, The role flows inthedebris play animportant 9 monthsrespectively. The waterspouts flows)is4,5and debris of allthereported flowshazardous debris season(90% principal months inthelowlands. The durationofthe in themediumaltitudinalrangeand10–11 6–7 monthsin flowshazardousthe debris season–from temperatures favors alongdurationof withpositiveThe longtimeperiod land. causedbywaterspoutsoften enters to the andis inJune–August, reported normally ofprecipitationintensity perminute is mm perday inthemountains. The extreme mm perday atthecoastandupto 100 round, upto intensity 30 withareported some areas. showers Heavy occurallyear high mountains, 7–9months 2 to tens ofkm 2 . The in thehighmountainareas oftheregion. “Classical” flows(Fig. debris form 3)normally Caucasus: the BlackSeacoastalregion oftheNorth formation flowsin ofdebris ofthree types listedThe factors above result inthe the required recultivation. deforestation, usuallynotaccompaniedby areas of Tuapse andSochiiscausedbyentire inthe increase flowactivity inthedebris were positioned atthestream canals. The from sites theborrow cutsandconstruction Winter 2014).Quite the piles often Games river(thesite oftheOlympic of Mzymta near Novorossiysk andintheupperreaches especially pronounced intheterritories is etal., 2013].It [Sokratov flows activity flows,debris intensifying the debris role intheformation oftheimportant playThe anthropogenic avery actions basins iscovered byorchards. oftheriver Considerable part Osipovka. vegetation AnapaandArkhipo- between large areas ofscrubsandmountainsteppe forests. The naturalforests are replaced by beech,pine,hornbeam, firandchestnut other trees. Relatively smallareas are the pearand ash,apple-tree, hornbeam, The mostabundantare oakforests with than 80%ofslopesare forest-covered. flowsformation. ofthedebris More activity Geobotanical conditionsare limitingthe basin. including theMzymta border,from Sochito theRussian–Abkhazian areas are from Anapato Novorossiysk and flows.debris The mostseismicallyactive scale)alsofavorsRichter theformation of (upto 9–10atthe seismicactivity High border. to theRussian–Abkhazian Golovinka to Ashe fromNovorossiysk, andfrom Krinitsy erosion potential are situated from Anapato The largest areas ofthegrounds withhigh to denudation anderosion isalsodifferent. form gentlefolds. The grounds’ resistance and sandy-argillaceous grounds usually Neogene. Stratifieddepositsoflimestone 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 113 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 m per 3–5years. The larger ones(upto 10000 smaller debris flows(below1000m smaller debris and form inMarch–April. The recurrence of June to October. flowsare Snowdebris rare They usuallyform from inthetimeperiod melt accompaniedbyliquidprecipitation. showerslong heavy andintensive snow showers,The causesare theintensive short 1 3 3 ) take placeonceper15–20years.) take The Fig. 3. The debris flow bed in the upper reach of the Ashe river near Lygatkh settlement. Lygatkh near river Ashe the of reach upper the in bed flow debris The 3. Fig. Fig. 4. The bed of the Khotsetai river, which the debris floods are passing through. passing are floods debris the which river, Khotsetai the of bed The 4. Fig. 3 ) isonce largest flows(more debris than10000m The recurrence isonceper10years. placeinsummer-autumn seasons.they take waterspouts theland. entering often Most formation are intensive showers andthe low altitudinalzones (Fig. 4). The causesof floodsusuallyform inmiddleand Debris happen onceper50–100years. 3 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 ) . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 113 SUSTAINABILITY 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 114 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 114 SUSTAINABILITY 1 4 debris flows-endangered streams flows-endangered basinsdebris the authors’ 118potentially 2012fieldsurvey at thespatialscaleof1:200000.Basedon flowswasestimated ofdebris The socialrisk of m Their volumes are thefirstdozens normally sites), andrepeatnew construction annually. anthropogenic (roads, activities railroad, (Fig. exposedto 5)form intheterritories on alocallevel. flows Suchsmalldebris flowsarethe smalldebris widespread flowtypes additionto thesemajordebris In ESTIMATION OF SOCIAL RISK 3 . Fig. 6. Social risk in the Black Sea Coastal region of the Northern Caucasus. Northern the of region Coastal Sea Black the in risk Social 6. Fig. Fig. 5. Small debris flow at Krasnaya Polyana. in aunifieddatabase. thefieldtrip.during Alldatawere gathered allocation insidethebasinswasassessed population censusandthe numbers were from the2002 taken from Belayataken [2004]. The population flowseasonwasduration ofthedebris attheregional level.flow activity The ofdebris suchcharacteristics describing from previouswas extracted publications hazard).The reoccurrence flows ofdebris flow to debris of exposure ofaterritory calculated (area, inclination,thedegree ofeachbasinwerecharacteristics were identified. The morphometric 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 115 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 than 1 grades (Fig. 6):1 for were flowsrisk two debris extracted areas withequalvaluesoftheindividual each ofthe118basinsinArcGIS. Than the wasmadefor risk (individual andcollective) The estimationandmappingofthesocial et al., etal., 2013;Shnyparkov 2012;2013]. equations [Fuchs intoincorporated therisk Caucasus, thepopulationallocationwas the BlackSeacoastalregion oftheNorth for estimationat flowsrisk thesocialdebris al., 2008].For themediumscale, asrequired estimationatsmallscale [Seliverstovrisk et for snowavalanche individualandcollective [2004],adjusted method suggested byElkin estimationwasmadebythe The socialrisk corresponds to themediumspatialscale. estimation flows risk Such way thedebris system. nature/economyof thewholeterritorial flow(flood)affects thefunctionality a debris ofabridge, power line,destruction etc. by other words, In objects. aroad closure or for thesystem asawhole, notfor thelocal potential shouldbeestimated (calculated) processes. That iswhy thesocial-economic affected ordangerous byharmful natural of thespecificelementssystem regardless system reactsasaunity territorial has anareal (mesolevel) character. Asingle economy system atthemunicipallevel nature/ flowsontheterritorial the debris the effect oflocalnaturalhazards suchas canbepostulated thathazards risks. It development anditsrelation to thenatural of astandard ofthesocial-economic as acalculationunitfor determination This allowsacceptingamunicipalregion ofresponsibility.and dueto theterritory the populationbothdueto theirauthorities of ofthelifespatial/temporal cycle activity level representing theaverage statistical areThe localmunicipalgovernments the [Vorob’ev, 2005]. “admissible” and “acceptable” individualrisk 1 ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC RISK 5 × 10 –6 , whichcorresponds to × 10 –5 –1 × 10 –6 and less value. monetary To dothat: (or nominalmunicipalgross inits product) inthemunicipalities economic activities obtaining thesummarized valuesofthe method containsaniterative procedure of the entitiesofRussianFederation. The identical to thegross domesticproductfor ofmunicipalities of theeconomicactivity directly calculablestandards characteristic anestimationofasuperposed incorporates of theadministrative levels. The method to theincrease proportionally inthedivision ofavailable informationquantity decreases hasto benoted units. thatthe territorial It for thecorresponding administrative- of aggregated characteristics social-economic systems. to limitourselvesThis permits byaset the butto andsocialobjects, estimateindustrial maintain records ofpotentially vulnerable for thecalculations, allowingnotto directly Due to that,aspecificmethodwasused organizations. products donotexistintheRussianstatistical that iswhy thevaluesofgross municipal this parameter for themunicipallevel, so the RussianFederation doesnotdevelop Also, theFederal of State StatisticsService municipalities asagross regional product. nature/economythe territorial systems of of suchabasicaggregate of characteristic this level. This isnotenoughfor calculation production, are available for modelingat andagriculturalvolume oftheindustrial commercial and non-profit basicassets, the data onthearea ofaterritory, population, base for theeconomiccharacterization. The asa shouldbetaken level ofthemunicipality The nominalmunicipalgross atthe product
economy (productionofcommodities); production volume for the real of sector which allowsto calculate the directly ofelectricity, gasandwater,distribution summarized withthe productionand valuesare volumes intheirmonetary andagricultural production The industrial Russian Federation iscalculated for the Per capitastandardofthe inanentity consequences ofthedebrisflows for the 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 :
0 115 SUSTAINABILITY 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 116 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 116 SUSTAINABILITY 1 6 year –0,5,perday –1. per 180 days, orthetemporal vulnerability: 2. flowseason– The durationofthedebris –0,785. vulnerability to thetotal area) –78,5%,orspatial territory flows affected (ratioofdebris the territory 1. The degree flowaffection of of thedebris region, RepublicofDagestan): one ofthemunicipalregions (Tlyaratinskii Below isanexampleofsuchcalculationfor
of services in monetary value; inmonetary of services provides volume thevalueofnormative the populationinmunicipality, which with theobtainedvaluemultipliedby divided bypopulationintheentity), valuepertheentity in theirmonetary (thevolume sector ofservices service nominal municipalgross product. summarized, providing thevalueof valuesare approach) intheirmonetary value(normative and theservices calculated) value(directly The production Fig. 7. The economic risk of debris flows in the Northern Caucasus. debris flow risk does not exceed the category doesnotexceed flowrisk thecategory debris flow intheregion. The level oftheindividual year, bydebris i.e. lessthan1personiskilled per isequalto 0,86victim flowrisk debris Caucasusshowed thatthecollective North flows intheBackSeacoastalregion ofthe ofdebris The estimationofthesocialrisk presented inFigure 7. are flowsrisk of theeconomicaldebris The results ofsuchcalculationsinterms 204,8 th.rub. flowsin theregion lossesdueto debris The – flows–0,05. debris (buildings,constructions roads, etc.) to 5. ofthe The coefficientofvulnerability th. rub. 4. The basicassetsoftheregion –176200,0 per 11years, or0,09. flows–once ofthedebris 3. Repeatability CONCLUSIONS 229.09.2014 13:01:39 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
1 3 : 0 1 : 3 9 ggi314.indd 117 i 3 1 4 . i n d d
1 to the north, reaching theminimalvalueforto thenorth, decreases flows risk inthedirection debris and theRepublicofDagestan. The economic Ossetia–Alania Republic, RepublicofNorth with someregions oftheKabardino-Balkar as ofSeptember 2014). This iscomparable 1 mln.rub. peryear (corresponding to €20,600 exceeds valueinthismunicipality monetary basin. river ofpotential lossin The quantity the Adler region, includingtheMzymta high. The maximalvalueswere found for Caucasusisrelativelyregion oftheNorth intheBlack Seacoastal The economicrisk flowsrisk. debris remaining to the “acceptable” level ofthe correspond to the “admissible” level, the flows.of debris About65%ofthebasins basins corresponds to an “unacceptable” risk 7 Burova, V.N. inRussia(comparative atSeasandwater reservoirs (2000)Abrasion risk 7. Bründl, M.,Romang, H.E.,Bischof, N.,Rheinberger, C.M.(2009) conceptandits The risk 6. Belov, D.M. reformation during (2000)Estimationof natural risk ofseacoasts(withthe 5. flowregime Belaya, ofmodellingonthe N.L.(2004)Debris ontheGlobeasanobject 4. Barinov, A.Y. showers-related (2009)Geomorphologic estimationofheavy flows debris 3. Atlasofnaturalandtechnogenic hazards andrisks. RussianFederation (2005–2011) 2. Andreev, Yu.B., Bozhinskiy, estimationinmountain A.N.(1994)Snowavalanches risk 1. 3,3 of “admissible” andinaverage isequalto 1 REFERENCES 7 × of the “Risk–2000” ANKIL,2000.pp. All-Russiaconference. 261–264. [inRussian]. Moscow: A.L.(Ed.) assessmentandmanagement;Proceedings Ragozin, Naturalrisks analysis). In System Sciences, V. 9,N3,pp. 801–813.doi:10.5194/nhess-9-801-2009. application innaturalhazard managementinSwitzerland. risk Natural Hazards andEarth ANKIL,2000.pp.Russia conference. 276–279.[inRussian]. Moscow: A.L. (Ed.) assessment andmanagement;Proceedings Naturalrisks ofthe “Risk–2000” All- Ragozin, settlementas an example).In nearNarva-Iyesuu Baltic Seacoastdestruction [in Russian]. base oftheclimaticinformation. Dataofglaciological studies, V. 96,2004,pp. 152–158. danger attheBlackSeacoastofRussia.Candidate thesis. Moscow. [inRussian]. subtitles vary]. Cartography. Design, Information, [inRussian,8volumes, (Ed.) Moscow: Shoigu, S.K. sian]. regions. Universiteta,Vestnik 5:Geografiya, Seriya N2,pp. Moskovskogo 23–26.[inRus- 10 –6 . None of the 118 debris flows . Noneofthe118debris 11.G34.31.0007. No.14.515.11.0009 andbytheContract ofEducationNo. oftheMinistry contract bytheState wassupported The work planning. measures andfor economicandland-use flowsprotection andmitigationdebris fundsallocationforin prioritizing the organizationsbe usedbygovernmental canthe classification.Suchcomparison economic are andusedfor determined Explicitlysocialand flowrisk. of debris municipalities inrelation types to various ofdifferentallow comparison areas and The approaches usedinthepresent work (approx. 2,000–5,000€). the region of100000–250000rub. peryear ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 118 SUSTAINABILITY 1 8 20. Kates, R.W., Kates, J.X. (1983)Comparative analysisoftechnological Kasperson, risk hazards 20. R.W. Kates, (1971)Naturalhazard inhumanecological hypotheses perspective: and 19. Glade K, M,von Elverfeldt M,Keiler T (2012)Challengesofanalyzingmulti-hazard Kappes 18. 1. Kantoro 17. IPCC andKey (2014)Emergent Risks Vulnerabilities. Field, In C.B., Barros, V.R. D.J., Dokken, 16. ausingenieurwissenschaftlicher UmgangmitNaturrisiken Heinimann,H.(1998)Der 15. Fuchs, S.,Keiler, M.,Sokratov, S.A.,Shnyparkov, A.L.(2013)Spatiotemporal dynamics:the 14. Fuchs, Hübl, S.,Heiss,J. K., (2007) Towards for function usein vulnerability anempirical 13. 1. Elk 12. Dzetsker, E.S.(1995)Estimationoftheprobabilitylossesappearancedueto under- 11. Delmonaco, G.,Leoni, G.,Margottini, C.,Puglisi, C.,Spizzichino, D. (2003)Large scale 10. A.S.,Efremov, Chernyavskii, Yu.V. flows ofthedebris ofthedistribution (2010)Regularities 9. Chen,S.C., Wu, C.Y., Huang, B.T. (2010) reductionprogram ofarisk forThe efficiency 8. America, America, V. 80,N22,pp. 7027–7038.doi:10.1073/pnas.80.22.7027. (A Review).Proceedings oftheNationalAcademy ofSciencestheUnited States of models. EconomicGeography, V. 47,N3,pp. 438–451.doi:10.2307/142820. areview.risk: NaturalHazards, vol. 64,N2,pp. 1925–1958. pp. 3–20.[inRussian]. Nauka. 6).Moscow: data interpretation (Computational seismology; regionalization. Keilis-Borok, In V.I. (Ed.) Computational andstatisticalmethodsoftheseismic and New York, NY, USA. tal Panel onClimate Press, Change. University Cambridge Cambridge, United Kingdom of Contribution GroupWorking IIto theFifth oftheIntergovernmen- Assessment Report Adaptation, and Change 2014:Impacts, Vulnerability. Aspects. Part A:GlobalandSectoral B.,Girma, E.S.,Levy, Kissel, S.,Mastrandrea, P.R., A.N.,MacCracken, White, L.L.(Eds.) Climate Mastrandrea, M.D., K.J., Mach, Bilir, T.E., Estrada, Chatterjee, M.,Ebi,K.L., Y.O., Genova,R.C., Sicht. Schweizerische fürForstwesen, Zeitschrift V. 1998(149),pp. 691–705. V. 68,N3,pp. 1217–1241.doi:10.1007/s11069-012-0508-7. need for aninnovative approach inmountainhazard management.NaturalHazards, risk 495–506. doi:10.5194/nhess-7-495-2007. System Sciences, assessment.NaturalHazards flowrisk andEarth debris V. 7,N5,pp. ofGeoecologyRAS.158pp. Institute [inRussian]. an example).Candidate thesis. Moscow: PNIIS. pp. 83–84.[inRussian]. (proceedings conference). ofinternational inconstruction technogenic risks Moscow: flooding ofabuilt-up area byground water. Analysisandassessmentofnatural In System Sciences,ards andEarth V. 3,N5,pp. 443–455,doi:10.5194/nhess-3-443-2003. hazarddebris-flow assessment:ageotechnical approach andGISmodeling. NaturalHaz- at theBlackSeacoastofCaucasus. Geomorphology, N2,pp. 60–69. System Sciences, and Earth V. 10,N7,pp. 1591–1603.doi:10.5194/nhess-10-1591-2010. in disasters –acasestudyoftheSonghecommunity debris-flow Taiwan. NaturalHazards in, V.A. (2004)Regional assessmentofkarst vich, L.V., Keilis-Borok, V.I., of seismic andprinciples G.M.(1973)Seismicrisk Molchan, danger andrisk(withR epublic Tatarstanas 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 33. Ragozin, A.L. (1997) Theory and practice of the geological risks estimation. Doctoral the- A.L.(1997) ofthegeological estimation.Doctoral Ragozin, risks andpractice Theory 33. Osipov, [in V.I., Kruk. (Eds.) (2000–2003)Naturalhazards Shoigu, ofRussia.Moscow: S.K. 32. S.M.,Chalov, Malkhazova, Myagkov, R.S. S.M.,Shnyparkov, In A.L.(2004)Concept ofRisk. 31. Ragozin, In Myagkov, oftheparameters ofmeasure S.M.(2000)Multiplicity ofnaturalrisk. 30. 2. M 29. Marzocchi, W., Mastellone, M.L.,DiRuocco, A.,Novelli, P., Romeo, P. E.,Gasparini, (2009) 28. Marzocchi, W., P., A.,Gasparini, Garcia-Aristizaba, Mastellone, M.L.,DiRuocco, A.(2012) 27. Liu, X.,Lei, J. (2003)Amethodfor anapplication assessingregional flow risk: debris 26. 25. A.S.,Myagkov, Kurbatova, S.M.,Shnyparkov, for A.L.(1997)Naturalrisk Russiancities. 24. H.,Krummenacher, Kienholz, B., Kipfer, A.,Perret, ofintegral S.(2004)Aspects man- risk 23. 22. Keilis-Borok, Keilis-Borok, V.I., Kronrod, T.L., for G.M.(1984)Seismicrisk Molchan, the largest citiesof 22. Island. attheroads N.A.(2000)Estimationofavalanche Kazakov, risk oftheSakhalin 21. 1 9 sis. Moscow: PNIIS. [inRussian]. sis. Moscow: Russian, 6volumes, subtitlesvary]. 265–274. [inRussian]. ography, andEnvironment; Society V. Gorodets Publishing House, 2004.pp. 4).Moscow: (Eds.) Natural-anthropogenic processes andenvironmental (Kasimov, risk N.S.(Ed.) Ge- ANKIL,2000.pp.Russia conference. 296–300.[inRussian]. Moscow: A.L. (Ed.) assessment andmanagement;Proceedings Naturalrisks ofthe “Risk–2000” All- [in Russian]. (EUR 23615).EC.69pp. doi:10.2777/30886. amongstnaturalandman-inducedrisks Principles assessment;Interaction ofmulti-risk pp. 551–573.doi:10.1007/s11069-012-0092-x. assessment:acasestudyinItaly. ofmulti-risk NaturalHazards,Basic principles V. 62,N2, 181–191. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00242-8. in Zhaotong of Yunnan province (SWChina).Geomorphology, 2003, V. 52,N3–4,pp. [in Russian]. PNIIS.pp. (proceedings conference). 96–97. ofinternational construction Moscow: Yamal in Analysisandassessmentofnaturaltechnogenic risks peninsula).In frozen for onpermanently of risk construction field, grounds (Bovanenkovskoe S.M.,Chernyad’ev,Kuznetsova, I.L.,Miklyaev, V.P., A.L.(1995)Estimation Chekhovskii goroda. ekologii 240pp. NIiPI Moscow: Österreichische Wasser- März/April, V. undAbfallwirtschaft, 56,N3–4,pp. 43–50. –Considerations withrespecttoagement inpractice mountainhazards inSwitzerland. 10–25. [inRussian]. cal Congress, 4–14August 1984;Colloquium 06;Proceedings pp. V. Nauka. 6).Moscow: the andnaturalhazards preventionWorld. (27 Earthquakes In “Risk–2000” ANKIL,2000.pp. All-Russiaconference. 269–275.[inRussian]. Moscow: A.L.(Ed.) assessmentandmanagement;Proceedings Ragozin, Naturalrisks In ofthe yagkov, S.M. (1995) Geography of natural risk. Moscow: Moscow State University. Moscow 222pp. yagkov, Moscow: S.M.(1995)Geography ofnaturalrisk. th International Geologi- International 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 120 SUSTAINABILITY 2 0 4 . Vorob’ev, Yu.L. (2005)Personal Mos- of theState policy). and socialsafety (someaspects 47. UNEP(2012)GlobalEnvironment Outlook(GEO5);Environment for thefuture we want. 46. UNEP(2002)Disasters. GlobalEnvironment In Outlook(GEO3);Past, present andfuture 45. Totschnig, R.,Fuchs, andassessing torrents: S.(2013)Mountain quantifyingvulnerability 44. Tolmachev, V.V. insolvingengineering problems. collapserisk (2000)Estimationofkarst 43. Staffler, H.,Pollinger, R.,Zischg, P. A.,Mani, andpotential impacts (2008)Spatialvariability 42. S.A.,Seliverstov, Sokratov Yu.G., K.P., Koltermann, Shnyparkov, A.L.(2013)Anthropogenic 41. Shnyparkov, P.K., A.L.,Koltermann, Seliverstov, Yu.G., Sokratov, S.A.,Perov, V.F. (2013)Risk 40. Shnyparkov, A.L.,Gryaznova, V.V., Danilina, A.V., A.V. Martynov, flowsrisk (2009)Debris 39. Shnyparkov, A.,Fuchs, Seliverstov, S.,Sokratov, K., S.,Koltermann, Y., Vikulina, M.(2012) 38. L.A.(1967)Hydrometeorological Shishkina ofthe sketch Tuapse region. In Tuapse and 37. Selva,J. (2013)Long-term assessment:statisticaltreatment multi-risk ofinteraction 36. Seliverstov, Y., Glazovskaya, T., Shnyparkov, A., Vilchek, Y., A.(2008) Martynov, Sergeeva, K., 35. 3. R 34. berger, G.,Chen,C.(Eds.) 3 effectiveness from to torrents. themanagementofrisks –acontribution Röthlis- debris In cow: EMERCOM, Delovoi ekspress. 376pp.cow: [inRussian]. ProgressMalta: Press Ltd. 528pp. perspectives. London, Sterling, VA: Publications Ltd. Earthscan pp. 270–300. Engineering Geology,uncertainties. V. 155,pp. 31–44. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.12.019. “Risk–2000” ANKIL,2000.pp. All-Russiaconference. 247–250.[inRussian]. Moscow: A.L.(Ed.) assessmentandmanagement; Proceedings Ragozin, Naturalrisks In ofthe 10.5194/nhess-8-539-2008. System Sciences, management.NaturalHazards risk andEarth V. 8,N3,pp. 539–558.doi: flowhazardof climate changeonfloodanddebris zone mappingandimplicationsfor 121–128. [inRussian]. flowsactivity.influence onsnowavalanches anddebris IceandSnow, N2(122),pp. 5:Geografiya,Seriya N.3,pp. 42–48.[inRussian]. of mudflowsattheCaucasiancoastBlackSea. Universiteta,Vestnik Moskovskogo Peoples’ ofRussia.pp. university friendship 39–44.[inRussian]. ceedings ofthe “Risk–2009” Scientific-AppliedConference. International V. 2.Moscow: Burov, In in Russia.In V.N. (Ed.) Problems ofdecrease innaturalhazards Pro- andrisks; Geography, Environment, Sustainability, V. 5,N3,pp. 64–81. assessmentintheRussianArctic. ofindividualsnowavalanche risk andpractice Theory Tuapse region. Krasnodar. pp. 78–93. among risks. NaturalHazards, V. 67,N2,pp. 701–722.doi:10.1007/s11069-013-0599-9. pp. 205–209.doi:10.3189/172756408787814672. Assessment inRussia.AnnalsofGlaciology, andmappingofsnow avalanche risk V. 49. 12 September 2003;Proceedings. V. 2.Rotterdam: Millpress, pp. 1303–1313. Mechanics, Prediction, andAssessment; Davos; Switzerland; 10September 2003through omang, H., Kienholz, H., Kimmerle, R.,Böll, H.,Kimmerle, omang, A.(2003)Control H.,Kienholz, structures, vulnerability, cost- rd International Conference International onDebris-Flow Hazards Mitigation: 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 2 1 environment oneconomy, development, offorestry etc.). cycles Moscow State University,Moscow programme. established undertheRussianMega-grant Vyacheslav L.Baburin Peter Koltermann K. Sofia A.Gavrilova Sofia hazards assessment. risk of hydro-meteorological andothernaturalhazards, natural ecological andglaciological representation studies, cartographic include useofGIStechnologies andremote sensingdatain ofRussia”).hazards oftheterritory The professional interests 2009. Shereceived herPhD. degree ofnatural in2013(“Mapping andGeoinformatics,Cartography State University, Moscow in impact on society oftimezones reduction,influenceofmountain onsociety impact and regions, assessmentofdamagefrom naturaldisasters, development ofcountries climate change onsocio-economic andenvironment society between of interaction (effects of economic system. HeisamongtheleadingRussianresearchers inRussiansocialand examininginnovationcycles particularly ineconomicgeography,the understandingofdynamicaspects D.Sc. inGeography (2002).Hemadeasignificant to contribution Professor,University, ofthedepartment, Head in1976.Heisnow Economic andSocialGeography State ofRussia,Moscow Natural Risk Assessment Laboratory attheFaculty Assessment Laboratory Natural Risk ofGeography, Since 2010Prof. istheLeading Koltermann Scientist ofthe Oceanographicof theIntergovernmental Commission, UNESCO. 2006–2010hewasleadingthe climate system. In Tsunami Group Since 1991hisresearch wasfocused ontheocean’s role inthe the Project attheIOS, WOCE International Office Wormley, UK. Equation ofState ofSeawater. From 1987to 1991–Director of Lectured atHamburg onPolar University Oceanography, the he obtainedDr. rer.nat. degree from Hamburg University. Geophysics atHamburg University, 1988 graduating in1968. In graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment studied Oceanography, Meteorology and graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 122 SUSTAINABILITY 2 2 research interests ofsnowandcover research. includeallpossibleaspects Federal for Institute SnowandAvalanche Research, Davos, Switzerland. Recentlyheis Colorado, U.S.A.; SwissFederal for Institute Forest, Snow, andLandscapeResearch/Swiss Senior Research Scientist attheFacultyScientist Research ofGeography, Senior State University. Moscow His Aleksandr L.Shnyparkov Sergey A. Sokratov Yury G.Seliverstov in various atlases for the territory ofRussianFederation. atlasesforin various the territory naturalhazardspublications includingmapsof various published ofnumerous assessment.Heis co-author danger andrisk degree isfocused in1991.Research on naturalhazards, activity recently astheHeadofLaboratory. HeobtainedhisPhD. Avalanches Flows, andDebris MSUFaculty of Geography, ofSnow Since August intheResearch 1980heworks Laboratory Glaciology andCryolithology, State University, Moscow in1980. Center for Glaciology, ofColorado University atBoulder, Boulder, Sciences/National SnowandIceDataCenter and World Data and theCooperative for Institute Research in Environmental Science andDisaster Prevention, Shinjo, Japan; Graduate School Sciences, Sapporo andNationalResearch for Institute Earth ofGeographyin Institute ofLow RA;Institute Temperature hydrology, water resources andhydrochemistry. Hewasworking University, Sapporo,Hokkaido Japan,andthenin1998land He obtainedhisPhD Sciencesin1997at inEnvironmental Earth Glaciology andCryolithology, State in1988. University Moscow 70 scientificworks. allregionscovers practically ofRussia.Hepublishedmore than mainly related to flows, studyofsnowavalanches anddebris analysis,risk GISapproach. The geography offieldobservations, includegeography ofavalanches,The fieldsofscientificactivity of SnowAvalanches flows, MSUFaculty andDebris ofGeography. intheResearch Laboratory Scientist Research Since 1989heisa Glaciology andCryolithology, State in1985. University Moscow graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment graduated from the Department ofgraduated from theDepartment graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 Krakow asthevenue for is theirmeetings.Krakow It IGU Commissions usedtheconference in business meetings. outof41, Thirty-six, by groups ofscholars, poster sessions, and Commissions, thematicsessionsinitiated lectures, sessionsorganized bytheIGU anddiverse:was rich itincludedkeynote Challenges, andResponsibility”. program Its The conference’s motto was “Changes, Conferences. ideaoftheIGURegional matches thevery from European theneighboring countries. It interest forout to beofparticular geographers Committee. turned The meetinginKrakow Committee andoftheIGUExecutive ofthePolishthe expectations Organizing The total attendance considerablyexceeded theUSA,France,countries: andHungary. camefrom eachofthree other participants China (Beijing, 50),andRussia(40).Forty Japan (79),theCzech Republic(60),UK(59), 40 personseach:Germany (about100), other nationalgroups includedmore than (357).Six largest numberofparticipants country, Poland, wasrepresented bythe from 64countries. participants The host thisyear andgatheredcommunity 1335 major event for geographical theworld Conference wasthe washeldinKrakow. It On August 18–22,2014,theIGURegional 2 IN KRAKOW IGU REGIONAL CONFERENCE 3 been unanimouslyapproved atthe Understanding (IYGU). This initiative has of theUNInternational Year ofGlobal ambitious initiative –theproclamation Werlen (Germany) wasaboutthe IGUmost A keynote byProfessor lecture Benno Special sessionswere devoted to IGUprojects. political geography. as aproblem andcontemporary ofhistorical oftheHolyLand discussed theboundaries place. Professor GideonBigerfrom Israel a newlightontheconceptofgeographical the Netherlands, whosepresentation shed with it,andbyProfessor Andreas Faludi from associated climate changeanduncertainties fromabout theUSA,whospoke Winkler Zbigniew Kundzewicz from Poland andJulie were lectures Keynote offered byProfessors poster presentations. Altogether, there were 1171 oraland227 held thelargest numberofsessions. Geography, andonGeographical Education Cold Regions Environment, onGenderand ofEconomicSpace, on on theDynamic geography),(urban onPolitical Geography, ChallengesinaComplex on Urban World studies. of interdisciplinary The Commissions themandtheprogresscooperation between for thedevelopment of important particularly UNESCO UNESCO 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 124 News and Reviews 2 4 technical universities. including schoolsofmanagement and schools, universities, andotherinstitutions, ofteaching geographypractice atsecondary of geography, andto disseminate thebest showingtheimportance decision makers and arguments for alarge audienceand citizen inourcentury, to findnewevidence for basics ofgeographical each knowledge ofthisprojectistoobjective promote the geography’s placeinschoolcurricula. The theimprovementSocieties) concerning of (Association ofEuropean Geographical Association of Geographers), andEUGEO ofIGU,joint project (theEuropean EUROGEO a newstep intheimplementationof education. marked The conference inKrakow IGU pays the citiesofdifferent size allover theworld. in ofsustainability disseminate goodpractice andbusinesscommunities,authorities andto academicgeographyconnect withmunicipal whosegoalisto by ChineseandDutch experts, Sustainable Cities” andisbeingimplemented effects. iscalled AnotherIGUproject “Our to manifest local-scalechangewithglobal the globalscale, andto empower individuals yieldresultsto on identifyhowlocalactions natural,between social, and cultural sciences, goal ofIYGU isto strengthen collaboration andglobalsustainability.and localactions The to bottom-up individual initiatives thatconnect in lightofglobalchallenges, andcontributing dailydecisions to make encouraging everyone andglobaleffects, localactions between IYGU aimsatbridging thegapinawareness now submitted to theUNGeneralAssembly. General Conference 2013andis inDecember special attention to geographical Domanski. andBoleslaw AnitaBokwa, Marek Degorski, Organizing Committee headedbyProfessors result oflongandhard ofthePolish work success oftheconference is, ofcourse, a of UNESCO culturalheritage. world The salt mineof Velichka, whichison thelist environment inthedepthofformer galadinnerintheexclusivethe friendly a memorableexcursions’ program andof thebestsouvenirs of The hostswillkeep requests interests andvarious oftheirguests. geographers accommodated allnumerous the program andtheschedule, andPolish according wasgoingexactly to everything organized:The conference wasperfectly of maps, atlases, andglobes. andtheuniquecollection persons andartifacts; topography, meteorology, andothersubjects; and closelyrelated disciplines–cartography, ofPolishidentity. presents history geography It on thedevelopment ofthestatehood and with societalneedsandhadastrong impact research inPoland hasbeenalways in-tune exhibition demonstrates thatgeographical buildingoftheuniversity.the historical The an exhibitionwasalsoformerlyopenedin day oftheconference’s openingceremony, date iswidelycelebrated inPoland. Onthe the oldestinEurope andintheworld. This inKrakow,Jagellonian University oneof in the year ofthe650 the in The conference symbolicallytook place th anniversary of the ofthe anniversary Vladimir Kolosov 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 Creation ofnewprotected areas: national – fundamental Adoption ofcertain – conservation: biodiversity as having ledto essentialsuccessin T significant momentum over thelastdecade. intensified andregional initiatives have gained managementwas and spatialconservation changes. ofbiodiversity Decentralization management have undergone significant economic development, andenvironmental Russian Federation (2010),nationalpolitics, socio- The summary isbasedonthematerialsofRussia’sThe summary 5 Since the4 (BobylevUniversity S.N.,Zamolodchikov D.G.). (6) Federal Natural (Krever O.N.) Resources ManagementService andMoscow Supervisory State ofNatural ResourcesMinistry andEnvironment oftheRussianFederation (Lomanova N.V., Orlov V.A.), InstituteofEcology andEvolutionSevertsov oftheRussianAcademy (Bukvareva ofSciences E.N.), (5) BelonovskayaAcademy A.A., Maslyakov E.A., (Tishkov ofSciences V. Yu., Tsarevskaya N.G.),(4) International Projects (BichekuevO.S., (3)InstituteofGeography Shekhovtsov A.A.), oftheRussian Yu. (1)WWFRussia(Dolinina following group ofexperts: L.,Krever V.G., Onufrenya (2)Centre of I.A.), of Natural Resources andEnvironment oftheRussianFederation was prepared theReport by the of itsobligationsundertheConvention onBiological Diversity. Under acommission oftheMinistry 2 (EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE 5 ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY) REPORT FOR THE SECRETARIAT OF THE CONVENTION IN RUSSIA CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 5 he following canbeemphasized activities
“Onezhskoe Pomorie”“Onezhskoe (2013), “Land ofthe parks “Russian Arctic” (2009–2011), the RussianFederation, etc.). Strategy newBiodiversity in of thedraft until2030”,the period 2013; completion and fungi intheRussianFederation for endangered speciesofanimals, plants, ofrare“Strategy and for theconservation on Biological (for Diversity example, its commitmentsundertheConvention inRussiaandfulfillmentof conservation positive development ofbiodiversity strategic further documentswarranting th National Report prepared by the prepared bythe NationalReport Continued introductionoftheecosystem – Significant progress inRussianforest – EstablishmentofthenewUNESCO World – oftheprogram Implementation ofthe –
services concept into conservation conceptinto conservation services commercial forests are certified). than 30millionhain2013 –25%of Stewardship Council standards (more inaccordance withtheForestcertification developed orunderdevelopment. World sites are NaturalHeritage either Five othernominationsto UNESCO Plateau (2010)andLena Pillars (2012). sites –thePutoranaNatural Heritage Convention)(Bern –740areas altogether. European Wildlife andNaturalHabitats of the Convention ontheConservation Interest formed underConservation ofAreas ofSpecialof thenetwork ofRussia–identification European part establishmentinthe Emerald Network Valley” (2011),etc. “Utrish” (2010),naturalsanctuary “Gazelle “Beringia” naturalreserve (2013),strict Leopard” (2012), Islands”“Shantary (2013), th National Report ontheimplementa NationalReport TH NATIONAL tion tion 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 126 News and Reviews 2 6 – Attention to biodiversity conservation Attention to conservation biodiversity – The program oftheRussianBird – Within specified, theperiod theRedListof – Population growth ofmany (recovery) – Beginning consultations, ofinternational –
special educational TV channels.special educational TV andsupport conservation, of biodiversity increase publicawareness conservation, species, involve young peopleinnature individual protected areas, protect rare Russia, allocates annualgrants to support which hasbranchesinall83regions of example, RussianGeographical Society, as theirfundingfrom large NGOs. For programs significantly increased, aswell of themare importance). ofinternational Areas were identifiedinRussia,over 700 Bird 2014 more than1100Important for birdsareas (by ofhighimportance and protection ofterrestrial andaquatic identification ofhabitatsandmonitoring under implementation,whichincludes in1994is Unionstarted Conservation now (Polar bear, Amurtiger, etc.). developed andare underimplementation were strategies onrare speciesconservation status. National improved theirconservation taxons ofplantsandanimals;somespecies the RussianFederation wasreduced by50 sheep, chamois, blackgrouse, etc.). bear, muskdeer, marmot, mountain Siberian tiger, Amurleopard, beaver, lynx,Asian black in thefederal andregional RedLists(Amur animal species, includingpreviously listed on Climate Change(UNFCCC). oftheFrameworkpackage Convention and steppes) in “Post-Kyoto” agreement accumulating ecosystems (bogs, tundra, in 2012,oninclusionofcarbon- upon theRussianFederation initiative relevant oftheNationalReport. sections Russia. Someofthemare presented inthe Ecosystems andBiodiversity) Economicsof obtained within TEEB (The assessmentresults wereservices practice. ecosystem The mostremarkable
project in – Over theyears sincethe4thNational Over – The mostvulnerable, inrelation to – legislation intheRussian Environmental – slowdown Despite growth inproduction – remained: specified andobstaclesto theirfulfillment a numberofcommitmentsintheperiod Unfortunately, noresults were achieved on inrelation The GEFandUNDPactivity – since2010,theRussianAcademy theperiod In –
disturbance factor.disturbance habitat fragmentation andgrowth ofthe dueto destruction and biodiversity of ecosystemwhich escalates therisk mountainous areas oftheRussianSouth, significantly increased, especiallyinthe trafficto tourist protected areasReport, steppe persists. ofthenatural function climate-regulating high agricultural pressure andthreat to steppe andsteppe biomesstillexperience wooded conservation, biodiversity Convention).and NaturalHabitats(Bern ofEuropean on theConservation Wildlife Species(BonnConvention) and of Migratory not ratifiedbyRussia–ontheConservation Some basicEuropean conventions are still resources andsustainableforest exploitation. toward sustainableuseofbiological Federation is still insufficientlyoriented footprint).carbon hectares in2012,almost2/3ofthemare is generallyincreasing (about4,4global over thelastyears, ecological footprint Federation over thelast5years. significantly increased intheRussian projects to conservation biodiversity sources to theNationalReport). preservation” (seethelistofinformation program inventory, functions, “Biodiversity: ofGenes”and Dynamics withthesub- Russian Academy ofSciences “Biodiversity the program ofthePresidium ofthe fundamental research programs, including of Sciences(RAS)implemented several major 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 Since thesubmissionof 4thNational ofbiodiversity for Importance thecountry. Acentralized system ofbioticinvasions – No essentialimprovement wasmade – Plans for thecreation ofnewnational – statusofcertain The conservation – Since Russiajoinedthe WTO, and risks – 2 7
and private tradeinplantsandanimals.and private poor control ofaquaticorganism invasions, limitation ofthelistquarantinespecies, oninvasionwith state authorities control, commitment–interaction Article Diversity fulfillment ofthisConvention onBiological difficulties were encountered inrelation to monitor in relation to tree cultures). be regarded quite complicated (especially inRussiashould decorative plantsselection general, theconditionof 9% bycultivars).In decorative cultures cultivated inEurope (6– achievements includesjust2,5%of example, RussianState register ofselection relation specified.the period to In plants, for over achievement wasmadeinselection animals ofdomestic in relation to conservation protected areas significantly decreased. development. The numberofregional plans andschemesofregional spatial not created, althoughlisted inprevious Tash”, nationalpark “Khibiny”, etc. were “Ingermanlandsky”,reserves “Shulgan implemented by60–70%,natural were naturalreserves andstrict parks required to save thespecies. levelsthe nationalandinternational are billed sandpiper);urgent measures at reached point(saiga,spoon- itscritical species andpopulationsofRussianfauna resource exploitation. sphere inrelation toproperty genetic cultures andoffences intheintellectual genetically modifiedorganisms and increased, aswellofspread asrisks of to theRussian Federation have seriously threats oflarger numberofbioticinvasions ing was not established. Certain ing wasnotestablished. Certain and cultivated plants diversity; no no and cultivated plantsdiversity; and slightly disturbed landscapes conserving landscapesconserving and slightlydisturbed of theRussianarea isrepresented byintact highest intheworld. Furthermore, over 60% zones, isamongthe itslandscape diversity oftropicalcountries andsubtropical climatic tolower many comparing species diversity Eurasia.Despite ofextra-tropical portion oftheplanet–largest terrestrial part The RussianFederation occupies1/8ofthe ecological donorto theplanet. strengthening positionsofRussiaasan (UNFCCC)agreement enables package (tundras, bogs, andsteppes) inthepost-Kyoto ecosystems non-timber carbon-accumulating runoff yieldsonlyto of thatofBrazil. Inclusion theannualriver is containedinourlakes; morethe world: than20%oftheworld’s stock possesses thebiggestfreshwater resources in also have significance. international Russia ofRussianecosystems protecting functions (millennia). Water-regulating andwater- the soilinlarge amountsfor alongtime as theyare ableto in accumulate carbon regulator carbon undersoundmanagement, Steppe asapowerful ecosystems canact to thebiosphereless contribution regulation. area. no Bogecosystems ofRussiamake bothinabsolute valueandperunit carbon, store thelargest amountof of thecountry sinkontheplanet.Borealcarbon forests andplaceof asthelargest reservoir serve gasbalanceand in maintainingatmospheric is 10–11% ecosystems to Earth’s biosphere sustainability ofRussiannatural The total contribution as anecological donorto theplanet. retains itssignificanceRussian territory is 10,9%ofthegross valueadded. which usuallydestroys naturalecosystems, –0,2%.Forfarming mining, comparison, andfish- exploitation –3,8%andfishery of whichagriculture, hunting, andforest ecosystem resources wasapproximately 4%, biological products, biodiversity, andnatural associated withtheuseofof industries Russian gross valueadded, theportion for thestructureof Russianpopulation.In andecosystemvalue ofbiodiversity services there wereReport, nosignificant changesin at theleast. roleThey play thekey 229.09.2014 13:01:40 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 128 News and Reviews 2 8 of about280millionha(16% ofthetotal is estimated as28,6 GtC,withthearea as 35GtC. stockThe total intundras carbon the Russiansteppe biomecanbeestimated occupy over 220millionha. The total stock in humus soil, includinglealandsandpastures, their anthropogenic modificationsonblack 33,6–67,2 GtC.Steppes, grasslands, and area ofmore than140millionhaandstore accounts for 49,4GtC.Peatlands occupythe stock intheforestThe carbon cover sink(Fig.net carbon 3). year. as asawholeserves The Russian territory zone isgenerallyestimated as7–10tC/haper of steppe ecosystems inthetemperate climatic estimated as75mtCperyear. The productivity depositinginsteppelong-term ecosystems is total with average sinkcapacity annualcarbon croplands, 43mtCperyear. whichabsorb The placeonabandonedsteppe andforesttakes absorption unit area, carbon themostactive with depositingrate of1,5tC/haperyear. Per bogs; peatlandsdeposit210mtC/year intotal for stages. sinkistypical Anoticeablecarbon forests ofdifferentof secondary restoration day forest cover inRussialargely consists but alsocurrent condition,asthepresent- is notjustdueto theirspatialdominance, carbon year since2000. The largest to contribution fromhas beenfluctuating 160to 190mtC/ sinkinRussianmanagedforestsCarbon and aesthetic(Fig. 1–8). production, habitat-forming, information, StrategyBiodiversity (2001),namely biological identifiedintheNational diversity of functions to groups oflife-supporting economy andpopulation,whichare similar forgroups thenational ofecosystem services This report different andpurposes. categories representative ofprotected network areas of –establishmentofaneffective and country development inthe of spatialconservation methodologically strengthened justification inRussiahas practice into conservation conceptintroduction ofthebiodiversity habitatsofplantsandanimals.pristine The depositing ismadebyforests, which
examines importance ofthree examines importance the RussianFederation in2012,threatened environmental health andprotection in According onthe to thenationalreport accounts for more than100,000species. surrounding fauna seas. Invertebrate addition,1,500speciesofseafish inhabit In freshwater fish,and9speciesofcyclostomes. 29 speciesofamphibians, 343speciesof 732 speciesofbirds, 80speciesofreptiles, 320speciesofmammals,of vertebrates: Russian Federation contains1513species trends. Key changesinbiodiversity status and over thelastdecades. production parameters ofRussianlandscapes a noticeabletrend ofgrowth inprimary measurements)rings datahave revealed based (phytomass counts, annualtree- andground-(via vegetation indexNDVI) qualities ofalandscape(Tab. 4).Remote presently definedmostlybybioproductivity economic development ofRussianregions is insocio- Significance ofecosystem services isjust2–3%. support) local community (e.g. production, of localecosystem services balancestabilization,etc.carbon The portion physical –climate terms) regulation, global and (bothinmonetary ecosystem services provided byprotected areas are global example, 80–90%ofecosystem services andtheirmaintenance costs. Forservices regional (local)interests inutilizingecosystem of relation global, between national, and FederationRussian facesasevere challenge the and biological conservation, diversity on Biological tasksonlandscape Diversity relation to accomplishingtheConvention providers (Tab. ecosystem 1–3).In services ofdifferentimportance landscapesas illustrating materials presents certain Report of protected areas network. The National anddevelopment conservation diversity concept inRussiaisassociated withlandscape oftheecosystem services Introduction permafrost andsteppe areas (Fig. 4). are located in Western aswell Siberia, asin area). country stocks The biggestcarbon According to RAS, the territory ofthe According to RAS,theterritory 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 inaccordance withthe2013Far-Eastern – thenumber ofAmurtigershasflattened – of suchspecies. Amongthem: stabilization andincrease inthepopulation positive achievements wereCertain madein 30% ofamphibians. birds, 20%ofmammals, 28%ofreptiles, and plants, 7%offishandcyclostomes, 17%of species include0,1%ofinvertebrates, 5%of theEuropean bison free-ranging – thePersian leopard restoration (reintro- – 2 9
3060 km and regional) oftheleopard’s habitatsis The total protected area (bothfederal increased by1,5timesandisnow48–50. leopard countdata,thepopulation which 10%are federal-level protected areas; about 36,000km areas withintheAmurtigerrange cover of theLeopard” (820km nationalpark inthebufferrestricted zone ofthe “Land protected. wasseriously Huntingsector tiger rangeinRussiais180,000km Krai. Khabarovsk The total area oftheAmur of part andsouthern Krai East –Primorsky Amur tigerpopulationinhabittheFar out one populationofmore than300; grew somuchthat are nowmerged into regions Bryansk andpartly Kaluga, Oryol, population becamereal. The groups inthe The prospective creation ofastable Strategy ofEuropean BisonRestoration. ofRussiaundertheNational part established inwoodlands intheEuropean new groups ofEuropean bisonwere population reached almost450.Eight live independentlyinthewild; are beingtrainednowtoand thekittens first offsprings were obtained(4kittens), Leopard NationalPark, attheSochinsky of Breeding andRehabilitationfor the breeding stock wasformed attheCentre organized range, withinitshistorical sus. Releasesites for thisspecies were ontheCauca- programduction) started and is 428–502; 95% of the whole and is428–502;95%ofthewhole 2 , soabout60%ofitsrangeis 2 , i.e., 20% of the range, of , i.e., 20%oftherange, of 2 . Protected 2 ); increased fragmentation andexpansion – increased fragmentation oftundraand – increased fragmentation ofmountain – on theland: are reflected intheNationalReport: formation oflandscapediversity inRussia The following offorestthe destruction cover (Tab. 8). accounts for of slightlyless thantwo-thirds intheRussianFederation,destruction which Wild fires offorest factor remain thekey water protection zones increased (Tab. 7). forests, forests onprotected areas andin At thesametime, thearea ofprotective alsodecreased. ofthecountry whole territory the percentage ofhigh-value forests inthe 2011–2013; 46,62% to 46,5%intheperiod the area ofwoodlands slightlyshrankfrom According to theFederal Forestry Agency, to thistrend. and regular contribute anti-poachingwork standards ofanimaltaking science-based Rational,positive dynamicsisobserved. generally stable(Tab. 6);for somespecies, the conditionofgamespeciesinRussiais According to thestate data, monitoring inRussiaspeciesof anextinct – populationsofpure-blood –free-ranging –
of burnt and wood-cleared areas andwood-cleared of burnt allover Autonomous Districts; and Khanty-Mansijsk exploitation intheNenets, Yamalo-Nenets, forest-tundra intheareas ofoilandgas Peninsula,Kola inthepolarUralMountains; tundra landscapesinthecentralareas ofthe Islands. successfully reintroduces intheKuril – Anseriformes C reached 90; Cherkessia) OssetiaandKarachayevo- the North of European groups bison intwo (in restored intheCaucasus. The number destroyed attheendof1990swere European bison whichwere almost negative trends intrans- anada goose–was 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 .
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1 130 News and Reviews 3 0 – continuous risk oftransformation continuousrisk of – increased ofdegradation risk of – increased degradation ofshallowwater – degradat – in thesea: changeofthestructuretraditional sharp – continuous “islanding” andsize – transformation oftraditionalagricultural –
deposit exploitation on Sakhalin Island; deposit exploitationonSakhalin shelfinthearea ofhydrocarbonOkhotsk landscapesontheSeaof underwater traffic; development andincreased marine exploration andfieldinfrastructure Taza Bays, intheareas ofhydrocarbon and Pechora SeashelfandinOb intheBarentsincreased water turbidity) landscapes (pollution,underwater infrastructure development; and transport stimulate oilandgasexploitation growth to Caspianasaresult ofactions Northern landscapes ofthe Volga deltaand the River; the Mzymta the Western flow, Caucasusriver including of coastalcurrents, and transformation of anthropogenic transformation ofdirections due to pollution,alienspeciesinvasions, Strait andoffshore theBlackSeastrip Sea,firstofall, attheKerch the Azov stopped ploughing. agriculture depression, livestock reduction, and highlandsoftheCaucasusdueto agricultural landscapesinthemidlands ploughing pressure, grass fires; landscapes dueto returned high minimization ofremained steppe and reforestation initsplace; process ofagricultural landabandonment taiga andmixed forest dueto continuous landscape oftemperate andsouthern andtheFarSouth ofSiberia East; especiallyinthe areas andtrafficarteries, taiga landscapesadjoiningpopulated ion of underwater landscapesin ion ofunderwater habitats ofanimalandplant 1. Destruction accordance withprioritization: andplacedin in thisNationalReport to theRussian biodiversity The following continuousthreat ofshallow-water – with poaching. 6. Threats to biodiversity associated 20–25% ofmammalfauna. protected areas, alienspeciesaccountfor someRussian cascade. In reservoirs Seas, the Volga basin,anditsstorage River andCaspian landscapes oftheAzov, Black, This threat remains relevant to underwater formation dueto alienspeciesinvasions. 5. Threat ofnative biodiversity trans- and lowfeeding for quality migrating animals. increase inlowforest cover withlowbiodiversity and pastures withreforestation intheirplace, abandoning ofploughedfields, hayfields, wooded steppe, andmixed forests dueto landscape 4. Transformation oftraditional agricultural unregulated vehicles. movement oftracked ofrailways androads,construction and infrastructure for hydrocarbon transportation, deposit developments, forming ofadense increased inthelastyears dueto new and gasexploitation. These threats essentially tundras andforest-tundra intheareas ofoil “islanding” ofnatural ecosystems, Fragmentation3. oflandscapesand ofRussiahasremained low.the European part background content ofpollutantsintheair and Environmental Monitoring, the the Federal for Hydrometeorology Service According to dataof monitoring long-term Chemicalpollutionoftheenvironment.2. deposits inRussianArctic). development (for example, oilandgas
is promising inrelation to oilextraction. first ofallattheCouronian Lagoonwhich landscapes degradation intheBalticSea,
in theprocess ofnewland of temperate and southern taiga, of temperate taiga, andsouthern direct and indirect threats andindirect direct The numberofpoaching were specified especially especially 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1
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1 To forecast potential future changesin andecosystemin biodiversity services. andforecastanalysis ofon-going changes term. (Tab.short 9)includes The Report in the4 defined andecosystembiodiversity services and cultural consequences. ecosystem andsocio-economic services ofbiodiversity changes onImpacts oftheirrange. them, aswell asshrinkage significantly worsen conditionsfor someof orchid speciesintemperate Russiaindicates Russia). Analysisoftheconditions41 Federation (of130plantspecieslisted in included intheRedListofRussian representatives, ofwhich66speciesare most vulnerableare Orchidaceae family inchangedconditions. survive The forto impossibility rare plantspeciesto increased anthropogenic pressure 9. Threats to natural complexes dueto predator species–tiger, leopard, snowleopard. lead to threats ofdeclineinthenumberrare ungulate animalsthatare usedfor huntingcan Continuous threat ofdeclineinthenumber and lowered reproduction rate ofthisspecies. population growth indicates increased mortality years. For example, absenceofSaigaantelope over thelast populations hasbeenobserved positive species dynamics, decrease incertain isstableorhas of gamespeciesinthecountry Threats8. to gamefauna. the Far East. woodlandsand pristine existsouthofSiberia ofRussiawhere uniquelargeEuropean part fires increase andarea infrequency ofwild 7. Threats to forest biodiversity dueto indepressed regions.rate andpoverty measures ofunemployment andreduction etc.) dependsexclusively onanti-poaching ungulates, tiger, leopard, snowleopard, crabs,Eastern wood grouse, mountain and somepopulationsofsalmons, Far- Federation (sturgeons, biodiversity ciscos, future ofsomegroups oftheRussian occasions hasincreased. addition,the In 3 1 are particularly acute in the north of acute inthenorth are particularly th National Report willpersist inthe NationalReport Though the majority Though themajority Key threats toKey leading in Aichi (Japan) undertheStrategic Planin Aichi(Japan) coordination withglobal targets approved formulated asnationaltargets, istheir The basisfor thenewnationalobjectives, details intherelevant chapter ofthisReport. new NBSAPdevelopment in isdescribed Planand Action (NBSAP). The progress inthe Strategyunder thenewNationalBiodiversity targetsbiodiversity thatare beingsummarized specifiesnewnational The NationalReport Overcatch ofvaluablefishingspecies, – ExplorationandexploitationoftheSea – Development ofgascondensate shelf – Development inmountainous oftourism – over theKerch ofabridge Construction – Expansionofploughedlandsfor grain – ofintensive year-round Start navigation on – the following are specified: groups, biodiversity ofcertain conservation which mightworsen thesituationwith forecasts ofthemega-projectconsequences, anthropogenic trends (Tab. 10).Amongthe anthropogenic (climate change)and Russian Federation anddetected natural- which encompassesmainbiomesofthe presents changes, oflong-term amatrix and theirconsequences, theNationalReport andexploitation conservation biodiversity
and withlostfishinggear. species, andpollutionfrom aquaculture ecosystems,of marine deathof rare anddestruction decrease inproductivity Peninsula,chatka shelf). West Kamchatka Island, Kam- shelfdeposits(Sakhalin Okhotsk deposits inOband Taza Bays. areas ofRussiaandintheRussianArctic. Peninsulas.and Crimea thecoastofKuban Strait connecting inthe opportunities WTO). clearing”(“secondary dueto market cropsand industrial inthesteppe zone escort. movement withice-breakers SeaRoute andlarge vessels the Northern 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 132 News and Reviews 3 2 biodiversity conservation andrestoration conservation biodiversity regulation and enablingtheframework relation toIn improvement ofthe 2012. December the President oftheRussian Federation in Federation for thePeriod until2030” by Environmental oftheRussian Development entitled “Principles oftheState Policy on adoption ofthemainstrategic document politicaldecisionwas important The next Federation in2010and2011. ofthePresident chairmanship oftheRussian related to environmental issuesunderthe meetingsoftheStatetwo Council Presidium previous years. forThe confirmation thisare level ofpoliticaldecisionmaking andreceived greaterstarted attention conservation, activities, includingbiodiversity thisperiod, thespecifiedenvironmental During development conservation. andbiodiversity andstrategicDiversity goalsofRussianeconomic accordance withtheConvention onBiological the RussianFederation in were performed in activities conservation biodiversity Report, results. the Convention in2010–2013andtheir to implementMeasures undertaken achieve oneglobalAichitarget. national targets canbeformulated to doingso,of theirachievement. By several with theglobaltargets andclearindicators is formulation ofnationaltargets coordinated Strategy Conservation National Biodiversity NBSAP underdevelopment from the2001 featureThe maindistinctive ofthenew national interests andcapacity. comments obtainedwithconsiderationof formulated andrefined onthebasisof specially created web page. The targets are outanditsresultscarried, getuploadedto a extensivediscussionis of leadingexperts, target isreviewed byagroup consisting new NBSAPisbeingdeveloped, eachAichi relation toIn organizational issues, asthe consideration ofnationalinterests (Tab. 11). forbiodiversity 2011–2020,formulated with andsustainableuseof for theconservation Since thesubmissionof4 legislative legislative th than in thanin National National at the at the on Assurance of their habitats. anduseoffaunaspecies of conservation have allthefederal credentials inthesphere ofNaturalResources thatcurrently Supervision Environment andtheFederal for Service ofNaturalResources andthe to theMinistry for Surveillance andPhytosanitary Veterinary Agriculture ofRussiaandtheFederal Service of in thehuntingsphere from theMinistry to delegatedecision wastaken theauthority rare andendangered speciesoffauna,the all speciesoffaunaandtheirhabitats, including relat effectiveto warrant state in governance occurs underthisreform. For example, federalbetween executive also authorities Optimization ofredistribution ofpowers etc., are beingimproved underthereform. efforts, anti-corruption and surveillance, accreditation, state (municipal)control regulationof governmental aslicensing, executive agencies’ Suchmechanisms work. of andtransparency increasing efficiency reform (administrative reform) aimedat framework placewithinthe takes conservation institutional mechanisms Improvement of provided intheAnnex). of theRussianFederation commitmentsis rele legal acts for theirreproduction. (A detailedlistofall animal habitatsandestablishmentofconditions of protection, ontheother–conservation violation oflegislation on environmental for mechanisms andtightening ofliability one hand– onthe maintrendsin Russia,two occur: Protection Environment of theMarine ofthe Convention Lakes; forInternational the Use of Transboundary Watercourses and are: Convention ontheProtection and protocols, andagreements. Amongthem conventions,and otherinternational the Convention onBiological Diversity iscentered around conservation biodiversity Russian Federation’s on work international and advancementofeffectiveness of ion to conservation and sustainable use of andsustainableuseof ion to conservation of the on-going state governance stategovernance of theon-going vant to the implementation improvement ofmonitoring cooperation mechanisms organizational and of biodiversity ofbiodiversity 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1
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1 – Insufficient transparency ofstate transparency Insufficient – state control Insufficient inthefield – Alarge number ofpendinglegislative issues – the Convention on Biological Diversity: measures Obstacles to theimplementation of fire extinguishing, andotherexpenditures. reproduction ofwildanimals, costsofwild maintenance,national parks protection and and expenditures onstate nature reserves expenditures onmajorrepair offixed assets, expenditures onenvironmental protection, investments infixed capitalandon-going budgets, fundsfrom enterprises, etc.) include all fundingsources (federal, regional, local protection intheRussianFederation from pollution. Total expenditures onenvironmental for naturalresource useandenvironment these fundsare payments (taxes, commissions) from budgetsofdifferent levels. The sources of measures isthefundsfor theirimplementation The on Climate Change;andothers. of Whaling; theUNFramework Convention ConventionInternational for theRegulation Especiallyas Importance, Waterfowl Habitat; Convention on Wetlands ofInternational Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna andFlora; Convention onInternational Trade in the UNConvention to Combat Desertification; Environment Pacific oftheNorthwest Region; andCoastal oftheMarine Development Plan for theProtection, and Management Dumping of Action Wastes Matter; andOther on thePrevention Pollution ofMarine by Environment oftheCaspianSea;Convention Convention for theProtection oftheMarine of theBlackSeaAgainst Pollution; Framework Area;Baltic Sea Convention 3 3
documents adopted, aswell asbroad authorities’ lackofaccess to the work, resources andforests; anduseofbiological of conservation biodiversity; measures to protect theenvironment and and obstaclesto theimplementation of financial to fulfillthecommitmentsunder base for biodiversity conservation basefor conservation biodiversity on theProt ection ection strategies. issues insectoral andintersectoral Consideration andinclusionofbiodiversity – Poor development ofeducational – –Problems inthesystem ofbiodiversity – endangered animalspecies; populationofraremonitoring and scientificresearch2. conducting work, subordinate entitiesoftheRussianFederation; RedListsof 1. publishingandkeeping “Russian Biodiversity”: for 2012–2020,includingasub-program State Program “Environmental Protection” isadoptionoftheRussian conservation of planningmechanismsfor biodiversity step inthedevelopment An important until 2020or2030. adopted Strategies ofregional development subordinate entitiesoftheFederation have program were adopted. of The majority 3 federal targeted programs, andonestate development strategies, 10 socio-economic Altogether, over the5-year passed, period provided intheAnnex. is conservation onbiodiversity state policy development plans, etc.) definingthe documents (concepts, strategies, programs, strategic documentsadopted. The listofmain issuesinsectoral even becomeoneofkey protection are increasingly considered and andenvironmental conservation biodiversity were achieved inRussia,andtheissuesof andsustainableuse conservation biodiversity Biological Diversity, significant results in commitments undertheConvention on the i
need for careful attitudetoward it. awareness role ofbiodiversity andthe to raise inthecommunity activities governance; andprotected areasconservation conservation; biodiversity related to environmental protection and indiscussingissues public participation mplementation oftheRussianFederation Sincethe4 th National Report on on NationalReport 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 134 News and Reviews 3 4 systems ofprotected areas (naturalparks, for creation andmaintenance ofregional authorities. They alsobecameresponsible fauna, wasdelegated to thelevel ofregional and sustainableuseof such asconservation offunctions, authorities. Alarge portion federalbetween andregional executive took place, aswell asredistribution ofpowers ofenvironmentalgovernance protection Besides, inthisperiod, thereform ofstate 2000sandin2008–2009. transition intheearly andformationeconomic crisis ofeconomy in coincidedwithadeep development. It relation to political, economic, andsocial in specified wasoneofthemostcritical For theRussianFederation, theperiod intheRussianFederation.conservation enforcement inrelation to biodiversity effectiveness ofgovernance, control, and specified,period whichsignificantly lowered authorities’ wasinsufficientover work the highlighted. Coordination oftheseexecutive andothers)was for HuntingSupervision, of NaturalResource Usage, Federal Service of Fisheries, Federal for Supervision Service ofPublic Health,Federal Ministry Agency ofAgriculture,the Environment, Ministry ofNaturalResources and (the Ministry andnaturalresourceministries authorities federal between co-operation sectoral ofcross-was conducted, complexity National Plan(2001)fulfillment Action evaluation ofthe National Strategy and oftheNationalReport, As part onsustainablebase.hunting sector species ofanimalsandplantsdevelop ofrare andendangered conservation warrant for thePeriod until2030” adopted in2013isto Plants, andFungi intheRussianFederation andEndangeredof Rare SpeciesofAnimals, The goalofthe “Strategy for theConservation environment. plant speciesto release theminto natural 5. breeding rare andendangered animaland 4. developing protected areas network; areas; and plantspecies, includingonprotected rare andendangered animal 3. conserving an stage isto task for theRuss isprovided.of nature conservation The main economicinterestsbetween ando bjectives be justifiedifareasonable balance long-term perspective. The economicgrowth canonly beneficial from environmental and economic minimizing damageto theenvironment, is of green technologies, to whichcontribute efficient green economy andintroduction ofinnovative,Development energy- wastes, ecosystem degradation). andacute problems (pollution, mortality) ofpoverty,(reduction and maternal includes bothobviousaccomplishments asheterogeneous,can becharacterized which GoalsachievementDevelopment inRussia Rio” (2013). The situationwiththeMillennium Challengesfrom “Sustainable Development: Report Russian HumanDevelopment intoRussia: Looking theFuture” andthe 2010 Goalsin Development “Millennium Report in theRussianHumanDevelopment Development for Goals 2015 toward achievement oftheMillennium the Conve ntion onBiologicalDiversity ration’s work on the implementation of Results oftheanalysis withtheglobalAichitargets.in comparison Federation on anumberofnationaltargets Tab. oftheRussian 13analyzes performance coordinated withtheglobalAichitargets. states(NBSAP) isprovided. nationaltargets It StrategyBiodiversity Plan andAction about development ofthenewNational Strategy and Plan Action of thenew National Biodiversity In the Report section onthe section theReport In scale). 5-grade commitments fulfillmentscored 3–4(on Plan.oftheindividual National Action Most measures declared intheconservation of theimplementationbiodiversity evaluation presents theresults oftheexpert the RussianFederation 2001. after Tab. 12 in of progress conservation inbiodiversity items cannot beignored intheassessment andtheFar Siberia, the North, East. These of traditionalusebyindigenouspeoples naturalmonuments) andareassanctuaries, shift from the extractive model.shift from theextractive This ian economy at the current ian economy atthecurrent RussianFede- “ Development ” , information are discussed infant 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 fact that the Ministry of Natural Resources ofNaturalResources thattheMinistry fact institutional character commitments.Diversity They have mostly fulfillment oftheConvention onBiological the RussianFederation inassociationwith persisted orarose over thelastyears in issuesthat states themostimportant The conclusionoftheNationalReport development intheworld. to sustainableessential contribution andisableto make capacity biodiversity freshwater andsignificant reservoirs, areas,intact hugeforests andwetlands, damage, andothers. Russiapossessesvast neutralization ofaccumulated environment ecosystem degradation, growth ofwastes, live incitieswithhighlevel ofpollution), environment pollution(56,3million people of many otherregions oftheEarth), sensitive thanclimate to globalwarming climate change(Russianclimate inmore sustainabledevelopmentlong-term are: Federation in relation to thecurrent and challengesto theRussianSome ofkey resources, biodiversity, andprotected areas. including forest, water, wetlands, biological is theassessmentofecosystem services, identification ofdevelopment perspectives, Fundamentally especiallyfor important, form ofpayments for ecosystem services. mechanismsinthe be includedinmarket shouldareas, conservation, biodiversity measures, suchasorganization ofprotected ecosystems. Assurance ofenvironmental role offorests, wetlands, andothernatural services capacity to of thecountry into accounthuge in Russiashouldtake Solution to theeconomicmodernization population. social andenvironmental oflife quality ofthe and greatly enhancepeople’s well-being and ahugeenvironmentalwhich willmake impact needsto bedramaticallyimproved, efficiency upcoming 10–20years. particular, In energy and basisofenvironmental inthe policy policy ofsocio-economic principle an important concept aswell. shouldbecome Awin-win policy ofthegreenis thecentralobjective economy 3 5 , includingtheglobalecosystem and are related to the use ecosystem order hasnotbegunto beformed inthis measures inRussiaremains insufficient.State to conservation biodiversity Scientific support economy slowpace. isgoingatanextremely and mega-projects. “Greening” ofRussian Strategic Environmental Assessment ofplans, assessments oflarge projects, industrial in esteems are rarely extremely usedinimpact economic practice; withconservation linked environmental andeconomicresearch are not Achievements in in livingnature conservation. concept assessments andecosystem services Russia isfarbehindinusingtheeconomic World +20on SummitRio “green economy”, andrecommendationspractice ofthe mechanisms into conservation biodiversity of introducing economicandfinancial overDespite aten-year-long experience andadjoiningareas, isdecreasing.territory the Nature Chronicles for framework their parks, whichmonitor within biodiversity andnational ofnaturalreserves number The different trend low. innumbers)isextremely identification ofspeciesandpopulationswith (amendments to thedecadalcontent, the federal andregional RedListskeeping Effectivenesslargely of resource-oriented. have and are character sectoral Service are bytheHuntingSurveillance conducted and itsregions. faunacountsthat Game asawhole issuefor thecountry important isan arrangements monitoring Biodiversity regional development strategies. inthe positions inthelistsofpriorities issuesoccupylast conservation Biodiversity issues inRussiacontinuesto decrease. General publicinterest to nature protection enforcement inrelation practice to biodiversity. andpoor due to lowsurveillance extremely at thefederal andregional levels, which is biological resources issues are stillimportant resource. Poaching andunregulated useof bytargeted fundingandhuman supported delegated to theregional level are not management conservation on biodiversity at themoment.Moreover, many functions issues to conservation dealwith biodiversity do nothave specialadministrative divisions ofNaturalResource Usage for Supervision and theEnvironment andtheFederal Service 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 136 News and Reviews 3 6 – strengthening of efforts against poaching strengthening againstpoaching ofefforts – finalizationofestablishment ofanefficient – – assurance of sustainable use of biodiversity ofsustainableusebiodiversity assurance – reductionofrates ofpopulationdecline – finalization ofthenewNational – expansionoftherangefinancialsources – improvement ofthestate governance – measures canbeidentifiedinthecountry: conservation biodiversity andfurther priorities commitments inRussia,thefollowing of theConvention onBiological Diversity last years inrelation to theimplementation identified andobstaclespersistingover the issues accordance withtheimportant In 2011–2020. Decade under theUNBiodiversity andsustainableuse conservation biodiversity recommendations inrelation to theNBSAPon the Convention onBiological Diversity under conservation NBSAP onbiodiversity Moreover, Russiastillhasnotdeveloped the synthesis are absentatthefederal level. sphere;practical coordination, analysis, and
expansion ofstate control actions; and unregulated useofbiological resources, legal protection property); ofintellectual their shared useonequalbase(including regulation ofaccessto geneticresources and systemand legislatively of supported hunting sector, fishery, forest sector. resources by resource sec destruction; condition aswell asoftheir habitat for speciesthathave indicated worsened Plan for onBiodiversity 2011–2020; 2011–2020 andtheEUStrategic Action targets Decade of theUNBiodiversity StrategyBiodiversity withconsideration foundations andtargeted programs; including byestablishmentofcharitable at thefederal, regional, andlocallevels, regional levels; includingatthefederal and conservation, effectiveness inthesphere ofbiodiversity torsag – riculture, inclusionoftheNationalBiodiversity – facilitationofstate order generation, – ofusing development ofthepractice – establishmentofaneffective system – increase ineffectiveness ofenvironmental –
Diversity requirements.Diversity fulfillment oftheConvention onBiological integration into European processes on all positions, includingthoserelated to onalmost goalsandobjectives priority others). The RussianFederation hasitsown lossatthegloballevel,biodiversity and in thisregard; facilitation of “reversing” development ofaspecificinstruction againstinvasiveefforts speciesincluding of sustainableusefishresources; assurance ofbiodiversity; conservation sector, for maintenance and andfishery ofagriculture,in contribution forest declarations” implementation(increase Strategy Plan andAction inthe “European atthefederalmaterials level; andresearch monitoring biodiversity coordination, analysisandsynthesis of other environmental conventions, and Convention onBiological and Diversity Federation, implementation ofthe intheRussian conservation biodiversity offunding for scientific support first ofall, oftargeted programs of Assessments ofmega-projects; living nature, inStrategic Environmental on of large project impacts industrial protection, economicindexes inassessments conceptinlivingnature ecosystem services economicassessmentsand conservation, economic mechanismsinbiodiversity andnationalparks; nature reserves regional RedLists, nature chronicles in counts, maintenance offederal and ofanimalpopulation information capacity all levels, increase ineffectiveness and at conditionmonitoring of biodiversity public interest to livingnature conservation; raiseof conservation, field ofbiodiversity education andattitudedevelopment inthe (following theCBDwebsite) Arkady Tishkov 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 we encourage the authors to submit their photos and short CVs.we encouragetheauthorsto submittheirphotos andshort 4. isto includeinformation style abouttheauthor(s) ofanarticle. The GESJournal Therefore author willbepublished, unlessrequested otherwise. should beidentifiedasa addresses fax numbersande-mail to theappropriatelinked institutionsbytheuseof1,2,3etc superscript. theredone. ismore If thanoneinstitutioninvolved authors’ inthework, namesshouldbe and fullpostaladdress (includingpostalcode)ofthe each author, otherforenames beinggiven asinitialsfollowed andthename bythesurname) areto indicate asked their 3. Allauthorsofanarticle may beused. Papers inFrench are accepted Board. underthedecisionofEditorial 2. Papers are Englishspellingandpunctuation orAmerican accepted inEnglish.EitherBritish arematerials accepted Board. underthedecisionofEditorial published to Earlier thescopeofJournal, reviews articles. (onlysolicited) andbrief 1. Authors are scientificpapersaccording encouragedto submithigh-quality, original work: sustainable development. environment andhealth;educationfor andbiodiversity; problems; nature conservation informatics andenvironmental mapping;oilandgasexplorationenvironmental sustainable regional development; appliedgeographical andenvironmental studies;geo- global andregional environmental andclimate change;environmental regional planning; management; environment and natural resources; human(economicandsocial)geography; environmental science;fundamentals ofsustainabledevelopment; environmental there ofthejournal areAmong themainthematicsections basicsofgeography and environmental science. welcome, aswellare asthosedealingwithfieldstudiesinthe sphere particularly of geography etc. Publications thatare interdisciplinary, theoretical andmethodological education for sustainabledevelopment, GIStechnology, cartography, socialandpolitical geographers, ecologists, naturalresource specialistsinenvironmental use, conservation, changing world. Publications are ofthejournal aimedatforeign andRussianscientists– sphere ofgeography, andsustainabledevelopment inthe environmental conservation aims atinforming andcoveringtheresults ofresearch andglobalachievements inthe The scientificEnglishlanguagejournal “GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY” 3 GENERAL GUIDELINES AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY” CONTRIBUTING TO “GEOGRAPHY, FOR AUTHORSINSTRUCTIONS 7 Corresponding Author oftheauthorscouldbepublishedaswell. Oneauthor . address ofthecorresponding The e-mail establishment(s) names (withoneforename in fullfor where was thework Telephone and 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 138 GES 03|2014 3 8 2. The appropriate); references; andphoto) CV authors(brief appendices(as words; acknowledgments; key maintext; title;abstract; and contacts; shouldbecompiledinthefollowing 1. Manuscript layout oftables, citationofreferences etc. geogr.msu.ru/GESJournal/index.php themselves to familiarwiththegeneralformat, make Before preparing papers, athttp://www. authorsshouldconsultacurrent issueofthe journal disclosed to authors. The reviewers’ commentsare sentto authorsfor consideration. identifiedbytheassociate editors. reviewers Namesoftheselected and otherexperts are not reviewers from selected namessuggested byauthors, alistofreviewers maintainedbyGES, Board willviewthesenamesassuggestionsonly. Allpapersare reviewed byatleasttwo 7. We reviewers encourageauthorsto listthree intheirfield. potential expert The Editorial .pdf file. “full” electronicversionwithembeddedfigures oftheirmanuscript of “screen” asa quality 6. To facilitate assessmentandreviewing theeditorial process authorsshouldsubmit 8 000–10000words longcan beaccepted. (or request) Board oftheEditorial orreviews methodologicalupto andproblem articles 5. The optimumsize isabout3000–5000words. ofamanuscript Underthedecision 3. The three donotappearinthetitle, shouldbeprovided. objectives, theresults obtained, andtheimplications. Upto six summarize,briefly inoneparagraph (upto thegeneralproblem 1,500characters), and methods 6. Whenever possible, total number of separate fileinoriginal format (MS Word, Excel, etc.). indicated inthecolumnheadings.should beclearly Eachtableshouldbesubmitted asa Parameterslines ofexplanation(ifnecessary). being measured, withunitsifappropriate, 5. Tables shouldbenumbered titlefollowed consecutively andincludeabrief byupto several B, C,etc. Figure captionsshouldbesubmitted asaseparate file. illustrations) intheorder oftheircitationinthetext. should benotlessthan300dpi.Please numberallfigures (graphs, photographs, charts, and original formats (CorelDraw, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Resolutionofraster images Illustrator). 4. All clarity. The next-level subdivisionsare possiblefor ortheircombination. (c)and(d)sections references citations should be shortened to thefirstname followedcitations shouldbeshortened byetal. should bedifferentiated byletters a,b, cetc. For references withmore authors, thantwo text Author2, 2008]. Two ormore references bythesame author(s)publishedinthesameyear and theyear ofpublicationthereference shouldbegiven insquare brackets,i.e. [Author1, have atleast onecorresponding reference oftheauthor thesurname the text In inthetext. MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION figures main body title ; (c) . It is often anadvantageto isoften combine(c)and(d)withgainsofconciseness . It should beconcisebutinformative to thegeneral reader. The (including photos oftheauthors)are required to besubmitted asseparate filesin results ofthepapershouldbedividedinto: (a) ; (d) discussion ; (e) references conclusion should not exceed 25–30. Each entry must should notexceed 25–30.Eachentry Composite figures order ; (f) ; (f) acknowledgements : authorsnames;affiliations introduction keywords shouldbelabeledA, ; (b) , ofwhichatleast abstract ; (g) materials and numbered should 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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1 should be sent as e-mail attachmentsto [email protected] should besentase-mail Authors are electronically. encouragedto submittheirmanuscripts Electronicsubmissions style”manuscript athttp://www.geogr.msu.ru/GESJournal/author.php for Authors10. As are Instructions to subjected changes, pleaseseethelatest “Example of must usethesymbol®or TM. authors 9. ortrademark, term toWhen usingaword beaproprietary whichisorasserted 8. Authors mustadhere to SIunits. Unitsare notitalicised. pages; nameofthepublisherandplacepublication. “In:” followed volume bybooktitle;initialsandname(s)ofeditor(s) numberand inbrackets; References to multi-author worksReferences tomulti-author booktitle;nameofthepublisherandplacepublication. brackets); References tobooks title;volume title;journal numberandpagenumbers. article brackets); Journal references (in Russian)etc. Original languagesotherthanEnglishshouldbeindicated intheendofreference, e.g. with Arabicnumbers. References to thesameauthor(s)shouldbeinchronological order. 7. 3 MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION 9 References mustbelisted inalphabeticalorder attheendofpaperand numbered should include: author(s) surname(s) andinitials;year shouldinclude:author(s)surname(s) ofpublication(in should include: author(s) surname(s) andinitials;year shouldinclude:author(s)surname(s) ofpublication(in should include after theyearshould includeafter ofpublication:chapter title; 229.09.2014 13:01:41 9 . 0 9 . 2 0 1 4
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