Scoms Studies in Communication Sciences Volume 18 (2018), Issue 2

SComS Studies in Communication

Volume Issue 18.2 Sciences Contents

209 Editorial (by Katharina Lobinger, Sara Greco)

General Section 215 Marie-Isabell Lohmann, Andreas Riedl: Public nuisance or an asset to democracy? Does the free press aim to provide a public service? An empirical study examining journalistic functions within the normative framework of the European Union 231 Dorothee Arlt: Who trusts the news media? Exploring the factors shaping trust in the news media in German-speaking Switzerland 247 Diana Ingenhoff, Dominique Richner: The effects of public diplomacy on country identity in countries with different language regions and cultures: The case of Switzerland

Thematic Section 269 Nadzeya Kalbaska, Teresa Sádaba, Lorenzo Cantoni: Editorial: Fashion communication: Between tradition and digital transformation 287 Annick Paternoster, Francesca Saltamacchia: Il vestito forma la persona – “clothes make the man”: Fashion morality in Italian nineteenth-century conduct books 307 Pelin Ok: European luxury fashion brand advertising, and marketing relating to nostalgia 325 Myles Ethan Lascity: Girls that wear Abercrombie & Fitch: Reading fashion branding aesthetics into music videos 339 Deborah A. Christel, Susan C. Williams Née Dunn: What plus-size means for plus-size women: A mixed-methods approach 353 Paula von Wachenfeldt: Communicating seduction. Luxury fashion advertisements in video campaigns 365 Simonetta Buffo: Body in fashion films: The new net-aesthetic era 383 Matthew Hibberd: Key challenges for the fashion industry in tackling climate change 399 Rachel Matthews: Taste-making in turbulent times: Vogue and its social networks 411 Alexandra Tuite: Communicating material characteristics in a digital age: Three case studies in independent fashion 425 Cristina González Fernández, Raquel Martínez-Sanz: Fashion influencers and Instagram. A quasi-perfect binomial 439 Patricia SanMiguel, Simone Guercini, Teresa Sádaba: The impact of attitudes towards influencers amongst millennial fashion buyers

Available online at www.scoms.ch

ISSN 1424-4896 SComS Studies in Communication Sciences Volume 18 (2018), Issue 2

Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2019), pp. 209–211

Editorial Katharina Lobinger, USI – Università della Svizzera italiana* Sara Greco, USI – Università della Svizzera italiana *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Dear Reader, regions. Finally, the papers provide important empirical findings about media This issue marks the second year since Stu environments in Switzerland and Austria. dies in Communication Sciences (SComS) This empirical data and evidence is essen is published Open Access on the HOPE tial for understanding our own media platform of the University of Zurich (www. environments and for providing relevant scoms.ch). information to decision-makers; in other The present issue of SComS perfectly words, this information is essential for re- reflects the unique character of the journal. search to have an impact on society. Not only do we present you a thematic sec- The first article of the general section tion with a very innovative topic, namely is entitled “Public nuisance or an asset to Fashion Communication. We also collect democracy? Does the free press aim to pro- three papers in the general section that, vide a public service?”. The authors, Marie- despite their different topics, have some- Isabell Lohmann and Andreas Riedl, thing in common that is telling for the role collected data from Austrian journalists of communication in Switzerland. within the Austrian part of the Worlds of The papers of the general section fo- Journalism Study, funded by the Austrian cus on the free press in Austria, on trust in Science Fund. The authors were interest- news media in German-speaking Switzer- ed in different journalists’ opinions re- land and on the implications of public di- garding the functions of journalism and plomacy for domestic audiences in differ- the role of journalism in society. In parent language regions of Switzerland. With ticular, they were interested in identifying their focus on Austria and Switzerland, similarities but also differences between the articles highlight the importance of journalists working in free press and jour- examining closely and of acknowledging nalists working in paid press with respect the peculiarities of national and regional to three main functions: the information markets and environments. function, the monitoring function and the What do they have in common? First communication function. These functions of all, they all focus on smaller European represent a translation of EU legislation countries and markets. This allows for with respect to the democracy-building comparisons with existing studies on dif- role of mass media, as detailed particular- ferent national and cultural contexts. But ly in the European Convention on Human at the same time, the application of exist- Rights, into a survey design. A general take ing concepts and approaches to smaller on the detailed results indicates that jour- contexts represents a challenge, not least nalists working for different kinds of me- due to the fact that many of these con- dia in Austria widely agree on the import- cepts and approaches were originally de- ant democratic functions that journalism veloped for the US context. The studies in must fulfil for the public. However, some the general section thus enable reflections differences were also found. For example, on how to situate and adapt concepts to journalists working for free daily newspa- certain national, regional or even local pers seek to fulfil communicative func- contexts with their specificities. And they tions to a greater extent. Connecting with also point to the fact the seemingly small their readers is thus a particularly relevant contexts are nevertheless highly complex, part of their daily work. At the same time, with differences even between language they are subject to greater commercialisa-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.001 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 210 Lobinger & Greco, Editorial / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 209–211 tion demands than journalists from paid the identity of their country and exam- media. ines the effects of public diplomacy on In the second article of the gener- such perceived identity. Public diploma- al section, entitled “Who trusts the news cy is understood as a strategy based on media? Exploring the factors shaping trust communication which sets out to influ- in the news media in German-speaking ence another government’s foreign policy Switzerland”, Dorothee Arlt engages with decisions. In their paper, Ingenhoff and the decline of trust that is currently being Richner measure how public diplomacy observed in many countries. Switzerland communication influences the perception represents a special case in this regard, of a country’s identity by domestic pub- as media trust is relatively high and sta- lic(s) – the “s” being particularly important ble compared to other national contexts. in a multilingual context such as Switzer- Nevertheless, the need for critical exam- land. This article introduces an experi- inations and empirical studies of the fac- mental design study using the example of tors and predictors that lead to a reduction the mass immigration initiative voted in of media trust are highly relevant also for 2014 as a stimulus. The authors analyse the Swiss context. In order to examine the collected data quantitatively, based on trust, Dorothee Arlt conducted an online a multidimensional model (4D model) for survey with 1,019 participants of the pop- measuring a country image/identity de- ulation of the German-speaking part of veloped by one of the authors in previous Switzerland. Media trust was measured in research (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015)1. terms of a) trust in the journalistic quality Their findings show that a public diploma- of media coverage about political issues cy strategy designed by the government of and b) in terms of trust in the indepen- a given country for a foreign public may dence and impartiality of media cover- indeed influence the perception of that age about political issues. First of all, it is country for domestic public as well. The noteworthy that the study found a positive effects of such influence are moderated by association between watching public tele- personal beliefs of the concerned publics vision and trust in journalistic quality. On and by the framing of the public diplo the other hand, the use of particular news macy messages. As a whole, this study websites that provide alternative informa- paves the way to a nuanced understand- tion on political issues is related to a lower ing of the complexity of communication media trust in general. Corresponding to effects on different – intended and unin- previous research, the study also found a tended – publics, also shedding light on significant relationship between political cultural and linguistic differences within disenchantment and media trust, which one and the same country. was found to be an important predictor The thematic section of this issue of among others, such as populist attitudes, SComS, entitled “Fashion communica- anti-establishment attitudes or demand tion: Between tradition and digital transfor people’s sovereignty. Overall, this pa- formation”, is an example for SComS’ in- per provides important empirical findings tention of providing a platform on which for the current debate about the role of communication scholars can navigate public service media in many countries, uncharted waters, opening new research as reflected in discussions related, for ex- trajectories and even new research fields. ample, to the “No Billag Initiative” 2018 in The eleven papers in this section examine Switzerland. fashion communication in the past and in The third paper in the general sec- the present, touching upon topics as vari- tion, “The effects of public diplomacy on 1 Buhmann, A., & Ingenhoff, D. (2015). The 4D country identity in countries with different Model of the country image: An integrative language regions and cultures: The case approach from the perspective of communi- of Switzerland”, written by Diana Ingen- cation management. International Commu hoff and Dominique Richner, considers nication Gazette, 77(1), 102–124. http://doi. how German and French Swiss perceive org/10.1177/1748048514556986 Lobinger & Greco, Editorial / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 209–211 211 ous as sustainability and climate change, narration, nostalgia and fashion paradigms, taste and seduction, and examining different forms of communication contexts and messages, from advertising to (music) videos, films and books. All this is preceded by a Guest Editors’ introduction written by Nadzeya Kalbaska, Teresa Sádaba and Lorenzo Cantoni, in which our readers will find a discussion of the origins and the main topics within this multi-faceted and multi-disciplinary collection of approaches to fashion communication. We hope that our readers will enjoy both sections of this rich and diverse issue of SComS.

SComS General Section Volume 18 (2018), Issue 2

Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229

Public nuisance or an asset to democracy? Does the free press aim to provide a public service? An empirical study examining journalistic functions within the normative framework of the European Union Marie-Isabell Lohmann, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Institute for Comparative Media and Communication Studies Andreas Riedl, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Institute for Comparative Media and Communication Studies* *corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Utilizing an empirical approach, this paper lays out how journalistic functions differ from the perception of journalists working for the free and paid press in Austria. Analyses indicate that free press journalists appear to be significantly more inclined to generate discourse with their audience, but are also more influenced by commercialization than their colleagues working for the paid press. Both the free and paid press seem to fulfill diverging democratic functions that can be valuable to the public. Finally, the normative notion of journalistic functions as legislated by the European Union (EU) seems only partially represented within the journalists’ self-perception.

Keywords Free dailies, journalistic functions, Worlds of Journalism Study WJS, European Union

1 Introduction The phenomenon described, seen within the context of increased economi While other European countries might be zation of the profession, casts an alarming experiencing a decline in printed news light on the future of journalism altogether papers, Austria’s daily press is still strong. (Lee-Wright, Phillips, & Witschge, 2011). However, its composition has been subject While the rise of free dailies bears consid to a profound transition within the last two erable consequences for the profession decades. While the most dominant tab from an economic point of view by rede loid newspaper, Kronen Zeitung (Magin & fining market mechanisms and logistics Stark, 2015), has lost a significant amount on many levels, the transition might have of market share, free daily tabloids1 were serious implications with regards to the quick to fill the void and dominate the dailies’ ability to fulfill democratic func market (Bakker, 2013), recently account tions (Bakker & Seethaler, 2009). ing for at least a third of the distributed cir As one of the most crucial functions culation of all printed newspapers (ÖAK, of mass media, the public service function 2016), and there are no signs of a decline expects Western journalism to generate in the close future so far. public attention for politically relevant issues, enable democratic processes, mon 1 This paper uses the terms “free tabloids,” itor the government, and provide public “free newspaper,” “free press” and “free pa value (ECHR, 1979; Moore, 1995; Palm pers” etc. based on a common understand storfer, 2015). The expectation placed on ing (see also Ballarini, Alves, & Lamour, 2017) journalists to fulfill this public function is to describe press products “that are given away free of charge to readers” (Serazio, not only inexorable, it has also been cod 2009, p. 649), which must not be confused ified in European law, thereby even legit with “free press” referring to “freedom of the imizing certain violations of the right to press” as a concept (Russomanno, 2008).

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.002 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 216 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 privacy of European citizens (ECHR, 1985; try from the early 2000s onwards. Similar Emerson, 1979). developments could be observed in other Beyond their given constitutional pro media sectors. The Austrian public service tection, much is demanded of journalists broadcaster, ORF, simply did not have to in the 28 European Union (EU) Member face any Austrian competitors since the States, and thus in Austria. With regard to foundation of the republic, but the intro the rise of free daily newspapers in several duction of the dual system of public and European countries and the recent devel private broadcasters in 2001 (Trappel, opments and transitions in journalism, 2007) transformed a highly regulated me the following questions arise (Lee-Wright, dia segment into a more liberal one. Phillips, & Witschge, 2011): Contrary to the sustained rise of new communication technologies via the ›› Can the emerging model of free daily ubiquitous use of social network services newspapers be of service to the public? as observed in many other countries, the ›› How do journalists employed by free success of free daily newspapers seems to media perceive and/or aim to exercise be a very Austrian characteristic. In con their attributed democratic role com trast to international trends, where the rise pared to journalists working in paid of free daily newspapers mostly remained media? a temporary phenomenon, Austrian free dailies came to stay (Bakker, 2015). They These questions will be explored using a recently accounted for one third of the classification of public functions – infor total circulation of all distributed news mation, monitoring and communication – papers in Austria (ÖAK, 2016), and their by legal scholar Nina Palmstorfer (2015) market share continues to increase. It and utilizing a representative sample of might come as no surprise that the free 818 Austrian journalists from the Worlds dailies mainly feed on the market share of Journalism Study (WJS). Their self-re of paid tabloid newspapers as they seem ported data contains compelling insights to fulfill similar demands. However, paid into the adoption of public service func quality newspapers struggle significantly tions by journalists in paid and free print less to maintain their market position. As press. Furthermore, the results put the is evident in Figure 1, the slow but steady normative notion of journalistic functions decrease in total circulation of paid daily as determined by the aforementioned EU newspapers is mostly caused by the con legislation into question. stant loss of Austria’s most read tabloid newspaper, Kronen Zeitung – most other paid newspapers show considerably sta 2 Background ble demand. Even though Kronen Zeitung is continuously losing reach compared to Often called “the country of media mono the free dailies, it is still the strongest play polies,” Austria is home to a media mar er in the market with a current (2015) reach ket that is traditionally associated with of 32.0 percent (compared to 44.9 percent an atypically high media concentration in 2005). It seems reasonable to assume in terms of market share as well as media that the historical dominance of this tab ownership (Steinmaurer, 2008). Following loid newspaper paved the way for the free a long period of relatively stable market dailies, which operate with a very similar conditions, the Austrian media system format and style and were therefore quick faced fundamental changes within the ly liked by the public. print and broadcasting sector throughout Interestingly enough, the Austrian the last two decades. While the paid tabloid wave of free dailies was started by the newspaper Kronen Zeitung dominated the very publisher of Kronen Zeitung, Hans print sector for decades, an emerging mar Dichand. By launching the free daily ket share of free daily newspapers caused U Express, he aimed at filling this niche a long-lasting stir in the newspaper indus himself and compensating for the Kronen Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 217

Figure 1: The development of the total circulation of daily newspapers in Austria 2005–2015 2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Paid newspapers Free newspapers Kronen Zeitung*

Note. Average weekly (Monday–Sunday) distributed circulation (purchase and free of charge; excluding foreign circulation) in millions; *Kronen Zeitung is also included in “Paid newspapers” (Source: Österreichische Auflagenkontrolle, own calculations).

Zeitung’s crumbling market shares. How tions. For example, Gurevitch and Blumler ever, his German partner shareholders (1990) suggested an often-cited list of dem forced him to reject this project in 2004 ocratic demands for media performance, (derstandard.at, 2015) in order to protect commenting that these expectations are the Kronen Zeitung from self-made com “no easy matter to achieve” (p. 26). The petition. Based on a sophisticated owner listed functions include the “surveillance ship construction which could evade from of sociopolitical environments, reporting the legal influence of the business part of development likely to impinge […] the ners, it was Dichand’s daughter, Eva, who welfare of the citizens,” “mechanisms for realized a similar plan only a short time holding officials to account for how they later by launching Heute (Skrabal, 2012), have exercised power,” and giving “in which has become Austria’s most success centives for citizens to learn, choose, and ful free daily. become involved” (p. 25). This position is also reflected in the long-claimed para digm in which journalism exists in order 3 Theoretical framework to help sustain and animate the public sphere, monitor the government, and pro The relationship between journalism vide public value (George, 2013; McQuail, and – mainly “Western” – democracies has 1992; Moore, 1995; Venturelli, 1998). been the subject of much scientific dis Because of the rather idealistic na course in recent years. Above all, the field ture of these expectations, it might come of communication studies can look back as no surprise that the different aspects of upon extensive research on the different the functions described have always faced roles and functions of mass media within criticism. For instance, it has been argued a democratic framework. These ground on that journalism is more entertaining than the assumption that journalism is a man it is informative by focusing on scandals, datory precondition for the functioning of violence and political personalities rather democracy and thereby serves its citizens than ideologies (Herman & Chomsky, 1988; by enabling democratic processes (Meier, Herman & McChesney, 1997; Keane, 1991; 2007). McChesney, 1999), and that the watchdogs The bond of journalism and democ get alarmed by the wrong things, leaving racy is a widely shared notion amongst voters with very little information about scholars and often includes high expecta actual political agendas (Bagdikian, 1983; 218 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229

Barnett, 2002; Cappella & Jamieson, 1997; Based on this legal framework, Palms Fallows, 1996; Sabato, 1991). torfer (2015) defines a model that breaks While journalism’s constructive con the normative functions of mass media tribution to democracy is more and more down into an information function, a challenged, Western journalism is con monitoring function and a communica- stantly associated with rising economic tion function. This model stands in line pressure. The media industry is described with Moore’s (1995) suggestion that mass as becoming more commercialized than media bears the role of “informing” and ever before, and the transformation is “monitoring.” By adding a third function, sometimes discussed in terms of a change “communication”, Palmstorfer takes the from public-driven to market-driven con last two decades of evolving digital com ditions (Croteau & Hoynes, 2006; Lee- munication technologies as well as corre Wright, Phillips, & Witschge, 2011; Mac sponding legislation into account. namara, 2010; Wadbring, 2013). Why exactly apply law in general and, Many scholars have argued that the more particularly, EU law when study close linkage between journalism and ing the press in Austria? Firstly, in con democracy is endangered, and Western trast to the jumble of journalistic roles countries are said to be experiencing a and functions discussed in the scientific decoupling of democracy and journalism community, the EU regulatory framework (Grönvall, 2015; Josephi, 2013). Josephi provides the scaffolding for a universal (2013) argues that “there has been a time model, which can be tested empirically. and place when the close linkage of jour This model bridges normative demands nalism and democracy was valid,” but reflecting societal responsibilities and claims that this can no longer be assumed abilities of journalism and concise prac- (p. 441). Nerone (2013) even suggests that tical implications as expressed in factual the way Western journalism is practiced is jurisdiction. in itself counterproductive to democratic Secondly, EU legislation and the systems. Free newspapers play a special European Court of Human Rights are seen role in this discussion, as their perfor as a “living instrument” whose “dynamic mance is said to offer lower journalistic interpretation” follows societal change quality in most democratically relevant di processes and therefore “must be inter mensions (for Austria, see Seethaler, 2015), preted according to present-day condi although research shows that working rou tions” (Letsas, 2013, p. 107). Hence, one tines are comparable to the paid press (for of the strengths of the approach of using Denmark, see Sparre, 2017). EU law as a starting point for journal Despite scientific doubts concerning ism research is that it allows its scope to the implementation of the public service be refined according to ongoing societal function within journalistic routine, it changes. has long been codified in European law, Thirdly and finally, there are also vari thereby legitimizing governmental press ous implications of domestic Austrian law subsidies as well as certain violations of for the role of the media in general (Palms European citizens’ right to privacy (ECHR, torfer, 2015, pp. 51–54) and of broadcast 1985; Article 8 ECHR; Emerson, 1979). De media in particular (Seethaler & Beaufort, spite recent doubts, EU legislation views 2017), as they can serve to deduce em traditional mass media as being integral to pirical hypotheses for journalism’s actual democracy: the European Convention on societal role in Austria (Riedl, 2018). How Human Rights (ECHR) has long assigned ever, EU law paves the way for internation many democracy-producing functions to al comparative research on that matter: as traditional mass media. They can be found EU law offers equivalent legal guidelines in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of for all 28 member states, international the European Union, which is intertwined comparisons might allow country-specif with national legislation, as well as in rele ic factors that do contribute or endanger vant judgments of the ECHR. democratically relevant functions of the Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 219 media to be identified. Against this back pate in democratic elections, and thus de drop, this study serves as a first step and pend on journalism’s role to enable them aims to translate legal implications into to make these political decisions based on empirically measurable constructs using relevant information (Schudson, 1998). It the example of a single country. is therefore necessary that journalism en acts its gatekeeping mechanism to convey 3.1 Information function relevant information regarding a plethora As elections are the core of all representa of issues to the average citizen. Journal tive democracies, citizens need to be sup ism makes materials relevant to particu plied with all of the information they need lar issues accessible to its audience, thus, in the polling booth. The mass media bears whether directly or indirectly, facilitating responsibility for that and should “provide and strengthening the democratic process high-quality political information […] and (Palmstorfer, 2015). help citizens to come to well-informed political opinions” (Jandura & Friedrich, 3.2 Monitoring function 2014, p. 352). The freedom of expression In addition to their duty of conveying se and freedom of information are funda lected relevant information in a compre mental for that. These pillars are legally hensive and understandable way to the based on EU law and specifically codified public, journalists have a monitoring in Article 10 of the European Convention function: according to Palmstorfer (2015), on Human Rights, stating: journalists have a responsibility to moni tor and criticize government, politics, and … freedom of expression […] shall include the economy in the name of the citizen. freedom to hold opinions and to receive and While the information function mainly ad impart information and ideas without inter dresses citizens as voters and thus aims to ference by public authority and regardless of establish democratic representation, the frontiers […] in a democratic society. (ECHR, monitoring function aims to maintain this 1953) representation during times of governing to ensure the representatives feel obliged However, based on EU court rulings as to uphold the pledges made before elect well as its regulatory framework, the infor ed. Moreover, this bestowed monitoring mation function does not only imply plain responsibility, or public watchdog role, information distribution by the media strengthens the democratic process by and journalism. To make sure that citizens creating an additional layer of protection in fact receive this relevant information, against potential detriments or injustices Palmstorfer (2015) argues that, confronted against citizens. with both limited resources of attention on The idea of media’s monitoring func the part of citizens as well as with a con tion basically reflects the legal concept of tinuously growing amount of news – often division of powers that shapes modern called an “information overload” (Eppler, constitutional states. Aware of that, legal 2015) – journalists are strongly responsible justification for journalism’s monitoring for analytically selecting this information role, as well as emphasis on its impor (“gatekeeping”) and presenting it compre tance, is explicitly exemplified in the case hensibly within the scope of journalism. of the Norwegian newspaper Bergens Ti- Thereby, the European Convention dende. In this legal precedent, the right to on Human Rights as part of the EU legal freedom of expression (Article 10 ECHR) framework essentially conveys the crux of the newspaper was declared to be vio of journalistic responsibilities. Journalism lated after a national court condemned it has a responsibility to provide people with for having disrespected a plastic surgeon’s relevant information and is therefore a rights by publishing a massive critique of protected enterprise within a democratic his treatment of patients. The case is in society. European citizens have the right to sofar significant for the clarification of freely make political decisions and partici the media’s democratic monitoring func 220 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 tion as the ECHR stresses that the “pub cal and civil society actors to tolerate and lic watchdog” role is “vital” to the press accept diverging views of life. The public (Bergens Tidende and others v. Norway, forum established via the media’s commu 2000). An additional 2013 decision adds nication function may also function as an to the codification of the watchdog role initial point of social change if it is the col (We˛grzynowski & Smolczewski v. Poland, lective will of the citizenry as a sovereign 2013). entity in democratic societies. Finally, as a result of the monitoring In establishing mutual discourse, the function, political decisions are reached communication function does also face under consideration of the public, which a technical dimension: from a normative the media has integrated. This can both perspective, through the advancement of have consequences for the decision-mak the internet, reciprocal communication ing process as such as well as the decision - can be established and facilitated beyond making behavior of the elected (Palmstor the limitations associated with traditional fer, 2015). media such as newspaper, TV and radio. Thus, it amplifies the possibility of par 3.3 Communication function ticipation, supplementing the democratic Besides the expectation of both the in process by creating and maintaining var forming and monitoring functions, the ious possibilities of interactions, feedback comparably new communication function systems, and discourse (e. g., Ferdinand, as firstly derived from the legal framework 2000).2 by Palmstorfer (2015) demands media to In this context, Palmstorfer (2015) be the “mouthpiece” of the citizens and consults Bertolt Brecht’s (1979) idea of to interact with them to do so. This has radio as a means of communication to il various implications: basically, to iden lustrate this technical dimension. Brecht tify citizens’ needs and necessities and argues that radio would be the greatest make them public, journalists both need communication technology of public life to facilitate active participation by the cit if it could not only to broadcast, but also izens, motivate them to participate and receive information. In fact, this devel aim to let these people express their views opment goes beyond online media and and perspectives. As the communication influences traditional media equally, pres should not be unidirectional but the more suring journalists in traditional media to reciprocal, journalists should focus on di approach this new public service function alog and interactivity (Palmstorfer, 2015). and find ways to incorporate it within the This notion of journalism is demonstrated possibilities of the respective media chan in the ECHR case ruling Castells v. Spain, nel. Hence, the function is undergoing which hints at the importance of a public constant change and is therefore rather discourse: fluid in its interpretation.

Freedom of the press affords the public one of the best means of discovering and forming an 4 Material and methods opinion on the ideas and attitudes of their po litical leaders […]. It thus enables everyone to 4.1 Sample participate in the free political debate which is A survey was conducted to collect data at the very core of the concept of a democratic from Austrian journalists within the Austri society. (Castells v. Spain, 1992) an part of the Worlds of Journalism Study 3, funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FW As clearly demonstrated in this decision, F).4 The survey covered the period between when creating a public forum for the cit 2 It goes without saying that the internet in izenry, media should include everyone – deed could not always fulfill these high ex even those at the periphery of society. In pectations (e. g., Dahlgren, 2005). aiming to do so, media should promote 3 http://www.worldsofjournalism.org. societal diversity and invite both politi 4 Mapping Change in Journalism: How Jour Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 221

November 2014 and August 2015. The se domly chosen as respondents from large lection of the sample (N = 818) was intend editorial units and 16 journalists from ed to be representative of the population small units. The quotas of the stratified of journalists in Austria. We had initially random samples were proportional to the contacted a total of 2 843 journalists with distribution of journalists in the respective a response rate of 28.77 percent (n = 818). media types. The sampling also ensured 99 percent of these interviewees complet that journalists in leading positions were ed the standardized quantitative survey represented according to their distribu online, the remaining 1 percent were sur tion in the population. The sample size veyed via telephone. The journalists were had a confidence level of 95 percent and recruited via email, however most of them a margin of error of 3 percent, taking into required a telephone follow-up to ensure account the estimated population of Aus completion of the survey. trian journalists in 2014. In order to create a representative A total of 111 traditional media (dai sample, a multistage sampling approach ly newspapers, weekly newspapers, news was carried out. For that purpose, the pop agencies, radio, TV, and magazines) and ulation of professional journalists was first 22 digital media (stand-alone and spin- estimated: Journalists who are primarily off) were identified through that process. entrusted with journalistic tasks, who se- A total of 411 participants work in press, of lect, edit and publish news that has a so which 336 are employed by paid print me cial function, are guided by professional dia and 75 of which work in free print me norms and work primarily in journalism, dia. After being contacted, the journalists thus drawing at least 50 percent of their who agreed to voluntarily participate in income from journalistic activities, were the study were informed about the objec considered to be professionals. To be able tives of the research. (For more details on to identify them, the media landscape the survey see the Austrian country report was analyzed in detail and all editorial available online, Lohmann & Seethaler, departments were identified. Editorial 2016.) departments were understood as those organizational units that are editorially 4.2 Measures and indices independent, produce journalistic con- In order to measure the three described tent and correspond to the functions of functions, the study addressed profes journalistic communication. In order to sional role perception by asking for the be considered for inclusion in the sample, journalists’ opinion on journalism’s role editorial departments had to have a cer in society (e. g., Patterson & Donsbach, tain media-specific periodicity, reach and 1996): “Please tell me how important each size. Based on these criteria, a list of edito of these things is in your work” (scale from rial units was created. This list turned up a 1 = unimportant to 5 = extremely import total of 4 100 professional journalists. ant); for more details on the question Out of the list of editorial units, a pro naire, its contents and structure, see the portionally stratified random sample with equivalent international version available two layers, depending on the respective online (Worlds of Journalism Study, 2014). national reach (0.5%–1.5% vs. > 1.5%), was Possible answers included several items chosen. In both layers, every nth editorial that specifically respond to all three public unit was drawn from media genre-specific service functions described above: lists and classified as a large (= above-av erage) or small unit. Subsequently, in each Information function (Cronbach’s α = .662) of the two layers, 28 journalists were ran ›› Be a detached observer ›› Report things as they are nalists in Germany, Austria and Switzerland Perceive the Transformation of News Mak ›› Provide analysis of current affairs ing – Worlds of Journalism (WJS), Part II, ›› Provide information people need to funded by the Österreichischer Wissen make political decisions schaftsfonds FWF, Project Id: I 1341-G16. 222 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229

Monitoring function (Cronbach’s α = .916) journalists working for paid print media to ›› Monitor and scrutinize political leaders the information and monitoring functions ›› Monitor and scrutinize business exceed those of the journalists working for free print media (see Table 1). The mean Communication function (Cronbach’s values for journalists of paid print media α = .768) are 4.32 (N = 336, ∂ = 0.64) for the informa ›› Advocate for social change tion function and 3.31 (N = 315, ∂ = 1.33) ›› Motivate people to participate in polit for the monitoring function. Those work ical activity ing for free print media have mean values ›› Let people express their views of 4.24 (N = 76, ∂ = 0.61) and 3.03 (N = 75, ›› Promote tolerance and cultural diver ∂ = 1.19), respectively. This demonstrates sity that paid print media journalists perceive a greater importance of both the informa In order to compensate for economic tion and monitoring functions. However, pressure and thereby take into account the differences keep within limits. recent developments within the field (Lee- On the other hand, mean values for Wright, Phillips, & Witschge, 2011; Mac journalists working for free print media ex namara, 2010), an index for commercial ceed the mean values of journalists for paid ization was also created: print media for both the communication function and commercialization index. Commercialization (Cronbach’s α = .708) Journalists working for free print media ›› Provide entertainment and relaxation have mean values of 3.75 (N = 76, ∂ = 0.75) ›› Provide the kind of news that attracts and 3.94 (N = 76, ∂ = 0.72) for the communi the largest audience cation function and commercialization in ›› Provide advice, orientation and direc dex, respectively, while journalists working tion for daily life for paid print media have a mean value of 3.44 (N = 336, ∂ = 0.88) for the communica The internal consistency of each construct, tion function and 3.56 (N = 336, ∂ = 0.81) for measured with Cronbach’s alpha, exhibit the commercialization index. This reflects ed adequate reliability in each of the types a perceived emphasis of both the commu of influence, following the suggested mini nication function and commercialization mum value of 0.60 in exploratory studies index amongst journalists working for free (Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991). print media. In summary, by comparing the two 4.3 Analysis groups of journalists it becomes clear that For the analyses, the sample was split into those working for paid newspapers appear four groups: journalists working in free to embody the information and moni daily press, journalists working in paid toring functions more so than journalists daily press, journalists working in free working for free media, but the mean val weekly press and journalists working in ues reveal rather minimal differences that paid weekly press. Additionally, the study are statistically not significant. Howev further analyzed journalists from other er, according to ANOVA tests, journalists media, including TV, radio and online me working for free newspapers are signifi dia. The different groups were compared cantly more likely to assume a commu using bivariate difference tests, comparing nication role and are more influenced by the mean of the groups (ANOVA). commercialization. In general, journalists tend to fulfill the monitoring function least of all, whether a journalist works for a paid 5 Results or free newspaper. So far, results have been reported Analysis of the responses of Austrian jour about journalists working in weekly as well nalists working for daily and weekly news as in daily newspapers due to a higher and papers showed that the mean responses of therefore more scientifically valuable sam Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 223

Table 1: Democratic functions of journalists working for paid vs. free newspaper in comparison

Information Monitoring Communication Commercialization Journalists working for paid newspapers M 4.32 3.31 3.44 3.56 N 336 315 336 336 SD 0.64 1.33 0.88 0.81 Journalists working for free newspapers M 4.24 3.03 3.75 3.94 N 76 75 76 76 SD 0.61 1.19 0.75 0.72 Austrian print journalists df (within/be- 1/410 1/388 1/410 1/410 (paid vs. free) tween groups) F 0.923 2.806 8.312** 14.724*** Note. Scale ranges from 1–5 (1 = “role is not influential”; 5 = “role is extremely influential”). ANOVA results: Journalists working for free/paid print media. Only significant main effects are reported: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 2: Democratic functions of journalists working for paid vs. free daily newspaper in comparison

Information Monitoring Communication Commercialization Journalists working for paid daily news- M 4.37 3.38 3.46 3.57 papers N 243 228 243 243 SD 0.57 1.26 0.81 0.78 Variance 0.32 1.59 0.65 0.61 Journalists working for free daily news- M 4.17 3.15 3.56 4.03 papers N 13 13 13 13 SD 0.45 1.18 0.65 0.75 Variance 0.20 1.39 0.42 0.56 Austrian daily journalists df (within/be- 1/254 1/239 1/254 1/254 (paid vs. free) tween groups) F 1.509 0.411 0.169 4.253* Note. Scale ranges from 1–5 (1 = “role is not influential”; 5 = “role is extremely influential”). ANOVA results: Journalists working for free/paid daily newspapers. Only significant main effects are reported: *p < .05; **p < .01. ple size. If the focus shifts to journalists ticipated in the study compared to the working in dailies only, we get very similar 243 paid press journalists in the sample. results. As Table 2 shows, free media jour However, as the variances for all four indi nalists score slightly lower on traditional ces (0.20, 1.39, 0.42, and 0.56, respective public service functions such as the in ly) reveal, the free press journalists, albeit formation and monitoring functions, but fewer in number, are a more homogeneous higher on the communication function. group, holding similar role perceptions. A Contrary to the bigger sample including certain trend amongst these journalists is journalists for daily and weekly newspa therefore to be expected. pers, the differences remain too small to To conclude, the findings within the be of statistical significance. Regarding sample of daily journalists appear, to a the commercialization index, in which great extent, to be consistent with journal the groups vary significantly in the bigger ists working in print in general. Journalists sample (p < .001), a reduced effect can be working for paid media appear to embody demonstrated in the smaller sample as the monitoring function slightly more than well (p < .05). journalists working in free media. Howev These small differences in the two re er, the differences are not that significant sults could be due to the smaller sample in comparison to journalists working for size (N). There were only 13 journalists free press, who are significantly more like working in the free daily press who par ly to assume the communication role and 224 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 are more influenced by commercializa journalists’ attitudes towards their pro tion. Generally, we can see that journalists, fession and the publishers’ notion of jour both in paid and free press, tend to fulfill nalism could weaken the validity of the the monitoring function least of all. statements made in the study. For even if journalists working for the free press are committed to fulfilling public service 6 Discussion functions, their working conditions might not fully allow them to do so due to pres Despite the debate amongst scholars and sure placed on them to increase audience media critics regarding the alleged lack reach with an emphasis on simplification of quality in free dailies, their journalists as well as sensationalism. This assumption appear to embody public service func is supported by the perception that com tions in a similar way as their colleagues mercialization has a significantly higher from the paid press. These findings appear influence on journalists working for the to be in line with other studies. In 2007, free press than on journalists working for Bakker concluded that Danish journalists paid newspapers. In this context, it might working for free dailies do not have fewer also be possible that journalists working qualifications than those working for paid in the free press typically have a different media, nor are they working with less en understanding of the respective items: for thusiasm (Bakker, 2007). Furthermore, example, in the eyes of a paid journalist Spanish scholars show that neither type specialized in, say, politics and provided of newspaper shows statistical differences with considerably higher resources, “so with respect to several indicators current cial change” or “participat[ion] in political ly linked to journalistic excellence (Ber activity” might have a drastically stronger ganza & De Miguel, 2010). However, the democratic notion than it has within in conditions and resources provided by the terpretative patterns of colleagues from publisher are different and subsequently the free press. limiting. Bakker (2007) stated that pub Nevertheless, these results are sup lishers invest less in journalism because ported by an analysis on the level of me competition surrounding content is not dia performance: descriptive results of a the main objective. As for the Danish free content analysis by Josef Seethaler (2015) daily MetroXpress, “only 10% of the total indicate that – in line with the findings of budget goes to journalists, which is lower this study – the free press shows a lower than any paid newspaper” (p. 28). With level of quality both in terms of objectiv some caution, this can also be assumed to ity as well as a “discourse index”, as they be true of Austrian free dailies. are most strongly reflected in journalists’ One of the key findings of this study information function as understood here. is the observed connection between the In contrast, most of the free newspapers rather new “communication” function and rank higher in a responsiveness index, free press journalists: journalists working which is why Seethaler tentatively locates for free print media are more inclined to them within the “popular” group of media advocate for social change, motivate people outlets that can be characterized by a “par to participate in political activity, let people ticipatory” orientation. This is also in line express their views and promote tolerance with the finding that journalists working and cultural diversity than their colleagues for free newspapers are more likely to as from the paid press. This was a surprising sume a communication role that contains finding considering that the correlation is the goal of “motivating people to partici present in media that is more influenced pate in political activity.” by commercialization. Furthermore, hints of similar rela However, a limitation of this study tionships, as reflected in the study, can can be found in the fact that the data is be found in other countries. According to based on self-declaration of journalists. Lamour (2016), the free daily newspaper Thus, the potential discrepancy of the L’essentiel in Luxembourg plays a key role Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 225 in displaying the socio-economic rights of The paid and free press both seem to ful cross-border workers and the civic rights fill diverging functions, both valuable of foreigners in the country. A comparable to democracy in their own way. This as phenomenon is found in Sweden, where, sumption is supported by the fact that free according to Sparre (2016), the MetroX- papers are surviving in the face of signifi press operates amongst other aims accord cant opposition from existing daily news ing to the mission statement “It makes papers, revealing that they are serving a me want to get involved.” By publishing need of readers and advertisers that has selected commentary from social media, not been met by traditional newspapers fulfilling the communication function is (Picard, 2001). In almost every European part of the daily routine of the newspaper, country, paid papers have been losing cir although not always in the classic sense of culation (Bakker, 2007). However, this has providing a forum for primarily political happened even in Norway, where there debate. are no free papers in circulation. Further In a time when readers are not able to more, as of 2012, the circulation of paid discern automated content from content newspapers in Luxembourg appeared to written by a human, opinionated journal be unaffected by the rise of free dailies ism achieves a new relevance. The notion (Bakker, 2013). In Austria, paid tabloids are of information in the very traditional un constantly losing to free dailies, but quali derstanding (e. g. “be a detached observ ty newspapers appear hardly affected. The er,” “report things as they are,” as used in free press seems to coexist with the paid the information index) might lose its sig press, as long as it offers a unique “selling” nificance (Clerwall, 2014). This seems es proposition. Even though free papers work pecially true as … with fewer journalists, employ no foreign correspondents, and do not have a sig … some aspects of quality, such as being clear nificant cultural department, they often and being pleasant to read, received a slightly offer their own agenda, concentrating on higher score for human-written content, but certain topics of interest to a large audi others, such as trustworthiness, informative, ence that paid newspapers seem to ignore and objective, were higher for the automated (Bakker, 2007). content. (Clerwall, 2014, p. 9) As this study tried to operationalize a normative notion of journalism as defined With this in mind, the predominant em by the EU and executed by the ECHR, it phasis of free newspapers on the com has tested whether or not this notion ap municative function might give them a plies to journalists’ perceptions and their leading edge, focusing on participatory job reality. In this respect it is worth men contents (“advocate for social change,” tioning that the information index is high “promote tolerance and cultural diversi amongst both paid and free press journal ty”). From this point of view, the free press ists; both of these values are much higher makes a valuable contribution to society than the monitoring index values. By EU that lies within the notion of a participato standards, however, both of these func ry democracy (Curran, 2000). tions are part of the public service stan dard. Thus, this discrepancy hints that the The first step to rethinking liberal theory is to EU’s notion of journalism is not shared by break free from the assumption that the me all journalists equally. The next step in our dia are a single institution with a common research will therefore be to explore actual democratic purpose. Different media should functions as defined by journalists in sev be viewed as having different functions with eral media sectors and to compare the re in the democratic system, calling for different sults with long-lasting normative notions kinds of structure and styles of journalism. as represented by the legal framework of (Curran, 2000, p. 140) the EU. Moreover, WJS data allows a total of 67 different participating countries to be analyzed. This broadens the scope from 226 Lohmann & Riedl / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 215–229 a solely “westernized” focus to an open (information function and monitoring comparative analysis of several regions of function). However, following their own the world. agenda, the free press often tends to touch upon topics of interest to the audience that are left out by the paid press, offer 7 Conclusions ing participative content (communication function). According to journalists’ perception of Based on this study it can be assumed their function based on the WJS survey, it that free dailies fulfill slightly different can be hypothesized that journalists from functions and satisfy different needs, and the free press place slightly less signifi might thereby coexist with paid (quality) cance on the information and monitoring newspapers. From a democratic stand functions as journalists working for the point, they both fulfill functions that can paid press, albeit the differences are statis be valuable to the public. Finally, it is im tically insignificant. portant to emphasize that the normative One of the key findings is that jour notion of journalistic functions, as deter nalists working in free press aim to fulfill mined by the aforementioned EU legisla the communication function significantly tion, seems to be only partially represent more so than journalists working for the ed within journalists’ self-perception. paid press. 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245

Who trusts the news media? Exploring the factors shaping trust in the news media in German-speaking Switzerland Dorothee Arlt, University Bern, Institute of Communication and Media Studies, [email protected]

Abstract Although a decline of trust in the news media can be observed in many countries, in international comparison, Switzerland is still considered one of the countries with a relatively high level of media trust. Neverthe- less, knowledge concerning the factors that promote and hinder media trust in Switzerland is still limited. Building on the research on media trust and media scepticism, this study investigates the effects of political orientation, political disenchantment, populist attitudes, and news exposure on media trust. The study uses survey data (N = 1 019, 50% females, 50% males) on the Internet-using population of the German-speaking part of Switzerland, collected in June 2017. Examining media trust by assessing the characteristics of media coverage, two dimensions of trust were revealed: (1) trust in journalistic quality and (2) trust in the independence and impartiality of media coverage about political issues. Overall, the results demonstrate that the level of trust concerning these two dimensions is rather low, whereas the level of trust in journalistic quality is slightly higher than trust in the independence and impartiality of media coverage on political issues. Re- garding possible explanations, the findings show that political disenchantment and populist attitudes, anti- establishment attitudes, and demand for people’s sovereignty are negatively related to media trust, while belief in the homogeneity of the people is positively related. Moreover, the results reveal that exposure to news via public television in Switzerland is positively associated with trust in journalistic quality, while the use of special news websites is negatively associated with both dimensions of trust. The implications for future research on media trust are discussed.

Keywords media trust, media scepticism, political disenchantment, populist attitudes, news exposure

1 Introduction Eisenegger, & Udris, 2017). Hence, given that more than half the population in In many Western democracies, there is an Switzerland’s direct democracy does not ongoing public debate about the dramatic trust the media, this erosion of trust is loss of public trust in the news media and highly problematic, especially since most journalism. Journalists are suspected of in- people in modern societies rely heavily on formation concealment, news manipula- the news media to understand the major tion, or the production of “fake news.” The political and social issues of their coun- mainstream media is even condemned as tries, to observe other social systems such “propaganda machines” or “lying press.” as politics, economy or science, and to According to the latest 2017 Reuters In- reduce complexity (Kohring, 2004; Luh- stitute Digital News Report, more than mann, 2001). Therefore, a certain level of half of the population (57%) across all trust in the news media is a crucial precon- the 36 countries does not trust the me- dition for the functioning of modern dem- dia (Newman, Fletcher, Kalogeropoulos, ocratic societies in terms of an informed Levy, & Kleis Nielsen, 2017, p. 30). Also, in participation in civic life and a building of Switzerland, where the Swiss Radio and trust in the institutions and activities that Television and printed newspapers are still comprise the social and political spheres the most important source for news, trust (Ardèvol-Abreu & Gil de Zúñiga, 2017; in the news media has slightly declined Kohring, 2004). Hence, it is not surprising from 50% in 2016 to 46% in 2017 (Schranz, that communication science is current-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.003 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 232 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246 ly intensifying its research on trust and (Bentele, 1994; Blöbaum, 2016; Kohring, distrust in the news media. In particular, 2004), there is still no commonly shared media trust in the course of digitization concept. However, despite the varied defi- has become a new issue (Blöbaum, 2016; nitions, a number of key features of trust Grosser, 2016) as recipients often place can be extracted from the existing research their trust in various new journalistic and on trust (Blöbaum, 2016).1 While from a non-journalistic actors online, of which psychological perspective, trust describes some are accused of intentionally trying “a mental state, an attitude” of individu- to undermine the recipients’ trust in the als (Castelfranchi & Falcone, 2000, p. 801), traditional news media by disseminating from a sociological perspective, trust re- misinformation and conspiracy theories fers to the relation between a trusting par- online. However, despite the relevance of ty, the trustor, and a party to be trusted, the issue, research on media trust is rath- the trustee (Blöbaum, 2016), in which the er fragmented, unsystematic, and, used to trusting party is willing “to be vulnerable be strongly focused on the United States; to the actions” of the trustee (Mayer, Da- yet, nowadays also more studies from Is- vis, Schoorman, 1995, p. 712). Thus, in rael and Germany exist. However, given terms of media trust, it is not the interper- the peculiarities of the American media sonal trust between individuals, but rather system (Hanitzsch, Van Dalen, & Steindl, the system trust (Luhmann, 1968) or pub- 2018), it is difficult to draw conclusions on lic trust (Bentele, 1994) that is relevant. Ac- media trust in European countries based cording to Bentele (2015, p. 622), “Public on U.S. studies, which is particularly true trust can be defined as a process and an for Switzerland. Consequently, very little is outcome of a publicly generated, commu- known so far about trust versus mistrust in nicative mechanism within which public- the news media in Switzerland (Schranz, ly perceptible individuals, organizations, Schneider, & Eisenegger, 2016). Therefore, and other social systems at as ‘trust ob- this study aims to investigate the level and jects’. Public trust is generated within the dimensions of citizens’ media trust in Ger- public communication process in which man-speaking Switzerland and to explore ‘trust subjects’ attribute more or less trust the factors shaping it. The remainder of to trust objects” (see also Bentele, 1994). this paper proceeds as follows: first, ex- In general, the trust relation is asymmet- isting theoretical concepts of media trust ric as the trustee usually has a resource, are discussed as they will serve as the basis for example, certain information, that the for the later operationalisation; second, trustor does not have in the same amount previous studies regarding the factors in- (Jackob, 2012; Tsfati, 2002). Consequently, fluencing media trust and scepticism are putting trust in the actions of the trustee reviewed to derive the paper’s guiding enables the trusting party to reduce infor- hypotheses and research questions; third, mation complexity (Bentele, 1994; Luh- data and measurements are introduced; mann, 1968) and to act in a situation of and finally, the results are presented and unlimited information and uncertainty critically discussed in the conclusion. (Blöbaum, 2016). In the context of media and communication, trust refers to the relations between journalists, media organ- 2 Defining and Measuring Trust in News Media 1 One reason why research on media trust is rather heterogeneous is that communi Although conceptualisations of trust can cation research on media trust initially be found across a broad range of disci- emerged under the label of media credibility (Kohring & Matthes, 2007). Consequently, plines, including psychology (Rotter, 1967), the terms “media trust” and “media credibil- organisation studies (Bachmann & Zaheer, ity” do not refer to totally different concepts, 2006; Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995), but have been used partly synonymously in sociology (Luhmann, 1968; Misztal, 1996), previous research (e. g., Gaziano & McGrath, and media and communication sciences 1986; Kiousis, 2001). Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245 233 isations, or journalism as a social system, journalism with numerous items on four which are the trust objects, and the recipi- dimensions: trust in the selectivity of is- ents, who are the trust subjects (Blöbaum, sues, trust in the selectivity of facts, trust in 2016; Kohring, 2004). Therefore, media the accuracy of depictions, and trust in the trust can be defined as recipients’ willing- journalistic assessment (see also Kohring, ness “to be vulnerable to the journalistic 2004). Likewise, Tsfati (2002, 2003), who system’s selection and communication of examines media trust under the label “me- current information” (Grosser, 2016, p. 5) dia scepticism,” uses several items he ini- or “to be vulnerable to news content based tially adapted from Gaziano and McGrath’s on the expectation that the media will per- (1986) News Credibility Scale and Cappella form in a satisfactory manner” (Hanitzsch and Jamieson’s (1997) concept of “media et al., 2018, p. 5). Thus, recipients put their cynicism.” Moreover, single trust indica- trust in journalists, whom they expect “to tors such as impartiality or balance are at put aside their political views and create the core of hostile media research (Gun- unbiased news stories in accordance with ther, 1992; Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985). the principles of ‘objectivity,’ ‘fairness,’ and ‘clear separation of information and opinion’” (Ardèvol-Abreu & Gil de Zúñiga, 3 Predictors of Trust and Distrust 2017, p. 704) and in journalistic selectivi- in the Media ty as “journalists selectively choose some information over other information” The following section summarises the (Kohring & Matthes, 2007, p. 239). Me- state of research on how recipients’ char- dia distrust (Ladd, 2010) or media scep- acteristics are related to trust and distrust ticism (Tsfati, 2002, 2003, 2010; Tsfati & in the media. In order to systematise the Peri, 2006), however, refer to the opposite sometimes very fragmented and contra- concept as recipients have the impression dictory state of research (Tsfati & Cohen, “that journalists are not fair or objective 2013, p. 4), three dimensions of influence in their reports” (Tsfati, 2003, p. 159) and can be distinguished: political character- that their selection decisions are inappro- istics, media-related attitudes, individual priate. Finally, with respect to the journal- behaviours, and individual characteristics. istic principles of fairness and balance, the concept of media (dis-)trust is closely 3.1 Political Characteristics related to the hostile media phenomenon, From previous research, a whole series of which describes peoples’ tendency to per- connections between political character- ceive media coverage as biased against istics and media trust can be derived. First, their own views (Gunther, 1992; Vallone, several studies found that a more conser- Ross, & Lepper, 1985). vative (Gronke & Cook, 2007; Jones, 2004; Given the variety of definitions and Ladd, 2010) and right-wing political orien- concepts, it is not surprising that trust in tation (Livio & Cohen, 2016; for example, the media is operationalised in very dif- for the German political party Alternative ferent ways. One approach is to measure a für Deutschland [AfD], Schultz, Jackob, diffuse, general level of media trust by ask- Ziegele, Quiring, & Schemer, 2017; Schin- ing recipients how much they trust the me- dler et al., 2018), are associated with lower dia or news (e. g., Ardèvol-Abreu & Gil de levels of media trust. Likewise, studies on Zúñiga, 2017; Fletcher & Park, 2017; Jones, the hostile media phenomenon found that 2004; Lee, 2010; Tsfati & Ariely, 2014). The perceptions of media bias are more strong- problem with this approach, however, is ly pronounced among conservatives than that recipients have very different under- among democrats (e. g., Dalton, Beck, & standings of trust, which are not taken Huckfeldt, 1998; Huge & Glynn, 2010; Lee, into account (Kohring, 2004). A second 2005). Hence, negative attitudes toward approach is to measure media trust with the news media result from recipients per- multiple items. For example, Kohring and ceiving the media as being biased against Matthes (2007) measure people’s trust in their political predispositions. Second, 234 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246 scholars provide evidence that trust in the emerged. At the same time, competition institutional news media is negatively re- for the audience’s attention is increasing, lated to political disenchantment (Schultz and the growing economic pressure on et al., 2017) and political cynicism (Carr, the established media has led to a loss of Barnidge, Lee, & Tsang, 2014). In turn, sat- quality in many places. Consequently, the isfaction with the US president’s job per- presumption suggests that media trust formance (Bennett, Rhine, Flickinger, & and distrust are related to people’s individ- Bennett, 1999) and trust in politics (Jones, ual information behaviours and media us- 2004; Lee, 2010) are positively related to age patterns. Although previous research media trust. Likewise, media cynics – peo- supports this presumption, the direction ple that deeply distrust the established of the relation, however, seems to vary mainstream media – are strongly disap- strongly among different sources of infor- pointed with politics and have doubts in mation. Various studies reveal a positive the democratic system (Jackob, Schultz, relation between traditional news media Ziegele, Schemer, & Quiring, 2017). Third, use and media trust (Jackob, 2012; Schranz initial findings on the relation between et al., 2016; Schultz et al., 2017; Tsfati, 2010; populist attitudes and media trust demon- Tsfati & Ariely, 2014). For example, Tsfati strate that people holding stronger pop- and Ariely (2014) found a positive relation ulist attitudes show lower levels of media between media trust and the use of televi- trust (Fawzi, 2016) and higher levels of sion news and newspapers. Schranz et al. media hostility (Schindler et al., 2018). (2016) and Schultz et al. (2017) confirmed This relation seems particularly plausible such a relation in particular for the use of as “several researchers have suggested that public television, which in both Switzer- populist actors often perceive mainstream land and Germany functions as a public media as part of the elite, as supporters of institution. With respect to online media, the established political powers, and thus empirical evidence is rather mixed. In the advocates of the status quo” (Reinemann, U.S. context, Johnson and Kaye (2014) Matthes, & Sheafer, 2017, p. 389). Conse- found that using blogs and YouTube for quently, populists are quite likely to blame information purposes was related nega- the mainstream media and journalists for tively to trust in traditional news media, what they perceive as unfair media cov- while using social networking sites (SNSs) erage. Based on these findings, it can be for information purposes was related pos- summarised that right-wing political ori- itively. By contrast, according to the find- entation, political disenchantment, and ings of Schranz et al. (2016), social media populist attitudes seem to diminish trust use was associated negatively with media in the media, while trust in politics have trust. Finally, the use of non-mainstream, an obverse effect. Therefore, the following alternative news websites seems to be pos- hypothesis can be predicted: itively related with media distrust (Schultz et al., 2017; Tsfati, 2010; Tsfati & Peri, 2006). H1: Right-wing political orientation Based on these findings, the following two (H1a), political disenchantment (H1b), hypotheses regarding the relation between and populist attitudes (H1c) are nega- media use and media trust are predicted: tively associated with media trust. H2. Greater exposure to news through 3.2 News Exposure mainstream news media will be posi- Presumably, it is no coincidence that the tively related to media trust. present debate concerning a decline of trust in the mainstream media corre- H3. Greater exposure to news through sponds with the digital media revolution. social media (H3a) and non-main- Media usage has become increasingly stream, alternative media (H3b) will be individualised, and many new informa- negatively related to media trust. tion opportunities, such as social media, blogs, or alternative news websites, have Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245 235

3.3 Sociodemographic Characteristics 1 019 people (50% females, 50% males) be- Regarding the relation between socio- tween 16 and 74 years old (M = 44 years of demographic characteristics and media age) took part in the study. Approximately (dis-)trust, the empirical evidence is rath- 11% reported a low level of education, 49% er diverse. For example, two international a middle level, and 40% a high level. comparative studies found that men trust the media significantly less than women 4.2 Measures (Schranz et al., 2016; Schultz et al., 2017; Media trust. Considering the problems Tsfati & Ariely, 2014). By contrast, vari- of measuring people’s media trust with ous single-country studies found no re- a single item (see Kohring, 2004), this lation between sex and media (dis-)trust study examines media trust with a total of (e. g., Bennett, Rhine, & Flickinger, 2001; 11 items adapted from previous studies on Gronke & Cook, 2007; Lee, 2010; Livio & trust in journalism (e. g., Kohring & Mat- Cohen, 2016). Findings on the effects of thes, 2007), media credibility (Gaziano & education and age are similarly contradic- McGrath, 1986; Meyer, 1988), and media tory. While some studies found that edu- scepticism (Tsfati, 2002, 2003) on a five- cation was a negative predictor of media point Likert scale (1 [“strongly disagree”] trust (Gronke & Cook, 2007; Tsfati & Ariely, to 5 [“strongly agree”]), which were sub- 2014), others found a positive (Donsbach, sequently subjected to factor analysis. Rentsch, Schielicke, & Degen, 2009; John- The Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO) statistic son & Kaye, 2014) or even no effect (Jackob, was 0.91, indicating a strong validity for 2012; Lee, 2010) of education. Similarly, the factor analysis. The solution resulted most studies found that age had no effect in two distinct factors accounting for 63% (Bennett et al., 1999; Jackob, 2012; Lee, of the total cumulative explained variance 2010; Livio & Cohen, 2016; Tsfati & Ariely, (Table 1). The first factor comprises seven 2014). Thus, as previous studies have pro- items that examine to what extent recipi- duced inconsistent findings on the effects ents have the impression that the media of sociodemographic factors, the following meet journalistic quality criteria, such as research question is stated: credibility, balance, correctness or com- pleteness; therefore, this factor was la- RQ1: How are sex, education, and age belled trust in journalistic quality of media related to media trust? coverage about political issues. For further analysis, the items were summarised in an index (M = 2.8, SD = 0.8; Cronbach’s α = .91), 4 Methods where the higher mean scores reflect a higher level of media trust. The second fac- 4.1 Data Collection and Sample tor includes four items that reflect recipi- A standardised online survey was con- ents’ perception that the media coverage ducted in June 2017 within the population about political issues is influenced, biased, of the German-speaking part of Switzer- and one-sided. Due to the negative formu- land among individuals older than 16. Re- lation of these items, they were recoded for spondents were recruited via an online ac- further analysis and summarised in an in- cess panel of a professional external panel dex trust in independence and impartiali- provider, which is certified according to ty of media coverage about political issues Global ISO 26362 and a member of the (M = 2.6, SD = 0.8; Cronbach’s α = .73). European Society for Opinion and Market Political dispositions. The respon- Research (ESOMAR) and the German So- dents’ political left-right orientation was ciety for Online Research (DGOF). Specific assessed with one item asking respon- quotas regarding age, sex (crossed), and dents to place their own political posi- educational levels were imposed. Thus, tion on a scale, where 1 meant “left” and the sample is roughly representative of 7 meant “right” (M = 4.1; SD = 1.5). Re- the Internet-using population of the Ger- spondents’ disenchantment with politics man-speaking part of Switzerland. Overall, was examined using indicators that have 236 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246

Table 1: Trust in the media coverage on political issues (factor analysis)

Media coverage about political issues… Trust in journalistic quality of media Trust in independence and impartiality coverage about political issues of media coverage about political issues (recoded) … is credible. 0.83 … is balanced. 0.82 … is carefully researched. 0.82 … presents the facts as they are. 0.81 … takes all essential aspects into account. 0.80 … is neutral. 0.76 … takes place from different angles. 0.75 … is strongly influenced by politics and economy. 0.82 … is determined by the political elite. 0.82 … is distorted. 0.69 … focuses only on negative aspects. 0.61 Eigenvalue 4.86 2.03 Note. Primary component analysis with varimax rotation; 62% explained variance; all factor loadings > 0.40; KMO = 0.91. been applied in previous research on po- about the Switzerland government, how litical disengagement, such as perceived satisfied are you with the way it is doing its political non-influence and dissatisfac- job?” (M = 3.1; SD = 1.0), “And on the whole, tion with politics in terms of economic how satisfied are you with the way de- situation, government’s performance, mocracy works in Switzerland?” (M = 3.6; and democracy (Arzheimer, 2002; Wolling, SD = 1.1). For further analysis, the items 1999). Attitudes towards the possibility of were recoded and summarised in an in- having a political influence were exam- dex dissatisfaction with politics (M = 2.6, ined using the following two statements SD = 0.9; Cronbach’s α = 0.82), where high- on a five-point Likert scale (1 [“very little”] er values reflect more positive attitudes to 5 [“a lot”]), which were taken from the and, thus, a greater political satisfaction.2 ESS 2014 questionnaire for Switzerland Finally, populist attitudes were examined (FORS, 2014): “How much would you say using the nine-item version of the in- the political system in Switzerland allows ventory developed in the National Cen- people like you to have a say in what the tre of Competence in Research (NCCR) government does?” (M = 3.1; SD = 1.1) and Democracy project (Schulz et al., 2017; “How much would you say that the polit- Wirth et al., 2016). Based on this invento- ical system in Switzerland allows people ry, three dimensions of populist attitudes like you to have an influence on politics?” were assessed, each with three items on (M = 3.0; SD = 1.1). For further analysis, the a five-point Likert scale (1 [“strongly dis- items were recoded and entered in the in- agree”] to 5 [“strongly agree”]): anti-es- dex perceived non-influence on politics tablishment attitude (M = 3.5, SD = 0.9; in Switzerland (M = 3.0, SD = 1.0; Cron- 2 To ensure that political disenchantment can bach’s α = 0.86), where higher mean scores actually be considered separately from me- indicate that people are less convinced dia trust/distrust or whether both belong that they have an influence on politics in to the same “anti-establishment” concept Switzerland. Respondents’ dissatisfaction an additional factor analysis using both the with politics was examined using the fol- indicators for political disenchantment and lowing three statements on a five-point for media trust was calculated (see Table 4 in Likert scale (1 [“extremely dissatisfied”] the Appendix). The analysis extracted three to 5 [“extremely satisfied”]), which were dimensions, the two dimensions of media also taken from the ESS 2014 question- trust (see also Table 1) and a third one which comprised all indicators for political disen- naire for Switzerland (FORS, 2014): “On chantment. Thus, political disenchantment the whole, how satisfied are you with the formed its own factor and therefore was con- present state of the economy in Switzer- sidered as a predictor of media trust in this land?” (M = 3.5; SD = 1.0), “Now thinking study. Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245 237

Cronbach’s α = .66), demand for sover- (M = 2.1; SD = 1.7). Using political informa- eignty of the people (M = 3.9, SD = 0.9; tion through social media was measured Cronbach’s α = .82), and belief in the ho- for Facebook (M = 2.2; SD = 2.5), Twitter mogeneity of the people (M = 2.9, SD = 1.0; (M = 0.7; SD = 1.6), and YouTube (M = 1.7; Cronbach’s α = .71).3 SD = 2.1). Finally, blogs (M = 0.7; SD = 1.3) News exposure. To examine people’s and special news websites, which are only exposure to news through mainstream available online (M = 0.9; SD = 1.7) served media, social media, and non-main- as indicators for using political informa- stream, alternative media, respondents tion from non-mainstream, alternative were asked to indicate how often they use media. different information sources to inform themselves about political issues on an 8-point scale (0 [“never”] to 7 [“several 5 Results times a day”]).4 Exposure to news through mainstream media was examined for the Taking a closer look at the descriptive re- following five media outlets, and it did sults, it becomes apparent that just a mar- not matter whether respondents used ginal group of respondents perceives that them offline (on TV or as a printed ver- the media coverage about political issues sion) or online (media library, website or is independent and not influenced by poli- via an app): public television news (M = 3.0; tics and economy (9% agreement), the po- SD = 1.9), private television news (M = 2.3; litical elite (15% agreement), or distorted SD = 2.0), tabloids and commuter news- (24% agreement). Likewise, only a minori- papers (M = 2.9; SD = 2.2), local and na- ty has the impression that the media cov- tional daily newspapers (M = 2.9; SD = 1.9), erage is neutral (16% agreement), presents and weekly newspapers and magazines the facts as they are (20% agreement), and 3 Anti-establishment attitude: “MPs in Parlia- is balanced (22% agreement). Overall, the ment very quickly lose touch with ordinary findings reveal that the level of media trust people” (M = 3.7; SD = 1.1); “The differenc- in the journalistic quality (M = 2.8, SD = 0.8) es between ordinary people and the ruling of media coverage is slightly higher among elite are much greater than the differences the Swiss population than is their trust in between ordinary people” (M = 3.8; SD = 1.1); the independence and impartiality of me- “People like me have no influence on what dia coverage about political issues (M = 2.6, the government does” (M = 3.2; SD = 1.2); SD = 0.8) (see Table 2). demand for sovereignty of the people: “The people should have the final say on the most To explore further how media trust re- important political issues by voting on them lates to sociodemographic characteristics, directly in referendums” (M = 4.0; SD = 1.1); political dispositions, and news exposure, “The people should be asked whenever two hierarchical regression analyses were important decisions are taken” (M = 4.0; calculated using the two earlier extracted SD = 1.0); “The people, not the politicians, dimensions of media trust (see Table 1) as should make our most important policy de- dependent variables. In the first step of the cisions” (M = 3.7; SD = 1.1); belief in the ho- regressions, the control variables (age, sex, mogeneity of the people: “Ordinary people are of good and honest character” (M = 3.1; and education) were considered. In the SD = 1.2); “Ordinary people all pull togeth- second step, the various indicators for po- er” (M = 2.7; SD = 1.2); “Although the Swiss litical dispositions were added as predic- are very different from each other, when it tors. Finally, in the third step, variables on comes down to it they all think the same” news exposure were included in the anal- (M = 2.8; SD = 1.2). ysis. The results are presented in Table 3. 4 Scale is based on the latest Reuters Insti- The results of the first step of the regres- tute Digital News Report 2017; 0 (“never”), sions show that, with one exception, media 1 (“less than once a month”), 2 (“less than once a week”), 3 (“once a week”), 4 (“two to trust is not related to sociodemographic three days per week”), 5 (“four to six days per characteristics (see Table 3). Only young- week”), 6 (“every day”), 7 (“several times a er people reported a higher level of trust day”). in the independence and impartiality of 238 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246

Table 2: Descriptive results on distrust in the media coverage on political issues

The media coverage on political issues… M (SD)1 Disagreement2 Agreement3 … is neutral. 2.5 (1.0) 48% 16% … presents the facts as they are. 2.8 (1.0) 42% 20% … is balanced. 3.1 (1.0) 36% 22% … takes all essential aspects into account. 2.9 (1.0) 36% 25% … is carefully researched. 2.7 (1.0) 32% 27% … is credible. 2.9 (1.0) 32% 29% … takes place from different angles. 2.8 (1.0) 27% 31% Index: trust in journalistic quality of media coverage about political issues 2.8 (0.8) … is strongly influenced by politics and economy. (recoded) 2.2 (0.9) 64% 9% … is determined by the political elite. (recoded) 2.9 (1.1) 57% 15% … is distorted. (recoded) 2.8 (1.0) 40% 24% … mainly focuses only negative aspects. (recoded) 2.4 (1.1) 36% 28% Index: trust in independence and impartiality of media coverage about political issues 2.6 (0.8) Note. 1Mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) on five-point Likert scale (1 [“strongly disagree”] to 5 [“strongly agree”]);2 points 1 and 2 on the scale. 3points 4 and 5 on the scale. media coverage about political issues (age: dence and impartiality of media coverage β = –0.11; p < .001). By contrast, the findings about political issues (β = –0.41; p < 0.001), of the second step of the regressions reveal but showed no effect on trust in journalis- that media trust is strongly related to peo- tic quality. Moreover, a strong demand for ple’s political dispositions. This becomes people’s sovereignty was a negative predic- particularly apparent through the strong tor of media trust in both cases; however, change of R-squared in both models. How- it was significantly lower β( = –0.10; p < .01). ever, the effects of the single variables were By contrast, the third dimension of popu- extremely dissimilar. First, people’s politi- list attitudes tested here, the belief in the cal orientation was not related to media homogeneity of the people, was positively trust; therefore, H1a must be rejected. related to trust in the journalistic quality Regarding the supposed negative relation of media coverage about political issues between media trust and political disen- (β = 0.16; p < .001). Thus, H1c was partly chantment, this relation was strongly sup- supported for anti-establishment attitude ported for people’s trust in the journalistic and the demand for people’s sovereignty quality, but not for trust in the indepen- but must be rejected for the belief in the dence and impartiality of media coverage homogeneity of the people. about political issues. People perceiving Regarding the relation between news themselves as having a low influence on exposure and media trust, the results of politics (β = –0.23; p < 0.001) reported a the third step of the regressions revealed lower level of trust in the journalistic quali- a rather weak relation, as the R-squared ty of media coverage about political issues. changed just slightly, and the variables Moreover, people who are more strongly showed only isolated effects (see Table 3). dissatisfied with politics showed lower Of the various variables tested for expo- levels of trust in both journalistic quality sure to news through mainstream media, and the independence and impartiality only one significant effect was found: of media coverage (see Table 3). Looking People that are more frequently exposed at these findings together, H1b is strongly to news via public television (β = 0.18; supported as people who are disenchant- p < .001) reported a higher level of trust in ed with politics show lower levels of me- the journalistic quality of media coverage dia trust. With respect to the presumed about political issues. Consequently, H2 negative influence of populist attitudes, was confirmed only for one case. With re- the findings are mixed. For example, peo- spect to the presumed negative relation ple’s anti-establishment attitudes were the between exposure to news through social strongest predictor of trust in the indepen- media and media trust, H3a must be re- Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245 239

Table 3: Hierarchical regression: influences of sociodemographic factors, political dispositions, and news exposure on media trust

Trust in journalistic quality of media Trust in independence and impartiality coverage about political issues of media coverage about political issues β Sig. β Sig. Block 1: Control Variables Age (in years) 0.05 –0.11 ** Sex (men) 0.03 0.02 Education (high) 0.02 –0.02 R² 0.00 0.01

Block 2: Control Variables + Political Predispositions Age (in years) 0.10 ** 0.00 Sex (men) –0.01 0.03 Education (high) –0.03 –0.09 ** Political orientation (1 = left; 7 = right) –0.06 0.01 Perceived non-influence on politics (high) –0.23 *** 0.03 Dissatisfaction with politics (high) –0.29 *** –0.07 * Anti-establishment attitude (strong) 0.01 –0.41 *** Demand for people’s sovereignty (strong) –0.10 ** –0.10 ** Belief in homogeneity of the people (strong) 0.16 *** 0.02 R² change 0.23 0.20

Block 3: Control Variables + Political Predispositions + News Exposure Age (in years) 0.02 –0.02 Sex (men) –0.01 0.03 Education (high) –0.05 –0.09 ** Political orientation (1= left; 7 = right) –0.07 * 0.00 Perceived non-influence on politics (high) –0.20 *** 0.02 Dissatisfaction with politics (high) –0.26 *** –0.06 Anti-establishment attitude (strong) –0.01 –0.40 *** Demand for people’s sovereignty (strong) –0.09 * –0.09 * Belief in homogeneity of the people (strong) 0.15 *** 0.02 Public television news use 0.18 *** 0.02 Private television news use –0.01 0.07 Tabloid and “commuter” newspapers use 0.05 –0.01 Local and national daily newspapers use 0.00 0.02 Weekly newspapers and magazines use 0.01 –0.06 Facebook use –0.06 –0.05 Twitter use 0.01 –0.02 YouTube use –0.01 0.00 Blog use 0.10 ** 0.03 Special News websites use –0.09 * –0.10 ** R² change 0.04 0.02

Total R² 0.27 0.23 Note. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. jected as no such effect could be found for age about political issues (β = 0.19; p < .01). Facebook, Twitter, or YouTube. Regarding Thus, in the case of blogs, H3b must be re- the effect of using non-mainstream, alter- jected. By contrast, the findings revealed native media on media trust, the evidence a strong relation between the exposure to is mixed. The results showed that using a news through special news websites on blog is positively related to people’s trust the Internet that provide alternative in- in the journalistic quality of media cover- formation, and trust in the media: people 240 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246 more frequently using such news websites 2004; Kohring & Matthes, 2007; Tsfati, to perceive information on political issues 2002, 2003). Accordingly, in this study, show lower levels of trust both in the qual- media trust has been measured with mul- ity (β = –0.09; p < 0.05) and in the indepen- tiple items to assess the characteristics of dence and impartiality of media coverage reporting on political issues (see Table 1). about political issues (β = –0.10; p < .01). Thereby, two dimensions of media trust Therefore, in the case of news exposure were extracted: (1) trust in the journalistic through special news websites, H3b was quality and (2) trust in the independence confirmed. and impartiality of media coverage on political issues. Yet, with respect to the level of media trust, the findings show that it 6 Conclusion was rather low among the Swiss population on both dimensions. Regarding the Although media trust in Switzerland is question of who trusts the media, hypoth- high compared to other countries, citi- eses regarding the relations of political zens’ mistrust has risen by four percentage characteristics and news exposure have points in the last year (fög, 2017). How- been derived from previous research. To ever, with respect to the predicators and test these hypotheses, hierarchical regres- consequences of negative and sceptical sion analyses were applied to data from a attitudes towards the mainstream media, quantitative online survey conducted in the majority of research now stems from June 2017 with a quota sample of 1 019 cit- the United States, Israel and Germany. izens from the German-speaking part of Thus, despite the potential dangers of a Switzerland. declining media trust for the Swiss de- Looking at the effects of people’s po- mocracy, particularly as public broadcasts litical characteristics, the results strongly and the press are still the most important supported previous research that there is sources for news and political information a significant relationship between political for Swiss citizens, little is known about the disenchantment and media trust; and yet, dimensions, level, and predictors of media that they can be belong to different con- trust in Switzerland. Therefore, the present cepts (see also Table 4 in the Appendix). study explores media trust among Switzer- Perceptions of a minor influence on poli- land’s German-speaking population. tics in Switzerland and dissatisfaction with Even though communication science politics are strongly related to lower levels has been dealing with media (dis-)trust of media trust. Furthermore, the findings and related phenomena like the hostile strengthen the initial evidence that media media phenomenon quite intensively for trust is related to populist attitudes (Fawzi, some years, no commonly shared concept 2016; Schindler et al., 2018); however, the of media trust exists. However, common direction and strength of this relation to most conceptualisations is that media seem to vary along with the conceptuali- trust refers to the relation between the sation of populist attitudes. In this study, media and its audience, where the audi- populist attitudes have been measured ence, as the trusting party, is willing to be as three-dimensional (Schulz et al., 2017; vulnerable to news coverage and put their Wirth et al., 2016), producing evidence on trust in an accurate, comprehensive, and the relation of these three dimensions with neutral selection and presentation of in- media trust. While an anti-elitism attitude formation by the media and journalists and preference for people’s sovereign- (e. g., Ardèvol-Abreu & Gil de Zúñiga, 2017; ty were related negatively to media trust, Grosser, 2016; Kohring & Matthes, 2007). belief in people’s homogeneity was posi- Based on this, many studies have examined tively related. Thus, the findings in partic- trust in the media through an assessment ular support the argumentation of Aalberg of the characteristics and quality of media et al. (2017) that populists perceive insti- coverage that is the result of journalistic tutional media as part of the political elite decision making and actions (Kohring, as an anti-elitism attitude turned out to be Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–245 241 the strongest predictor for a low level of This study has some methodological trust in the independence and impartiality weaknesses that must be acknowledged of media coverage of political issues. Thus, and addressed in future research. The first people who view political elites as strong- limitation relates to the use of cross-sec- ly distant from ordinary people and who tional data to examine the relation be- view ordinary people as hardly influential tween political disenchantment, media on politicians show lower levels of trust in use, and media trust; there are several rea- the independence and impartiality of me- sons to expect that these three phenome- dia coverage of political issues. na influence each other. This paper treated The positive relation between main- political disenchantment and news expo- stream media use and media trust that was sure as predictors of media trust; however, found in previous studies (Schranz et al., other studies examine media scepticism as 2016; Tsfati, 2010; Tsfati & Ariely, 2014; a predictor of exposure (Tsfati & Cappella, Tsfati & Cappella, 2003; Tsfati & Cappella, 2003, 2005) and political trust (Ariely, 2005) was only supported for one case: 2015) or media exposure as a predictor of People who more frequently use public political disenchantment (Maurer, 2003; television news report higher levels of trust Wolling, 1999, 2014). Consequently, so far, in the journalistic quality of media cover- the question of the direction of causality age on political issues. Thus, this finding in between media trust, political disenchant- particular supports the essential role of a ment, and media use, and how they may distinct public broadcast – as is the case in affect each other over time, remains open. Switzerland – in the debate regarding trust Therefore, in future research, panel sur- and mistrust in media. Other than expect- veys should be conducted to examine how ed, the use of social media for information these three concepts change over time. reasons was not related to media trust. Fi- Particularly, the question of whether a neg- nally, this study’s findings strengthen the ative downward spiral between a decline previous research that has shown that me- in media trust, political disenchantment, dia trust is negatively related to the use of and news avoidance behaviours can be non-mainstream, alternative media (e. g., observed, and which factors may have the Tsfati, 2010; Tsfati & Peri, 2006). In the potential to counteract such a spiral, is of present study, there is a consistent finding strong scientific and political interest. Sec- that a more frequent use of special news ond, this study uses data from an online websites that provide alternative informa- survey conducted within the population of tion on political issues is negatively related the German-speaking part of Switzerland; to trust both in the journalistic quality and thus, the findings provide only partial in- in the independence and impartiality of sights. Therefore, future studies should media coverage about political issues. This examine the existence of media trust from result also strengthens the type of selective a comparative perspective between the exposure that focusses on the medium as German-speaking, the French-speaking, in the contemporary media environment and the Italian-speaking parts of Switzer- people have the opportunity “to go on- land. Such an approach would provide an line for information when they disagree essential contribution for two reasons: 1) it with or do not trust the reportage in more allows for exploring the interplay between mainstream outlets” (Stroud, 2017, p. 5). the media trust and political disenchant- Overall, the results have revealed that ment in the different language regions, as media trust is mostly affected by political well as the subsequent consequences for and populist attitudes and less affected by the direct democracy in Switzerland as a sociodemographic factors and media use. whole; 2) it offers the possibility not only This finding underlines the general obser- to consider the influencing factors on me- vation that the mistrust of the population dia disenchantment at the individual level is not directed specifically against the me- but also on the context level, as all three dia, but more generally against social and language regions represent linguistically political institutions and elites. segmented media markets that also dif- 242 Arlt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 231–246 fer in the quality of the political reporting Cappella, J. 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Appendix

Table 4: Trust in the media coverage on political issues and political disenchantment (factor analysis)

Trust in journalistic Indicators Trust in indepen- quality of media for political disen- dence and impartial- coverage about chantment ity of media cover- political issues age about political issues (recoded) Media coverage about political issues… … is carefully researched. 0.80 … is balanced. 0.80 … is credible. 0.79 … presents the facts as they are. 0.78 … takes all essential aspects into account. 0.77 … takes place from different angles. 0.75 … is neutral. 0.75 On the whole, how satisfied are you with the way democracy works 0.78 in Switzerland?’ How much would you say the political system in Switzerland allows 0.76 people like you to have a say in what the government does? How much would you say that the political system in Switzerland 0.74 allows people like you to have an influence on politics? Now thinking about the Switzerland government, how satisfied are 0.74 you with the way it is doing its job? And on the whole, how satisfied are you with the present state of 0.70 the economy in Switzerland? Media coverage about political issues… … is strongly influenced by politics and economy. 0.82 … is determined by the political elite. 0.81 … is distorted. 0.68 … focuses only negative aspects. 0.62 Eigenvalue 5.95 2.07 1.94 Note. Primary component analysis with varimax rotation; 62% explained variance; all factor loadings > 0.40; KMO = 0.90.

Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

The effects of public diplomacy on country identity in countries with different language regions and cultures: The case of Switzerland Diana Ingenhoff, University of Fribourg, DCM – Department of Mass Media and Communication Research* Dominique Richner, University of Fribourg, DCM – Department of Mass Media and Communication Research* *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this study is to explore the existing differences in (regional) country identity between the two biggest language regions of Switzerland, and the effects that differently-framed public diplomacy messages have on these country identities. To analyze the heterogeneous dimensions of regional country identity in the two language regions and the effects of public diplomacy messages, an experimental study with four different groups was conducted. The results show that a) even within one country, different language regions have differing country identities and give varying significance to different dimensions, b) these differences have an impact on how public diplomacy messages are perceived, and c) they also have an impact on the overall country identity of the recipients of these messages. Finally, we show that d) these impacts are moderated by the subjects’ political opinions on an issue as well as the framing of the message itself.

Keywords Partial Least Squares (PLS), Multi Group Analysis, Public Diplomacy, Country Identity, 4D Model, Mass Immigration Initiative

1 Introduction and to a massive compression of available time and space (Nye, 1990; Gilboa, 2008; With the advent of the digital era, the world Vickers, 2004). has experienced huge changes. Digitali- Given these developments, Melissen zation and globalization have led to new (2005) identifies three major changes in ways of communication impacting upon public diplomacy: (1) a shift in public di- public diplomacy. Public diplomacy is plomacy motivated by the emergence of defined as “the way in which both govern- new actors, (2) a shift away from one-way ment and private individuals and groups communication towards dialogues and influence directly or indirectly those pub- collaborations and (3) public diplomacy lic attitudes and opinions which bear di- targets becoming increasingly intercon- rectly on another government’s foreign nected. The advent of social media has policy decisions” (Delany, 1968). In recent been a particular catalyst for these chang- decades, the conditions for public diplo- es by recasting public diplomacy from an macy activities have changed drastically asymmetrical top down communication due to three different developments: The into a potentially symmetrical communi- revolution in communication technologies, cation by giving anyone the opportunity to the revolution in politics – as many societ- speak up and take part in the public dis- ies move towards becoming democracies, course (Harris, 2013). This last change pos- the means and extent of mass participa- es a new challenge for public diplomacy: tion in political processes has changed – to align communication strategies, which and the process of globalization, which has were designed for a foreign public, with led to a dissolving of national borders, to a the concerns of a domestic public as well new interconnectedness around the globe (Goodman & Wang, 2006). In her article,

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.004 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 248 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

Fitzpatrick (2012) comes to the conclusion 1.1 Country identity and the 4D model that “if public diplomacy programs are to To understand the concept of country be managed strategically, the field of pub- identity it is important to understand the lics must include domestic publics. In this differentiation between country image era of global connectedness and interde- and country identity. We will refer to the pendence, the networks of influence that country image when talking about the ex- determine public diplomacy outcomes are ternal perception, and to country identity no longer defined by geography or nation- when dealing with the perception of the al borders.” domestic public (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, Research in public diplomacy has 2015a; Rusciano, Fiske-Rusciano, & Wang, acknowledged these developments and 1997). Even though country identity is con- examined the subject in its new environ- cerned with the domestic public only, it ment. However, the research still seems to does not mean that this public is homoge- be limited in different ways. Firstly, most nous (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015a). If we research uses content analyses (Golan & think for example of Switzerland, with its Viatchaninova, 2013; Mogensen, 2015; various linguistic regions and its migrants, Strauss, Kruikemeier, van der Meulen, & it becomes obvious that even within the van Noort, 2015) or case studies (Khatib, domestic public there exists a very hetero- Dutton, & Thelwall, 2012; Smyth, 2001; geneous population. Thus country identi- Zhong & Lu, 2013). There are not many ty and country image cannot be complete- experimental researches contributing to ly separated, because “who we are cannot the understanding of causal relationships. be completely separated from the per- Secondly, most of the research tests the ceptions others have of us and we have of status quo (Golan & Viatchaninova, 2013; others” (Hatch & Schultz, 2000, p. 27). The Khatib, Dutton, & Thelwall, 2012; Smyth, two concepts are strongly interrelated, as 2001; Zhong & Lu, 2013); in other words, there is a permanent negotiation between it analyzes what public diplomacy actors the country identity and the communicat- do. The environmental changes, howev- ed images, which then shape the country er, specifically illustrate the importance identity and vice versa (Rusciano, 2003). of the effects of public diplomacy activi- In order to measure country identity, ties on publics, an area which has not yet the 4D Model of Buhmann and Ingenhoff been addressed by any studies. The aim (2015a) will be applied. This model is an of this study, therefore, is to contribute integrative framework, developed to mea- to this research gap by exploring existing sure the multidimensional construct of differences in country identities, taking country image and/or country identity. It the two biggest language regions of Swit- draws on three basic concepts: the concept zerland as an example, and the effects that of national identity by Smith (1991) to de- differently-framed public diplomacy mes- scribe the image object, the attitude theory sages have on these country identities. We by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) to analyze understand country identity as the per- the attitudes toward a country, and the ception of the country held by the domes- model of reputation as a multidimension- tic public itself (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, al construct (Eisenegger & Imhof, 2008; 2015a; Rusciano, Fiske-Rusciano, & Wang, Ingenhoff & Sommer, 2007) to differentiate 1997). We show that the perception of the between the cognitive and affective com- significant dimensions forming a country ponents of the construct. It contains four identity is different between the French- dimensions: (1) The functional dimension and German-speaking parts of Switzer- of the model measures the beliefs about land, is moderated by political opinions the competences and competitiveness of a and attitudes, and that these differences country; (2) the normative dimension cov- have an influence on how public diploma- ers the beliefs regarding a country’s norms, cy messages are perceived. values and integrity; (3) the aesthetic dimension measures the beliefs regarding a country’s attractiveness of culture and Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 249 landscape; and (4) the emotional dimen- zerland in February 2014 serves as a stim- sion consists of the attractiveness and fas- ulus. The initiative was launched by the cination of a country and its citizens (Buh- Swiss People’s Party (SVP) in 2011. Its aim mann & Ingenhoff, 2015a). was to restrict immigration to Switzerland with limits and quotas and to privilege 1.2 Public diplomacy and framing Swiss nationals when hiring staff. This vote theory is interesting to analyze in multiple ways. In public diplomacy, communication is Not only was the initiative of remarkable the primary tool. However, any message global interest, but it also showed a deeply can be framed to achieve a different re- divided country. Even though the vote in action. Until now, the framing theory has favor was surprisingly high – with 50.3 % very rarely been used to describe or ana- (BK, 2015) – it was obvious that it was not lyze public diplomacy activities. This lack unanimous. Firstly, there was a difference of research on framing and theoretical in voting behavior between rural regions, infrastructures was also criticized by Ent who voted more in favor of the initiative man (2008). This study therefore aims to (57.6%), and urban centers, where people test different frames as different public were less likely to vote yes (41.5 %). This in- diplomacy strategies in order to examine dicates that the more urban the area voters their impacts on the audience. The fram- lived in, the less likely it was that they voted ing type used in this study is attribute yes. Secondly, and even more noticeable, framing, “in which some characteristic of are the differences between the coun- an object or event serves as the focus of try’s language regions. While in the Ger- the framing manipulation” (Levin, Schnei- man-speaking part of Switzerland (52%) der, & Gaeth, 1998, p. 150). This means, for and the Italian-speaking part (68%) more example, that an issue is addressed from than 50% voted yes, in the French-speak- only one perspective of the argument, ing part only 41.5% voted yes (BFS, 2015b). while ignoring others. Entman (2008) This is in line with the results of Schmid identifies two variables moderating the (1995), who shows that the German- and effect of a framed strategy: magnitude and French-speaking parts of Switzerland dif- congruence. When the magnitude (i. e. the fer in terms of their value systems, their frequency and prominence) of an issue in- political points of view, and their attitudes creases, influence can be exerted on pub- and identity. Although country identity lic opinion about this issue. But when the has been attributed, amongst other things, issue is already prominent and frequently to a territory, the symbolic factor of a com- covered in the media, and the public is well mon language plays an important role in informed, the effect of framing will reduce. the formation of a country identity (Smith, With congruence, he means that a framed 1996). This leads to the research question message has more effect if it is compatible (RQ) of this study: with the dominant opinion of the public than that of an incongruently framed is- RQ: What is the impact of different sue. Chong and Druckman (2007) showed public diplomacy strategies on country that most individuals are less easily affect- identity? ed by frames which contradict their own opinion. However, if the issue is controver- It can be assumed that the German- and sial and there is no dominant opinion, the French-speaking parts of Switzerland framing effect is potentially high (Entman, have different regional country identities, 2008). which could be a reason for the differing opinions expressed in the vote.1 Thus, the 1.3 The mass immigration initiative and first hypothesis is: cultural differentiation To analyze the impact of public diplomacy 1 This assumption could be valid for all langu- on country identity, the democratic vote age regions. In this study, however, the focus on the mass immigration initiative in Swit- remains on the two largest language regions. 250 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

H1: The country identities of the Ger- These hypotheses will be tested statistical- man-speaking and French-speaking ly to answer the research question of the parts of Switzerland differ, i. e. the val- study. To analyze causal relationships, it ues given to the different dimensions is reasonable to conduct an experiment. that form a country identity are differ- Therefore, the next section will be used to ent in the German- and French-speak- outline what method was used and why it ing parts of Switzerland. was used.

Public diplomacy messages are usually designed to affect the image foreign publics 2 Method have of a country. If the domestic public, due to the new interconnectedness, also 2.1 Epistemic structure and receive the message designed for the pub- operationalization of the construct lic abroad, it might also have an impact on Country identity is a complex latent con- them. Therefore, we can assume: struct with both reflective and formative indicators. The epistemic structure is H2: Public diplomacy strategies influ- dependent on the specification of these ence country identity. two types. The reflective indicators are the outcomes of the underlying construct The framing mechanisms showed that and dropping one item should not alter there are two moderating variables, mag- the construct, as the items result from it. nitude and congruence. The mass immi- The direction of causality of the formative gration initiative is a very controversial indicators, however, is from measure to and prominent issue and the Swiss public construct. Hence dropping an item here is potentially very well-informed. In this would alter the construct, as the loss of the case congruence might play a significant item might lead to the omission of an im- role as the federal council had to explain portant part of the construct (Buhmann & why there was a yes vote, even though Ingenhoff, 2013; Fornell & Bookstein, 1982; there was also a lot of opposition. So, it can Jarvis, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2003). be assumed that the people who support- Existing research concerning country ed the initiative, based on a specific po- image or country identity focuses most- litical opinion, reacted differently to such ly on reflective indicators (Ingenhoff & a message than the people who were op- Sommer, 2010). However, the cognitive posed to it. dimensions – functional, normative and aesthetic – can be seen as “variables that H3: Personal beliefs/political opinions make the underlying construct appear, on a communicated issue moderate the not as outcomes” (Buhmann & Ingen- effect of a public diplomacy strategy on hoff, 2013, p. 68) and therefore should be country identity. treated as formative indicators. The emotional dimension, on the other hand, is an Framing theory leads to the assumption outcome of the country image or country that differently-framed public diplomacy identity and needs therefore to be opera- messages will not have the same effect. tionalized by reflective items. The opera- Also, it is possible that the different frames tionalization of this construct is based on have different effects on German- and the 4D Model of Buhmann and Ingenhoff French-speaking Swiss, or on supporters, (2015a). Given the argumentation above, opponents or undecided voters: “the exogenous constructs of the functional (FUNC), normative (NORM), and H4: Differently-framed public diploma- aesthetic (AEST) dimensions (cognitive cy messages have a different effect on country image component) were opera- country identity. tionalized with formative indicators while the endogenous construct of the emotional (EMOT) dimension (affective country Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 251 image component) was matched with the subjects are, the more clearly the dif- reflective indicators” (Buhmann & Ingen- fering outcome can be related to the mea- hoff, 2013, p. 69). sured causality. Different communication strategies on explaining the outcome of 2.2 Variables the vote on the mass immigration initiative Political Attitudes and Personal Beliefs. served stimuli. They were created as news- First, the political attitudes and personal paper articles in order to gauge their dif- beliefs on the mass immigration initia- ferent impacts on the country identity. The tive had to be measured as control vari- public diplomacy strategies were fictional, ables. The items used here are from the each strategy referring to one dimension 2015 Swiss election studies (Lutz, 2015). of the three independent dimensions of The subjects were first asked to relate the 4D Model (functional, normative and themselves to the Swiss party they think aesthetic). Thus the subjects were divid- match their opinions the most. Then they ed into three treatment groups, with each were asked to position themselves on a group exposed to one of the three stimuli, left-right scale with seven options. Lastly, and one control group. they were asked how they voted (or if they The fictional newspaper articles didn’t vote, how they would have voted) on were set in two different real newspapers, the mass immigration initiative on 9th Feb- the French Le Figaro and the German Die ruary 2014. Süddeutsche Zeitung. As the experiment Opinions of Switzerland (i. e. summa- took place in both the French- and Ger- ry items). It is also necessary to test overall man-speaking parts of Switzerland, the opinions of Switzerland before presenting highest-circulation quality newspapers of the stimuli. In order to do so, the subjects each of the neighboring countries were were asked four questions, rating each of chosen (Latzer, Aubert, Just, Korinth, & the four dimensions of country identity Saurwein, 2012). To come up with the con- (functional, normative, aesthetic or emo- tent of the newspaper articles, different ex- tional) on a seven point Likert-scale. These isting newspaper articles dealing with the questions were also used as global items mass immigration initiative were used as summarizing the four constructs, which orientation. helps in assessing the external validity of In order to test the hypotheses, we the formative constructs later on. decided to choose the professional Swiss Country identity. To measure country farmer’s association, “IP-Suisse,” as a sam- identity the items of Buhmann and Ingen- ple. This was chosen because it is helpful hoff (2013) were used. The set consists of in an experimental study to use a homog- 43 items: 19 for the functional dimension, enous and large sample. Due to the huge 12 for the normative dimension, 8 for the number of IP-Suisse members, the sam- aesthetic dimension (formative items) and ple consists of 1 477 persons. The partici- 4 for the reflective specified dimension pants were randomly divided into the four (emotional dimension). groups, resulting in 395 subjects in the control group, 366 in the functional framed 2.3 Experimental online survey group, 343 in the normative framed group, To analyze the impact of public diplomacy and 373 in the aesthetic framed group. on country identity, an experimental study The sample is dominated by men (82%), with four different groups was conducted. which is not surprising among farmers. This method was used because it can look The average age of the sample is 54 years for causalities. To control for intervening (SD = 10.074). Although the sample is not variables the subjects are randomly allo- representative of the Swiss population, cated to a group, so the groups are as sim- members of IP-Suisse are nevertheless ilar as possible (Kühl, 2009). In order to be a suitable group to test the hypotheses. able to assign the differences between the Farmers and agricultural employees are groups to the stimuli, it is favorable to have generally known to have political opinions a homogenous sample. The more similar on the issues of mass immigration and cul- 252 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 tural differentiation, which lowers the risk fore usually be omitted. However, in order of measuring opinions that do not actually to keep the models comparable and due exist. In fact, on a scale from one (left) to to the other quality criteria, which suggest seven (right), 40.3% positioned themselves that it is nonetheless a good model, this in- on the right end (six and seven), with dicator will be kept. 67.8% (69.4% German-speaking, 60.6% In order to analyze the external valid- French-speaking) answering that they ity of the formative model, the correlation voted (or would have voted) yes for the of the formative indicators with a reflective mass immigration initiative. Moreover, the indicator of the same construct will be ex- farmer’s association has members across amined. Therefore, a global item for each all language regions of Switzerland, which construct has been developed and was allows for comparison of German-speak- integrated in the survey (Buhmann & In- ing and French-speaking Swiss. Of these genhoff, 2015b). For the German-speaking 1 477 subjects, 1218 (82.5%) are from the part, all indicators show a significant pos- German-speaking part of Switzerland and itive correlation with the global item. For 259 (17.5%) from the French-speaking the French-speaking part, one indicator of part. the aesthetic dimension is not significantly correlated. Nevertheless, the great majority confirm the external validity of the con- 3 Results structs. In a next step, the model has to be tested for collinearity issues. The variance In this study we test a variance-based par- inflation factor (VIF) describes the “degree tial least squares structural equation mod- to which the standard error has been in- el (PLS-SEM), which offers more flexible creased due to the presence of collineari- modeling (Tenenhaus, Vinzi, Chatelin, & ty” (Hair Jr, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2013, Lauro, 2005). This way of modeling is es- pp. 124–125). In a PLS-SEM, a VIF-value ≥ 5 pecially useful when measuring formative implies collinearity issues. The VIF of the constructs (Diamantopoulos & Winkl- two models are all below the critical value. hofer, 2001; Monecke & Leisch, 2012). We Therefore, we can assume that there are no used the software Smart-PLS to conduct collinearity issues within the models. In a PLS-SEM, which also offers the option of final step, due to its significance and rele- calculating Multi Group Analyses (MGA) vance, i. e. the outer weights, the function- to analyze the significance of differences al item influential culture was omitted. between groups in PLS-SEM. In the fol- From a theoretical point of view, it can be lowing, we will first present the different argued that a distinction from the aesthet- ways of evaluating the measurement mod- ic construct is difficult and that it might els, both for the reflective construct of the not be as important to the subjects in their emotional dimension and the formative functional country identity. The other in- constructs of the functional, normative dicators proved to be important. and aesthetic dimensions. We will then To assess the structural model, the analyze the structural models, and draw path coefficients and their t-values are conclusions for testing our hypotheses. examined in order to evaluate their significance. The cognitive components (as 3.1 Measurement and structural model predicted by Buhmann and Ingenhoff, evaluation 2015a) all have a significant positive cor- The analyses of the reflective construct for relation with the affective component. The both the German and French models show results of the t-values show that the cog- that the validity is given. The loadings are nitive dimensions contribute significant- all above the target value of 0.7, and can ly in explaining the affective dimension, therefore explain more than 50 percent of as they are all above the critical value of the variance of the latent construct. For 1.96. The cognitive components explain the French-speaking group, the third indi- 41.6% (German-speaking Swiss) to 67.2% cator is below 0.7 (0.632) and would there- (French-speaking Swiss) of the variance Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 253 of the affective component. These results Swiss. In order to examine this hypoth- are satisfactory. For the German-speak- esis an MGA between the German- and ing Swiss model all effect sizes are small, French-speaking groups is conducted in- while for the French-speaking Swiss the cluding only the control group. f 2-effect size of the aesthetic construct is The results in Table 1 show that the medium (Cohen, 2013). This means that German-speaking Swiss have a much for French-speaking Swiss the aesthetic di- higher coefficient for the relation between mension contributes more of the variance the normative and emotional constructs of the emotional dimension. (0.318 to 0.072), while the French-speak- Although Tenenhaus, Amato, and ing Swiss have higher coefficients for the Esposito Vinzi (2004) suggested a PLS relation between the functional and emo- goodness-of-fit (GoF) index, which would tional ones (0.482 to 0.277). validate the model more globally, Hensel- Table 2 presents the differences of the er and Sarstedt (2013) came to the con- outer weights and loadings. Looking at the clusion that the usefulness of the GoF functional indicators it can be observed is not given as a PLS-SEM criterion. The that the different language regions esti- only approximate criterion to evaluate the mate the indicators very differently. For model fit in PLS-SEM is the standardized example, for the French-speaking Swiss root mean square residual (SRMR). The the partialized effect of the country’s inno- SRMR is the distance between the “mod- vativeness on the functional dimension is el implied and the empirical correlation negative (–0.317), whereas it is a high pos- matrix” (Henseler, Hubona, & Ray, 2016, itive effect (0.204) for the German-speak- p. 11). For the SRMR, a value of 0.08 or lowing Swiss. The outer loadings (except for er indicates a good model fit (Hu & Bentler, the fascination for Switzerland) all differ 1999). The German-speaking Swiss model significantly. These results show that hy- value is 0.055 and the French-speaking pothesis 1 can be accepted. There are sig- Swiss model value is 0.069. Both models nificant differences between the country therefore show acceptable model fits. identities of the two different language In summary, the structural model regions. results show two acceptable models (Fig- In order to analyze whether the pub- ure 1 and 2), which sufficiently explain the lic diplomacy strategies have an effect variance of the endogenous construct and on country identity, the control group show significant paths. The SRMR indi- are compared with the treatment groups cates that both models have an acceptable (Table 3). For the German-speaking Swiss fit, and are therefore ready for compari- no significant differences can be found. sons. For the French-speaking Swiss there is a significant difference in relationship be- 3.2 Testing the hypothesis tween the normative and emotional di- To test the first hypothesis, a Partial Least mensions of the construct (0.062 to 0.282). Squares Multi-Group Analysis (PLS-MGA) Thus reading any of the three different is conducted. The MGA aims to examine frames seems to have an influence on the the effect of a categorical variable on the relationship between the normative and relationships of the PLS-SEM. This meth- emotional dimensions of their country od offers the possibility of comparing the identity. path model between the groups and eval- The differences between the indica- uates the probability that parameter esti- tors for the German-speaking Swiss can mates are higher in one subsample than be seen in Table 4. The results show that the other, in order to verify the probable while the examination of the path differ- difference of these estimates among the ences showed no significant results for the subgroups. German-speaking Swiss between those The first hypothesis states that the who were not exposed to a stimulus and German-speaking Swiss have a different those who were, the indicators differ be- country identity to the French-speaking tween the groups. It is interesting to see 254 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

Figure 1: Structural model results of the German-speaking group

ecostre techcom natpros natbuis natprod effieco ecogrow innovat stabeco labmark 0.15* –0.03 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.12* 0.02 infcult 0.21* 0.09 succath 0.15* pollead 0.17* polstab –0.03 Functional poldev –0.00 infrast 0.27* 0.12* sympath welfare 0.19* 0.07 resear 0.73* attract 0.03 Emotional 0.71* educati 0.10* 0.75* R2 = 0.42 pride invest 0.02 0.76* edulev fascina protenv 0.18* 0.29* 0.24* sustain 0.02 socresp –0.04 moral 0.19* Normative Aesthetic socint 0.02 respnat 0.21* 0.11* intcris 0.21* civrigh 0.12* fairwel 0.21* –0.03 0.24* 0.12 0.03 0.12* 0.18* 0.35* 0.22* 0.04 0.29* wellbei fairint connorm culture culinar natlang history tradit landsca prenatu charism

Note. German-speaking part of Switzerland (N = 1 218); SRMR = 0.055; VIF: Functional = 3.95, Normative 3.49; Aesthetic = 1.92; AVE: Emotion- al = 0.543; Composite Reliability = .826; Cronbach’s α = .720; Bootstrapping = 5 000.

Figure 2: Structural model results of the French-speaking group

ecostre techcom natpros natbuis natprod effieco ecogrow innovat stabeco labmark 0.06 –0.09 –0.02 0.16 0.40 0.09 0.13 0.04 –0.11 infcult 0.03 –0.04 succath 0.05 pollead 0.13 polstab 0.09 Functional poldev 0.11 infrast 0.01 0.08 sympath welfare 0.25* 0.18 resear 0.85* attract 0.02 Emotional 0.86* educati 0.10 0.63* R2 = 0.67 pride invest –0.11 0.84* edulev fascina protenv 0.05 0.18* 0.48* sustain –0.01 socresp 0.03 moral 0.36* Normative Aesthetic socint –0.02 respnat 0.25* 0.27* intcris 0.24* civrigh –0.02 fairwel 0.05 0.03 0.15 0.04 0.12 0.18* 0.23* 0.33* 0.39* 0.19* –0.04 wellbei fairint connorm culture culinar natlang history tradit landsca prenatu charism

Note. French-speaking part of Switzerland (n = 259); SRMR = 0.069; VIF: Functional = 2.97, Normative = 2.64; Aesthetic = 2.18; AVE: Emotio- nal = 0.640; Composite Reliability = .875; Cronbach’s α = .81; Bootstrapping = 5 000. Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 255

Table 1: Comparison of country identity in German- and French-speaking Switzerland

German-speaking (n = 311) French-speaking (n = 84) Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE |diff| FUNC –> EMOT 0.277 3.820 0.072 0.482 5.393 0.089 0.205* NORM –> EMOT 0.318 4.109 0.077 0.072 0.954 0.075 0.246* AESTH –> EMOT 0.167 2.643 0.063 0.380 4.696 0.081 0.213 Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01.

Table 2: MGA results of comparison: Outer weights and loadings of the different language regions

German-speaking Switzerland French-speaking Switzerland Loadings t-values SE Loadings t-values SE |diff| Liking the country 0.722 15.816 0.046 0.883 24.445 0.036 0.161** Country attractiveness 0.715 14.991 0.048 0.881 30.921 0.028 0.166** Pride in the country 0.803 24.914 0.032 0.564 4.531 0.124 0.239*

Dimensions Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Country innovativeness 0.204 1.767 0.116 –0.317 1.919 0.165 0.521** Efficient economy 0.100 1.058 0.095 0.612 2.833 0.216 0.511* Economic strength 0.180 2.070 0.087 –0.092 0.686 0.134 0.272* Use of international political developments –0.228 1.745 0.131 0.311 2.035 0.153 0.539** Infrastructure –0.009 0.097 0.097 –0.360 2.154 0.167 0.351*

Normative dimension Interest in well-being of fellow men 0.320 2.606 0.123 –0.089 0.419 0.211 0.213*

Aesthetic dimension Culinary 0.166 9.956 0.017 0.275 7.996 0.034 0.109** History 0.161 8.304 0.019 0.082 1.410 0.058 0.116** Intact nature 0.119 5.015 0.024 0.213 4.546 0.047 0.094* Charismatic pers. 0.224 10.595 0.021 0.094 2.079 0.045 0.130** Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01. Table only contains on significant differences for readability reasons.

Table 3: Effects of stimuli on country identity of German- and French-speaking respondents

Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE |diff| German-speaking Control group: German-speaking (n = 311) Stimulus group: German-speaking (n = 907) FUNC –> EMOT 0.246 3.288 0.075 0.199 4.076 0.048 0.047 NORM –> EMOT 0.307 3.941 0.078 0.280 6.283 0.045 0.028 AESTH –> EMOT 0.221 3.063 0.072 0.242 5.575 0.043 0.021

French-speaking Control group: French-speaking (n = 84) Stimulus group: French-speaking (n = 175) FUNC –> EMOT 0.460 5.101 0.089 0.249 3.305 0.075 0.211* NORM –> EMOT 0.062 0.771 0.080 0.282 4.072 0.069 0.220* AESTH –> EMOT 0.422 5.237 0.081 0.395 5.288 0.075 0.027 Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01. 256 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

Table 4: MGA results of comparison: Outer weights and loadings of German-speaking respondents with and without Stimulus

Control group Stimulus group Loadings t-values SE Loadings t-values SE |diff| Pride in the country 0.804 24.991 0.032 0.727 27.044 0.027 0.077*

Dimensions Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Efficient economy 0.219 1.978 0.111 –0.040 0.685 0.058 0.259* Use of international political developments –0.008 0.088 0.095 0.262 4.149 0.063 0.270** Infrastructure –0.227 1.718 0.132 0.031 0.390 0.081 0.259* Normative dimension Environmental protection 0.350 3.127 0.112 0.099 1.540 0.064 0.251* Sustainability –0.229 2.590 0.088 0.134 2.483 0.054 0.363** High moral standards 0.317 3.235 0.098 0.127 2.223 0.057 0.191* Fair welfare system –0.031 0.273 0.112 0.182 2.880 0.063 0.213* Aesthetic dimension Cultural goods –0.058 0.449 0.128 0.186 2.434 0.076 0.244** Landscape –0.066 0.514 0.127 0.336 4.516 0.074 0.402* Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01 that there are indicators that have high- their acceptance) were reflected in the er effects, while others have lower effects text. Thus, the same analysis as before is among the functional and normative di- conducted again, but this time with the mensions when exposed to the stimuli. two language regions further separated However, the significant differences of the in their personal beliefs on the mass im- aesthetic indicators are all higher when migration initiative (i. e. supporters and the subjects read a stimulus. opponents). For the French-speaking Swiss, the In Table 6 the results of the combined indicators of the emotional dimension do calculation are presented. The results show not show any significant difference be- that within the German-speaking Swiss tween the group with a stimulus and the only the supporters of the mass immigra- control group (Table 5). It can be seen that tion initiative show a significant difference the indicators of the functional dimension between the group with the stimuli and reacted the most with the stimuli. Overall the group without. The different path is the the results show differences between the one between the functional and emotional group with a stimulus and the group with- construct, which is higher when exposed out, either in the paths or the indicators to a stimulus (0.178 to 0.303). Interesting- or both. Therefore, the second hypothesis ly, for the French-speaking supporters this can be confirmed. There is a difference in result cannot be observed. However, there country identity after being exposed to a might still be differences found among stimulus. the indicators of the different subgroups. Hypothesis 3 states that the recipients’ Tables 7, 8 and 9 present the multi-group personal beliefs on the communicated is- analysis results for the indicator weights sue of the public diplomacy message mod- and loadings for the different subgroups erates the effect that the message has on calculated in Table 6. their country identity. Even though there For the German-speaking Swiss who were differently-framed messages, they support the mass immigration initiative, were all explaining the acceptance of the the results show that for the normative yes vote in a subjective way. This means and aesthetic dimensions the effects are that the personal beliefs of the support- significantly higher when exposed to the ers of the mass immigration initiative (i. e. stimuli. However, the functional dimen- Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 257

Table 5: MGA results of comparison: Outer weights and loadings of French-speaking respondents with and without stimulus

Dimensions Control group Stimulus group Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Country innovativeness –0.318 1.917 0.166 0.076 0.839 0.090 0.394* Efficient economy 0.613 2.867 0.214 –0.114 0.762 0.149 0.726** Use of international political developments 0.312 2.082 0.150 0.005 0.059 0.090 0.306* Infrastructure –0.361 2.158 0.167 0.282 2.559 0.110 0.642** Normative dimension Environmental protection 0.326 1.842 0.177 –0.137 1.441 0.095 0.463** Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01.

Table 6: Effects of stimuli on country identity of German- and French-speaking respondents with regard to political beliefs

Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE |diff| German speaking Control group: Supporter (n = 219) Stimulus group: Supporter (n = 626) FUNC –> EMOT 0.403 2.535 0.077 0.142 6.025 0.055 0.262* NORM –> EMOT 0.178 5.264 0.070 0.303 2.599 0.050 0.125 AESTH –> EMOT 0.255 3.714 0.069 0.274 5.150 0.053 0.019

Control group: Opponents (n = 78) Stimulus group: Opponents (n = 241) FUNC –> EMOT 0.447 3.362 0.133 0.315 3.886 0.081 0.131 NORM –> EMOT 0.295 2.728 0.108 0.232 3.128 0.074 0.063 AESTH –> EMOT 0.218 2.217 0.098 0.233 3.258 0.071 0.015

French-speaking Swiss Control group: Supporter (n = 54) Stimulus group: Supporter (n = 103) FUNC –> EMOT 0.497 4.102 0.121 0.492 5.771 0.085 0.004 NORM –> EMOT 0.112 1.150 0.098 0.123 1.677 0.077 0.011 AESTH –> EMOT 0.326 3.307 0.099 0.348 4.511 0.077 0.022 Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01.

Table 7: MGA results of comparison: Outer weights and loadings of German-speaking respondents with and without stimulus moderated by supporting (congruent) personal beliefs

Control group Stimulus group Loadings t-values SE Loadings t-values SE |diff| Pride in the country 0.810 23.102 0.035 0.713 20.283 0.035 0.097* Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Stable economic system –0.105 1.259 0.084 0.099 1.296 0.076 0.204* Country innovativeness 0.390 3.449 0.113 0.118 1.291 0.091 0.272* Political stability –0.080 0.821 0.098 0.315 3.761 0.084 0.396** Normative dimension Sustainability –0.194 1.921 0.101 0.130 1.912 0.068 0.324** Fairness of international economic/trade policy –0.132 1.291 0.103 0.090 1.223 0.074 0.223* Aesthetic dimension Landscape –0.165 1.334 0.124 0.313 3.169 0.099 0.478** Note. *p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01. 258 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

Table 8: MGA results of comparison: outer weights and loadings of German-speaking respondents with and without stimulus moderated by opposing (incongruent) opinion

Control group Stimulus group Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Use of international political developments –0.471 1.672 0.282 0.091 0.883 0.103 0.562* Normative dimension Sustainability –0.302 1.542 0.196 0.098 0.997 0.098 0.400* Engagement for societal interests 0.471 2.247 0.210 0.085 0.892 0.096 0.386* Respect for other nations –0.687 2.543 0.270 0.227 2.117 0.107 0.914** Aesthetic dimension National languages –0.350 1.300 0.269 0.177 1.243 0.143 0.528* Note. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01.

Table 9: MGA Results of comparison: outer weights and loadings of French-speaking respondents with and without Stimulus moderated by supporting (congruent) personal beliefs

Control group Stimulus group Loadings t-values SE Loadings t-values SE |diff| Pride in the country 0.220 1.077 0.204 0.675 9.573 0.071 0.455* Weights t-values SE Weights t-values SE |diff| Functional dimension Country innovativeness –0.559 2.008 0.278 0.129 1.196 0.108 0.688* Successful athletes 0.287 1.254 0.229 –0.177 1.687 0.105 0.463* Infrastructure –0.623 1.617 0.385 0.201 1.663 0.121 0.825* Normative dimension Environmental protection 0.481 1.994 0.241 –0.168 1.348 0.125 0.649* Aesthetic dimension Intact nature 0.472 2.743 0.172 0.091 0.941 0.097 0.381* Note. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01. sion offers mixed differences (higher and able attitude towards the country of the lower for the group with the stimuli). It is French-speaking Swiss who supported also interesting that pride in the country the mass immigration initiative. Howev- has a lower effect when exposed to the er, in contrast to the German-speaking stimulus. supporters, the normative and aesthetic For the German-speaking Swiss who indicators with significant differences are opposed the initiative it can be seen that lower (0.481 to –0.168; 0.472 to 0.091) for none of the emotional indicators are sig- the French-speaking Swiss when exposed nificantly affected by the stimulus. Except to the stimulus. Here, the functional indi- for one indicator (engagement for societal cators again offer mixed significant differ- interests 0.471 to 0.085), all indicators have ences. Unfortunately, the French-speaking higher effects on the different dimensions. Swiss group who oppose the mass immi- For the French-speaking Swiss who gration initiative is too small (i. e. n = 28 in supported the mass immigration initia- the control group) to get any valid results. tive, as with the German-speaking sup- Therefore, this space is left blank in the porters, the indicator “pride in the coun- Table 6. try” is lower when exposed to the stimulus. These results show that personal be- But the values of the loadings are way liefs on the issue are actually moderating below the critical value of 0.7. Therefore the effect of public diplomacy on country this indicator does not reflect the favor- Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 259 identity. Thus, hypothesis 3 can be ac- role of personal beliefs on the issue, which cepted. means that it is possible that political be- The final hypothesis states that differ- liefs moderate the effect again here. ently-framed public diplomacy messages For the French-speaking Swiss the re- have different effects on country identity. sults show a different picture. Comparing Therefore, the separate treatment groups the control group with the group that had and the control group will be compared to a functional framed stimulus, the path be- evaluate the varying reactions to different- tween the normative and the emotional ly-framed public diplomacy communica- construct exhibits a significant difference. tion. Tables 10 and 11 show the compari- This path increases (0.062 to 0.233) when sons between the different experimental the subjects are exposed to a functional groups. The results show that for the Ger- framed message. The same is true for the man-speaking Swiss the groups do not comparison between the control group differ significantly among the paths. Thus, and the group with the normative framed there is no difference between the subjects stimulus, as the path between the norma- who were exposed to a functional framed tive and emotional constructs increases stimulus, a normative framed stimulus, an by 0.189 (0.062 to 0.251). There is also a aesthetic framed stimulus or even none at significant difference between the control all on the paths. However, previous results group and the group with the normative of this study confirmed the moderating framed stimulus with the path between

Table 10: Multi-group analysis of all treatment groups: Comparison of the effects of the different frames on country identity of German-speaking respondents

Relations Control group Functional framed Normative framed Aesthetic framed (n = 311) (n = 322) (n = 278) (n = 307) Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE FUNC –> EMOT 0.246 3.262 0.075 0.278 4.216 0.066 0.313 3.851 0.065 0.313 4.585 0.068 NORM –> EMOT 0.307 3.836 0.080 0.204 3.039 0.067 0.239 3.691 0.081 0.299 4.767 0.063 AESTH –> EMOT 0.221 3.084 0.072 0.276 4.262 0.065 0.241 3.478 0.069 0.151 2.250 0.067

Differences (MGA)

Relations CG –> TGF CG –> TGN CG –> TGA TGF –> TGN TGF –> TGA TGN –> TGA FUNC –> EMOT 0.032 0.067 0.067 0.035 0.035 0.000 NORM –> EMOT 0.103 0.068 0.009 0.035 0.095 0.060 |diff| AESTH –> EMOT 0.055 0.020 0.070 0.035 0.125 0.090 Note. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01.

Table 11: Multi-group analysis of all treatment groups: Comparison of the effects of the different frames on country identity of French-speaking respondents

Relations Control group (n = 84) Functional framed (n = 44) Normative framed (n = 65) Aesthetic framed (n = 66) Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE FUNC –> EMOT 0.460 5.154 0.089 0.393 2.496 0.091 0.509 3.740 0.136 0.311 2.669 0.116 NORM –> EMOT 0.062 0.782 0.079 0.233 2.563 0.157 0.251 2.230 0.112 0.214 2.310 0.093 AESTH –> EMOT 0.422 5.195 0.081 0.396 3.463 0.114 0.178 1.664 0.107 0.446 4.046 0.110

Differences (MGA)

Relations CG –> TGF CG –> TGN CG –> TGA TGF –> TGN TGF –> TGA TGN –> TGA FUNC –> EMOT 0.067 0.049 0.149 0.116 0.082 0.198 NORM –> EMOT 0.172* 0.189* 0.152 0.017 0.020 0.037 |diff| AESTH –> EMOT 0.026 0.245** 0.024 0.218* 0.050 0.269** Note. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01. 260 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 the aesthetic and the emotional construct Unfortunately, for the French-speak- (0.422 to 0.178). Thus, the path decreases ing Swiss, separating the groups into four significantly if the subjects are exposed to subgroups again makes it impossible to the normative framed stimulus. Another check for the moderating effect of polit- significant difference occurs between the ical beliefs because the groups are too group with the functional framed article small (i. e., n = 28 CG; n = 16 TGN; n = 26 TGF; and those with the normative framed ar- n = 25 TGA). Therefore, this step can only ticle. The path between the aesthetic and be made for the German-speaking Swiss. the emotional construct is lower (0.396 to The results show significant differences for 0.178) if a normative framed article was the German-speaking Swiss who support read in comparison with the functional the mass immigration initiative. Table 12 framed article. Also, a significant differ- displays the results of the comparison. It ence can be seen between the group with can be seen that there are significant dif- the normative frame and the one with ferences between the control group and the aesthetic frame. The differing path is the other groups. Between the control again the one between the aesthetic and group and the group with the functional the emotional construct (0.178 to 0.446), stimulus, the path between the function- which is higher with the aesthetic framed al dimension and the emotional dimen- stimulus compared to the normative sion differs significantly. Looking at the framed stimulus. Thus, there is a differ- path coefficients it can be observed that ent effect on the country identity of the the control group’s path is higher than the French-speaking Swiss subjects depend- functional framed group’s (0.403 to 0.219). ing on how a public diplomacy message is But the control group also differs from the framed. other two dimensions regarding the path

Table 12: Multi-group analysis of all treatment groups: Comparison of the effects of the different frames on country identity of German-speaking respondents controlled for political beliefs

Relations Control group Functional framed Normative framed Aesthetic framed Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Path coeff. t-values SE Supporters FUNC –> EMOT 0.403 5.260 0.077 0.219 3.017 0.073 0.268 3.429 0.078 0.280 3.258 0.086 NORM –> EMOT 0.178 2.546 0.070 0.221 2.844 0.078 0.329 4.452 0.074 0.311 4.442 0.070 AESTH –> EMOT 0.225 3.672 0.069 0.308 4.207 0.073 0.213 2.998 0.071 0.156 1.752 0.089 Opponents FUNC –> EMOT 0.447 3.378 0.132 0.455 3.969 0.115 0.569 4.439 0.128 0.460 5.217 0.088 NORM –> EMOT 0.295 2.803 0.105 0.209 2.243 0.093 0.154 1.400 0.110 0.234 2.333 0.100 AESTH –> EMOT 0.218 2.124 0.103 0.142 1.668 0.085 0.213 1.951 0.109 0.196 2.205 0.089

Relations CG –> TGF CG –> TGN CG –> TGA TGF –> TGN TGF –> TGA TGN –> TGA Differences (MGA) Supporters |diff| FUNC –> EMOT 0.184** 0.135 0.124 0.049 0.060 0.011 NORM –> EMOT 0.043 0.151* 0.133* 0.108 0.090 0.018 AESTH –> EMOT 0.053 0.042 0.099 0.095 0.152* 0.057 Opponents |diff| FUNC –> EMOT 0.008 0.122 0.014 0.114 0.005 0.109 NORM –> EMOT 0.086 0.141 0.061 0.055 0.026 0.080 AESTH –> EMOT 0.076 0.005 0.022 0.070 0.053 0.017 Note. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01. Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 261 between the normative and the emotional constitutes the favorable attitude toward dimension. Each group’s path coefficient their own country and with it their country is significantly higher than that of the con- identity. As the debate is an issue that control group (0.178 to 0.329; 0.178 to 0.311). cerns a lot of normative values (treatment Another group comparison that offers of immigrants), it makes sense that this a significant difference is that between dimension is triggered by the messages the functional framed group and the aes- overall. The increase of the normative di- thetic framed group. The path coefficient mension implies that the French-speaking between the aesthetic and the emotion- Swiss value this dimension (i. e. the norms al construct is significantly higher for the and values of Switzerland) more highly group that was exposed to the functional when they are exposed to a stimulus, even framed newspaper article (0.308 to 0.156). though this dimension did not contribute Thus, for both language groups there have to their emotional attitude towards Swit- been significant differences between the zerland before the stimulus. On the other control group and at least one treatment hand, they perceive the competences and group. Therefore, hypothesis 4 can be ac- competitiveness as lower than they did cepted. There is an effect of public diplo- without having read the newspaper arti- macy strategies on country identity. cle. These results suggest that what they have read intensified their beliefs about 3.3 Interpretation the normative attributes of Switzerland The results indicate a clear difference but also weakened their beliefs about the between the country identities of the competitive attributes. This reflects the German-speaking and French-speaking thought of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) that Swiss. The composition of the different “the purpose of persuasive communica- dimensions differs significantly between tion is to change the primary beliefs […].” the two language regions, which confirms For the German-speaking Swiss there is no the findings of Smith (1995) that the dif- difference in the relations of the dimen- ferent regions have different values, atti- sions of their country identity. However, tudes and, most importantly, identities. It looking at the indicator differences for the is noticeable that for the French-speaking German-speaking Swiss also reveals sig- Swiss the normative dimension seems not nificant changes as a result of the stimuli. to be a significant part of their construct- Thus, for both language regions signified country identity, while it is the most cant differences can be found between the important one for the German-speaking subjects who were not exposed to a public Swiss. This means that the German-speak- diplomacy message and those who were. ing Swiss compose their country identity These results confirm the hypothesis that more from their beliefs about norms and public diplomacy strategies do have an ef- values while the French-speaking Swiss fect on the country identity of the domes- have stronger beliefs about the competi- tic public. tiveness of Switzerland and the attractive- Testing the same comparison as above, ness of the Swiss culture and landscape. while using personal beliefs on the mass Comparing the country identity of immigration initiative as a moderating the groups who were not exposed to the variable, reveals significant differences stimulus with those who were, the rein paths as well as indicators. The results sults show significant differences. For the show that for the German-speaking Swiss French-speaking Swiss these differences supporters the effect on congruent per- are immediately clear. Their normative sonal beliefs is verifiable, while looking at dimension is more important after being the paths none can be detected for the op- exposed to the stimulus, which indicates ponents. German-speaking supporters of that reading how the federal council ex- the initiative who read a public diplomacy plains the acceptance of the mass immi- message estimated the competitiveness of gration initiative to foreign publics trig- Switzerland to be higher than those who gers the normative dimension, which then were not exposed to the message. However, 262 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266

German-speaking opponents did not show and values of Switzerland. Another sig- any reaction to the stimulus. This finding nificant difference can be seen between is in line with the assumption of Entman the functional framed stimulus group and (2008) that issues have stronger effects on the aesthetic framed stimulus group. The recipients whose personal beliefs are con- belief in the attractiveness and beauty gruent to the issue, than on incongruent- of Switzerland’s culture and landscapes ly-opinioned recipients. Interestingly, for is significantly lower when the subjects the French-speaking Swiss who support- were exposed to the aesthetic frame than ed the initiative, no significant difference to the functional frame. This could imply of the paths can be found. This is, insofar that the supporters might have feared the as it goes, not intuitive as previous results loss of cultivated land, which was men- showed significant differences between tioned in the aesthetic framed article. French-speaking Swiss who were exposed Considering their profession as farmers, to a stimulus and the control groups. How- this issue might have had a stronger effect. ever, looking again at the indicator differ- The results for the French-speaking Swiss ences, multiple changes of the country show firstly that there is a significant dif- identity can be observed. Thus, the person- ference between the control group and al beliefs on the issue being communicated the groups with the functional and nor- are clearly moderating the effects of public mative framed newspaper articles. Both diplomacy on country identity. This means groups with stimuli show an increase in that the overall frame, i. e. whether an issue the path of the normative to the emo- is communicated in a positive or negative tional construct. This result reflects what way, does have a different effect depending has been observed before while testing on the recipients’ personal beliefs. These all treatment groups combined. Thus, results underline previous findings that a reading how the federal council explains strong opinion or belief has an impact on the acceptance of the mass immigration the effect of frames (Druckman & Nelson, initiative by referring to one of these two 2003; Slothuus, 2008). dimensions triggers an increase in the be- Also acting as moderators are the dif- liefs of the French-speaking Swiss about ferent frames used to design the public di- the normative dimension of Switzerland. plomacy messages. The German-speaking There is also a significant difference on the Swiss who supported the initiative show path between the aesthetic and the emo- a significant difference between the con- tional construct between the normative trol group and the other three groups. The framed stimulus group and all the other control group’s path between the func- groups. The results show a significant de- tional and emotional constructs is signifi- crease of that path within the group with cantly higher than that of the functional the normative framed newspaper article framed group, while its path between the compared to all other groups. This indi- normative and emotional constructs is cates that, compared to all other groups, significantly lower than that of the groups having read the normative framed article exposed to a normative or aesthetic the subjects’ beliefs about the beauty of framed stimulus. This means that the be- Switzerland’s culture, tradition and land- lief in the competitiveness of Switzerland scapes is much lower. At first glance this declines when exposed to the functional result is counterintuitive as it is not clear framed public diplomacy messages. Thus, why the normative frame affects the aes- for supporters of the mass immigration thetic beliefs regarding the country identi- initiative, the functional arguments for ty of the French-speaking Swiss. However, its acceptance, which were stated in the the structural model results identified a article, trigger a decline in the functional much larger f 2-effect size for the aesthet- dimension of Switzerland. On the other ic construct than for either of the other hand, being exposed to a normative or two. Therefore, it can be assumed that aesthetic framed newspaper article trig- the country identity of the French-speak- gered an increase of belief in the norms ing Swiss depends very strongly on their Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 263 aesthetic beliefs about the country. These identity, which was measured using the results show that depending on what is 4D Model developed by Buhmann and communicated and what is not, different Ingenhoff (2015a). effects can be observed. In the case of the The results show that a public diplo- mass immigration initiative, communicat- macy strategy designed for foreign publics ing the arguments from different perspec- can influence the country identity of the tives changed the country identity of the domestic public. This is in line with the domestic public in different ways. Thus, it case study of Huijgh and Byrne (2012), is not only what is said that is important, who found that “public diplomacy has but also in what overall tone and in what provided a vehicle for the shaping and perspectives it is framed. Additionally, the reshaping of national identity” and there- country identity composition (i. e. what fore there should be a reconceptualization dimensions are important and to what ex- in order to include a domestic dimension tent) plays a role on the effect (direction in public diplomacy. Thus, in an era where and intensiveness) of the public diploma- everyone can access almost every mes- cy message on the country identity. sage, public diplomacy can affect more people than ever before. However, the differentiation of publics makes it difficult to 4 Discussion and conclusion create a strategy that is suitable for all of them. The effect of public diplomacy on The aim of this study was to analyze the country identity is moderated by the per- effect of differently-framed public diplo- sonal beliefs of the domestic public on the macy messages on the domestic public’s communicated issue, as well as the way in country identity. The assumption behind which it is communicated. Therefore, in this analysis is that, due to globalization modern times communicating something and digitalization, publics in the digital era to a target public can only be done partial- are interconnected and information can ly, as it must always be considered that the be accessed around the globe. Thus, pub- message might go around the globe and lic diplomacy messages which might origi- affect not only images of the country but nally be designed to alter a foreign public’s also country identities. image of a country can also be received by the domestic public and potentially alter their country identity. Applied to a coun- 5 Limitations and future research try like Switzerland, with its different language regions, different country identities Although the study contributes to the re- within a country should not be ignored. search gap in terms of its application of As Anthony D. Smith (1986, p. 220) states: the quite recently developed 4D Model, “language as a criterion of the ‘genuine’ its research design and its interest in the nation has erected new barriers within outcome rather than the output of public and outside the community. […] Language diplomacy, there are still limitations. The introduces a new powerful dimension of results are not generalizable due to the ho- identification and community, but it also mogenous sample drawn from IP-Suisse. becomes a […] new principle of cleavage Another limitation of the study is its fo- and antagonism, superimposed on other cus on the two biggest language regions cultural differences.” Therefore, this study of Switzerland, thereby showing only part examined the different country identi- of the national picture, as there are four ties of the two biggest language regions language regions in total. Additionally, of Switzerland and the effect of different- personal beliefs on the mass immigration ly-framed public diplomacy messages on initiative were measured by a single item these country identities. An experimental asking the subjects how they voted (or if design study was conducted to analyze they did not, how they would have voted) the causal relationships between the pub- on the initiative. However, a political belief lic diplomacy messages and the country on a controversial issue like the mass im- 264 Ingenhoff & Richner / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 247–266 migration initiative is a complex construct light onto the effect of public diplomacy and should therefore be measured with on country identity. However, in order to multiple different items in order to really achieve this, the research design would capture the varied and complex personal probably need to combine quantitative beliefs of the subjects on this issue. As stat- (i. e., measures of the country identity) and ed in the results, one limitation is that the qualitative (i. e., understanding what ex- undecided group is too small to calculate. actly changed the attitude for one partic- This unprejudiced group might react com- ular item or path) aspects. pletely differently to the different stimuli. The study does reveal several directions for future research. Starting with References Switzerland, there are four language regions and they might all have different Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (Eds.). (1980). Under- country identities. It would be interesting standing attitudes and predicting social be- to analyze all four of them as they could haviour. Englewood Cliffs, N: Prentice-Hal. have different reactions to different pub- BFS (2015a). Migration und Integration. Bunde- lic diplomacy strategies. 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285

Editorial: Fashion communication: Between tradition and digital transformation Nadzeya Kalbaska, USI – Università della Svizzera italiana, Faculty of Communication Sciences* Teresa Sádaba, ISEM Fashion Business School Lorenzo Cantoni, USI – Università della Svizzera italiana, Faculty of Communication Sciences *Corresponding author: [email protected]

We are happy and thrilled to introduce The way we dress ourselves goes well this thematic section of Studies in Com- beyond functional needs and the protec- munication Sciences (SComS), devoted tion of one’s own intimacy. It is a major to Fashion Communication. It was about way through which we express ourselves two years ago when we first discussed the and communicate to others who we are idea in Madrid: then we got the approval or who we would like to be. While cover- by SComS Editors, published the call, and ing our body with clothes, accessories and eventually secured the outstanding col- makeup, we unveil – through them – our lection of papers you have in your hands deepest thoughts, values, desires … Or (or on your screen). A long and enriching they betray us! journey, full of interactions, conversations, We enter in a relationship with other views and reviews, a journey that makes human beings and with our communities the scholar’s work so fascinating (even if, at large (also) through the way in which we sometimes, not that fashionable). dress. First through the way in which we This editorial has two main goals. are adorned by our parents, and, later – On one side, it aims to provide a he- once grown-up – through the clothes we licopter view on the topic, exploring fash- choose to wear. Our visual appearance ac- ion as (also) communication (par. 1); how companies, and even precedes us. It helps communication and its media have been us to communicate who we are. Our iden- intertwined with fashion and its related in- tity is somehow connected with the way dustries and practices (par. 2); how recent we dress and position ourselves within the digital transformation has impacted fash- wider paradigm of (un)acceptable options ion, making room for new communication and practices. affordances and business models (par. 3). The etymology of Cosmesis links it with On the other side, it presents the col- the ancient Greek verb κοσμ ω (kosméo), lected articles, placing them on the above- which means: “to put order.” This is also sketched map of fashion communication the case with Cosmos, whichέ means an (par. 4): their diversity and complementa- ordered Universe. Terms related to these ry nature is for sure a great richness for this were used to refer to the adornment of issue of SComS and for all its readers. the human body and to house decor. The connection between (i) our skin – where cosmetics are used; (ii) the way in which 1 Fashion is (also) communication we cover it – apparel; and (iii) the way in which we shelter it – home, is apparent in All human beings are born unclad, but the Latin terms habitus (habit and dress) need to dress in order to protect from ex- and habito (living), both originating from ternal agents – cold, heat, sun, rain, snow, habere – “to have.” Interestingly their fre- sand, surfaces – and because of modesty – quentative form, what I have regularly, is all human communities cover their geni- used to refer to our way of behaving (hab- talia. it, socially accepted customs), of dressing

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(e. g.: in Italian: abito), and of living (e. g.: munication and expression in itself; and in Italian: abitazione). (d) prescription and influence on the part Those “ways of,” which express and of leaders within the realms of fashion and communicate in a visible way the invis- communication. Imitation, expression, ible human mind and spirit, are closely prescription and appearance are all issues connected with culture. Basing ourselves that are tackled in depth by communion the Latin verb “colo” (meaning “look- cation theory, and that provide us with a ing after,” “caring”), culture can be seen direct explanation of the fashion phenom- from the different perspectives of (i) culti- enon. vating our physical/natural environment (agri-culture); (ii) looking after ourselves 1.1 Imitation and other human beings (in order to be- First of all, and as a defining characteris- come well cultivated persons); and (iii) en- tic, fashion combines a unique dimension tering in relation to God (cult). If we look with a general appeal, in the sense that, at those perspectives with relation to fash- through our dress sense and demeanor, ion we derive three layers for cosmetics we seek to gain social approval, on the and clothes, which (i) use available natu- one hand, and we aspire to distinguish ral materials or create new artificial ones; ourselves through a unique appeal, on the (ii) are shaped and designed according to other. Fashion, therefore, hinges together different culturally-linked styles and fash- a desire to belong with a desire for person- ions; (iii) are particularly elaborated when al expression; it combines a wish to avoid in relation to the very meaning of human social isolation with a search for being dif- life – weddings, religious celebrations and ferent. cult, holidays, funerals… Georg Simmel, in his Philosophy of The way we dress might be part of Fashion (1905), states that fashion is a con- the intangible cultural heritage, which, stant feature in the history of our species according to the 2003 UNESCO Conven- because it satisfies two needs of all indi- tion, encompasses “(…) (b) performing viduals: the need to depend on society, to arts; (c) social practices, rituals and festive belong and to fit into the group; and the events; (…); (e) traditional craftsmanship” need to set ourselves apart, affirming our (UNESCO, 2003: art. 2). In summary: “We personal identity, which tends towards dif- wear culture” as is suggested by the payoff ferentiation, towards change and standing of a major initiative by the Google Cultural out from the rest. Institute, aimed at digitally documenting Simmel declared that this integration fashion history and trends. of the social and individual realms takes Based on these few suggestions, it be- place through imitation, given that in this comes clear why fashion has been so fre- manner, the individual has “the assurance quently approached within semiotic and of not standing alone in his or her ac- communication studies, offering endless tions” (1923, p. 60). Imitation is “the child opportunities to interpret human behav- of thought and thoughtlessness” and “it ior and communicate relationships, as permits purposive and meaningful action well as social values and practices. even where nothing personal or creative If we delve deeper into the relation- is in evidence.” Imitation is the hinge that ship between fashion and communica- makes the dynamics of fashion possible. tion, we come across various angles that Gabriel Tarde, in Les lois de l’imita- directly connect the two realms. Without tion (1890), explained that imitation is being exhaustive, we can talk about the an elementary social phenomenon that following aspects: (a) imitation as a form creates unity within society, given that of leverage in fashion and as a formula imitation does not exist on its own, we for social cohesion and communication; must imitate “something” and that “some- (b) appearance and its relationship with thing” is a belief, a desire, an object. When reality in the fields of fashion and commu- imitating, we establish a copy of a model nication; (c) fashion as a means of com- and a similarity, in whose respect a so- Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 271 cial relationship is created. Consequently, transport ceased to operate relatively early Tarde argues that society began “on the in the evening, and Vespas were cheaper day when one man first copied another.” than cars. After a law was passed requiring According to these authors, the dy- at least one rear-view mirror on each mo- namics of fashion are sociologically strat- torbike, the Mods added large numbers of ified according to class. Simmel writes that them to their bikes – it became customary “fashions are always class fashions, by the to install more than ten – to mock the new fact that the fashions of the higher strata of law. Although the Vespa had a new target society distinguish themselves from those group, manufacturers were satisfied be- of the lower strata, and are abandoned by cause it was coherent with their product: the former at the moment when the latter an urban customer with a friendlier image begin to appropriate them” (1923, p. 62). than the one Hollywood associated with In Tarde’s opinion, fashion is like “a contin- the Harley. uous waterfall of imitation,” where fashion This example reveals the meaning of is a social process of imitation in which products and their transformation, but the lower social classes seek to imitate also the need for identities, as shaped the higher classes. This has been called through icons of a highly symbolic and, the “trickle-down theory.” Modern-day therefore, communicative value. theorists such as Gilles Lipovetsky (1987) In this respect, imitation is conceived declare that the relationship between as a mechanism for promoting social uni- fashion and social classes and estates un- formity, but also as an entire educational doubtedly exists. He warns though that process for individuals, a process whereby fashion cannot be reduced solely to this, they adapt to their environment, enabling because viewing it exclusively in these them to live in society. Fear of social isola- terms “leaves out an essential dimension tion leads us to seek out this information of the phenomenon: the play of freedom and to adapt our tastes to new patterns. inherent in fashion, possibilities of nuance and gradation, opportunities to adapt or 1.2 Appearance reject innovations” (p. 45). Lipovetsky ex- It is this fear of social isolation that public plains that, since the day of Chanel in the opinion studies refer to as the “Spiral of Si- 1920s, fashion has no longer belonged lence,” a theory propounded by Elisabeth solely to the élite, but has been extended Noelle-Neumann (1974). According to this throughout all the social classes. For Ma- political scientist, we adapt our behavior dame Coco, “if a fashion does not spread to predominant attitudes regarding what to the majority it has not succeeded.” Fur- is considered acceptable and what is not. thermore, imitation does not always take And who determines what is acceptable? place at the bottom looking upwards from According to Noelle-Neumann, the me- a social point of view; it often takes place dia contribute in a decisive manner when in the opposite direction. it comes to creating a climate of opinion Dick Hebdige (1988) illustrates this that is favorable or unfavorable to a certain point by analyzing the case of the Vespa. idea or form of behavior. The more wide- The Vespa was created in Italy as a femi- ly this dominant version is disseminated, nine counterpart for Harley Davidson, the more silent any individual dissenting the quintessentially masculine motorbike voices become, which produces a “spiral linked to the rock movement. Piaggio of silence.” dreamed up the idea of the scooter by We might mention a fairy-tale here that thinking of a motorbike for women, but it refers to the spiral of silence and the ques- was not very successful. It was not until the tion of dress sense: Hans Christian Ander- 1960s that the Mod movement (English fol- sen’s The Emperor’s New Clothes. In the lowers of modern jazz, tailored suits) took story, two cunning tailors take advantage off in England and appropriated the Ves- of an emperor’s arrogance, and they con- pa as its iconic symbol. In fact, the main vince him that they are capable of weav- reason this happened was because public ing a suit that can only be seen by highly 272 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 intelligent people. When the tailors are and its relationship with semiotics leads simulating their work, the emperor’s ar- to a direct link to the realm of communi- rogance prevents him from saying what cation. Fashion, as a channel for commu- is really happening, out of a fear of being nication, has been analyzed by various considered stupid. And this vanity leads researchers like Barthes (1973), Alison him to parade up and down in front of his (1981), Davis (1994), Entwistle and Millet subjects, who, in turn, pretend to see the (2002), and Lotman (2011). For some, such suit in order not to reveal their ignorance as Alison (1981), fashion, understood in to their fellow onlookers. In the end it is an its widest sense – clothing, hairstyles, pos- innocent child, free of prejudices and who tures, ways of walking, etc. – has its own has no need to demonstrate anything to grammar and vocabulary, just like spo- anyone, who shouts out: the emperor has ken languages. For others, such as Davis no clothes! (1994), although we can think of fashion as This tale illustrates another funda- a language, it is an ambiguous language, as mental paradox of fashion and its commu- in the case of music as a language. Davis, nicative dimension: the tension between unlike Alison, argues that the idea of fash- appearance and reality. This has to do with ion as a language should be applied in a the public demonstration of a way of be- metaphorical rather than a literal sense. ing and dressing and their relationship Considering the power of image in with the reality on which they are based. fashion, it could be said that fashion as This is one of the most fascinating aspects language is a visual language. Therefore, of communication and it has guided the it is a nonverbal, universal language with debate regarding knowledge and its com- many interpretation possibilities. munication since the time of Plato’s cave. Tungate (2013) reflects on the expres- Machiavelli, the master of political sive capacity of fashion when he explains communication in the modern age, urged that individuals do not purchase clothing; Lorenzo de Medici on by telling him: “Men they purchase identity: “When clothes judge generally more by the eye than by leave the factories where they are made the hand.” This recommendation led to they are merely ‘garments’ or ‘apparel.’ an entirely new way of understanding so- Only when the marketers get hold of them cial behavior, but it also pitted appearance do they magically become ‘fashion’” (2013, against truth, when the latter should real- p. 11). For this reason, “it would be foolish ly guide the former. With our appearance of us to underestimate the importance of we are already saying a great deal about fashion in society. Clothes and accessories who we are, and for this reason it is no are expressions of how we feel, how we see trivial thing to dress one way or another ourselves – and how we wish to be treated according to the occasion and the func- by others” (2013, p. 11). And in this man- tion our dress-sense fulfills. We commu- ner, thanks to its capacity to reflect what nicate through appearance. Julius Caesar’s the individual is, feels or thinks, fashion saying, as quoted by Plutarch, is famous: helps to construct and convey our identity. “Caesar’s wife should not only be honest, but should be seen to be honest.” 1.4 Prescription and influence Whatever the case may be fashion Finally, we might talk about the relation- is immersed in the realm of appearance ship between fashion and communication to the extent that it seeks to cultivate ap- through an analysis of influence. Back in pearance. As Peter Burke (1995) pointed the 1940s, Paul Lazarsfeld and colleagues out, the suit helps to ‘fabricate’ an identity (1944) investigated the impact of person- through the power of image and the cre- al relations in influence processes. In De- ation of appearances. catur, Illinois, he carried out research in order to determine the level of influence 1.3 Expression to which the inhabitants of this Mid-West Third, as we pointed out in the first few town were subjected, considering Decatur lines of this introductory chapter, fashion to be an average American town. With re- Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 273 gard to aspects relating to their daily lives, (whom you know). The higher the levels Lazarsfeld sought to determine those of personification, knowledge and social opinions that were taken into account and relations in a specific context relating to a those that led the inhabitants to take cer- certain matter, the higher the influence of tain decisions. The aspects he tackled in the individual in question. In a very simi- his study were, therefore, the kind of things lar manner to these conclusions, Malcolm that come up in a daily chat: politics, cine- Gladwell, in The Tipping Point (2000), a ma, marketing… and fashion. His findings book that has become a veritable classic led him to conclude that certain opinion amongst communication and fashion an- leaders existed who operated at an infor- alysts, characterized influentials and at- mal level, almost unconsciously, amongst tributed to them the capacity to generate friends, family, colleagues and neighbors. social change. Change, according to Glad- For example, we might mention a moth- well, works like an epidemic: the spread of er’s opinion about how her child should new products or ideas penetrates society dress, a dinner conversation in which the in the same way as a virus. participants talk about the mayor or a chat This US author began his popular amongst friends about the latest Holly- book by citing an example of fashion with- wood movie. in the footwear sector. He focused on Hush More recently, a study has revealed Puppies, a hard-wearing footwear brand that one out of ten Americans tells the oth- that emerged in 1958 to meet the demands er nine how to vote, where to eat and what of the post-war generation. The brand was to buy (Keller & Berry, 2003). That is to say, highly successful in the 1960s, but subse- certain people exist among us who have a quently entered into terminal decline, to capacity to prescribe what we purchase, the point in which the brand’s factories al- to influence our political views and tell most closed completely in the 1990s. How- us what we should wear tomorrow. These ever, a New York group suddenly started to people are known as ‘influentials.’ A study wear the shoes, others copied them and published recently states: “influentials do these, in turn, were copied by others… not exercise high-level leadership like that The brand’s image (a basset hound) ap- of Churchill, nor that of a politician, and peared on the roof of a shop in New York’s not even that of the social élite. Rather, Soho neighborhood. In 1995 some 430 000 their influence works at the opposite end pairs of shoes were sold. The following of the spectrum: it is an almost invisible year, sales quadrupled and, subsequently, and certainly inconsistent influence, one they continued to rise. Hush Puppies were that works at a face to face, daily, private brought back to life without the company and informal level” (Jove, 2011, p. 130). having done anything. Given the importance of these figures Prescription, imitation, influence and as generators of opinion, consumption personal relations: they all help to create a and behavior, researchers have focused for trend and determine its penetration with- some time now on detecting precisely who in social life. these influentials are and how they can be What doubt can there be that this identified. In Germany in the 1980’s, the set of factors is enhanced and achieves magazine Der Spiegel was interested in a whole new dimension with all the pos- “active consumers who set the standards sibilities for interaction and spontaneity for their communities,” so it asked the Al- provided by the Internet? Indeed, the In- lensbach Institute to create a scale to iden- ternet strengthens mechanisms for selec- tify them, to discover the characteristics of tive perception and subjective interest, an influential. They defined a “personality given that it empowers users to focus their strength scale” (Noelle-Neumann, 1983) search for information on aspects that are associated with three attributes: (a) per- important to them. With the opportunities sonification of certain values (who you offered by the Internet, Lazarsfeld’s con- are); (b) competence (what you know); and cept of opinion leaders is brought back to (c) strategic location, socially-speaking life and endowed with a new dimension: 274 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285

Influentials are capable of obtaining and ›› External communication: advertising generating informative resources (SanMi- (various formats), campaigns, promo- guel et al., 2017) regarding their topic and tions, publicity, sponsorship, media re- can explain and distribute these through lations. their personal relationships (via the social ›› Public relations: institutional relations, media, for example). events, patronage, protocol. With the possibilities provided by the ›› Crisis communication. Internet, we can delve deeper into com- ›› Social media. municative relations. If, just a few decades ago, talking about communication meant Furthermore, due to the close relationship talking about the influence of mass media, between fashion and communication, today, it is clear that communication also all manifestations of the communication extends to the realm of personal relations. strategy acquire a unique appeal within It has also been demonstrated that the realm of fashion. Fashion in itself has influentials are more subject to informa- an expressive and communicative capac- tion that appears in the traditional media ity, and many characteristic aspects have regarding their topic of interest in this case a communicative power. For instance, the fashion. In this respect, we can suppose product itself: labelling, packaging, prod- that the new influentials consume more uct placement; the shop and its location, fashion magazines and are more alert to sales force, visuals or fashion shows with the advertising that appears in them. celebrities, designers, backstage… A review of traditional communication However, in a changing communi- theories, such as that of Lazarsfeld, which cation environment, many of these areas have gained new relevance thanks to the of communication take on new mean- Internet, might also lead us to propose the ings. Specifically, we might mention some idea that the relationship between com- changes that affect almost all of these communication and fashion – and the tensions munication facets. On one hand, the im- that exist between them – may have also mediacy of new fashion business models acquired a new shape in today’s society. and the immediacy facilitated by the technology employed by users has changed communication times and intervals and 2 Communication (media) and modified certain formulas, such as fashion fashion-related industries and shows, for example. On the other hand, practices the Internet has created hybrid models between communication and trade, models For the dissemination and consumption that have emerged as strong new players of trends to be effective, it is essential that within the fashion market. these should be communicated. Purchas- Whatever the case may be, and al- ing behavior can only be activated if the though the validity of certain traditional consumer previously knows and values communication activities has been called the product. This awareness and these at- into question, new opportunities and new tributes must be deployed in the commu- ways of focusing on and reaching target nication strategy. groups have come to the fore. Traditionally, the realm of communication, understood as a professional activ- 2.1 Fashion magazines ity designed to serve fashion brands and 2.1.1 Historic overview companies, could be split into the follow- One paradigmatic example of these de- ing fields, at the very least: velopments is provided by fashion magazines. If fashion is a realm for innovation ›› Corporate communication: position- and imitation, it is the specialized fashion ing, identity, lobbies, relations with in- press that has been the engine that has vestors. helped the fashion phenomenon to be- ›› Internal communication. come a reality. Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 275

With the idea of propagating lifestyles zaar, first Carmel Snow and, in particular, and fashion through information and Diana Vreeland, were able to endow the advertising, fashion magazines have wit- magazine with a certain touch of glamour nessed and promoted the great trends and and creativity. The key role of the editor was changes that have taken place within the later inherited by Anna Wintour at Vogue industry. A considerable part of the impor- in 1988, when she combined unknown tance of Paris as the cradle of fashion and models with renowned actresses, and worldwide model for elegance has to do “fast-fashion” brands with luxury brands. with the fact that the first fashion publica- As of this moment a new approach to fash- tions available emerged in France. ion communication was born. In effect, one of the very first publica- The network of participants, charac- tions that could be considered a forerun- teristic of these magazines, such as styl- ner of the fashion magazine was Mercure ists, editors, photographers and models, Galant (renamed Mercure de France in introduced a whole series of new players 1714), the first French literary gazette. It within the fashion world. Within the realm was published between 1672 and 1724 of photography, Newton, Pen and Avedon (with a dormant interval between 1674 transformed the vision of fashion maga- and 1677). Founded by the writer Jean zines during the first half of the twentieth Donneau de Vizé, it was aimed at mem- century, whilst others such as Demarche- bers of the elegant French society in order lier, Testino and Outumuro transformed to inform them about Court activities, ar- their outlook in the second half of the cen- tistic premières and new literary features, tury. All of these figures shaped the devel- as well as offering songs, poems, anec- opment of fashion magazines, as we know dotes, society news and fashion reports. It them today (Casajus, 1993). played an important role in terms of pro- After the end of the Second World War, moting those establishments where the two French magazines also achieved con- appropriate clothing items and accesso- siderable commercial success. First came ries could be found, as well as defining the Elle in 1948, and then Marie Claire reap- world of luxury and the rules of etiquette peared with a new lease of life later on, that governed Court life during the reign of both publications focusing on a new kind Louis XIV and subsequent monarchs. of modern woman who worked outside However, although we can find var- the home. These magazines managed to ious forerunners of fashion publications seduce the average reader and exercised a in the eighteenth century, it was not until special influence when prêt-à-porter burst the twentieth century that fashion maga- onto the scene in Europe. zines became a popular and widespread In general, fashion publications tar- feature within society. This develop- get a type of reader who is more or less an ment emerged, above all, in the United expert in fashion. The spring issue (Feb- States, with the appearance of Harper’s ruary/March) and the autumn issue (Au- Bazaar (1867) and Vogue (1892). In 1913, gust/September) contain extensive edi- Hearst purchased Harper´s Bazaar, which torials and often come with supplements became Vogue’s main competitor through- showing the international collections that out the first half of the twentieth century. have been presented over the previous Condé Nast acquired Vogue after its found- quarter at fashion shows. Only the large er’s death in 1909 and began to publish the fashion houses and leading designers with magazine in the United Kingdom in 1916 financial clout plan their communication and in France in 1924. The same publish- campaigns in these kinds of publication, ing house created Vanity Fair in 1913, a given the high cost of including advertise- publication that was relaunched in 1983. ments in fashion magazines. The success of both magazines, Harp- These publications have the follower’s and Vogue, coincided with economic ing functions: they (a) provide informa- boom periods in the United States. Fur- tion to readers; (b) legitimize products for thermore, the publishers of Harper’s Ba- buyers – according to their importance, 276 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 they play a part in selecting the textile ›› Magazines are entering the fashion samples and different models presented business itself by launching their own to clothes-makers (Rivière, 1977). In this brands, such as Elle Womenswear in the manner, the trade knows when to make summer of 2006. the purchase, given that the products will ›› Incursions into parallel worlds in order be supported by the fashion press; they to raise awareness and generate legiti- (c) prescribe products and different ways macy, such as art and museums. One of wearing them; and (d) provide adver- example of this strategy is provided by tising space for conventional ads, adver- the MET Gala, annual event organized torials, clothes presented in showrooms, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s or what is known as the “Italian model.” It Costume in New York city, which is is a systematic negotiation for the publi- linked to the Vogue magazine. cation of informative photos in exchange ›› And, of course, the creation of online for advertising pages; where the advertiser magazines by fashion brands, such as negotiates, for example, the appearance Net-à-Porter. of 40 models in the editorial information in exchange for the inclusion of advertis- The fact is that, with new technologies, ing for 80 models. The effectiveness of this fashion brands are able to broadcast their tactic leaves the fashion editor somewhat marketing messages without the inter- impotent, given that he or she is unable mediation of magazines. Many brands to reflect his or her own taste or choice in generate their own editorials and seem to terms of style, with the advertiser’s mar- have transformed themselves into anoth- keting strategy taking precedence. er member of the communication media. This has not only occurred within the lux- 2.1.2 Impact of digitalization ury segment, but companies such as Zara on fashion magazines now editorialize their own web pages and Today fashion magazines are beginning compete with magazines in terms of qual- to question their role within the new dig- ity and content. Brands have also begun ital environment, in the same manner in to create their own visual contents with which the general-interest press has be- ‘fashion films’, a genre that offers endless gun to question its own. In this respect, the possibilities and in which the leading film re-invention of the fashion press has led to producers work with the brands to cre- a more prominent role in other spheres, ate high-quality worlds of visual content based on the following tendencies: (Noguera & Torregrosa, 2015).

›› Editors as celebrities and authorities. 2.2 Fashion shows They have become more important than Another realm of communication that has the magazines themselves, because the witnessed significant changes are fashion fashion editor has been enthroned as shows. They have played an important role an authority within the field. Although in fashion since Charles Frederick Worth Snow and Vreeland already possessed (1825–1895) first presented its seasonal this authority, it was perhaps the nov- trends using models and featuring a cer- el and subsequent film of The Devil tain degree of spectacle. Wears Prada (2006) that established Originally designed for buyers and the the fashion editor as the legitimizing press, shows are previews of collections figure for the industry. Subsequent that would hit stores six months later: documentaries, such as The September buyers come to see the upcoming season’s Issue (2009) by R. J. Cutler, HBO’s pro- offerings and put in orders while fashion duction entitled In Vogue: The Editor’s magazine editors use it to forecast trends Eye (2012), and the more recent Made- and see what looks and pieces they want moiselle C (2013) by Fabien Constant to feature in their publications. This also have helped to create this halo and this allows time for retailers to arrange to pur- fascination with fashion editors. Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 277 chase or incorporate the designers into Within this new context, brands look their retail marketing. around for alternative ways of raising Four leading fashion centers (London, awareness and reaching customers. They Milan, New York, and Paris) have been have found that the Internet and the social complemented by cities such as Tokyo, media offer them the possibility of gener- Buenos Aires and Madrid, whilst some 140 ating their own contents without any need fashion weeks are estimated to take place to turn to third parties. We could state that throughout the world. Today, Miami and the new communication environment has Dubai have emerged as up-and-coming created a key paradox. On the one hand, fashion show centers. Some focus on spe- brands have become members of the me- cialist segments (menswear, swimwear, dia to the extent that their websites, vid- wedding fashion …). eos and trading networks are now directly With the advent of digital technolo- within reach of the audience. On the oth- gies, fashion shows have witnessed nu- er, the same audience has gained greater merous changes: control than ever over the messages that are generated and is capable of molding ›› Many brands have been able to short- many contents according to its tastes. That en production times (for example, “fast is to say, that as brands have become more fashion”) and are thinking about re- capable of generating direct messages, ducing lead times, because otherwise they have also lost control of the messages they may lose their consumers’ interest, themselves. who, in turn, may go and buy their de- In this respect, brands have become signs from a brand that has been able to more subject to public scrutiny and more produce the trend faster. vulnerable to possible communication cri- ›› Consumers can access live-streams of ses. Although knowledge of crisis manage- most of the shows, which means that ment has progressed quite considerably by the time the clothes actually hit the (Pearson and Clair, 1998), this area consti- stores, they are not perceived as “new” tutes one of the new communication fields anymore. in which fashion still has some work to do. ›› Consumers want to buy things they see Following the fall-out of the Rana Pla- on the runway right away: “see now, za tragedy on the 24th April 2013 (Sádaba & buy now.” As a result, “in-season col- Sanmiguel, 2014), we might state that a lections” have begun to make an ap- new communication field has emerged pearance. So these days, you might see that revolves around management issues, winter clothing on the runway in Sep- focusing on aspects such as sustainabil- tember. ity and social campaigns. Although the ›› The front row is not only packed with impact of issues of this kind is not clear celebrities and members of the press, amongst consumers (Mohr et al., 2001), but also with bloggers who have re- such issues have begun to have a consid- placed these figures, generating some erable effect on the rest of the stakeholders considerable controversy regarding of fashion companies: employees, share- their role (Pedroni et al., 2017). holders, regulators… In such cases, repu- tational aspects may not have much of an Bearing in mind these changes, it might effect in the short term, but they do be- seem that fashion shows are doomed to come important in the long term. And in disappear. However, they continue to con- this respect, communication, understood stitute a grand media event and have be- in its more strategic sense, once again come increasingly spectacular (high-im- seems to have a key role to play. pact venues, Hollywood-style production, etc.). Furthermore, fashion centers have found that these fashion weeks bring great benefits to the cities in question (Kalbaska et al., 2018). 278 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285

3 Digital transformation and fashion way, that is, caring for clients across their communication complex journey through screens, publication and advertising outlets, virtual Fashion has started and is undergoing and physical touch points. These could be a major digital transformation, which is shops, printed and/or digital magazines, touching all its facets, layers, and process- websites, mobile apps, newsletters, aug- es (Rocamora, 2017). While we are focus- mented reality applications, and many ing on communication-related aspects, it other things brands are experimenting is important to briefly outline this digital and innovating with. In fact, also B2B mar- transformation process in order to em- keting and internal communication – for phasize how communication is aligned instance training – are also leveraging on and intertwined with all other aspects of the extensive new opportunities offered by a global process (Cantoni & Danowski, ICTs. 2015). Third, the very processes through We could consider three different which something becomes fashionable layers, where fashion interacts with infor- or not, “in” or “out” are now happening mation and communication technologies increasingly online. Especially through so- (ICTs) – which can be referred to, in a sin- cial media, communities do negotiate on- gle word, as e-Fashion or “digital fashion”: line styles and trends, are exposed to influencers, share their reviews and opinions, 1. ICTs are used to design, produce, and as well as their own outfits. Such conver- distribute fashion products; sations are, at their turn, searchable and 2. ICTs impact marketing and sales; sharable, as well as open for companies 3. ICTs are extensively used in communi- and researchers to be listened to, in order cation activities with all relevant stake- to spot trends, interests, cultural differenc- holders, and contribute to co-creation es … in the fashion world. Communication studies and practices do address mainly the second and third These three layers of digital transforma- levels. However, they have to constant- tion and fashion communication are ex- ly keep into consideration the first one, plained below. which is closely connected with them, in a First, ICTs are now playing a major circular way. For instance: an item can be role in the fashion industry, from the very fully designed through digital means and sketching and designing of a fashion item can be then displayed as dressed by a digi- (e. g. a piece of cloth or a pair of shoes), tal model (first level); it can be shared and up to its production process and to the promoted online (second level), in order management of its distribution. ICTs do to get feedback and to check the interest of not only have accelerated such process- intended audiences (third level). Depend- es, making them more efficient, but have ing on such feedback, it might be even- opened up new venues for business, as tually produced and sold, or changed/ well as raised new challenges. adapted, or discarded without any physi- Second, both marketing as well as all cal sampling (first level again). other contacts with prospects and clients Online Communication Model and its are extensively mediated or facilitated by application to digital fashion. ICTs. Digital technologies are more and When it comes to communication more present in physical shops (e. g.: dig- processes happening online, the Online ital mirrors, augmented reality, tools for Communication Model (Tardini & Canto- analytics etc.) and provide the main ker- ni, 2015) can provide us with a useful map. nel that supports the fast emergence of This model helps companies to evaluate eCommerce, as well as of other emerging their existing online communication prac- business models (e. g.: exchanging or rent- tices, measure the quality of their online ing). More and more, players in the fashion communication and supporting technical domain need to work in an “omnichannel” tools, determine who their customers and Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 279 users are, manage employees involved in a social media platform, or a paid medium digital communication, and also gain in- (e. g. a video campaign). formation about market and competitors. A range of opportunities, styles, and The Online Communication Model affordances can be seen here, in constant distinguishes four main pillars and a fifth evolution. While at first, the default expe- element, which are briefly introduced and rience was being offline, and one had to applied to online communication in the go online, nowadays, we are experiencing fashion context. They are: (1) contents and exactly the opposite. The default is being functionalities; (2) technical tools; (3) peo- constantly online, always connected via ple who manage digital communication; mobile devices, and we get offline either and (4) users and clients; and (5) informa- through an explicit decision (e. g.: in order tion market/competitors. to do some digital detox) or due to unfor- tunate events – loss of hardware, running 3.1 Contents and functionalities out of a battery, lack of Wi-Fi or 3/4G cov- ICTs allow for multi-media content pub- erage, exceeding of contractual data… In lication and high interactivity, offering many cases, being offline is perceived as endless opportunities to explore, vote, an un-happy of even painful experience, buy, customize, connect, share, exchange, kind of lacking a major vital element, like copy, ask for and provide advice. Among oxygen. In fact, digital media are not any the main communication issues we en- longer only a set of communication chan- counter here, one can list the following nels, but do constitute, more and more, ones: information and communication the context of one’s ordinary life. quality; cultural translation (so-called lo- In this area, while recognizing the huge calization) so to cater for different mar- developments of digital technologies, we kets and cultures; the development of new should also remember that they are still genres needed by different distribution quite limited, especially when it comes to channels (e. g.: squared small size photos communicating, supporting or enriching needed for Instagram, or Twitter texts, or the sense of touch, so important when it 5 seconds of video-advertising). comes to the experience of dressing some- The hybridization between physical thing. Weight, contact with the skin, and and digital media requires constant adap- temperature are definitely not (yet) cap- tation and creativity: let us think of printed tured by digital technologies. Even if we media connected with digital platforms via cannot predict that suitable technologies QR codes, or of interactive TV, or the end- will be available on the market soon, we less opportunities offered by Augmented can still study how this lack does impact Reality or Mixed Realities to enrich the ex- the way we approach fashion items, some- perience we have of fashion items. times over-weighting their visual appearance over their actual physical structure. A 3.2 Technical tools that make available similar discourse could be done about the such contents and functionalities sense of smell, when it comes to perfumes. Second, how such contents and func- Technology is not only enabling fash- tionalities are made available through ion, but it is fashionable itself: wearable digital means has to be considered. This technologies and 3D printing are some- encompasses hardware and software, as where in between experiments and every- well as the actual layout and information day practices. architecture, if we think of owned media Within major technological trends, (e. g.: official websites, mobile apps, news- we should mention here also the fields of letters). Here we should also address the (big) data analytics, and of Artificial In- strategic decision, about which contents/ telligence, being extensively deployed in functionalities should be offered through order to better understand users’ profiles, which publication outlet, be it an owned practices, and intentions to buy. Semantic medium or an earned one – for instance, technologies are also being applied to this 280 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 field, in order to ensure a better re-use of stake (not to mention the phenomenon of information, as well as its retrieval. fake followers).

3.3 People who manage digital 3.4 Users and clients communication In fact, users and clients should be at the On one side, companies need to reach center of every communication practice or higher maturity levels about digital trans- study. Communication happens not only formation and its implications for fash- through the mere expression and (broad) ion communication. The space between casting of messages, but only if they reach awareness and a full integration of pro- an addressee, and are somehow interpret- cesses is large, and no shortcuts or prêt-à- ed and understood. The digital transfor- porter solutions are available. On the other mation has opened up huge opportunities side, higher education institutions need to for customization not only of products open needed research lines and curricu- and services, but also of communication la, so to prepare the next generations to itself. It has, moreover, demonstrated how leverage on huge new opportunities and the simple approach to the addressees as to cope with new challenges (Kalbaska & “targets” is no longer useful. Companies Cantoni, 2019). This special issue seeks to should not “target” prospects/clients, but be a contribution in this direction. nurture meaningful conversations with A close dialogue with practitioners is them, leveraging on digital communi- required, reflecting on good/best practic- cation not only to spread well-designed es and aligning communication theories messages and offers, but also to create with social and economic trends. ICTs and fine-tuned messages for each of them. their impact are not only the topic/sub- First and most importantly, they need to ject to be studied and taught, they might listen to them. Digital analytics, supported constitute also a channel through which both by high-touch and high-tech – for in- we learn and up-skill – think of relevant stance, by experts in argumentation to un- eLearning, Open Educational Resources, derstand their main drivers, or by artificial or Massive Open Online Courses (Kalbas- intelligence to interpret main trends – are ka, 2018). more and more needed to grow sustain- We do not want to ignore that, here, able practices in the fashion domain. we see several ethical issues and challenges. A naïve approach to the industry, 3.5 Information market/competitors based on “the more the better” equation, As Semiotics and Linguistics have taught has to be abandoned, in favor of a higher us, no sign lives in a vacuum: all signs do awareness of the importance of fashion in belong to systems, where the relationship the construction itself of living styles and with all other items helps to shape their societal values, when it comes to mutual different meanings and roles. Clothes, respect or to economic, environmental, brands, designers, shows do belong to (i) or socio-cultural sustainability. Think, for paradigms – clusters of elements that are instance, among the many issues, of the somehow interchangeable, because they power of models to shape the image of a can take the same role, and (ii) to syn- “nice body,” or of the issue of using (big) tagms – different combinations of para- data from clients when it comes to pro- digmatic elements. We can think of the tecting their privacy. One should prepare paradigm of haute-couture brands vs. fast to work in the field of Digital Fashion Com- fashion ones, or of the syntagm of different munication with a great awareness of such clothes/apparels a person might wear for responsibilities. a meeting whose dress code is “business Such responsibility should also be re- informal” vs. “casual.” quested from influencers, whose practic- Internet has made such relationships es increasingly require transparence and clearer and even more easily findable. a clear understanding of the interests at Online, one can explore similar/opposite communication practices, compare of- Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 281 fers and looks in a minute. Every change, said to communicate moral values. In fact, aimed at re-structuring the overall system most Italian conduct books in the nine- can be seen and can impact the market teenth-century reinforce fashion norms by faster and deeper, due to the speed of on- anchoring them in moral values because line communication, where everything the authors expect their readers to be mor- is just a click away. For industry players ally evaluated in terms of the clothes they and researchers, online communication wear. Researchers provide an overview of expands the access to innovations and rules regulating bodily hygiene, adorn- amplifies its effects, while shortening and ment, dress choice and fashion, and an- speeding up the innovation cycle. For us- alyze which values are explicitly cited to ers, we might see the same effect, which justify such rules. The manuscript, thus, is empowers them to access more info and rich and appealing for those readers inter- offers, or an opposite one, where people ested in the history and representation of might be locked within self-constructed fashion, and in its relationships with liter- information bubbles or echo-chambers, ature. which limit their capacity of exploring or With the next contribution, we are even just seeing alternatives and different staying within the European fashion con styles. text. The research by Ok – European Luxury Fashion Brand Advertising, and Marketing Relating to Nostalgia examines how Euro- 4 Mapping this special issue on pean luxury fashion brands use nostalgia Fashion Communication and in their advertising & marketing. This re- its articles search, through a qualitative content analysis, identifies how nostalgia theme was Once the many relationships between used in the adverts from Vogue magazine. fashion and communication and the im- It provides an understanding of the themes, pact of digital transformation on both and an analysis of adverts in terms of luxury have been framed, it is time to map ac- brand characteristics, narrative, and semi- cepted papers to this special issue accord- otics. Indeed, this contribution might be ing to such a frame. The articles belonging of interest for those studying luxury fash- to this special issue are presented in three ion advertising, brand heritage, emotional sections: Fashion is (also) communication; branding, and semiotics. Communication (media) and fashion-rela The third contribution in this section ted industries and practices; Digital trans- is by Lascity – Girls that Wear Abercrom- formation and fashion communication. bie & Fitch: Reading Fashion Branding Aes- thetics into Music Videos. It should be of 4.1 Fashion is (also) communication relevance of those studying fashion brand- We are glad to start with a paper Il vestito ing and mediated popular culture. The au- forma la persona “clothes make the man”: thor investigates 42 music videos that ap- fashion morality in Italian nineteenth-cen- peared on MTV’s Total Request Live, which tury conduct books, by Paternoster and contain elements of the “Abercrombie” Saltamacchia, which discusses the relation lifestyle. This research suggests that music between etiquette rules for dress and mor- videos from the time were instrumental in al values. This research presents a detailed spreading the brand’s aesthetic, and that analysis of what fashion meant for Italian there is a strong interplay between me- nineteenth-century etiquette books. While dia popular culture and the aesthetics of analyzing a corpus of influential conduct fashion brands. The author suggests that books, the authors apply current insights brand’s marketing images could have been in the role of values for the emergence and ripped from popular music videos (and maintenance of conventions developed vice versa), which helped drive Abercrom- within the pragmatics of politeness to the bie & Fitch’s cultural influence and finan- prescriptive discourse on fashion. The au- cial success. thors argue that fashion choices are always 282 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285

A different perspective to fashion Video is one of the most powerful me- communication is brought by Christel and dia channels in the fashion domain. We Dunn. Their study: What Plus-Size Means see it also with a research by Buffo – Body for Plus-Size Women: A Mixed Methods Ap- in Fashion Films: the Net-Aesthetics Era. proach offers insights into how plus-size With the term “fashion film” she refers to consumers view sizing communications. those online videos that are peculiar to the This study proposes a valuable rank- fashion industry and are developing their ing of terms that fashion companies can own language and new typologies of brand adopt to ensure they are communicating narration. The field of study presented in a language that the intended consum- here is related to language. In fact, the ob- ers might prefer. This study contributes jective of this research is to better under- to research on social identity of clothing stand how this new communication tool size, plus-size consumer experiences, and has influenced the traditional language of further validates the multidimensional fashion images by developing new codes challenges faced by plus-size consumers. or transforming existing ones. The object It might be of use by both research com- under examination is, in particular, the munities interested in the retail strategy body as a preferred communication code communication, consumer behavior, and in this industry. The body, according to fashion marketing, but also fashion com- Buffo, is not viewed by fashion as a simple panies working in the domain. Moreover, object to dress, but as a mediating chan- it helps to keep into consideration also the nel between the person’s individuality and related ethical issues. the need for communication, or rather, the need to establish a relationship within its 4.2 Communication (media) and context. The author examines the history fashion-related industries and of fashion images by focusing concisely on practices the analysis of how the body has changed The article by von Wachenfeldt – Commu- its communicative role over the decades. nicating Seduction: Luxury Fashion Ad- Further analysis was then conducted fo- vertisement in Video Campaigns will start cusing on the new meaning taken on by the section of our special issue dedicated the body in fashion films. The result is a to the communication (media) and fash- complex and extremely rich picture. In- ion-related industries and practices. She deed, this contribution is of interest for examines communication practices that those studying fashion films, visuals, and take place in video ad campaigns deriving photography. from five French luxury fashion houses, The article by Hibberd – Key Chal- namely Louis Vuitton, Dior, Chanel, Cart- lenges for the Fashion industry in Tackling ier and Hermès. The semiotic method Climate Change, rises the topic of climate used enables her to recognize in videos change, a major political, economic and the themes of adventure, seduction, love social issue. One of the main industries and playfulness. This study investigates when it comes to pollution is the fashion also how the myth becomes an important one, as every stage in the production of meaning-maker of the luxury commodity, garments creates pollution and emission filled with sensations and pleasure. The problems. The author examines broad at- author suggests that the objects of luxury tempts of using public campaigns, which constitute a strong communication tool, include fashion involvement, to focus at- helping us to discover new places, to fall tention on climate change with particular in love, to create magic, and to experience attention paid to two popular British cli- playfulness. Von Wachenfeldt concludes mate change initiatives. This research is that embedded in recognizable social nar- based on interviews with climate change ratives, the objects in the moving image experts and those working within the cam- are provided with magical meaning able to paigning industry, including 10:10 and the support the eternal myth of luxury. WWF’s Earth Hour. The author suggests that the fashion industry can capitalize Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285 283 on its modern high-profile status to bring pendent fashion sector’s driving ethos, real attention to climate change and pol- technology has been embraced as a tool lution issues through publicity and media allowing independent fashion producers attention. This article should be of interest to amplify their voices as they challenge among many others to those studying me- existing fashion paradigms. dia management and sustainable fashion The last two papers of this special is- communication. sue deal with the emerging topic of fash- The article, which closes this section, ion influencers. Both papers should be by Matthews – Taste-making in turbulent of interest for those researching brand times: Vogue and its social networks exam- communications, social networks, and ines the evolution of taste-making practic- the role of influencers. The paper by es in fashion communication. The contents González-Fernández and Martínez-Sanz – from British Vogue May 1967 and May 2017 Fashion Influencers and Instagram. A qua- provide data for a comparative analysis of si-perfect binomial explores communi- changing methods of influence in fashion. cation strategies of main Spanish fashion This qualitative case study considers how bloggers in their Instagram profiles. In Vogue has responded to the networked addition, compliance with Spanish legis- conditions of the contemporary commu- lation on advertising is monitored, which nication environment, and what its digital obliges the authors to explicitly indicate strategy can reveal about new methods of any message that promotes a product or influence. It identifies how the ongoing service from a contractual agreement. structural changes to fashion communica- The closing contribution by SanMi- tions continue to reshape institutional tas- guel, Guercini, and Sádaba – The impact temakers such as Vogue, online and offline. of attitudes towards influencers amongst This well structured and a clearly present- millennial and post-millennial fashion ed piece of work is relevant for the industry buyers identifies the way influencers affect and the fashion communication research the behavior of millennial buyers in the community at large. process of consuming fashion goods. The paper presents an extensive literature on 4.3 Digital transformation and fashion opinion leaders, ranging from the origins communication of the concept to its developments within The articles belonging to the last section the context of the Internet. The shift from are examining the impact of the digital influential to influencer and the different transformation on fashion communica- types of influencer are examined and cer- tion. The first article, by Tuite – Commu- tain hypotheses regarding the role of influ- nicating material characteristics in a dig- encers (including all the influential play- ital age: three case studies in independent ers) regarding fashion-buying millennials fashion, focuses on the intersection of the are examined. material and the digital in the indepen- *** dent fashion sector, with a focus on ways In this introduction we provided a map of in which digital media and contemporary fashion communication, and a compass communication tools are being used to to navigate within it. It is now time for you unite them. The researcher explores the to explore such fascinating territory, ap- tension between the opportunities pro- proaching the contributions collected in vided to small businesses in the contem- this issue of SComS. porary media landscape and its use in a We wish you an enriching and inspir- sector closely associated with a nostalgic ing exploration! valorization of material qualities related to nature, artisanship, and luxury. This thematic analysis of online texts and images related to three contemporary American independent labels, finds that instead of being viewed as a threat to the inde- 284 Kalbaska et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 269–285

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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306

Il vestito forma la persona – “clothes make the man”: Fashion morality in Italian nineteenth-century conduct books Annick Paternoster, Università della Svizzera italiana, Istituto di Studi Italiani* Francesca Saltamacchia, Università della Svizzera italiana, Istituto di Studi Italiani *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Using a corpus of 40 influential conduct books published in Italy in the long nineteenth century, we apply current insights in the role of values for the emergence and maintenance of conventions developed within the pragmatics of politeness to the prescriptive discourse on fashion, because in these sources norms for verbal and non-verbal behaviour are justified in a similar way. We argue that fashion choices are always said to communicate moral values. Most conduct books reinforce fashion norms by anchoring them in moral values because the authors expect their readers to be morally evaluated in terms of the clothes they wear. We will give an overview of rules regulating bodily hygiene, adornment, dress choice and fashion, and analyse which values are explicitly cited to justify the rules. The positive values such as diligence and parsimony show that fashion morality is seen as a means of self-improvement for the petty bourgeoisie whilst excesses (avarice and laziness on one end and vanity and frivolity on the other) lead to poverty. Our sources predominantly regulate fashion with personal, ego-centered values. This is markedly different from the current debate on sustainable fashion, led by social values such as compassion and altruism. With this historical paper we hope to contribute to the discussion of new approaches for the analysis of moralising discourse in fashion communication.

Keywords

morality, values, conventions, Italy, long nineteenth (textile waste, use of toxic chemicals and century, conduct books, ethical fashion of non-biodegradable materials) and its links with cheap labour in so-called sweat- La pulitezza è il lusso del povero […]. shops, with unacceptable wages and dan- [Cleanliness is the luxury of the poor {…}].1 gerous working conditions; on the other, Clemente Rossi fast fashion consumers are linked to an Instragram culture, where cheap clothes allow users to wear as many different out- 1 Fashion Morality fits as possible, in order to perpetuate a (fake) image of wealth and success. From Historians of fashion have often under- this perspective, fashion morality regards lined the interwovenness of dress and the industry as well as its consumers in morality (Breward, 1995; Hollander, 1978, that both are subjected to moral judg- 1994; Kuchta, 2002; Ribeiro, 1986) to set the ments: their actions are evaluated in terms history of fashion apart from present-day of moral values, as good or bad, right or attitudes supposedly characterised by to- wrong, preferable or avoidable, provok- tal fashion freedom. Nevertheless, pres- ing feelings of like or dislike, and so on. ent-day demands for sustainability have Sustainable fashion is positively evaluat- reignited the debate on fashion morality. ed, as “ethical,” because it endeavours to On the one hand, fast fashion is under maximise benefits to communities and scrutiny because of environmental issues minimise impact on environment (Ethical 1 Translations are ours, unless indicated other Fashion Forum, n. d.; Henninger, Alevi- wise. zou, & Oates, 2016). The respective moral

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.006 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 288 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 evaluations of slow and fast fashion, then, of people’s behaviour and relationships. regard both the industry and its consum- Conventions and values constitute a moral ers, whereas a concept like modest fashion order (Kádár, 2017; Kádár & Haugh, 2013), appears to be solely focused on the values which is maintained via interaction and of the consumers (Almassi, 2018). In this moral evaluations of interaction, but also, essay dedicated to the discourse on fash- importantly, by metadiscourse – lay dis- ion morality in nineteenth-century Italian course on politeness and impoliteness. In conduct books, fashion is used mainly as this respect, conduct books in particular a benchmark to judge the user, although play a key role: not only do they contrib- considerations for fashion as a creator of ute to the conventionalisation of certain employment often surface. We argue that polite usages (Terkourafi, 2011, p. 176; in our sources vestimentary choices are Terkourafi & Kádár, 2017, p. 190), they always said to communicate moral values also help maintaining the moral order via and therefore, in this special issue about their typically moralising discourse: con- fashion communication, we understand ventions are reinforced each time they are this topic in two ways: a) most conduct anchored into moral foundations (Kádár, books include a prescriptive and heavily 2017 who refers to moral value theories moralising discourse on fashion, i. e., they in social psychology such as Haidt, 2012; reinforce fashion norms by rooting them Schwartz et al., 2012). In other words, con- in moral values because b) the authors ex- duct books contain an explicit discourse pect their readers to be morally evaluated on moral values, which aims to justify in terms of the clothes they are wearing. conventions. Our study on norms for po- Conduct books, by their very nature, lite verbal behaviour based on the same focus on politeness and good manners corpus of conduct books has shown how to build meaningful social relationships. politeness is explicitly rooted in values like They traditionally provide rules for the pre- reciprocity and fraternal love (Paternos- sentability of one’s person and the respect- ter & Saltamacchia, 2017). In the current ability of one’s interactions, where present- article we want to extend a metapragmatic ability – the quality of who is fit to be seen method developed for linguistic polite- in public – is considered a prime condition ness (where metapragmatic stands for the to achieve respectability. Fashion, there- reflexive monitoring of linguistic choices, fore, is an important element within the see Caffi, 1984, 1998; Verschueren, 2000) codification of presentability. There are, in and apply it to fashion, because there are fact, certain overlaps between fashion and no real differences in the way conduct politeness, not in the least because both books morally justify verbal and non-ver- politeness and fashion are social regulat- bal norms, which include norms on fash- ing systems, based on social conventions. ion. This way we hope to contribute to The pragmatics of politeness, born in the the discussion of new methodological 1970s and 1980s with seminal publica- approaches for the analysis of the pres- tions by Brown and Levinson (1978/1987) ent-day moralising discourse on fashion and Leech (1983), has increasingly looked as seen in Geiger & Keller, 2017; Lund- at non-verbal communication, whereas blad & Davies, 2015; Manchiraju & Sad- fashion as well is conceived as a form of achar, 2014; Niinimäki, 2015, who analyse non-verbal communication (on the semi- sustainable fashion in reference to the otics of fashion, see Barthes, 1967/2015; values of altruism, empathy, compassion. Crane, 2000). Only fairly recently, polite- Using a corpus of 40 conduct books ness studies have started to investigate the published in Italy in the long nineteenth role of moral values and how they relate century (1800–1920), we compare the to social conventions. Conventions are chapters dedicated to fashion (a term we kept in place by their frequency, but also conceive broadly, as pertaining to bodily by moral values. Moral values constitute a hygiene, laundry, adornment and vesti- common ground, a shared benchmark for mentary choices) and we analyse which decision-making and for the judgement specific moral values are quoted to justify Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 289 particular vestimentary rules. Our corpus en their socially inclusive nature, conduct withholds, out of a possible 186 texts,2 the books wrote about inexpensive activities: most reprinted texts per decennium, in or- visits, walks, theatre, churchgoing etc. der to warrant maximum impact with the Typical chapters concern themselves with historical reader.3 As the discourse on fash- religion, conversation, games, table man- ion proves rather homogeneous across the ners, visits, greetings on the street, hygiene sources, selecting representative passages and order, work and study, education. Giv- has proven relatively straightforward. The en the absence of illustrations, the use of essay thus discusses representative pas- low-quality paper, the pocketsize format, sages on fashion morality occurring in the relatively low number of pages, and the texts that were quite diffused at the time, simple typographic composition, Tasca in one specific layer of society. (2004, p. 117) concludes that this is a prod- Italian nineteenth-century conduct uct for a public with limited financial re- books address (pre-)adolescents on one sources (on Italian conduct books see also hand, and members of the lower middle Botteri 1999; Turnaturi 2011; Vanni 2006). class and the top echelon of the working If with fashion we are to understand a class on the other, who are all invited to quickly changing norm in clothing and ac- share the values and the lifestyle of the cessories, hairstyle, makeup, footwear – in- middle classes.4 Primary school was made volving regular spending –, it must be clear compulsory straight after the Unification that the typical addressee of the conduct for children of 6 and 7 years of age and soon book – who has limited financial resourc- after, in 1877, extended to 9-year-olds. es – cannot afford to keep up with fashion. Compulsory schools received a socially However, that does not mean that la moda mixed public, and overall the aim was to “fashion,” was a topic deemed unfit for in- provide children from all backgrounds clusion. Quite the contrary, most conduct with the tools to improve their chanc- books extensively discuss norms for public es at social advancement. Tasca (2004, presentation of the body. In the next sec- pp. 51–57) reports how, in schools, galatei tion, we introduce a first historical source, (or conduct books) were used as reading from 1902. Rather than being a prescrip- material in class and read out loud during tive source, this is a retrospective analysis meal times. Although illiteracy in the of the history of fashion in the nineteenth young nation was almost at 80% (Genove- century and the advance of the bourgeois si, 1998, p. 226), conduct books were pres- outfit: as it captures processes of demo ent in free libraries for the people and in cratisation through fashion, the text allows parish libraries. The galatei for the people us to introduce the topic of self-improve- originated within charitable associations ment, which is at the heart of our sources. or were sponsored by local councils. Giv- We split the central section of this essay in two parts. The first one is dedicated to 2 The total number of titles listed in an in- Melchiorre Gioja, whose Nuovo Galateo ventory of Italian conduct and etiquette “New Galateo” dominates the genre in the books, 1800–1920, compiled by Tasca, 2004, first half of the century. Whilst Gioja has a pp. 209–224. 3 We use Paternoster Annick & Saltamacch- secular approach and the treatises of the ia Francesca (compilers). Corpus di galatei second half of the century are mainly (but italiani ottocenteschi (CGIO), in preparati- not exclusively) furthering a Catholic ide- on at the Università della Svizzera italiana, ology, Gioja’s utilitarianism, which favours Lugano (CH). The corpus comprises digital both fashion and the fashion industry in versions of the 50 most reprinted conduct the context of self-advancement, is not in and etiquette books of the long nineteenth contradiction with the later Catholic con- century (1800–1920). It contains 40 conduct duct books, on the contrary. After the unifi- books and 10 etiquette books. 4 There are also conduct books for the pro- cation of Italy in 1861, numbers of conduct fessions, such as physicians and solicitors, books rise, peaking in the next two decen- which we have not taken into consideration nia. The second part is dedicated to these here (Botteri, 1999, pp. 245–319). post-unification conduct books: within 290 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 the huge nation-building effort (Gigante, azine Natura ed Arte “Nature and Art.” 2013; Musiani, 2018; Patriarca, 2010) con- Whereas fashion magazines – such as the duct books were seen as an efficient tool to first Milanese magazine Corriere delle promote social values alongside personal dame “Ladies’ gazette” founded in 1804 values (love of work, diligence) deemed (Franchini, 2002; Sergio, 2010) – usually necessary for the economic development treated fashion in a descriptive way,6 An- of the country. We will give an overview telling has a sociological and analytical ap- of rules regulating bodily hygiene, adorn- proach, in which she reflects on the role of ment, dress choice and fashion, and anal- women in society (Frau, 2011, p. 10). She is yse which values are explicitly cited to jus- aware that clothes have a connotation that tify the rules. We will find that, in line with is “not only aesthetic, but also (and fore- Gioja, positive evaluations mostly centre most) socio-ethical” (Frau, 2011, p. 1). on diligence and appropriacy while neg- Antelling’s essay identifies con- ative valuations range from laziness and nections between major socio-political avarice (for not investing enough time in changes and fashion. The French Revolu- one’s public appearance) to vanity and fri- tion put an end to aristocratic vestimen- volity (for investing too much time in one’s tary excesses that characterised the in- public appearance). Overall, we will con- habitants of Versailles and dress was being clude that discourse on fashion is firmly standardised: “Nel [secolo] decimonono embedded in the ideology of self-advance- [la moda] subì trasformazioni svariatis- ment and we discuss suggestions for fur- sime, tendendo a unificarsi in tutti gli stati ther research, mainly in the closely related sociali […]” [“In the nineteenth [century], genre of etiquette books: from the 1880s, [fashion] underwent a vast range of varia- the editions of conduct books slowly de- tions, which tended to unify all the social crease and etiquette books, addressed to layers {…}”] (Antelling, ca. 1902, p. 84). Ad- a mainly female readership belonging to vances in the textile industry enabled mass the established bourgeoisie, become very production and a faster distribution, and successful. allowed the development of prêt-à-porter ranges, for sale in department stores. The bourgeois outfit became increasing- 2 Mara Antelling’s retrospective view ly available to those with only limited financial resources (Perrot, 1989), in other In 1900 the Milanese publisher Vallardi words, the typical reader of Italian conduct invited well-known Italian intellectuals, books as explained above. Whereas in the amongst others the novelist Luigi Capua- first half of the century, in France, it was na, to reflect on the progress achieved in still possible to recognise different profes- the nineteenth century. The series Il seco- sions in the street by their costume (Frau, lo XIX nella vita e nella cultura dei popoli 2011, p. 1), midway through the century “the nineteenth century in the life and the this was becoming harder. Precisely from culture of the peoples” consists of 17 ele- this period comes the following quote, gantly illustrated volumes, covering liter- found in a French conduct book, proba- ature, music, art, economy, the sciences… bly originating in the 1840s and translated Volume 11 is dedicated to Vita intima, la into Italian in 1853:7 moda e lo sport, vita sociale “family life, fashion and sport, social life,” with Mara Antelling (ca. 1902) contributing a lengthy essay about fashion. An established fash- 6 On the history of fashion and fashion writing ion journalist,5 she wrote a column L’arte in Italy see Jones, 2000; Levi Pisetzky, 1969, 1973, 1978; Paulicelli, 2001. On the early mo- e la moda “Art and Fashion” for the mag- dern period see Paulicelli, 2014. 5 Pseudonym of Anna Menegazzi Piccoli, 7 The first author was able to trace a copy of born in Treviso (1845–1904). For an overview the French original (An., 1847) at the Musée of her journalistic output, see Frau, 2011, des Ursulines (Quebec, CA), a Catholic order pp. 4–5. dedicated to the education of girls. Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 291

Oggimai la ricchezza delle vesti non è più di- cluded primary school teachers, “scribes, stintivo dei diversi ordini di cittadini; il lusso è copyists and similar employees in bank- arrivato a tal punto da agguagliare condizio- ing, the law, insurance and the lower ranks ne ed età […]. [These days the riches of one’s of the civil service” (Evans, 2016, p. 327), clothes does no longer distinguish between supervisory grades in the industry and the different ranks of citizens; luxury has independent artisans, shopkeepers and reached a point where it equalises rank and shop assistants in the newly expanding age {…}]. (Thouar, 1853, p. 33) sector of department stores, whilst women increasingly found work in department On one hand, Antelling is welcoming uni- stores, in “post offices, telephone exchang- formity as a result of a democratisation es” and in offices (Evans, 2016, 330; on It- process; on the other, she also expresses aly’s nineteenth-century middle classes doubt about real social advancement. Fa- see Banti, 1996; Meriggi, 1992). This lower shion operates as a “turbine livellatore” middle class endeavoured to be “accept- “engine for equalisation”: ed as middle class, through their dress, housing, social interests, education, etc., Il primo colpo lo dà la moda, insinuandosi coi in order to insist on the differences be- suoi dettami in tutti gli ordini sociali, portan- tween themselves and the working class” do lo stesso verbo nell’umile casa borghese o (Pilbeam, 1990, pp. 10–15; Montroni, 2002, nella semplice casa provinciale, come nel pa- p. 104 on the “rather strong” divide be- lazzo avito, o negli appartamenti delle dive in tween these two groups in Italy). For the vena di bonne fortune. [Fashion gives the first petty bourgeoisie, table manners, proper blow, as it slowly infiltrates every social rank conversation and dress were crucial class with its rules, spreading the same gospel in symbols meant to maintain respectability the humble bourgeois house or in the sim- (Kocka, 1989, p. 20). Table manners, e. g., ple country house, as well as in the ancestral needed to hide recent arrival from a social palace, or in the apartments of divas enjoying sphere where hunger and gluttony were good fortune.] (Antelling, ca. 1902, p. 88) rife. Italian nineteenth-century conduct books are precisely helping the petty bour- However, for Antelling the democratisa- geoisie to avoid identification with the tion is only apparent. Fashion creates uni- working class. formity for the top layer, whilst at the same time increasing the distance from the bottom layer: 3 Melchiorre Gioja and the Apology of Fashion: on the socio-economic L’eguaglianza negli abiti non rompe le dighe purpose of fashion sociali che si erigono ancora fra classe e classe: le superiori sono rinserrate in un circolo In the nineteenth century the production saldo, chiuse in una rocca, e guardano con dif- of conduct manuals is inaugurated in fidenza la marea che monta e minaccia inva- 1802 by the Nuovo Galateo “New Galateo” sione. [The equality of clothes does not break written by Melchiorre Gioja, the official the social dikes that are still erect between the historiographer of Napoleon’s Cisalpine social classes: the upper classes have locked Republic, and subsequently the Director themselves in a tight-knit club, barricaded of the Bureau of Statistics of the Italian in a fortress, and look with diffidence at the Kingdom. His treatise marks the begin- tide that mounts and threatens an invasion.] ning of a prolific publication of conduct (Antelling, ca. 1902, p. 88) manuals proposing a bourgeois model of politeness (Vanni, 2006, p. 13). In the new Importantly, Antelling diagnoses the emer- society that arises after the French Revo- gence of a strong demarcation line be- lution social relationships become more tween the social classes, also identified by complex. As they are no longer depending present-day historians. The lower middle on a rigid hierarchical structure anchored class or petty (from petite) bourgeoisie in- in law, they are now negotiated on differ- 292 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 ent grounds: merit and work (and money) latter argument because “ciascuno aspira take the place of birthright (see Gipper, alla stima degli altri e ne teme il disprezzo” 2001). The first edition of the New Galateo, [“every man aspires to the others’ esteem which will be followed by three expanded and cannot tolerate scorn”] (1820, p. 28, versions (1820, 1822, 1827), posits itself in original emphasis). To obtain esteem and opposition to the aristocratic code of con- appreciation is indeed the aim of the po- duct, and – particularly – to a model based liteness model proposed by Gioja, which on strict conformity to conventional “cer- is based on the new concept of “social emonies”: reason, i. e. the capacity of people to live together in a way that others are pleased Nelle monarchie le cerimonie prendono il with us and with themselves [“in modo di posto dei doveri sociali […]. Gli uomini sono rendere gli altri contenti di noi e di loro più apprezzati dai loro abiti che dai loro senti- stessi”] (1822/1853, pp. 109–110). Gioja’s menti, e la gentilezza nel gesto e nelle maniere individual affirms himself in his social re- ottiene maggior lode che la più eroica virtù. lationships, which are focused on useful- [In monarchies ceremonies take the place ness. of social duties {…}. People are mostly ap- Gioja recommends taking great care in preciated for their dress rather than for their wearing clean clothes, since people “resta- feelings and the elegance of manner is more no offesi dalla sordidezza” [“are offended appreciated than the most heroic of virtues.] by filth”] (1820, p. 106). He also prescribes (Gioja, 1802/1853, p. 8). cleanliness because, he argues, “la pulitezza, conservando le forze fisiche, ci conser- Although Gioja criticises the fact that peo- va la possibilità d’eseguire i doveri sociali ple “are mostly appreciated for their dress e d’essere utili agli altri” [“cleanliness pre- rather than their feelings,” in the second serves our physical strength, thus preserv- edition he admits that “sebbene l’abito ing the possibility to execute our social du- non faccia il monaco, ciò nonostante la ties and to be useful to others”] (1822/1853, maggior parte degli uomini, i quali hanno p. 116). Furthermore, dress should corre- più occhio che intelletto, dall’abito giudi- spond to one’s financial condition because cano le persone” [“although the habit does he who dresses above his means “si toglie not make the monk, nevertheless most di credito” [“loses credit”] since he “fa sup- people, who have more eyes than brains, porre che si veste a spese altrui” [“gives judge other people by their clothes”] ground to suspicions that he dresses at the (1820, p. 107). The presence of this prov- cost of other people”]; by contrast, he who erb in behavioural literature goes back dresses below his means “si tira addosso la to the Book of the Courtier by Baldassar taccia di pidocchieria” [“attracts onto him- Castiglione (1528), an author who is of- self the bad reputation of being a scrooge”] ten quoted in the New Galateo. In Book II, (1820, p. 112). Therefore, there is a golden Chapter X–VIII, the interlocutors of this mean to be followed. In sum, Gioja lays dialogue set at the court of Urbino discuss the foundations of the nineteenth-century the meaning of clothes for the courtier. rules: on the one hand, attention to per- Whilst one interlocutor claims that peo- sonal hygiene and clean laundry, on the ple have to be judged rather by words and other, appropriate dress-choice. Interest- deeds than by clothes, precisely because ingly, these precepts are argued for in view of “quel proverbio che l’abito non fa il mo- of a goal, and, more specifically, in view of naco” [“the proverb saying ‘The habit does a utilitarian motivation: achieving the oth- not make the monk’,”] the main interloc- ers’ esteem and appreciation allows one to utor disagrees: of course words and deeds obtain public esteem, offices and honours, are important, nevertheless one’s attire religious rewards, as Gioja explains in his “non è piccolo argomento della fantasia preface. This utilitarian view, influenced di chi lo porta” [“is no slight index of the by the French ideologues (such as Con- wearer’s fancy”] (Castiglione, 2002, p. 136; dillac and Cabanis) and Jeremy Bentham’s Castiglione 1959, p. 123). Gioja defends the utilitarianism (see Sciacca, 1948, pp. 132– Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 293

133 and Botteri, 1990; Ghiringhelli, 1990; fashion and luxury as the cause of moral Sofia, 1990; Tasca, 2004; Vanni, 2006), corruption. They in particular focus on equally dominates the chapter Apologia charity by arguing that the superfluous – della moda “Apology of Fashion,” which i. e. luxury – is supposed to be donated in Gioja introduces in the second edition of charity rather than to be used for personal the New Galateo. gratification. The Apology of Fashion follows a sim- Melchiorre Gioja positions himself ilarly instrumental approach, but at the as the defendant of the first position and same time, there are differences: whereas the accuser of the second position. In the the New Galateo is a prescriptive text, the first section of theApology of Fashion he Apology of Fashion is an argumentative advances arguments in favour of fashion text, in which Gioja argues two sides of the adopting an economic point of view: “i question “fashion” adopting a favourable capricci della moda sono il mezzo per cui stance. We begin by discussing the histori- […] il ricco alimenta il povero non a titolo cal context leading up to this chapter. Lux- di limosina, ma di lavoro” [“the whims of ury and fashion form a hotly debated issue fashion are the means by which {…} the in the eighteenth century. Cecilia Carnino rich help the poor by supplying them with (2014), who offers a detailed reconstruc- work rather than with a handout”] (Gioja tion of this debate, argues that the com- 1822, p. 205). He argues this sentence in plex discussion about luxury and wellness this way: was actually a vehicle for a political debate focused on the free movement of wealth, Un abito che presenta l’apparenza della novi- on criticism of the traditional hierarchies tà è tosto ricercato dalle persone più ricche, e and on the legitimation of new social diviene l’oggetto delle brame di quelle che lo classes. Carnino also underlines the new sono meno. […] gli artisti imitano con materie meaning that the word “consumption” ac- meno costose […] la prima foggia […] e per quires in the eighteenth century: far from conseguenza ne decade il prezzo. Decadendo being considered a mere destruction of reil prezzo diviene proporzionato alle finanze sources, consumption was rather seen as a delle persone povere, le quali per ciò vengo- component of the demand for consumer no messe a parte di piaceri, da cui senza le goods. The reflection about the relation- variazioni della moda resterebbero escluse. ship between economy and luxury and La moda […] eccita nella massa popolare la fashion is at the core of the works of Man- voglia di parteciparvi; quindi diviene pun- deville in England (The fable of the bees, gentissimo stimolo contro la naturale inerzia. 1705) and Melon in France (Essai politique [A costume with the outward appearance of sur le commerce, 1734). Whilst according newness quickly becomes sought-after by to the former, private vices can produce the richest people, and it becomes the object benefits because they offer opportunities of desire in people who are less rich. {…} the for new employment, the latter considers artists imitate the original model with less ex- luxury as a base for the economic devel- pensive materials {…} and therefore its price opment of a state. In Italy, fifteen years lat- drops. With the price getting lower, the dress er, Galliani in Della moneta (1750) argues becomes proportionate to the financial re- about the relationship between luxury, sources of the poor, who, therefore, can take fashion and the progress of societies: he part in pleasures from which, without the opposes a society based on conquest to a changes in fashion, they would remain ex- modern society based on economic devel- cluded. Fashion {…} fuels in the masses a de- opment and civil progress. After Galliani, sire to take part in it, thus becoming a biting Verri (1764), Genovesi (1765) and Becca- incentive against natural inactivity.] (Gioja, ria (1769) readily adopt Mandeville’s idea 1822, p. 205)8 that luxury and fashion boost economic 8 Note the similarity with the historical dis- activity and, particularly, work. However, course on nineteenth-century price reduc- this positive view on luxury and fashion is tions in Philippe Perrot (1989) discussed in strongly resisted by Catholics who accuse section 2. Interestingly, one of our anony- 294 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306

Gioja summarises some of the main themes people – and fashion characterizes a civi- of the eighteenth-century debate on lux- lized society. ury. He embraces the idea that fashion is From these short extracts taken from good because it offers new opportunities the Apology of Fashion it can be concluded for employment; he also takes into con- that Gioja evaluates fashion positively, it is sideration the public debate on charity by considered from an instrumental point of affirming that thanks to the whims of fash- view as a vehicle for an economic and ideo- ion the rich can help the poor by supply- logical discourse. The nineteenth-centu- ing them with work instead of alms – we ry philosopher and theologian Antonio can infer that work is preferable to charity Rosmini realised this better than anybody because the former is an incentive against else; he in particular sensed the danger of natural inactivity. Furthermore, by affirm- a popularisation of the utilitarian ideas ing that an outfit “becomes the object of contained in Gioja’s Apology of Fashion. desire in people who are less rich” and In the Esame delle opinioni di Melchiorre that fashion “fuels in the masses a desire Gioja in favore della moda “Examination to take part in it,” Gioja offers an interest- of Melchiorre Gioja’s opinions in favour ing description of the dynamic of human of fashion” (1824) he advances more than desire. This idea is taken from Verri, who forty “observations” countering not only states that luxury is “lo sprone più vigoroso the arguments that Melchiorre Gioja sup- dell’industria” [“the strongest stimulus for ported in defense of fashion, but also the the industry”] (1764/1993, p. 38) because utilitarian ideology that permeates the en- the desire to buy luxury goods fuels the tire text (see Saltamacchia & Rocci, 2018; desire to work. Moreover, Verri underlines in press). the fact that all passions and desires, both of rich and poor, are legitimate as a ground for economic development, and lead to an 4 Post-unification Conduct Books equal society. The main argument advanced by Gio- Whereas Gioja’s stance is secular, even an- ja to attack the opposing argument (fash- ticlerical, post-unification conduct books ion corrupts) is the following: propose, so to speak, a practical “appendix” to Catholic ethics (Tasca, 2004, p. 109). L’amore è di sua natura esclusivo […]. Aumen- Many conduct books, especially those to di affezioni amorose è dunque uguale a di- written for young readers, have a struc- minuzione di godimenti comuni. Ora in gene- ture that follows “a day in the life of” their rale le affezioni amorose crescono in ragione recipients and start with a chapter on the della bellezza. Quindi i popoli più laidi sono morning ritual: with an early rise comes i più dissoluti. [Love, by its nature, is exclusi- the requirement to thank God for the new ve {…}. An increase in love is proportionate to day, followed by rules for personal hygiene. a decrease in communal enjoyment. Now, in Rules are justified by the need for good general love increases in reason of [i. e. in pro- manners, but also by medical reasons: the portion to] beauty. Thus, the ugliest peoples persistent need to recommend frequent are the most dissolute.] (Gioja, 1822, p. 209) ablutions can be explained by a lingering fear of water as contamination agent for According to Gioja fashion cannot be the diseases such as cholera and the plague cause of corruption because “the ugliest (Sorcinelli, 2009; Gatta e. g. explains the et- people are the most dissolute” as they are ymology of the word to his young readers: prone to “communal enjoyment.” It fol- “Dalla voce greca hygies, sano” [“from the lows that corruption is strictly related with Greek work hygies, healthy”] (1865/1869, uncivilized people rather than civilized p. 9). Gattini (1869/1870, pp. 14–22) and Cianfrocca (1872/1878, pp. 11–16) provide mous reviewers pointed out how this sounds detailed rules, but the longest lists appear like a description of so-called high street in Chiavarino (1897, pp. 96–106) and Krier brands, like Zara or H&M, etc. ante litteram. (1894/1900, pp. 29–35). Chiavarino’s list Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 295 contains no less than 34 items. Alongside similar on p. 57). It reflects purity (Fioren- a generic recommendation to wash, rules tina, 1915/1918, p. 15), candour and specifically target face and neck, ears, kindness (Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, p. 9). hands, nails, teeth, hair, feet, discuss the Both Chiavarino and Krier refer to clean correct way to blow your nose, sneeze, clothes as a representation of “interna spit, the correct use of handkerchiefs, and onestà” [“internal honesty”] (1897, p. 108; continue seamlessly to the cleanliness of 1894/1900, p. 39). Conversely, “l’immon- clothes. To illustrate the level of detail in- dezza del corpo” [“the filth of the body”] is volved, one example will suffice: not seldom “testimonio che rivela la brut- tura del cuore” [“a witness revealing the Il tossire e lo starnutire non deve essere trop- ugliness of the heart”], according to Riz- po forte, nè sul volto delle persone, nè vicino zoli in an earlier conduct book for priests a cose cui male sarebbe spruzzare, od anche (1845, p. 16). Similarly, for Rossi, a physi- solo darne il sospetto, come cibi, fiori, od al- cal smell points to “puzzo morale” [“moral tro. Avverti perciò di volgerti alquanto da par- stench”] (1878/1921, p. 164). te, e di tenere il fazzoletto alla bocca. [Coughs Precisely because they send out this and sneezes must not be too loud, and not in powerful moral message, clean clothes other people’s face, neither close to objects have the power to override the social stig- which must not be covered in spray, nor even mata of lower class and poverty. Dirt orig- a suggestion of it, such as food, flowers, etc. inating in manual work bears no negative Therefore, take care to turn yourself slightly connotation, on the contrary. According sideways, and hold a handkerchief to your to Cajmi’s Nuovo Galateo, consigli di un mouth.] (Chiavarino, 1897, p. 98) nonno a’ suoi nipoti “New Galateo, Advice from a grandfather to his grandchildren,” Importantly, personal hygiene and clean- peasants and artisans cannot possibly liness of clothes are treated in an abso- keep clean while they work. However, lute way: “acqua fresca in abbondanza, sapone semplice nostrano, buoni pettini […] deposta la marra o il martello, vedili nel e buone spazzole” [“abundant cool water, dì di festa: crederebbero mancare di reverenza simple local soap, good combs and good perfino a Dio, se la candida camicia, o il giub- brushes”] (Gatta, 1865/1869, p. 28). When bone custodito con tanta cautela dalle vigili washing “l’acqua non va punto risparmi- donne, non imprimessero in quelle figure in- ata” [“water is not to be used sparingly”] durite ai travagli qualche po’ di gentilezza e di (Grelli, 1889, p. 6). On the contrary, more civiltà. [{…} once they put down the hoe and is better: “Puossi giudicare […] del grado the hammer, just look at them on a Holy Day: di civiltà di un popolo dalla quantità d’ac- they would think of themselves as disrespect- qua che consuma per la propria nettezza” ful even to God, if the pure white shirt, or the [“One can judge {…} the degree of civilisa- jacket so carefully preserved by their attentive tion of a people by the amount of water it wives, would not impress onto those figures consumes for its cleanliness”] (Gallenga, hardened by labour some kindness and civili- 1871, p. 114; and see similar in Rossi on the ty.] (Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, p. 11) use of soap for clean laundry, 1878/1921, p. 117 and p. 165).9 Cleanliness, in fact, is In their Sunday best, they too become seen as a generic indicator of one’s moral civilised.10 In the nation-building effort, standards. For Rossi, it is a “coefficiente work is always positively evaluated. Also, di moralità” [“a coefficient of morality”] in the wake of the successful self-help (1878/1921, p. 164); for Pellegrino it is “lo specchio della mente e del cuore” [“the 10 This quote neatly ties in with what Alain Corbin writes about the tendency in work- mirror of mind and heart”] (1870, p. 51 and ing class members to s’endimancher “put 9 Rossi references the Familiar Letters on on their Sunday best” (dimanche in fact, Chemistry, 1851, by Justus von Liebig, the means “Sunday” in French), effectively dress father of organic chemistry, albeit in a rather in a bourgeois costume. Alain Corbin, 1987, approximate wording. p. 449, quoted in Frau, 2011, p. 7. 296 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 movement in Victorian England, inaugu- liness is an indication of diligence (Com- rated by the publications of Samuel Smiles, modari, 1893 p. 24).12 self-help became very popular in Italy and It is worth insisting that rules for ba- it strongly encouraged work as a way for sic hygiene are coached in absolute word- self-reliance (Tasca, 2004, p. 187; Turnatu- ings because when authors turn to other ri, 2011, p. 37). The same topic emerges in fashion-related topics, the moralising dis- Pasquali, who teaches manners with edi- course becomes relative: virtue is formu- fying anecdotes: Beppino decides to leave lated as an Aristotelian golden mean, and school and, at the end of his first working excesses are evaluated as vice. Let us look day, he goes back to see if his companions at the rules for body adornment with per- will still greet him now that he has “un fumes, cosmetics, hair pomades and oils: viso nero” [“a blackened face”] (Pasquali, “un’acconciatura eccessiva indica van- 1897, p. 24). Most pupils ignore him, ex- ità e leggerezza” [“excessive adornment cept for his former desk companion, who points at vanity and frivolity”] (Cianfrocca, shakes hands affectionately “senza badare 1872/1878, p. 14). In the morning, Thouar se nella stretta ritira la sua un po’ anneri- does not want girls to spend “troppo tem- ta” [“and does not mind if his hand turns po” [“too much time”] to take care of their a bit dirty from the handshake”] (Pasquali, appearance, “il che potrebbe facilmente 1897, p. 24). However, not only the work- essere indizio o fomite di mollezza, di ing poor are respectable (despite the dirt), svogliatezza e d’ozio pericolosissimo” the clean poor are too: “Non è riprovevole [“this could easily be a sign of or an incite- che gli abiti siano vecchi o rattoppati, pur- ment to frivolity, listlessness or very dan- ché siano puliti” [“Old and patched cloths gerous laziness”] (Thouar, 1853, p. 26). The are not reprehensible, provided they are main problem here is time wasting. This is clean”] (Commodari, 1893, p. 24); “[…] the reason why Gatta does not want to see infatti non ci spiace nemmeno l’abito mi- a dressing table cluttered with “cosmeti- sero e rattoppato del mendicante se è pu- ci di vario colore e odore, quelle essenze, lito” [“{…} in fact, not even the miserable, quegli olii, quelle polveri” [“cosmetics of patched clothes of the beggar displease us, different colour and scent, those essences, provided they are clean”] (Krier, 1894/1900, those oils, those powders”]: “Eh via, lasci- p. 39, and similar in Gallenga, 1871 p. 243). ate queste frascherie ai perdigiorni […]” The most striking wording is found in [“come on, leave these fripperies to idlers Rossi: “La pulitezza è il lusso del povero” {…}”] (Gatta, 1865/1869, p. 28). To avoid [“Cleanliness is the luxury of the poor”] excess, young people need a middle way: (1878/1921, p. 164). It is better to have “Prendete la via di mezzo; chè si vuole la “cento toppe” [“one hundred patches”] pulizia, non già la caricatura” [“Take the than “una macchia sola” [“only one stain”] middle way, because cleanliness is what (Rossi, 1878/1921, p. 165). The hyperbole we want, definitely not a caricature”] of the one hundred patches demonstrates (Cajmi 1865–1867/1869, p. 6). The need to that this discourse on hygiene and clean- measure the use of perfume is still linked liness is cast in absolute terms. Even one to frivolity, but it also involves taking into stain puts its owner on the wrong side of account other people’s wellbeing. Ca- the demarcation line of who is respectable jmi takes about “il vezzo che ha taluno di or not, who is part of the undeserving or costringere altri a respirare quanto egli si è deserving poor; that is those who deserve messo dattorno” [“the mannerism of some assistance, employment and those who do who force others to breath in what they not, because they are lazy.11 In fact, clean- have put on”] (1865–1867/1869, p. 19; see also Gatta, 1865/1869, p. 30–31; Demarti- no, 1888/1897, p. 75). 11 The traditional dividing line is important for policy-makers in Victorian England, but the 12 It is often claimed that people who take care notion exists in Italy since late Antiquity (Al- of their clothes are generally tidy, measured len, Neil & Mayer, 2009, p. 171). and diligent (see Pellegrino, 1870, p. 56). Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 297

Quite naturally, the amount of effort “a (sure) clue, a sign”] and rivela, dinota, spent on getting dressed is evaluated in [“reveals,” “indicates.”] exactly the same way. Moral awareness Just as spending the right amount of is particularly prominent here, also in re- time to adornments and clothes is regulat- gards to underuse. For Thouar, underuse ed as a golden mean, the choice of clothes in the care of one’s outfit (“toelette”) is “in- is equally determined in a relative way, dizio certo d’incuria e di pigrizia” [“a sure that is, as appropriateness to circumstanc- sign of negligence and laziness”] and over- es. The most important circumstance is use can be “contraria a modestia e rivelare one’s social class. Several authors quote la vanità e leggerezza” [“opposed to modesty condizione [“status, station, standing”] as and reveal vanity and frivoulness”] (1853, the only factor determining appropriate p. 32). Gatta understands that young girls dress: “Il buon gusto, soprattutto, voi do- need some time to get dressed, however he vete dimostrarlo nel perfetto accordo della asks they do not go beyond “i limiti ones- vostra condizione col vostro abbigliamen- ti del convenevole” [“the honest limits of to” [“Taste, especially, has to be shown what is appropriate”] (1865/1869, p. 33; through the perfect harmony between see also Gallenga 1871, p. 431 and Righi, your social standing and your clothes”] 1889, p. 72). Paragraph 1 in Chiavarino’s (Fiorentina, 1915/1918, p. 67 and simi- chapter on clothing starts as a search for lar in Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, p. 9; Gatta, the golden mean: “Guardati dall’eccedere 1865/1869, p. 31; Gallenga, 1871 p. 431 sia per troppa cura come per troppa tras- and Cipani, 1884, p. 13). Others intro- curaggine” [“Beware not to exceed nor by duce more factors. Thouar adds age (1853, too much care neither by too much neg- p. 26), Rizzoli and Righi list status, age and ligence”] (1897, p. 107). His list of values add gender (1845, p. 20; 1889, p. 72). Krier is particularly extensive. Too much effort wants his reader to adapt clothes to status, will attract a series of negative evaluations: profession and age and he gives one exam- it reveals his reader to be “sciocco” [“stu- ple of each: “Lo studente non può vestirsi pid,”] “vanerello” [“frivoulous,”] and it “è come il contadino, nè il magistrato come il segno d’animo piccolo, di gretto carattere, commesso viaggiatore, nè il vecchio come di cuor vuoto, di cultura superficiale, e il giovane” [“A student must not dress like spesso anche di una smania peccaminosa a peasant, neither a magistrate like a trav- di piaceri e di passioni disordinate” [“is elling salesman, nor an elderly man like a sign of small-mindedness, pettiness, a young one”] (1894/1900, p. 38). Overall, heartlessness, superficial culture, and of- the most elaborate rule is found in Gatti- ten also of a sinful desire for pleasures ni and Chiavarino who want clothes to be and unruly passions”] (Chiavarino, 1897, “convenienti all’età, alla condizione delle p. 107). Vice versa, sloppiness “rivela ava- persone, ed anche alle circostanze de’ lu- rizia, mancanza dei dovuti riguardi” [“re- oghi, de’ tempi, e del costume” [“appro- veals stinginess, lack of due respect”] and priate to age, one’s status and the circum- sometimes it “dinota una coscienza tur- stances of place, time and usage”] (Gattini, bata” [“means a troubled conscience”] 1869/1870, p. 15; Chiavarino, 1897, p. 108). (Chiavarino, 1897, p. 107). Krier follows Historically, these lists originate in classi- Chiavarino almost word by word, but adds cal rhetoric as the circumstantiae locutio- gloomily that excessive care of one’s looks nis “the circumstances of speech”, tradi- will drag the soul “sopra un cammino tionally listed as: who, what, why, in what sdrucciolevole” [“on a slippery path”] that manner, where, when, by what faculties. will lead it to become “schiava dei vizii Here they are adapted to convey a visual più odiosi” [“slave of the most odious vic- rhetoric of appropriacy.13 In this regard, es”] (1894/1900, p. 37). Interestingly, our the call for simplicity shows that it was sources display a semiotic awareness with feared readers would breach the appro- frequent expressions relating to commu- 13 This conversion from verbal to non-verbal nication: dress is specchio, testimonio, in- rhetoric takes place in Renaissance conduct dizio (certo), segno di [“mirror,” “witness,” books (Paternoster 1998). 298 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 priateness rule rather by overstating their Thouar, however, rejects the proverb out- rank than by understatement: “Non trop- right. Strangers judging a girl will always pa cura!” [“not too much care!”] because look at her clothes first. And therefore: “La maggior semplicità piace sempre di più” [“the greatest simplicity always pleas- Non è da citar qui il proverbio, l’abito non fa es the most”] (Chiavarino, 1897 p. 107, il monaco, poiché è naturale che il cappellino original emphasis; Krier, 1894/1900, p. 37). strapazzato, le scarpe sudicie, il vestito mac- Cajmi links simplicity of dress to the sim- chiato sveglino poco buona opinione verso plicity of the soul (1865–1867/1869, p. 9), chi li porta.” [“The proverb, the habit does whereas Fiorentina, who proposes – liter- not make the monk, cannot be quoted here, ally – a “barometro” [“barometer”] of dress since it is only natural that the worn-out hat, choices with their corresponding values,14 the dirty shoes, the stained dress do not rouse favours un “vestito semplice, adatto alla a good opinion towards she who is wearing condizione finanziaria e alla posizione them.”] (Thouar, 1853, p. 32) sociale” [“a simple costume, adapted to financial condition and social position”] as For Krier, clothes provide a wide range of it reveals “carattere serio, buon senso” [“se- information: they constitute the easiest riousness, common sense”] (1915/1918, argument for judging someone’s “carat- p. 81). tere” [“character,”] “costumi” [“manners”] Unsurprisingly, given the consistent and “valore morale” [“moral value,”] and coupling of dress choices with moral val- furthermore, they suggest someone’s “sta- ues, several conduct books explicitly re- to” [“status,”] “animo” [“mind,”] “gusto flect on clothes as a complex signifier, the personale” [“personal taste”] and “il gra- semiotics of which go far beyond mere do di educazione” [“the degree of educa- aesthetic relevance. These reflections of- tion”] (1894/1900, p. 36). Consequently, ten coagulate around the proverb l’abito he proposes an alternative proverb, in a non fa il monaco (literally, “the habit does positive wording: “[…] il vestito forma la not make the monk”), as previously seen in persona.” [“{…} clothes make the man.]” Gioja. Whilst some authors quote the tra- (Krier, 1894/1900, p. 36; Chiavarino, 1897, ditional proverb, like Gioja they are quick p. 107). Demartino, writing for seminar- to point out that it is not entirely valid: ists, provides two more sayings: “Il vestito è il nuncio dell’uomo” [“the costume is the L’abito non fa il monaco, è vero; ma lo fa di- ambassador of the man”] and “la decenza stinguere dagli altri. Dio giudica l’interno, ma dell’abito è una lettera di raccomandazi- l’uomo, che non può guardare che all’ester- one” [“the decency of one’s costume is a no, ha diritto di argomentare dall’apparenza letter of recommendation”] (1888/1897, per giudicare della sostanza. [“True, the habit p. 74). does not make the monk, but it distinguishes Fashion, then, is codified in a simi- him from the others. God judges the inside, lar, that is, relative way. What distinguish- but man, who can only look at the outside, is es the discourse on fashion from the one right to base his argument on the appearance on dress is the addition of the element of in order to judge the substance.”] (Cipani, change over time. Cajmi admits the pow- 1884, p. 13 and similar in Rizzoli, 1845, p. 21, er of fashion, a “tyrant” imposing change Righi, 1889, p. 71)15 (1865–1867/1869, p. 12). Men like change: “È vanità? è leggerezza? è bisogno di roves- ciare sempre il vecchio, perchè col nuovo si alimenta l’industria e il commercio? 14 For praise of simplicity see also the first nov- Un po’ di tutti questi motivi” [“Is it van- el in Savigny, 1844. La sveglia “The clock.” ity? Is it frivolity? Is it a need to always 15 Elsewhere, Rizzoli compares personal hygiene to “una lettera di raccomandazione” [“a overturn what is old, because what is new letter of recommendation”] (1845, pp. 19–20), feeds industry and trade? A bit of a com- a metaphor which appears also in Demartino bination of all these motives”] (Cajmi, (1888/1897, see below). 1865–1867/1869, p. 12). However, in itself, Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 299 fashion is not the object of moral condem- frivolous, and empty human being.] (Cajmi, nation. On the contrary, in continuation 1865–1867/1869, p. 12) with Gioja’s economic argument,16 Ca- jmi evaluates fashion positively because Therefore, following fashion in an appro- it provides work to the poor. There is no priate way comes down to determining point blaming fashion: when the time is right. Fashion is a vestimentary art of kairos, the opportune mo- La c’è, e bisogna tollerarla; chè alla fin fine for- ment. The reader should copy a new usage nisce del pane alla povera gente, e il riprovarla, “senza tanta fretta” [“without too much oltreché è vano, porterebbe de’ mali maggiori: haste”] (Savigny, 1844, p. 11). “Non siate del resto tanto peggio per le teste di nebbia mai i primi nelle novità” [“never be the first che se ne fanno schiavi e vittime. [“It is here, to adopt novelties”] and give it some time: and one has to accept it; because in the end it “lasciate un pochettino abituarsi l’occhio puts bread on the table for the poor and con- e l’orecchio della gente ai mutamenti d’o- demning it, which is useless anyway, would gni genere, e non vi accadrà mai di pen- bring worse problems. Besides, so much the tirvi” [“Allow people’s eyes and ears to get worse for the airheads who turn into fashion a little bit used to changes of any kind, slaves and victims.”] (Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, and never will you have regrets”] (Cajmi, p. 13) 1865–1867/1869, p. 13). If not, the reader would single him- or herself out: “[…] Luxury is treated along the same line, as schivate sopratutto di distinguervi fra gli “l’alimento di molte industrie, quindi la altri per qualche moda bizzarra e in gen- fonte vitale della esistenza di molte na- erale non ancora accettata” [“{…} above all zioni” [“it powers many industries and avoid distinguishing yourselves from the is therefore the vital source for the exis- others by adopting some bizarre fashion, tence of many nations”] (Cajmi, 1865– which is not yet widely accepted”] (Gatta, 1867/1869, p. 15). The followers of fashion, 1865/1869, p. 31). The way to do this is to indeed, as with the use of adornments and copy “il costume dei più” [“the costume of clothes, need to observe a golden mean the majority”] (Gatta, 1865/1869, p. 31), in “tra il buttarsi all’impazzata dietro il primo other words, when “le mode” [“fashions”] figurino di mode che ci casca giù d’oltrem- are “accettate generalmente” [“widely onti, o l’ostinarsi ad aggirarvi per la città accepted”] (Krier, 1894/1900, p. 37). Nev- come uno spicchio del secolo passato” ertheless, ridicule can be caused just as [“between racing to throw yourself at the much by ignoring fashion: wearing clothes first fashion sketch that lands here from “poste in disuso” [“put into disuse”] would across the Alps and persisting in roaming come down to “volersi rendere singolare around town like a slice of last century”] per altro verso e […] andare incontro al (Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, pp. 12–13). Only ridicolo” [“wanting to single yourself out excessive attitudes are condemned. Fol- in another way and {…} encounter ridi- low fashion too closely, and you are judged cule”] (Thouar, 1853, p. 33). as fickle, mercurial, as someone who has If ignoring fashion attracts negative “dato di volta al cervello” [“lost his mind”] evaluations, being a slave to fashion is (Cajmi, 1865–1867/1869, p. 12): equally condemned, as we have seen. In this final paragraph, picking up an im- […] il meno che si dica di chi insazievol- portant strand in Gioja’s argumentation, mente tramuta il proprio abbigliamento o we want to zoom in on the financial con- i propri arredi è l’essere egli un fanullone, sequences of an excessive attention to un farfallino, un essere vacuo. [{…} the least fashion, which is closely scrutinised un- people say of whoever changes his clothes or der the heading of “ambizione.” Ambition his furniture insatiably is that he is an idler, a is linked to a taste for luxury: since luxu- 16 Gioja’s name is mentioned in the next chap- ry is defined as the superfluous (Cajmi, ter on luxury, p. 15, precisely in the context of 1865–1867/1869, p. 15), ambition is seen his economic studies. as a desire to live above one’s station, and 300 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 this inevitably means overreaching one’s The woman’s wrinkles reveal a daughter finances. As a result, ambition is evaluated who, “ineducata” [“uncivilised,”] “senza as a vice: Cajmi puts it at same level with cuore” [“heartless,”] imposes sacrifices on “vanità” [“vanity,”] “orgoglio” [“pride,”] her mother (Fiorentina, 1915/1918, p. 80). “rivalità” [“rivalry,”] and “invidia” [“envy”] Fiorentina’s demand? “E intanto procurate (1865–1867/1869, p. 16). He pities the fam- che vostra madre non manchi del neces- ily that is buying the superfluous whilst it sario” [“meanwhile make sure your moth- has nothing to “accendere il focolare o amer does not lack in what is necessary”] manire la mensa” [“lit the fire or set the ta- (1915/1918, p. 80). The girls should also ble with”] (1865–1867/1869, p. 16). For Pel- know the value of money and start saving. legrino, “gli ambiziosi e vanitosi giovinetti” Clemente Rossi bans “capriccietti” [“little [“the pretentious17 and vain young men”] whims”] (1878/1921, p. 150) because “ric- who show off a watch, a pendent, a new che stoffe spengono il fuoco della cucina” tie, deserve “disprezzo e compassione” [“expensive fabrics put out the fire in the [“disdain and compassion”] as they are kitchen”] (1878/1921, p. 151). He warns for only “povere bolle di sapone che un leggier small debts, because “dal poco, mie care, soffio fa scoppiare” [“poor soap bubbles, si passa al molto” [“from small amounts, exploding with a gentle puff”] (1870, p. 84). my dear girls, you move to big amounts”] Recalling her own schooldays, Fiorentina (1878/1921, p. 151). Fornari’s galateo, ad- quotes the caretaker who commented on dressed to little girls, includes an edifying pupils wearing luxury items: “‘Chi sa che play on the dangers of ambition (1888, stiramenti allo stomaco!’ borbottava, con pp. 24–41), closely followed by a short un sorrisetto arguto […].” [“ ‘Who knows narrative in the 1st person by a woman how these stomachs are rumbling!’ she who ended up poor because, orphan, she mumbled, with a tiny sly grin”] 1915/1918, sacrificed everything to pay for a luxury p. 80]. Fiorentina can only wearily observe lifestyle, even her mother’s jewels (1888, that, in the mean time, ambition is spread- pp. 43–47). Although Rossi, Fiorentina and ing with “passi da gigante” [“giant steps”] Fornari address girls, the condemnation (1915/1918, p. 79): of overspending is not gendered. Pellegri- no (see above) only addresses boys and E questo, purtroppo, vien fatto di pensare another chapter on ambition appears in oggi, quando passa accanto uno sciame garru- Cajmi (1865–1867/1869, pp. 80–83) whose lo di giovinette in ghingheri, dietro cui talvolta grandchildren consist of a boy and two s’affanna l’ombra pallida della madre che, tra girls. le pieghe fonde del viso, lascia leggere qualco- sa: intanto che non è nutrita come ne avrebbe bisogno. [“Unfortunately, this comes to mind 5 Conclusion nowadays when you come across a chirping swarm of youngsters all dolled up, followed, Our attempt at applying a metapragmat- sometimes, by the pale shadow of an exhaust- ic approach developed for the study of ed mother, who, in between the deep wrinkles politeness values in politeness meta dis- of her face, gives you to read something: to be- course on sections dedicated to fashion gin with, that she is not eating as much as she in conduct books has demonstrated that should.”] (Fiorentina, 1915/1918, p. 80) fashion rules, just like politeness rules, tend to be accompanied by moral justifications. These prescriptive sources treat the 17 We use this adjective to render the histori- presentation of the body in public as an cally negative connotation of the term. In a act rich in consequences for subsequent historical dictionary, the Tommaseo-Bellini, moral evaluations of the reader by the 1861, retrieved from www.tommaseobellini. it, the lemma “ambizioso” contains the ob- public. The link between fashion and mor- servation that the term can have a positive al values is constant and also consistent, meaning, but only “abusivamente” “in an whether embedded in a secular morality, abusive manner” (ad vocem). as is Gioja’s utilitarianism, or a mainly re- Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 301 ligious one, typical of later texts. This ex- tainability is predominantly justified with plains why so many sources disagree with values relating to self-transcendence as the proverb “the habit does not make the altruism, empathy, compassion. In terms monk” and suggest a version without the of Schwartz et al.’s (2012) classification of negation. As a result, we have been able to basic human values, the nineteenth-cen- reconstruct a rather homogeneous body tury fashion values are considered person- of rules and values. The biggest differ- al values, they are ego-centered, while the ence we found was between rules regard- values involved in slow fashion are part of ing the morning ritual and the remaining social, other-centered, values. rules: personal hygiene and the use of well Although we took great care to only laundered clothes are presented in an ab- work with sources that enjoyed several re- solute way, as the degree of one’s outer prints (Gioja and Chiavarino are true best- cleanliness is considered a gauging rod to sellers, with respectively 46 and 10 editions measure one’s overall purity and candour: up until 1920),18 it is true that the moral- more external purity means more internal izing discourse on fashion is directed at a purity. The remaining rules, whether for very specific segment of the population, body adornment, dress choice and fashion the lower middle class. Overall, the mid- are defined in a relative way, that is, they dle classes were a small part of the Italian are based on the search for a golden mean population – in 1881, the Italian electorate (indicating modesty, simplicity, common (which excludes the working class but in- sense, seriousness, usefulness) between cludes the nobility) amounts to 2% of the sinful extremes of investing too much population (Meriggi, 1989, p. 171) – and time in one’s public appearance (vanity, therefore arguably this kind of advice can- frivolity) and not enough time (avarice, la- not be generalized to all layers of society. ziness). The right dress choice is deemed It is true that conduct books were used in to be the one that is appropriate to one’s schools, which had a very mixed public, social condition, but also age, gender, pro- but many of the poorest children, espe- fession, time and place… The right time cially in southern and rural areas, were not to copy a fashion trend is when the over- sent to school. all majority has started to follow it. How- ever, the edifying arguments are closely linked to socio-economic concerns: the 6 Further research recommendations to use abundant water and soap can be explained by the fact that To overcome this limitation of the study, it these are cheap measures, which can go a could prove useful to make a comparison long way to achieve respectability, prove with the fashion discourse in the etiquette diligence in the poor and mark them out genre, which makes a successful appear- as deserving. Vice versa, ignoring your ance in the Belle époque and addresses appearance can lead to an evaluation of a different segment of the population. laziness, whereas excessive spending and Such a comparison would a) help to fully frivolity is banned in the context of hun- appreciate the unique moral “coding” of ger, debt and financial ruin. Both negative fashion in conduct books, but b) it would extremes lead to poverty. The positive val- also shed light on the gradual erosion of a ues such as diligence and parsimony show moral discourse on fashion, as many eti- that fashion morality is seen as a means to quette books claim to be dealing with con- self-improvement and a way to avoid pov- ventions and not values. Unlike conduct erty for the petty bourgeoisie. The fashion books, etiquette books are fully commer- industry, as discussed in Gioja and Cajmi, cial enterprises addressing the women of receives the same positive evaluation: it the established bourgeoisie and the lower creates jobs and helps people to avoid aristocracy. The precepts centre around poverty. In respect to nowadays discussion the figure of the lady, who engages in an on slow fashion, this is an interesting and 18 However, Chiavarino’s conduct book was in clearly distinct find, as the need for sus- print until 1960. 302 Paternoster & Saltamacchia / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 287–306 active social life typical of high society: gala the bourgeois in Sunday best is stripped dinners, tennis luncheons, garden parties from respectability: he does not know how at court, to name but a few. Importantly, to choose a proper outfit because his sta- the structure of the regulation is changing: tus as nouveau riche causes him to over- general rules are lacking as these recurrent do it (indomenicato has indeed a negative contexts are treated as scenarios, with very connotation of pomposity).19 specific rules covering every tiny step of With etiquette books, the social range the script: etiquette is treated as un ceri- of the reference public is changing quite moniale di convenzione “a ceremonial of dramatically and so is the type of regula- conventions,” a fixed set of pre-negotiat- tion, which is starting to evolve away from ed rules. The explicit connection between justifications rooted in moral values. Et- rules and values is often lacking: mainly iquette books, popular on both sides of rules have to be followed simply because the Atlantic, could prove a valuable link in they represent common usage. studying the transformation from histor- The same orientation applies to fash- ical fashion morality to fashion freedom, ion. Advice on fashion is plentiful: it fol- bearing in mind that our own recent his- lows the different stages of a woman’s life tory, has seen the reverse, the reintroduc- and, within those stages, it depends on the tion of fashion morality. In this context, we activity she is doing: high society mem- hope that our discussion of moral values bers change clothes several times a day. can contribute to the study of values in- A context where rules are particularly co- volved in the debate on “ethical” fashion. pious is mourning wear: etiquette books offer lengthy advice on which fabrics, colours and jewels are suitable for full and References half-mourning. Similarly, instructions for the bridal trousseau and for wedding wear Allen, P., Neil, B., & Mayer, W. (2009). Preaching are always very detailed. The main justifi- Poverty in Late Antiquity: Perception and cation for this bonanza of fashion advice is Realities. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsan- to be found, not as much in moral values stalt. (although they are not completely disap- Almassi H. (2018, April 26). What does modest pearing), but rather in concerns for social fashion really look like? Retreived from distinction: the lady’s clothes are truly a https://www.whowhatwear.co.uk/mod- status symbol (on values in Italian eti- est-fashion. quette books, see Paternoster, 2019). She Anonymous (1847). Petit cours de politesse à advertises her husband’s social status and l’usage des pensions de demoiselles (4e éd. wealth and it is important she never looks rev. avec soin et augm.). 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Acknowledgments

The authors’ research has been carried out within the project The reasons for politeness. The birth of contemporary politeness in the behavioural treatises of 19th century Italy, funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), project no. 100012_153031. A heartfelt thank you to Eugenia Paulicelli (CUNY) and to the anonymous reviewers who made numerous insightful comments on the paper. Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324

European luxury fashion brand advertising and marketing relating to nostalgia

Pelin Ok, Pompeu Fabra University, Department of Communication [email protected]

Abstract This research seeks to examine how European luxury fashion brands use nostalgia in their advertising and marketing, and the benefits of using nostalgia by analyzing selected adverts from Vogue magazine. The research adopts Narrative Transportation Theory, aims to create a model which develops Van Laer, de Ruyter, Viscanti and Wentzels’ (2014) “Extended Transportation-Imagery Model”, and provides managerial implications. Qualitative content analysis of imagery was conducted to analyze 60 adverts of five luxury fashion brands between 2010–2016. This research offers a different product category to investigate for nostalgia literature: luxury fashion brands’ advertising, a different cultural context: European luxury fashion brands, and examines luxury fashion brand characteristics within the adverts’ narratives by semiotics discipline. Research identifies how nostalgia theme was used in these adverts, provides an understanding among the themes, and adverts’ analysis in terms of luxury brand characteristics, narrative, and semiotics.

Keywords Luxury fashion advertising, luxury brand characteristics, nostalgia, brand heritage, emotional branding, semiotics, narrative transportation theory

1 Introduction content, and techniques, which are more concerned with the aesthetics, tonality, The luxury market usually associated with and narrative (Flueckiger, 2009). Common exclusivity, and privilege which also pro- characteristics of luxury fashion brands vides a lifestyle to the customer, has been are focused on a distinct brand identity: a growing sector over the years; even the country of origin, heritage, and craftsman- global recession is not an obstacle for ship: role of the designer (Hines & Bruce, this market growth which overall exceed- 2007). Thus the difference in advertising ed € 1 trillion in 2016 (Bain & Company, approach of luxury fashion products oc- 2016). Specifically, personal luxury fashion curs as a necessity for representing lux- goods “ballooned to more than € 250 bil- ury products in an appropriate way by lion in 2016, more than tripling over the emphasizing exclusivity, rarity, and brand past 20 years” (Bain & Company, 2016, heritage characteristics (Okonkwo, 2007), p. 5). Advertising of luxury fashion prod- however also focusing on the experience ucts has been crucial for luxury brands by the aim of selling the experience as a since it triggers this market growth by in- lifestyle (Hansen & Wanke, 2011). While creasing brand awareness. luxury advertising represents a lifestyle Fashion advertising in research has experience (Flueckiger, 2009), it also in- been discussed as not a separate section cludes traditional, and cultural symbolic of advertising. However, it is different values (Freire, 2014) which are different, than regular advertising since fashion and specific to each luxury brand gener- advertising includes, and uses specific ated in advertising by using specific types techniques such as shock advertising (An- of nostalgia: personal, historical (Stern, dersson, Hedelin, Nilsson, & Welander, 1992a), or collective (Baker & Kennedy, 2004), and extraordinary and discrepant 1994) as a theme to persuade the custom- images (Phillips & McQuarrie, 2011). Fur- er via reminiscing his/her past. Nostalgia thermore, luxury fashion advertising has generated in advertising invokes familiar-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.007 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 308 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 ity (Van Laer et al., 2014), so that the au- the rationale of conducting this research dience empathizes with the content. This comes from the curiosity, and wish to an- process leads to narrative transportation alyze luxury fashion advertising relating to (Green & Brock, 2000) of the audience nostalgia in great detail which promotes, which results in persuasion of the cus- and triggers luxury fashion market’s suc- tomer. This research seeks to answer the cess. While the research aims to contribute research question: How do European Lux- to narrative transportation, and nostalgia ury Fashion Brands use Nostalgia in their literature in terms of advertising; it also Advertising, and Marketing? Furthermore, draws managerial implications for mar- the research aims to analyze how Europe- keters, and advertisers. an luxury fashion brands use nostalgia as a theme in their advertising and marketing, and to analyze the benefits of using nos- 2 Literature review talgia theme in these adverts. The research has three objectives: firstly, to identify, and 2.1 Luxury brand characteristics analyze various European luxury brands’ There are various core characteristics that advertising relating to nostalgia from a fashion brand must obtain to achieve an Vogue magazine by a content analysis of authentic luxury brand status. Okonkwo imagery. Secondly to create a model which (2007, p. 105) describes these character- develops Van Laer et al.’s (2014) model istics of luxury fashion brands’ anatomy: which is an extended version of Narrative “Innovative, creative, unique products; a Transportation Imagery Model (Green & heritage of craftsmanship; a distinct brand Brock, 2002), and finally to provide man- identity; high visibility; premium pricing; agerial implications beyond the theory for emotional appeal; a global reputation; advertisers, and marketers in terms of pro- consistent delivery of premium quality; ex- moting nostalgia for luxury fashion adver- clusivity in goods production, and tightly tising field. controlled distribution”. These character- Nostalgia research commonly focused istics are crucial for luxury fashion brands on brand advertising of comfort food because they are the source of power, (Stern, 1992a). There is a gap in the nostal- which provide a distinctive brand value gia research in luxury fashion brands’ ad- for the brand, and emotional attachment vertising. Furthermore, the research aims for the customer. Another study relating to to fill the gap in research suggestions: to luxury fashion brands suggests the follow- explore other cultural contexts in terms ing six elements: “Excellent quality, high of nostalgia and heritage, and to research price, scarcity & uniqueness, aesthetics & a brand’s heritage via content analysis polysensuality, ancestral heritage & per- in brand’s advertising (Merchant & Rose, sonal history, and superfluousness as key 2013). Finally, the gap in the research of characteristics” (Dubois et al., 2001, cited Kim, Lloyd, and Cervellon (2016) by ana- in Hines & Bruce, 2007, p. 131). lyzing the luxury brand characteristics in Country of origin “provides a nation- the advertising narratives in depth. Thus, al identity and attitude, associated with this research has an original value since it the brand” (Hines & Bruce, 2007, p. 136). fills the gap in literature by offering a dif- While this distinct national identity en- ferent product category to investigate for ables luxury brands to distinguish its iden- nostalgia literature: luxury fashion brands’ tity among its rivals in the competitive advertising, and from a different cultural luxury fashion market, it also increases context: European luxury fashion brands, brand awareness by attracting custom- and brands which target the European er attention via familiarity of historical market. Furthermore, it aims to analyze background. In addition “association with luxury brand characteristics in further de- a country of origin that has an especially tail. The persuasion power of luxury fash- strong reputation as a source of excel- ion advertising is impressive, and differ- lence in the relevant product category” ent from regular advertising. That is why (Nueno & Quelch, 1998, p. 63), is a sign of Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 309 product quality. Another key characteris- (Oswald, 2010) in fashion advertising in tic: “Heritage of the brand and the history order to increase brand awareness, and associated with its founder and its crafts- target a broader audience. manship are built into the luxury brand” However, luxury fashion brand adver- (Nueno & Quelch, 1998, cited in Hines & tising is more concerned with protecting Bruce, 2007, p. 132). Particularly brand the exclusivity of luxury products (Hines & heritage refers to “a dimension of a brand’s Bruce, 2007), aesthetics, and narrative identity found in its track record, longevi- (Flueckiger, 2009) of the advert, presenting ty, core values, use of symbols and partic- the product in a story since it is not com- ularly in the organizational belief that its pletely product focused, but mainly expe- history is important” (Urde et al., 2007, rience focused. Luxury adverts provide an p. 4). Heritage, and craftsmanship do not abstractness (Hansen & Wanke, 2011), and only tell a story of a luxury brand’s history, “mythical history” (Freire, 2014) of the lux- and guarantees longevity; but also points ury brand to the audience. The aim of sell- out the rarity, and exclusivity of the luxury ing the experience that a consumer might products. Furthermore “the retention of have by possessing the product rather heritage has the ability to create nostalgia than selling the product is crucial for a lux- and credibility for a brand, and is often ury fashion brand to achieve in their ad- correlated to the heritage of the country of vertising approach. origin” (Fionda & Moore, 2009, p. 352). As a “In the luxury domain in recent result of these crucial characteristics: “The years, a certain type of advertisement has luxury fashion brand becomes a lifestyle emerged that relies almost exclusively on statement that permeates across other as- the evocation of pure sensations” (Flueck- pects than apparel” (Hines & Bruce, 2007, iger, 2009, p. 196). Sensations provoke the p. 138). Furthermore, examining these audience to connect, and emphasize with characteristics in luxury fashion advertis- the structure of the adverts. Such structure ing narrative is a subject which requires includes characters, product, plot, back- further investigation because of the lack of ground, narrative, and music which lead research which combines these two areas. to sensations as an outcome. Sensations are supported by “aesthetic features of 2.2 Luxury fashion style such as depth of field, diffusion, co- advertising and marketing lour or light enhance the spectator’s sen- Even though research in advertising is very sorial response” (Flueckiger, 2009, p. 196). broad; research in fashion advertising is Different than fashion advertising, luxury surprisingly narrow, and does not go be- advertising is close to lifestyle advertising yond examining fashion imagery as an since the product, and its functional infor- advertising type which mainly does not in- mation are slightly mentioned. clude text but includes extraordinary, and On the other hand, Hansen, and Wan- discrepant visuals (Phillips & McQuarrie, ke (2011) argue the abstractness of luxu- 2011), has an aim to shock the audience ry. Abstractness in their research refers to with contents such as violence (Andersson both the distance between the non-target et al., 2004), and is shaped through aes- audience, and the luxury product phys- thetical concerns (Wallerstein, 1998). On ically and psychologically. The distance the other hand, fashion imagery’s social between the product, and non-target au- impact on women, and society has been dience occurs physically since “luxury is researched in many perspectives. For in- something inessential but conductive to stance, its impacts such as stereotyping pleasure and comfort or something expen- idealized women (Stokrocki, 1988, cited in sive or hard to obtain” (Houghton Mifflin Phillips and McQuarrie, 2011), including Company, 2000, cited in Hansen & Wanke, thinness: Hunger, and unsmiling models 2011, p. 790). Thus luxury is only obtained associated with looks called heroin chic, by a limited audience, so that the regular and junkie look (Wallerstein, 1998), and customer feels both physically, and psy- representation of alternative sexualities chologically distanced from the world of 310 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 luxury. The research also points out that style. “The power of narratives to change “advertisers tend to use more abstract beliefs has never been doubted and has al- language when they describe their luxury ways been feared” (Green and Brock, 2000, products” (Hansen & Wanke, 2011, p. 794). p. 701). For a narrative to be powerful it is Since the product representation includes important to be able to transport the cus- exclusivity, rarity, and a premium priced tomer via empathy, and imagination. Nar- luxury product, the language also reflects rative transportation theory constitutes these characteristics. While luxury adver- the core of this research. Gerrig (1993) tising represents a lifestyle experience; described transportation as an experience it also includes traditional, and cultural which a traveler (a metaphor for a read- values which are different, and specific to er), moves away from his world of origin each luxury brand. “Luxury advertising is by the experience of reading (travel), and particularly image-dependent and vehicle this experience changes the traveler. Al- their messages by interpreting represen- though Gerrig’s research correctly iden- tations and cultural symbols supposed to tifies transportation, it fails to consider be known by the consumer” (Freire, 2014, consequences, and components of this ex- p. 2668). Therefore, emphasizing, and rep- perience. However later Green and Brock resenting roots, and historical values of (2000), further developed Gerrig’s descrip- these brands via advertising is crucial as a tion of narrative transportation; defining message. Adopting symbols within the adit as a convergent mental process which verts serves for this purpose. might occur as a result of both fictional or non-fictional narratives. By focusing, 2.3 Semiotics transportation causes the reader to lose Semiotics discipline enables this research information of real world, and changes the to make solid comments on symbols, and reader’s beliefs & attitudes based on the cultural references located in the adverts. narrative as consequences. Transportation “Semiotics is a discipline that provides a makes the persuasion possible by reduc- structure for studying and analyzing how ing cognitive responding since it decreas- signs function within a particular en- es counterarguments, negative thoughts, vironment” (Zakia & Nadin, 1987, p. 5). and makes the narrative look like a real life Within a structure provided by semiotics, experience. Green and Brock (2000) estab- commentary on the signs gains value. Ac- lished that transportation can be achieved cording to the first semiotician Ferdinand by not only reading but also by listening, de Saussure, signs had 2 elements in their and viewing the content without a written structure: the signifier, and the signified. material, while Escalas (2007) also argues The signifier refers to the part of commu- that narrative transportation is possible nication which carries the message, and via adverts if the adverts lead the customer the signified refers to which is communi- to construct a narrative. Thus it explains cated by the signifier (Hall, 2012). Fashion, the transportation power of fashion adver- and luxury fashion advertising frequently tising which do not have texts. adopt semiotics since they use various Phillips and McQuarrie (2010) identi- symbols. Especially luxury fashion adver- fy how the grotesque imagery can provide tising which is more concerned with the narrative transportation to the customer. narrative (Flueckiger, 2009), having an ab- The authors outline five modes of engage- stract representation (Hansen & Wanke, ment which make persuasion possible. 2011), representing brands’ heritage, and Even though their research connects fash- mythical history (Freire, 2014). ion advertising to narrative transportation in grotesque imagery; it fails to consider 2.4 Narrative transportation luxury fashion brands’ anatomy, and char- Narrative in advertising is crucial for a lux- acteristics. Van Laer, De Ruyet, Visconti & ury brand. It is not only a way to introduce Wetzels (2014) provide an extended ver- their product but also a way to express the sion of narrative transportation theory brand’s identity, culture, heritage and life- by developing a model about its anteced- Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 311 ents, and consequences. Lastly, Kim et al. to “bittersweet yearning for the past which (2016) introduced luxury fashion branding represents a culture, a generation, or a na- to narrative transportation by researching tion” (Baker & Kennedy, 1994, p. 171). Even narrative-transportation storylines in lux- though nostalgia has been increasingly ury brand advertising, focusing on themes used as a theme in advertising and mar- which emerged from their interviewees’ keting; research of nostalgia’s impacts on descriptions. However, further research in advertising is limited and relatively new. this area is necessary, since their research Havlena and Holak (1991, 1998) as well as is limited to the themes they identified, Stern (1992a, 1992b) are the first authors and it does not offer an insight into the who focused on nostalgia from a market- characteristics of luxury brands. er, and advertiser’s perspective rather than nostalgia research in psychology (Daniels, 2.5 Nostalgia 1985), and sociology (Davis, 1979) fields. Nostalgia used in advertising stimulates Stern (1992a) identified benefits of empathy with the customer via his past, using personal, and historical nostalgia and the customer experiences narrative in advertising separately since they are transportation by the nostalgic advertis- appropriate for certain products from dif- ing narrative. “Marketers can promote a ferent categories. The author claims that brand’s heritage by evoking the brand’s personal nostalgia is more useful for “co- history and/or a brand’s origins through cooning or nesting products that are so- vicarious nostalgia based advertising” cially inconspicuous, but that provide the (Merchant & Rose, 2013, p. 2624). There- benefit of comfortability” (Stern, 1992a, fore; narrative transportation, brand her- p. 19). For instance: comfort food. Since itage, and nostalgia theme in the adverts’ these products speak to target audience’s narratives are linked together to persuade self-concept and is associated with their the customer. past: childhood, and home. However his- Nostalgia is a yearning for yesterday torical nostalgia suits representation of (Davis, 1979). “A sentimental or bitter- products which are more concerned with sweet yearning for an experience, product, “status claims, and appeals to the con- or service from the past” (Baker &Kenne- sumer’s ideal social self-concept” (Stern, dy, 1994, p. 169). Marketing, and adver- 1992a, p. 19). Whereas Stern overlooked tising practices have started to include nostalgia’s emotional impacts as a conse- nostalgic themes increasingly in adverts quence of advertising, Havlena and Holak since the 90’s, therefore it is a relatively (1991) focused on benefits of nostalgia in new application. Stern (1992a), identifies advertising in terms of evoking positive two types of nostalgia: personal, and his- emotions related to the customer’s past. torical. Personal nostalgia refers to ideal- “Advertising for products may consciously izing “the personally remembered past” evoke past associations and memories or (Stern, 1992a, p. 16) while historical nos- create or recall positive affective respons- talgia refers to desire for returning to a es” (Havlena & Holak, 1991, p. 325). It is time in the past before the audience was crucial for a nostalgia themed advertising born. This is supported, and further devel- to be able to filter negative thoughts that oped by Baker and Kennedy (1994) who a costumer might possibly have about identified three types of nostalgia: real, his/her past. The authors identified three stimulated, and collective. Real nostalgia possible cases which might occur: having is similar to personal nostalgia, its stimuli neutral, negative or positive memories, can evoke vivid memories since it is expe- and emotions about the past. rience based. Stimulated nostalgia which Merchant and Rose (2013), provide is similar to historical nostalgia, refers to knowledge about the effects of historical “yearning for the indirectly experienced nostalgia in advertising on brand heri- past” (Baker & Kennedy, 1994, p. 171). Fi- tage. Research reveals “the relationship nally, collective nostalgia which is a con- between nostalgia proneness, and brand tribution to Stern’s categorization, refers heritage highlights the importance of ef- 312 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 fective advertisements in creating and agery Model (Green & Brock, 2002), estab- enhancing brand heritage and deepening lished by Van Laer et al. (2014) was used brand attachment” (Merchant & Rose, as a model to follow since the advanced 2013, p. 2624). Further research sugges- model provides specific antecedents, and tions offer exploring other cultural con- consequences of narrative transportation texts in terms of heritage, and nostalgia via in great detail from both the storyteller’s, content analysis (Merchant & Rose, 2013). and story-receiver’s perspective. The au- Research for nostalgia in advertising, and thors confirmed by their research that marketing is limited, and open to further these antecedents affect, and increase investigation especially in different prod- narrative transportation. As consequenc- uct areas, and brand categories. There is es; audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and pur- a gap in the nostalgia research in luxury chase intentions change since narrative fashion advertising which requires further transportation increases affective respons- research since heritage, and origins of lux- es, and decreases cognitive responses and ury fashion brands are important charac- critical thoughts (Van Laer et al., 2014). teristics; emphasizing brand heritage via The research focuses on the storyteller advertising with nostalgia theme is cru- components. cial for a distinctive luxury brand identity. As seen in Figure 1, storyteller anteced- Therefore, consistent with the further re- ents are identifiable characters, imagin- search suggestions, this research aims to able plot, and verisimilitude. “Identifiable investigate European luxury fashion brand characters affect narrative transportation advertising relating to nostalgia, and how because story receivers vicariously experi- these brands use nostalgia theme in their ence characters’ beliefs and emotions, em- marketing, and advertising. pathize with them, and become engrossed in the story” (Slater & Rouner, 2002, cited in Van Laer et al., 2014, p. 802). Imagin- 3 Methodology able plot makes narrative transportation possible since “stories resemble real-life 3.1 Research question experiences” (Green, 2006, cited in Van Laer et al., 2014, p. 802). Finally, verisi- How do European Luxury Fashion Brands use militude refers to lifelikeness of the story Nostalgia in their Advertising, and Marketing? which persuades audience that the story has a possibility to occur in real life. These storyteller components were examined as 3.2 Philosophy themes by a content analysis of imagery in The research adopts social constructivism luxury fashion adverts relating to nostal- philosophy which is a worldview where gia. Because identifiable characters whom “individuals seek understanding of the the receiver can empathize with; imagin- world in which they live and work” (Cre- able plot which also proposes a lifestyle swell, 2014, p. 8). The reason for adopting to the receiver; and verisimilitude are the social constructivism is that this philoso- themes which the receiver can empathize phy enables the researcher to develop sub- with by reminiscing his/her past, and can jective, and multiple meanings from their be found in nostalgia related advertising. experiences (Creswell, 2014). Familiarity story receiver antecedent was also mentioned in this research, since it 3.3 Theoretical framework refers to “the degree to which a story re- Narrative Transportation Theory, con- ceiver has prior knowledge about or per- stitutes the core of this research which sonal experience with the story topic or provides a framework in order to under- genre” (Green, 2004, cited in Van Laer, stand, and investigate the narratives of 2014, p. 803). Nostalgia provokes famil- the selected luxury fashion advertising iarity which leads to narrative transporta- relating to nostalgia. Accordingly, an ex- tion of the receiver. Provoked nostalgia in tended version of the Transportation-Im- this case of familiarity might be personal, Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 313

Figure 1: Extended Transportation-Imagery Model

Storyteller –Identifiable characters –Imaginable plot –Verisimilitude Consequences –Affective response Story-receiver –Critical thought Narrative –Narrative thought Transportation –Belief –Attitude –Intention Story-receiver –Familiarity –Attention –Transportability –Age Measurement scale –Education –Sex

Adapted from Van Laer et al., 2014, p. 801 historical, or collective. Nostalgia type de- verts. A table for each advert was made pends on the receiver’s past experience, which was inspired by Roland Barthes’ and triggers familiarity. (1964) Signifier and Signified Tableand semiotics table of Freire (2014) in terms of 3.4 Research method: content analysis structure. Definition of content analysis has been Sample: For the qualitative content changed over the history since the devel- analysis of imagery, 60 print adverts from opment process goes on. According to Italian Vogue between 2010–2016 were Holsti (1969), content analysis is a tech- examined. The adverts of 5 luxury fash- nique, which enables making inferences ion brands targeting the European market by identifying specific characters of mes- were analyzed. Dolce & Gabbana, Gucci, sages objectively and systematically. Holsti Louis Vuitton, Chanel, and Tommy Hilfiger (1965), groups 15 uses of content analysis brands were chosen; because their adverts into three main categories. The category: are located in the first main pages of Vogue “To describe trends in communication magazines, and they use nostalgia as a content” is chosen. This category helps theme in their advertising the most since investigating the differences, and simi- these brands have a strong brand heritage. larities among the findings; since content analysis is a useful technique for analyzing trends, and patterns within the text. The 4 Findings analysis was done in 2016, and to ensure cross-coder reliability; the results, and This research used content analysis of themes were crosschecked with a super- imagery to identify nostalgia in Europe- visor, and a group session activity in class. an luxury fashion brands’ adverts. Firstly, descriptions of images were made; key 3.4.1 Semiotics themes, and words were formed as nodes Research adopts semiotics discipline to in content analysis. Secondly, the software analyze 20 luxury fashion adverts with NVIVO was adopted to import the adverts, prominent symbols out of 60 selected ad- highlight, and code the adverts’ descrip- 314 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 tions. NVIVO is an advanced qualitative Table 1: Final key themes and words research software which enables the user to import, and analyze documents, im- Final key themes Final key words: (Categories) for each key theme ages, and audios according to themes via Nostalgia Experience coding (Qrinternational, 2015). The high- Memories lighted content from the descriptions were Old analyzed. The results were examined to Vivid understand nostalgia’s use, and benefits Past in luxury fashion advertising. Vogue was Birth used for this purpose since the magazine Vintage is published internationally, has a high Antiques circulation rate, and reputation for adver- Bitter-sweet Home-sick tising various prestigious luxury brands Souvenir over the history (Conde Nast, 2016). Vogue Culture National Food issues (72 issues) were examined to choose Music desired nostalgia related adverts. Luxury Tradition Origin fashion adverts from selected issues be- Home tween 2010–2016 were scanned, and im- Family ported. Two adverts per brand, and year. Dinner 60 adverts in total were examined to en- Children Movie reference sure parity. The reason for this timeframe History Historical Buildings is the increase observed in the use of nos- Events talgia theme in luxury fashion advertising Ceremony in this period. To discover the trends in the Childhood Celebration communication content, the descriptions Historical of the scanned 60 adverts were coded ac- Heritage Personality cording to the key themes and words. Text Longevity Search Query, and Word Frequency Query Rarity Craftsmanship features were used by searching the se- Lifestyle Travel lected words among the initial analysis Escape data. Key themes, and words were select- Youth ed again for the text search query option. Holidays Friends Accordingly, the most frequently used key Exclusivity themes, and words related to nostalgia for Freedom each luxury fashion brand were found. College (University) Afterwards, a new version of major key Fantasy Dreams Exotic themes, and words were revealed (See Ta- Empathy ble 1). The reason for narrowing down the Aesthetics Symbols number was to maintain the focus of this Abstractness research: nostalgia. Verisimilitude (Life-Likeness) 4.1 Analysis of adverts 4.1.1 Louis Vuitton adverts The main themes are travel, freedom, and a desert background. For 2012-December escape. The models represent youth, nat- advert (Vogue.es, 2012) is a red hot air bal- ural beauty; their attitudes are fearless, loon, and Louvre Museum. Another com- and adventurous. However, the themes mon point is Louis Vuitton garments, bags, mentioned are represented by different and suitcases located in these adverts. symbols. In 2012-September advert (Ta- They represent heritage quality, crafts- ble 2) (See Wwd.com, 2012) the symbol manship, exclusivity, and brand history as which represents travel, escape, and free- luxury brand characteristics. Their sym- dom is “an old train”; for 2014-April ad- bolic meaning is that they provide a “sup- vert (Buro247.me, 2014): a safari car, and port mechanism” for the models in their Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 315

Table 2: LV advertisement 2012 september

Personage/Object Symbolic Meaning Icon’s contribution to luxury Icon’s contribution to (Icon/Signifier) (Signified) and Narrative brand characteristics Nostalgia Literature

Young Models Youth, beauty, fearless, Beauty, brand identity, rebellious Youth, dreams, abstractness adventurous, freedom Louis Vuitton Bags Travel, holidays Authenticity, quality, innovation, Traveling: Escaping from the heritage, craftsmanship present to the past, home-sick Old Train Background Travel, escape, freedom, Brand history, origins, roots, Nostalgic, antiques, old nostalgic, timeless, historical lifestyle journey, and adventure. These symbols, house as a background. It is a symbol for and themes make the narrative stronger, home, unity, and tradition. This symbol and abstract. Furthermore, they contribute represents brand heritage, and history as to nostalgia literature since they represent luxury brand characteristics; unity, tradi- travel, which is an escape from the present tion, and home-sick memories as nostal- life. The reason for that could be longing gia literature contributions. The models for, and missing one’s past, and old memo- are in traditionally designed lace clothes ries. Nostalgic, vintage inspired garments, which represent brand heritage, origins: and suitcases; backgrounds such as an old Sicily, and craftsmanship. There is a little train, and Louvre Museum (2012-Decem- boy who is a symbol for childhood, inno- ber) in these adverts are other evidences cence, and freedom. It can be interpreted for valuing the past. Such backgrounds, as innovation as a luxury brand character- especially Louvre Museum are historical, istic; future, and freedom as contributions and cultural references which represent to nostalgia literature. The “white bow” the past, and origins of the luxury brand. which is on the little boy’s suit is a symbol for the event: “first communion” It rep- 4.1.2 Dolce & Gabbana adverts resents the respect for Italian traditions, The main themes are family, home, Ital- and culture as contributions to nostalgia ian tradition, and culture. The models literature; brand’s roots, and culture as lux- represent natural beauty, traditional Ital- ury brand characteristics. ian women, and confidence. For the advert 2010-September (Porcelainista.net, 4.1.3 Chanel adverts 2014) the model (Madonna) represents a The common themes are nostalgia, histo- traditional Italian mother. She is in D&G ry, and freedom. Adverts represent the Pa- garments which have a traditional Italian risian lifestyle from different time frames. style. They represent brand heritage, ori- Models represent youth, freedom, con- gin, and craftsmanship. The background fidence, and iconic Parisian beauty and is a traditional Italian family house which style. They are in iconic Chanel garments has nostalgic decoration inspired by which emphasize brand identity, heritage, D&G’s origin: Sicily. The baby is a symbol and craftsmanship. The advert: 2015-Feb- for childhood, innocence, and family that ruary (Conversationsabouther.net, 2014) represents innovation as a luxury brand takes place in front of the iconic Parisian characteristic; family, future, and birth as café: Café de Flore. This café is a symbol nostalgia contributions. The representa- for the classical Parisian café culture, and tion of an Italian woman who is bonded lifestyle. It represents brand history, and to her family, and traditions becomes a Parisian roots as luxury brand characteris- powerful narrative, and represents a tra- tics. The bag in the advert is a symbol for ditional Italian lifestyle which is nostalgic escaping, and traveling. It represents es- since it is different from today’s Italian life- caping from the present, going back home, style. In the 2012-January advert (Table 3) and being home-sick as contributions to (Yatzer.com, 2011), there is a crowded Ital- nostalgia literature. ian family in front of a traditional Italian 316 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324

Table 3: D&G advertisement 2012 january

Personage/Object Symbolic Meaning Icon’s contribution Icon’s contribution (Icon/Signifier) (Signified) and Narrative to luxury brand to Nostalgia Literature characteristics Young Models Youth, traditional beauty Youth, traditional beauty, Youth, freedom, life-like perfection Walk-on: Family Family, home, unity, tradition, Brand history, heritage, Unity, home, home-sick, family gathering (for church) origins, roots tradition, memories Little Boy Childhood, innocence, Innovation, future, freedom Home, family, childhood, future freedom, future White Bow (on little boy) Church event: First Communion Respect for traditions, Tradition, culture, respect and brand’s roots: Italy D&G Garments Traditional Italian style, origins Brand heritage, craftsmanship, Heritage, personality history, brand identity Italian House Background Family, home, unity, culture, Brand history, origins, roots, Tradition, culture, family, Italian tradition and lifestyle Italian lifestyle home-sick, memories

Table 4: Chanel advertisement 2012 november

Personage/Object Symbolic Meaning Icon’s contribution Icon’s contribution to Nostalgia (Icon/Signifier) (Signified) and Narrative to luxury brand Literature characteristics Young Model Youth, freedom, confidence, Brand identity, beauty, Youth, dreams, abstractness, past fearless, beautiful, nostalgic personality, rarity 18th Century Costume A reference to the 18th Century Authentic, longevity, brand Old, antiques, vintage, history, in Paris identity, brand origins, crafts Tradition manship, exclusivity Chanel Suit-Jacket Nostalgic, vintage, old, iconic, Tradition, craftsmanship, Vintage, old, past, antiques, antiques, reminds of Coco Chanel heritage, longevity, brand identity, heritage the designer rarity, personality Palace Background Historical, reference, origins, Brand origins, brand history, Historical, old, past, abstractness Parisian heritage, roots, longevity

Table 5: Gucci advertisement 2012 october

Personage/Object Symbolic Meaning Icon’s contribution Icon’s contribution to Nostalgia (Icon/Signifier) (Signified) and Narrative to luxury brand Literature characteristics Young Model Youth, natural beauty Brand identity, beauty, Youth, freedom, life-like personality Gucci Horsebit Loafers Recreation of Gucci Horsebit Brand history, heritage, Vintage, Antiques, past Loafers from 1953 craftsmanship Record Player and Records Vintage, antiques, old, Brand history, longevity, Vintage, Antiques, memories memories, souvenir personality Home Background Family, home, unity Family lifestyle, comfort Family, going back home, home-sick, memories

The advert: 2012-November (Table 4) ground, and costumes provide contribu- (tatajazzblog.blogspot.com, 2012) has a tions to nostalgia literature since they are palace background. The 18th Century in inspired from the past, and the French spired costume of the model, and the heritage historically. background with antique possessions, represent the 18th Century in Paris. This 4.1.4 Gucci Adverts era is important for the narrative since it The advert 2015-July (Businessoffashion. emphasizes the brand’s origins. The back- com, 2015) has travel, and escape themes. Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 317

The subway is a symbol for escaping from Furthermore, in Gucci, and Louis Vuit- the present, and for freedom which are ton adverts; craftsmanship, and product nostalgia contributions. The bag, and quality especially in terms of leather prod- shoes are prominent; they represent brand ucts were strongly emphasized within the heritage, and craftsmanship. narrative. Since leather products are the The advert: 2012-October (Table 5) iconic products for both of the brands, (Pinkfishmedia.net, 2012) has home, and and for Louis Vuitton leather travel-goods family themes. The model is in a family were its starting point-origin. Therefore, house which represents family, and unity. the research agrees with “association with There are vintage records, and a record a country of origin that has an especially player in the background. They represent strong reputation as a source of excellence history, and memories as nostalgia con- in the relevant product category” (Nue- tributions; longevity, and brand history as no & Quelch, 1998, p.63). It can be inter- luxury characteristics. The model is in Gu- preted as the respect to the brand’s country cci Horsebit Loafers which are recreations of origin. Heritage was the most important of the original shoes from 1953. They rep- characteristic among them since it was resent heritage, craftsmanship, and brand frequently used to represent the brand’s history. history. Exclusivity by representing an exclusive lifestyle, and rarity by providing 4.1.5 Tommy Hilfiger adverts rare luxury products were emphasized The advert: 2011-December (Cdn.style- commonly as seen in Louis Vuitton, and frizz.com, 2011) has family, and holidays Chanel adverts. Also quality of the product themes. The models in festive Tommy Hil- was strongly emphasized. Furthermore, figer garments represent youth, and free- youth was one of the most frequently used dom. They have a carefree, and exclusive words to describe the models, and chil- lifestyle. There is an old male model who dren. It can be interpreted as innovation: is the father of the family. He represents innovative designs of these brands. guidance to the youth, the past, and unity Common points of research in luxu- as nostalgia contributions. There are also ry fashion characteristics were a distinct children who represent innocence, and brand identity, country of origin, heritage future; innovation as luxury brand char- and craftsmanship (Hines & Bruce, 2007). acteristics, and future and childhood as Furthermore, as Fionda, and Moore (2009) nostalgia contributions. There is a house identified heritage characteristic has the background which is decorated for Christ- ability to create nostalgia, and credibility mas. It represents family, home, holidays, for the brand; and it is correlated to the and unity as nostalgia contributions. brand’s country of origin. It is also found in this research since heritage, nostalgia, and country of origin characteristics were 5 Discussion inseparable in these adverts. According to Urde et al. (2007), brand heritage refers to 5.1 Representation of luxury core values, use of symbols, and brand his- brand characteristics tory which is evident in the findings of this Luxury brand characteristics: Heritage, research suggesting that heritage char- craftsmanship, exclusivity, rarity, brand acteristic was represented via symbols, identity, brand origin, and longevity were and values which tell a story about brand highlighted in these adverts in the find- history in these adverts. Finally, Kim et al. ings. By the strong narrative, and themes; (2016) introduced luxury fashion brand- brand origin, and heritage and craftsman- ing to narrative transportation by focus- ship characteristics were emphasized by ing on themes which emerged from their representing the brand’s country of origin interviews. Their research was limited to as frequently seen in D&G adverts with these themes. Thus this research fills this the representation of Sicilian inspired gap by analyzing the luxury brand char- lace clothes, and background decoration. acteristics in the advertising narratives in 318 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 depth. According to analysis, luxury brand According to the findings, and analy- characteristics were emphasized via cer- sis: Heritage theme as mentioned in lux- tain symbols embedded within the narra- ury fashion brand characteristics repre- tive of the advertising. The outcome of the sent the brand’s identity, craftsmanship, advertising which is strengthened by vari- longevity, and rarity. Heritage provides an ous luxury brand characteristics provides emotional bond to the brand’s culture, in- a lifestyle to the customer. As a result, the forms, and makes the observer be a part of brand becomes a lifestyle statement for the brand’s history. That is why this theme the observer which makes the brand more was frequently linked to culture, and his- than apparel (Hines & Bruce, 2007). tory themes in these adverts. Culture theme was used to represent customs, and 5.2 Luxury fashion advertising traditions of the brand’s country of origin In the findings, the themes structured as frequently seen in D&G, and Chanel ad- were nostalgia, culture, history, heritage, verts. They emphasize the importance of lifestyle, fantasy, and aesthetics. The life- family bounds, national tastes, and coun- style theme was frequently used in order to try of origin. This theme makes the observ- represent exclusive, and various lifestyles er feel familiar with the content due to his specific for each culture such as Parisian, cultural background, advert’s imaginable and Italian cultures. Travel, holidays, es- plot, and identifiable characters as family, cape, youth, and freedom were other sub so that the luxury brand does not look like themes used in the adverts along the life- a distant, and abstract aspect anymore. style theme. This result is consistent with Furthermore, the theme history educates the suggestion of Flueckiger (2009) related the observer in terms of the brand’s his- to luxury fashion advertising being strong tory, or country of origin’s history via us- in narrative, and presenting the product ing masterpieces as backgrounds such as in a story such as a lifestyle. These themes The Louvre Museum, and Café de Flore in represent a free, adventurous, and exclu- Paris in Louis Vuitton, and Chanel adverts. sive lifestyle to the luxury customers. It can Knowing the history of the brand makes be interpreted as a longing for youth, and the observer feel connected to the brand a carefree lifestyle since the luxury cus- on a personal level. The aesthetics theme tomers might have a busy lifestyle instead. includes the symbols, abstractness, and Thus this research agrees with the refer- the verisimilitude (life-likeness) aspects. ence on the luxury commercials depicting According to these themes, the adverts a form of travel which represents “expe- which included cultural, and nostalgia riences that might have occurred in the themes were more life-like which repre- younger, more adventurous days of a now sent a lifestyle, and imaginable plot to successful audience stuck in conventions” the customer while the rest of the adverts (Flueckiger, 2009, p. 206). Thus emotional had an abstract representation. Symbols connection to the advertising might lead were frequently used in these adverts to to the thought of obtaining a free lifestyle strengthen the narrative, and the themes by purchasing, and being a part of these mentioned; no matter if they were ab- brands. This theme is frequently used in stract, or life-like. According to the analy- Louis Vuitton adverts. Another key theme: sis, symbols have made the narrative more Fantasy was used to represent dreams, and powerful, and provided cultural referenc- empathy that an observer might have. This es. Being concerned with the aesthetics: theme combined with the lifestyle theme Symbols, and narrative have made these provides an exotic, abstract, and a dream- adverts a form of art and presented emo- like world to the audience. Due to these tional content to the customer which leads certain themes which represent abstract- to more powerful emotional branding, and ness, the research partially agrees with the brand loyalty. statement of Hansen and Wanke (2011) As Flueckiger (2009) suggests in lux- which identifies luxury fashion advertising ury domain, the advertisement relies ex- as an abstract type of advertising. clusively on the evocation of pure senses, Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 319 aesthetics, and narrative. This research is place where the childhood memories rein keeping with this as, according to the main. However, in terms of Louis Vuitton findings, aesthetic values such as sym- adverts, the main theme was travel, and bols, representation of important themes escape due to the brand’s travel-goods ori- strengthen the narrative, and also these gin. One desires to travel, or go on holidays aspects rely on evocation of senses. Fur- when he/she needs a break from his pres- thermore, Hansen, and Wanke (2011) state ent lifestyle. This can be also interpreted as that the luxury advertising is abstract due nostalgia since the person wants to travel, to the exclusivity of the products. This re- and escape from his present lifestyle since search partially agrees on this statement the present lifestyle does not satisfy him. because of the certain symbols, and some- Different from the others; Chanel, and times abstract narrative and themes such Gucci adverts adopted nostalgia to repre- as fantasy, found in these adverts. How- sent their brand heritage. Using nostalgia ever certain themes such as culture, and theme for emphasizing heritage is pow- nostalgia provide an emotional connec- erful for the narrative since it structures a tion to the observer due to having a warm, story about the brand’s roots, and history. and welcoming representation which are For Chanel, representation of the country imaginable, and life-like rather than ab- of origin’s history via constructing narra- stract. Therefore, the research also strong- tives inspired from the 18th Century France ly agrees with the statement of Flueckiger was a way to use Nostalgia. Gucci adverts (2009) which suggests luxury advertising focused on vintage Gucci products with presents the product in a story such as nostalgic backgrounds which represented a lifestyle. Finally, different from the re- brand heritage, craftsmanship, and prod- searchers’ opinions; this research states uct quality. that certain themes: Nostalgia, and cul- When the observer experiences the ture might bond the observer emotionally nostalgia themed advertising, the adver- to the content; and the use of aesthetics tising has an emotional impact on him/her makes the adverts a form of art instead of via reminding of his past through the nos- regular informative advertising. talgia theme since the plot is imaginable. The impact depends on the observer’s 5.3 Nostalgia: how luxury fashion brands past, memories, and the degree of familiar- use nostalgia as a theme in their ity he/she has with the nostalgia themed advertising advertising content. Emotional bonding According to the findings, nostalgia theme is a desired outcome for brands via using was frequently used in the selected adverts emotional branding paradigm. “Emotional with the key words: past, vintage, antiques, branding focuses on brand meanings that bitter-sweet, memories, birth, experience, interact with consumer lives and inspire and home-sick. This major theme rep- their passion, lifestyle, memories, and ex- resents a longing for the past. Consistent periences” (Thompson et al., 2006 cited in with the adverts’ analysis, nostalgia theme Akgün et al., 2013, p. 504). As seen in this was frequently used to represent the research; the emotional content used for brand’s country of origin’s traditional life- emphasizing luxury brand characteristics style, as can be seen in D&G adverts em- such as heritage, and themes as nostal- phasizing Sicily. The main emphasize was gia, build an emotional bond between the on traditional Italian women, family, and brand, and observer which helps build- lifestyle. It can be interpreted as a respect ing brand attachment, and brand loyalty. from the brand to its root, a longing for “Emotional branding is a consumer-cen- family, traditions, and traditional Italian tric, relational, and story-driven approach lifestyle. Similar to D&G, Tommy Hilfiger to forging deep and enduring affective adverts adopted nostalgia to represent the bonds between consumers and brands” importance of family, unity, and home. (Roberts, 2004 cited in Thompson et al., One usually feels nostalgic when it is time 2006, p. 50). Due to being a story-driven to go back home for holidays, since it is the approach; narratives, and the degree of 320 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 empathy and familiarity used in the ad- in advertising via content analysis (Mer- vertising content to emotionally affect the chant & Rose, 2013). Because this research observer is crucial. Brands should focus on examined the advertising of luxury fashion telling stories which inspire their costum- brands targeting the European market as ers, and these stories should contain a true a different cultural context via content understanding of the observers’ lifestyle, analysis of imagery. On the other hand, aims, and dreams (Thompson, 2006). Stern (1992a) suggests using nostalgia in Therefore, nostalgia theme also provides advertising is more beneficial for nesting benefits for branding, and marketing via products, and comfort food. However, this strengthening emotional branding. research does not agree on Stern’s general- Stern (1992a) identifies 2 nostalgia ization, since this research fills the gap in types: Personal nostalgia refers to ide- nostalgia literature in terms of luxury fash- alizing the personally remembered past ion brand category by showing that this while historical nostalgia refers to desire field also adopts nostalgia for promoting for returning to a time in the past before brand heritage, and products by also using the audience was born. In the analyzed nostalgia as a theme for reminding of one’s adverts, both nostalgia types can be seen. past, and childhood. Furthermore, Havle- Since some of them represent a closer na, and Holak (1991) suggest that nostal- time in the past as the 70’s, 80’s, 90’s life- gia evokes positive emotions, and filters styles; while some of them represent the negative thoughts related to the observer’s 18th Century, and before the observer was past. This research agrees on this sugges- born. However, this research also agrees tion since the analyzed adverts projected a on the nostalgia definition of Baker & positive representation of the past, and the Kennedy (1994), in which they identified research states that nostalgia is beneficial 3 types of nostalgia. While real, and stim- to build an emotional bond between the ulated are similar to personal, and histori- observer, and brand which is possible by cal nostalgia; collective nostalgia refers to evoking positive memories about the past. “a bittersweet yearning for the past which represents a culture, a generation, or a 5.4 Nostalgia, and narrative nation” (Baker & Kennedy, 1994, p. 171). transportation Because in the analyzed adverts, there are Narrative is one of the most important el- cultural references, and symbols which ements of an advert especially for luxury an observer from a certain cultural back- fashion brands which aim to sell the ex- ground, a generation, or a nation can only perience. According to the analysis; strong feel strongly familiar with. key themes and words related to nostalgia, Furthermore, this research agrees on and symbols are the other core elements the statement: “Marketers can promote which strengthened the narrative. Using a brand’s heritage by evoking the brand’s the theme nostalgia provides many bene- history and/or a brand’s origins through fits to the brand, and some of these ben- vicarious nostalgia based advertising” efits are the outcomes of narrative trans- (Merchant & Rose, 2013, p. 2624). This portation. statement was made for luxury brands; As mentioned; Gerrig (1993), and however according to the analysis, it is Green & Brock (2000) describe transpor- also acceptable for luxury fashion brands tation as an experience which a traveler advertising since the use of heritage, and moves away from his world of origin by nostalgia together is evidenced; and nos- reading a realistic narrative, and this ex- talgia becomes a tool to inform the ob- perience changes the traveler’s beliefs, server about the brand heritage. Thus and attitudes due to losing information this statement fills the gap in Merchant & of the real world. It makes the persuasion Rose’s further research suggestions: to ex- possible by reducing cognitive respond- plore other cultural contexts in terms of ing, and increasing affective thoughts. vicarious (historical) nostalgia and her- Furthermore, Escalas (2007), and Phillip itage, and to research a brand’s heritage & McQuarrie (2010) suggest that narrative Storyteller –Identifiable characters –Imaginable plot Consequences –Verisimilitude Story-receiver –Affective response Narrative –Critical thought Transportation –Narrative thought –Belief Story-receiver –Attitude –Familiarity –Intention –Attention Measurement –Transportability scale Ok–Age / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 321 –Education Figure–Sex 2: Model: Benefits of Using Nostalgia in Luxury Fashion Advertising

Increased familiarity Emotional bond with due to familiar the observer and background strong emotional branding

Nostalgia theme in luxury fashion adverts via Life-like and more Effective and Strong narrative – Symbols powerful narrative persuasive advertising and familiarity – Other supporting themes Narrative transportation: – Less critical thought and counterarguments – More affective Making the Informing the thoughts advertising a form observer in terms of – Change in belief, of art brand’s heritage attitude and intention

Own illustration transportation is possible by observing which demonstrates benefits of using nos- also adverts since they provide necessary talgia in luxury fashion advertising, and elements to construct a plot, and devel- the connection between nostalgia theme, op characters. This research was built on and narrative transportation theory. The their suggestions, and is keeping up with model (Figure 2) starts with: Adopting their work as the adverts’ analysis pro- Nostalgia as a theme in luxury fashion vide strong themes, symbols, and char- advertising by also using symbols, and re acters as necessary elements to construct lated themes. Then it further explains its a strong narrative. This research suggests benefits: Informing the observer about the that using nostalgia theme in luxury fash- brand’s heritage, making the advertising ion advertising makes the narrative stron- a form of art due to the use of aesthetics, ger. Because it provides a vivid - life-like symbols and strong themes, building an (verisimilitude) story by using symbols, emotional bond with the observer on a and strong themes as nostalgia. So that the personal level via imaginable plot, and observer feels familiar with the content identifiable characters; strengthening of the advert which includes “identifiable emotional branding-brand loyalty, in- characters, imaginable plot, and verisimil- creasing familiarity of the observer to con- itude” due to his past memories, and extent due to familiar background related to perience which might happen because of nostalgia theme, and making the narrative personal, historical, or collective nostalgia life-like, and more powerful. In the end; depending on the person’s past experi- the advert narratively transports the cus- ence, cultural background, and age; con- tomer due to its effective narrative, and sistent with Van Laer et al (2014) model. nostalgic content related to the observer’s Therefore, this research uses the “fa- past experiences. Finally, according to nar- miliarity” element from the model of Van rative transportation theory, the observer’s Laer et al (2014) to structure a new model opinions, attitudes, and beliefs could tem- 322 Ok / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 307–324 porarily change about the product due to builds an emotional bond between the less critical, and more affective thoughts. brand and the customer, and strengthens However, the aims of this research were to emotional branding-brand loyalty. Thus show how luxury fashion brands use nos- it also provides benefits for branding, and talgia as a theme in their advertising, and marketing. Therefore, if decreasing the to analyze benefits of using nostalgia rath- psychological distance between the luxu- er than testing narrative transportation ry brand, and the customer is aimed; this theory. Thus this research does not prove theme can be used to increase emotional that narrative transportation happens at branding. Finally, nostalgia theme can be the end of this process, it assumes this last used to make the narrative more power- step: “familiarity” leads to narrative trans- ful, and life-like since it provides a familiar portation based on the model of Van Laer story to the observer. As demonstrated in et al. (2014). Figure 2, the narrative supported by nostalgia theme makes the advertising more effective due to familiarity. Thus it has the 6 Conclusion ability to narratively transport the customer. Narrative transportation of the observ- This research aimed to identify how luxury er results in belief, attitude, and intention fashion brands use nostalgia in their adver- changes. Therefore, if it is used wisely by tising, and marketing. Firstly, the research the industry; nostalgia is a crucial theme analyzed 5 luxury fashion brands’ 60 ad- to make powerful adverts in luxury fashion verts from Italian Vogue by a content anal- advertising. ysis of imagery, and semiotics discipline. This research revealed the importance of 6.2 Limitations and further luxury fashion brand characteristics for a research suggestions luxury fashion brand in the adverts’ narra- This research focused on European ad- tives, identified that nostalgia theme was vertising perspective. 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Girls that wear Abercrombie & Fitch: Reading fashion branding aesthetics into music videos Myles Ethan Lascity, Southern Methodist University [email protected]

Abstract Teen clothier Abercrombie & Fitch’s mix of shirtless associates, nightclub-like stores and risqué photography by Bruce Weber helped propel the brand into icon status. The brand’s name entered the popular lexicon as a synonym for cool and even received a memorable call out in LFO’s pop song, “Summer Girls.” This paper explores the interplay in aesthetics between A &F Quarterly, the brand’s popular magazine-catalog hybrid, and popular music videos of the time. Specifically, this paper analyzes videos that appeared on MTV’s Total Request Live between September 1999 and April 2001. In total, 42 music videos were found to contain elements of the “Abercrombie” lifestyle, including clothing that was sold by the brand, and props and settings similar to those found in the A & F Quarterly. In sum, this suggests that music videos from the time were instrumental in spreading the brand’s aesthetic, and that the interplay between media popular culture and the aesthetics of fashion brands could yield productive future research.

Keywords fashion branding, fashion communication, music videos, mediated popular culture

1 Introduction that once outfitted the likes of Teddy Roo- sevelt and Ernest Hemingway had turned Music videos have been a staple of pop- its attention to teens in 1992 and never ular culture since the launch of MTV in looked back. With CEO Mike Jeffries at the the early 1980s, but, their popularity and helm, the store became a mall phenom- influence waxed and waned over the years enon, selling an aspirational lifestyle to (Arnold, Cookney, Fairclough & Goddard, teens through jeans, T-shirts and flip flops. 2017; Middleton & Beebe, 2007). Starting The chain was not without its detractors: in September 1998, music videos regained parents saw Abercrombie’s racy photos prominence with the launch of Total Re- as sexualizing youth while the company’s quest Live – TRL for short – from its studios hiring and employment practices were overlooking Times Square in New York City. thought to be exclusionary and racist. Still, Screaming fans lined Broadway, interact- the company had remarkable growth fi- ing street side with hosts and waving and nancial growth and cultural influence. flashing signs toward in-studio host Car- The worlds of TRL and Abercrombie son Daly. The show was a mixture of music collided with the 1999 release of LFO’s videos, musical guests and friendly ban- “Summer Girls.” The song became the ter. During its run TRL helped launched group’s first (and biggest) hit, but also be- a slew of pop stars, including ’N Sync, the came a major “song of the summer.” Most Backstreet Boys, Brittany Spears, Christi- importantly, the lyrics name dropped Ab- na Aguilera, 98 Degrees, Jessica Simpson ercrombie & Fitch in its refrain giving the and Mandy Moore. As marketing turned store a boost of publicity. The connection to “cool as hunters” to catch teen trends, between the song and the band was so little was an influential as TRL (Dretzin & extensive that when the retailer ran into Goodman, 2001). trouble in 2016, CNN Money used the At the same time, a teen fashion behe- headline “Summer girls no longer shop moth was being developed in the form of at Abercrombie and Fitch” (La Monica, Abercrombie & Fitch. The fabled retailer 2016). In addition to several mentions of

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.008 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 326 Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 brand, the video looked like something was competing with the likes of CMT, BET that could have been ripped from Aber- and VH-1 (Rich, 2008, p. 81). crombie’s marketing materials. However, Given their popularity, music videos “Summer Girls” was hardly the only video have long been sites of research and theo promoting such a lifestyle; videos across rization (Arnold et al., 2017; Aurfderheid, the TRL spectrum including from artists 1983; Beebe & Middleton, 2007; Frith, like Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera Goodwin, & Grossberg, 1993; Sun & Lull, and 98 Degrees also reflected the Aber- 1983; Railton & Watson, 2011; Vernallis, crombie style. 2004). Generally, the creation of music This paper is a historical analysis that videos is understood as a postmodern un- seeks to highlight the similarities of popu- dertaking due to its fractured storytelling lar music videos that appeared on the U.S. and hyper-reality (Straw, 1993, p. 12), but version of TRL and the imagery presenta- debate continues over the qualitative dif- tion in Abercrombie & Fitch’s marketing. ferences between music videos and other By examining similarities in aesthetics, media. Vernallis suggests that music vid- props, settings and characters, it is possi- eos are a wholly different media form: they ble to see how the same imagery and life- take parts from film and television, but style that was drawn on for LFO’s “Summer should not be understood in through the Girls” was reflected in other music videos same mechanisms researchers and theo- as well. This understanding of intertextu- rists have used for other cultural products ality within popular culture (Fiske, 2011, (Vernallis, 2004, p. 3). Music videos “are pp. 98–101) has been shown in other col- different from its predecessors – film, tele- lections of music videos (De Cuir, 2017; vision, photography – a medium with its Halligan, 2017) and suggests forms and own ways of organizing materials, explor- aesthetics can influence one another. Tak- ing themes and dealt with time” (Vernallis, ing this one step further, this paper traces 2004, p. x). Vernallis notes that music vid- the influence of Abercrombie & Fitch im- eos come from the songs they are created agery through music videos between 1998 for, but meanings come from the “give- and 2001 and suggests that the brand was and-take” of sound and image (Vernallis, part of the cultural zeitgeist at the turn of 2004, p. x). Like other forms of media, mu- the millennium largely due to its outsized sic videos relay on a mixture of narrative, influence within these music videos. video editing, characters, settings, props and sound for its creation (Vernallis, 2004, p. xi–xiii). 2 Music videos to TRL Some recent discussions of the “music video turn,” as Arnold et al. (2017, p. 5) call While music videos gained prominence it, have focused on how digital platforms with the launch of MTV in 1981, their roots like YouTube have altered creation and can be traced back decades earlier. As consumption of videos (Cookney, 2017; Rich (2008) points out animated videos Manghani, 2017). This changing of context such as Looney Tunes and Merrie Melo- brings with it a renewed need for theoriza- dies merged visual art forms with music as tion, and can help shed light on previous early as the 1920s (p. 79). By the 1950s, mu- discussions and times. Both earlier for- sicians were making appearances in films mats like the jukebox film (Herzog, 2007) and TV shows to promote their music – a and contemporary forms of digital videos process that reached a fever pitch with the have helped to separate the MTV channel fictional rock band the Monkees (Rich, from the music video programming which 2008, p. 80). Once launched, MTV’s pop- made it successful (Middleton & Beebe, ularity rose through 1984 before seeing a 2007). Of note for this discussion, is how sharp decline in 1985 due to copycat chan- the channel and context on of music vid- nels (Aurfderheid, 1983, p. 61). Ultimately, eos can mold its influence and consump- MTV continued to grow and reached more tion. Shows like The Ed Sullivan Show and than 52 million households by 1990, and American Bandstand were able to influ- Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 327 ence music consumption and highlight videos’ place as the “Kleenexes of popular particular artists and broadcasting con- culture” (Railton & Watson, 2011, p. 1), but ventions (Coates, 2007). The same can be also due to researchers more sustained said for TRL. interested in representation and embodi- While game shows, comedies and re- ment (Arnold et al., 2017, pp. 91–139; Lewis, ality shows became more prominent on 1993; Mercer, 1993; Railton & Watson, 2011; MTV through the 1990s, TRL’s debut in Vernallis, 2004, pp. 209–235; Wasler, 1993). 1998 brought music videos back to the Still, as Miller points out, “… both spotlight. According to MTV, the show music and fashion marketing are fed by “was one of the first truly interactive tele- a variety of practical and visual interre- vision shows, utilizing the synergy of the lationships in which fashion are style are internet and television to countdown the core to a kind of intertextual taste-sharing top music videos of the day” (MTV, n.d.). between the two industries” (2011, p. 12). The show aired in the afternoon—at 3 Vernallis notes that music videos allow p.m. in the summer and 3:30 p.m. during even more of an emphasis on costume the school year—and boasted ratings 52% and clothing, however, she glosses over the among 12-to-34-year-olds in its first quar- clothing and emphasizes the symbolic na- ter (Heller, 2000). TRL’s peak popularity ture of the garments (2004, pp. 100–104). occurred in 1999 and 2000 when the show There’s no reason to believe that this sym- averaged more than 700,000 viewers. MTV bolism cannot flow in different directions, finally pulled the plug on the show in 2008 especially since the concept of fashion after falling ratings and increase competi- branding emphasizes the cultural context tion from the Internet (Sisario, 2008). surrounding garments (Hancock, 2009a, Following arguments that the medi- pp. 4–5). Miller highlights the intertex- um context is important for understand- tual relationship between music videos ing consumption (Cookney, 2017; Herzog, and particular garments in her analysis of 2007; Middleton & Beebe 2007; Kooijman, Gwen Stefani’s “Rich Girl.” The video drew 2017; Manghani, 2017), it must also be heavily from the fashion advertisements acknowledged that specific shows and of John Galliano and Vivienne Westwood, influence consumption. TRL not only in- and, through the presence of Stefani, pro- fluenced what videos were watched, but moted her own fashion line, L.A.M.B. The helped package them into a program for connections helped to establish the singer consumption. Carson Daly and the rest of as a taster arbiter and L.A.M.B. as a peer the TRL’s hosts used friendly banter, celeb- of Galliano and Westwood (Miller, 2010, rity interviews and fan interaction to cre- pp. 24–25). This is an example of intertex- ate a whole show and thereby helping link tuality where the fragmented elements of the videos together. fashion branding and fragmented storytelling of music videos overlaps to influence both products. 3 Fashion and storytelling in music videos 4 Methods As noted above, music videos have a unique way of dealing with a host of sto- Acknowledging the intertextuality within rytelling dimensions, including costume videos, it is possible to imagine how the and, as such, fashion. Various works inter- brand image of Abercrombie & Fitch could rogate fashion as part of film (Gaines, 2000; get tied up with popular music videos at Munich, 2011; Uhlirova, 2013), television the height of its popularity. Notable for this (Bruzzi & Church Gibson, 2004; Warner, analysis is the mention of Abercrombie & 2014) and even music (Miller, 2011), but Fitch in the LFO song, “Summer Girls.” the relationship between fashion and mu- Assuming that sight and sound does in- sic video has not received as much sus- tertwine in this video (Dickinson, 2007), it tained attention. This may be due to music can be presumed the reference had a clear 328 Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 influence on the brand’s image. Further leadership the brand flourished. In 1997, if, as De Cuir (2017) has noted, aesthetics Abercrombie & Fitch launched its maga- and ideology from one video can influence zine-catalog hybrid (also known as a ma- others, and if repeated imagery across galog), A&F Quarterly, which featured the music videos can create particular con- erotic photography of Bruce Weber along sumption lifestyles (Halligan, 2017), then with a variety of written articles and fea- it is possible to see elements from “Sum- tures. mer Girls” reflected throughout the music A&F Quarterly buttressed the compa- landscape. ny’s experiential branding efforts, which As such, the following pages are a close included darkening the sales floor, playing reading of popular music videos from music at club levels and employing good the turn of the millennium that link their looking young people in their stores (Gold- aesthetic qualities with Abercrombie & stein, 2000). As Hancock (2009b) notes, Fitch’s brand image. This paper first sets Abercrombie was successful at selling a out Abercrombie & Fitch’s brand image as hypermasculinized image through its use theorized by researchers and the popular of homoeroticism and sex scenes (pp. 69– press during this time period before con- 71). In store, this included the employment ducting three different analyses to explore of shirtless, male greeters accompanied by the pervasiveness of the brand image with- female assistants to blunt overt homosex- in music videos. First, the Abercrombie & ual tones (Hancock, 2009a, p. 100). While Fitch image is explored within the “Sum- the greeters brought Weber’s imagery to mer Girls” video, as it directly mentioned life, the magalog went further to create the brand. Then, two different analyses are what journalist Stacy Perman called, a made with other popular music videos of “Technicolor teen lifestyle” (2000). the time. First, individual music videos are And, truly, A&F Quarterly offered ad- analyzed for similar themes of the brand’s vice for every facet of life. Being released marketing; then, specific elements of the quarterly, the magalog updated this life- brand – both clothing and settings – are style for Spring Break, Summer, Back-to- explored in various music videos. These School and Christmas. Among the articles videos selected and used within the anal- offered by in the magalog, readers could ysis appeared on TRL between Sept. 1998 get drink recipes, sex tips, travel advice, ce- and April 2001, according to an unofficial lebrity interviews and even philosophical database kept on atrl (atrl, n. d.), and were discussions. While many brands attempt analyzed in October 2016. In total, there to sell a “lifestyle,” (Saviolo & Marazza, were 42 songs that appeared on the count- 2013, pp. 48–49). Abercrombie & Fitch down fit some elements of the Abercrom- marketed a completely fictional, yet highly bie aesthetic, whether through settings, desirable, lifestyle through its marketing props or costuming. The videos detailed communications in a manner that had not below were chosen because they offer the be matched. Under Jeffries, Abercrombie’s most salient examples of this interplay. profits increased for a decade and only fell after the 2001 recession, during which the CEO bucked conventional wisdom and re- 5 Abercrombie & Fitch style fused to lower prices. While there would be some positive turns in the years after, the At the same time that MTV was enjoy- 2008 recession also took a toll, although it ing increased prominence due to TRL’s would take until 2014 for Jeffries to be re- success, Abercrombie & Fitch was in the placed and the brand to attempt to change midst of its own renaissance. The storied course (Berfield & Rupp, 2015). sporting goods retailer had been revived Still, it cannot be ignored that Aber- as a clothing brand by The Limited in 1988 crombie’s success came largely through (The New York Times, January 16, 1988). In exclusion and the erasure or mocking 1992, The Limited installed Mike Jeffries as of racial minorities, overweight teens or Abercrombie & Fitch’s CEO and under his anyone else deemed “uncool.” As Jeffries Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 329 made clear in a 2006 interview, the brand and Fitch” and later reference that states, aimed specifically for the cool kids and “You look like a girl from Abercrombie and others need not apply. Jeffries said, “In ev- Fitch.” The lyrics do not explain what ex- ery school there are the cool and the popu- actly that means, but taken in tandem with lar kids, and then there are the not-so-cool the video we can start to parse out some kids. Candidly, we go after the cool kids. conclusions. More importantly, there is an We go after the attractive all-American kid overlap in imagery between the “Summer with a great attitude and a lot of friends. A Girls” video (Raboy, 1999) and the adver- lot of people don’t belong [in our clothing], tisements in the A&F Quarterly. By teasing and they can’t belong. Are we exclusion- out the narrative, characters, settings and ary? Absolutely” (as qtd. in Denizet-Lewis, props within the video it is possible to see 2006). This lead to a discrimination law- the “Summer Girls” video as a reflection of suit by Asian American, African American the Abercrombie & Fitch aesthetic. and Latino teens in 2003 that the company From the start of “Summer Girls,” there settled for $ 50 million (Berfield & Rupp, is a group of good looking young wom- 2015); a religious discrimination suit in en arriving at a beach house in an classic 2008 (Liptak, 2015) and numerous boy- black convertible, where the members of cotts. McBride (2005) laid out his criticism LFO are anticipating them. Three young, of the brand in the book “Why I Hate Ab- thin, attractive and white women clad in ercrombie & Fitch,” where he documented swim suits and other midriff-bearing out- how the brand’s promotional images and fits climb out of the car and meet the band control over store employees worked to members on the porch. The group mem- promote and reinforce a primarily white, bers, who are also young, attractive and male image (pp. 66–83). Reinforcing a white, are dressed in more conservative at- more racist exclusionary practice, one for- tire, namely various forms of cargo or khaki mer associate told McBride, “that African pants, and T-shirt shirts and a sweater. The American and Asian Americans ‘can be excitement is obvious and the women ea- A&F if they act white, have white friends, gerly hug and jump on men. and are very assimilated’” (p. 82). The video then transitions into its second setting, a boardwalk scene. The video returns to this scene through and at times 6 Girls that wear the group is singing while sitting on a pic- Abercrombie & Fitch nic table or standing on top of the boardwalk stalls. At various points, a group of Abercrombie & Fitch truly entered the pop- primarily young women – again, thin, at- ular culture landscape with 1999’s ubiqui- tractive, white and dressed in somewhat tous song of the summer, LFO’s “Summer revealing clothing – huddle around the Girls.” The song was released on the band’s group. At other points, the entire group of self-titled debut album and peaked at characters walks along with boardwalk in number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart various states of physical engagements – (“Summer Girls,” LFO, n.d.). The album holding hands, arms wrapped around later peaked at number 21 on the Billboard each other and gesturing suggestively. At 200 (LFO, LFO, n.d.). LFO followed up with one point, the group watches a series of several singles and a follow-up album in break dancers, who are also the most no- 2001 without the same success. “Summer table men outside of the band in the video. Girls” remains LFO’s defining song and has Scenes are spliced between the board- been ranked as one of the best “summer walk scene and the beach house scene, the songs” by Billboard (Billboard Staff, 2014) latter of which has also become overrun and one of the best songs released by a boy with young adults dancing and having fun band (Benjamin et al., 2015). around the classic car. The dancing be- The song was well known for its ref- comes more excited as the song goes on erential lyrics and refrain that included and eventually moves to include the group the line “I like girls that wear Abercrombie dancing and playing at the ocean’s edge. 330 Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337

Here, the young adults are dancing as the ment work in the store afterhours, after waves roll in around them, soaking their those hire to have a “good time” went pants and skirts; they are unmoved though home (Goldstein, 1999). A similar situa- because they are having too much fun. As tion exists in the video where everyone is day turns into night, the beachgoers hud- good-looking – those that do not measure dle in towels and hooded sweatshirts while up are simply erased in “Summer Girls” – they sit away from the water. The scene is and minorities take a backseat. brief, however, as the video cuts back to Having fun is also the primary activ- the boardwalk scene from earlier. ity and narrative in the video. Essentially, There are several points to note here as “Summer Girls” has little other action be- several of the props used in the video line yond singing and having fun – whether up closely with items that were sold in the at the beach house, on the boardwalk or A&F Quarterly around the time of the vid- on the beach. This is similar to the A&F eo’s release. First, there is a young woman Quarterly, where young adults live a life of in the boardwalk scenes wearing a green relative leisure, and Abercrombie & Fitch’s camisole top with a pair of short orange employees who work as a “status thing” cargo shorts. Similar shorts can be found (Goldstein, 1999). for sale in A&F Quarterly (2000b, p. 42). A Finally, the settings also tie into the second comparison can be made between A&F Quarterly. Similar beach scenes can LFO member Devin Lima (2000b), who is be found throughout the magalog’s run. wearing a pair of zip-off cargo pants, simi- For Spring Break 1999, the cover featured lar to those sold by the brand (p. 12). Final- a models holding a surfboard overhead ly, there is a young women of ambiguous while standing on a beach. Further, many heritage, who is wearing a yellow, ribbed of the photospreads took place on or near tank top and a patterned skirt. Both of beaches, and several articles dealt with these garments are similar to things sold surfing (Abadsidis, 1999; Bixby, 1999), in Abercrombie’s magalog (A&F Quarterly beach life (Gillies, 1999) or travel to beach 2000b, pp. 33; 55). locales (Branch, 1999). These themes were Further, these characters are similar repeated in A&F Quarterly’s summer 1999 to the Abercrombie aesthetic. As men- edition titled, Summer Dreams. The cov- tioned above, the brand aimed heavily er was in black-and-white and featured for the “cool, good-looking people” (Den- a model on a tropical beach. Sand, palm izet-Lewis, 2006) at the expense of any- trees and sand all featured prominently one not fitting into that mold. The video in photospreads and articles featured the showed much the same. There is no one difference between the beach and the pool who does not fit tradition stereotypes of (Kon, 1999) and featured pieces about attractiveness; the young women are thin beaches in Thailand (Carone, 1999). and the young men are muscular. Further, and perhaps most notably, most of the young adults are white. There are few ra- 7 Beyond “Summer Girls” cial or ethnic minorities portrayed in the video – the young women of ambiguous Seeing how the Abercrombie lifestyle ethnicity being the most prominent. One played out in “Summer Girls,” this section of the break dancers appears to the black, focuses on two other videos that high- and there appears to be one or two other light the intersection of these elements: people of color in the crowd—however, Christina Aguilera’s “Genie in a Bottle” and they are primarily in the background and ’N Sync’s “Merry Christmas, Happy Holi- play no extended role in the video. It is days.” Both videos display various parts of notable that Abercrombie had been sued the Abercrombie lifestyle, including beach for racial discrimination (Berfield & Rupp, scenes and holiday scenes, respectively. 2015) and that journalists have document- “Genie in a Bottle” – Aguilera’s debut ed that “less cool and less good-looking” single, “Genie in a Bottle,” launched her workers did the inventory and replace- career. The song reached number 1 on the Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 331

Billboard Hot 100 in July 1999 ( “Genie in The narrative in “Genie” also reflects a Bottle,” Christina Aguilera, n. d.), while a frivolity: the main narrative is around the album, Christina Aguilera, reached a nighttime beach party. Involved in the number 1 on the Billboard 200 (Christina storyline is Aguilera’s filtrations with one Aguilera, Christina Aguilera, n. d.). “Genie” of the young men, but still this references was a staple of TRL, being “retired” after the playfulness of “Summer Girls” and the appearing on the countdown for 65 days Abercrombie lifestyle. This flirtation was (atrl, n. d.). key to Abercrombie’s branding (Hancock, The video (Martel, 1999) resembles 2009a, p. 92–102) and also apparent in many of the elements of “Summer Girls” “Summer Girls.” and the imagery sold by Abercrombie & Merry Christmas, Happy Holidays – Fitch. The video begins with shots of Aguil- Unlike the successes of “Summer Girls” era on a laying on a shady beach dune and and “Genie,” ’N Sync’s “Merry Christmas, her walking through a beach house and Happy Holidays” was more muted. In fact, singing on a deck overlooking the shore. the song did not chart on the Billboard The scenes are shot in low light, making Hot 100 and the group’s Christmas album, it difficult to determine a time of day, but “Home for Christmas” peaked at a 153 on also work to make the entire video more the Billboard 200 (Home for Christmas, dream-like or mystical. As the video pro- ’N Sync, n. d.). The song, however, has gresses, Aguilera is called by her friends to become a something of a holiday staple – meet a group of guys who just arrived at remaining on the Billboard Holiday chart the house – one of which is her love inter- and being covered by the Pentatonix nearest. Eventually, the entire group relocates ly 20 years after its release (Spera, 2016). to the beach for a bonfire and this scene On TRL, the video appeared on the count- is spliced with a scene where Aguilera per- down daily between Dec. 14 and Dec. 22, forms a choreographed dance on a sandy 1998, reaching No. 1 three times. dancefloor. The scenes throughout reflect The video (Martin, 1998) featured ac- the scenery of “Summer Girls” and of A&F tor Gary Coleman as an elf tasked with re- Quarterly’s beach scenes. placing a Santa too sick to deliver presents. Again, the props refer back to the Ab- Finding an ’N Sync poster, he decides to ercrombie & Fitch lifestyle. Specifically, call on the boy band to take over. The main during the choreographed dance Aguilera scene is of the band members inside a sled is wearing a pair of Abercrombie & Fitch’s in front of a green screen displaying scenes orange drawstring pants as sold in the A&F of the sky, the New York City skyline and Quarterly (1999, Spring Break, p. 49). The other places the group is “traveling.” The supporting characters are also clad in the scenes are interspersed with other festive Abercrombie & Fitch aesthetic – from car- scenes: one scene shows the group feed- go shorts to Hawaiian print board shorts. ing homeless people, another includes a In other props, the older convertible driv- Christmas-party like scene where people en by the cohort of guys reflects the con- are dancing and decorating a tree, and still vertible as seen in “Summer Girls” and the another shows band members giving gifts style of car highlighted in the A&F Quarter- to their “loved” ones or likely girlfriends. ly (2002a, pp. 114–123). Unlike “Genie in a Bottle” and “Sum- Like “Summer Girls,” all of the char- mer Girls,” these scenes represent a dif- acters in “Genie” are young, attractive and ferent aspect of the Abercrombie lifestyle: primarily white. A key difference here is the holiday season. “Christmas” was one that many of Aguilera’s backup dancers of the four quarterly issues put out by the are people of color, but just as minority A&F Quarterly and like the other videos Abercrombie & Fitch associates played a there appears to be a crossover in aesthetic supporting role, all of the main characters and costuming. are white. Despite being half Ecuadorian, In the video, band members are dres Aguilera appeared as a pale women with sed for winter in fleece, vests and hooded blonde hair and can also be read as white. sweaters. Justin Timberlake is wearing an 332 Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 orange fleece; JC Chasez is wearing a grey an important intertextual connection be- fleece and black fleece vest; Lance Bass tween disparate videos – with their own di- is wearing a yellow hooded sweatshirt rectors, artists and influences – into some- and grey puff vest; and Chris Kirkpatrick thing more intelligible and influential. is wearing a red puff jacket. Joey Fatone This repetition shows that the Abercrom- is the odd man out wearing a T-shirt, but bie’s influence was not concentrated in a he is wearing a pair of cargo ski overalls, few videos, but rather widely dispersed similar to the parachute and cargo pants throughout videos seen on TRL. The next the other members are wearing. Taken pages look at specific elements that were together these outfits reflect the style of repeated in different videos of the time. Abercrombie at the time (A&F Quarterly, Clothing makes an obvious starting 1998a, pp. 108–113), especially the fleec- point since it was the more prominent es garments (A&F Quarterly, 1998a, p. 87; product for Abercrombie. Two particular 1998b, pp. 95, 243) examples can be cited here: the camisole Like the previous videos, “Merry tops are sold two editions of the maga- Christmas, Happy Holidays” maintains a log (2000a, p. 76; 2000b, p. 15). Sold in a primarily young, attractive and white cast. variety of colors, the shirts had spaghet- The band members are all white as are ti straps and made appearances across many of the “party guests.” It’s notable that the music videos of the time. Musicians the “homeless” individuals ’N Sync are such as Britney Spears and Hoku wore helping are primarily old and less conven- the shirts in “Sometimes” and “Another tionally attractive than the group and one Dumb Blonde,” respectively, while they of the homeless individuals is black. There also made appearances in Jennifer Paige’s are few other minorities throughout. There “Crush,” Backstreet Boys’ “As Long As You are two children of ambiguous race shown Love Me,” Mandy Moore’s “Candy,” Soul throughout, two attractive women – one Decision’s “Faded” and Vitamin C’s “Grad- black and one Asian – dance with Chasez uation (Friends Forever).” and Timberlake, respectively, and Cole- Similarities can also be found with man appears as a comic elf. As such, the men’s ribbed, turtlenecks and sweaters aesthetic reinforcing the Abercrombie and sold by Abercrombie & Fitch (2000d, style by again highlighting and centering pp. 46–47). These sweaters made appear- the conventionally attractive, white indi- ances on Nick Lachey in 98 Degrees’ “This viduals and marginalizing minorities. Gift,” Jordan Knight in the “Give It to You” Moreover, the feeling of the video is video, and in Britney Spears’ “From the happy and celebratory, much like that of Bottom of My Broken Heart.” Meanwhile, “Summer Girls” and “Genie in a Bottle.” videos like 98 Degree’s “Because of You,” While “Merry Christmas, Happy Holidays” ’N Sync’s “Music of My Heart” and “I Drive is more realistic in featuring needy indi- Myself Crazy,” and Mariah Carey’s “Thank viduals, the focus is certainly on the hap- God I Found You,” all featured ribbed py-go-lucky Christmas party and the joy in sweaters without the turtleneck – a similar material giving (even to the needy). Fur- style also available in the magalog. ther, it reinforces the stereotypes where Beyond clothing, other props were the attractive, affluent youths can “save repeated throughout, including clas- Christmas” and give to the poor while sic cars, old style microphones and surf looking good and having fun. boards. People were seen driving classic convertibles in Paige’s “Crush,” LFO’s “Summer Girls” and “Girl on TV,” Aguil- 8 And the beat goes on era’s “Genie in a Bottle,” Shawn Mullins’ “Lullaby,” and O-Town’s “All or Nothing,” As shown, this can be done with individual while various classic cars were also seen videos to see the lifestyles and aesthetics in Hoku’s “Another Dumb Blonde,” Jen- displayed throughout. However, repetition nifer Love Hewitt’s “How Do I Deal,” and of objects, images and settings provide Backstreet Boys’ “As Long as You Love Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 333

Me.” Classic cars makes appearances in er, features beach huts with palm roofs, the Spring Break issue of 1999 (pp. 224, recalling various photo spreads in A&F 227, 272, 295); the Back-to-School 1998 Quarterly’s Spring Break 1999 (pp. 135, edition was dedicated to road trips as was 196) and the Summer 2002 issue, which the photospread “On the 101,” (2002a, featured similar amounts of dried palm pp. 114–123), both featuring classic cars. and nudity as Spears’ video (A&F Quarter- Old cars were not the only crossover vehi- ly, 2002b, pp. 2–36). cles. In the Back-to-School 1998 issue, the Two other examples can be seen in a magalog featured a late model Volkswagen carnival setting and in the city of New York. Beetle (A&F Quarterly, 1998a, pp. 14–15) First, in Knight’s “Give It to You,” the action similar to the one featured in Moore’s takes place at a carnival in a callback to the “Candy.” Meanwhile, a Jeep was gifted in filmGrease. Knight’s singing and the group the Christmas 2000 edition (p. 260–263), dancing takes place directly in from of the similar to props used in Spears’ “Baby One Ferris wheel, while other activities can be More Time” and Knight’s “Give It to You.” seen throughout the carnival. In a similar In the A&F Quarterly, old micropho example, A&F Quarterly featured a photo- nes seem to be the preferred way to per- spread in the Summer 2000 edition (2000b, form live music. This can been seen in a pp. 74–92), prominently featuring a Ferris Harlem club in the Back-to-School 2000 wheel as well as activities, such as carnival edition (A&F Quarterly, 2000c., p. 195) and games. in a New Orleans jazz club (2002a, pp. 69– Finally, New York is a frequent setting 107). Similar microphones made appear- for artistic works, the A&F Quarterly ded- ances in Backstreet Boys “As Long as You icated an entire issue to the city (1999c). Love Me,” Hewitt’s “How Do I Deal,” ‘N While some music videos touched on New Sync’s “Tearing Up My Heart.” York, including ’N Sync’s “Merry Christ- Surfboards were used throughout mas, Happy Holidays,” it is worth remem- the A&F Quarterly (1999a, pp. 65–75, 248; bering that TRL broadcast from a promi- 2000a pp. 174, 204–5, 209; 2000b pp. 21, nent studio overlooking Times Square, Back Cover). Meanwhile, surfboards made where fans would gather daily. Like the an appearance in Backstreet Boys “As Long entire issue dedicated by Abercrombie & as You Love Me,” where a band member Fitch, the fact that TRL was prominently uses it as a photoshoot prop, and in Hoku’s set in New York City, helping to unite the “Another Dumb Blonde” where a classic magalog life, the television show and the car rolls up with the surfboards on top of music videos. the car. Many of these props work hand-and- hand with the settings they appear in. 9 Discussion and future research Surfboards, for example, make sense in a beach setting, as in Hoku’s “Another Dumb The interplay between fashion brands and Blonde” and in many photoshoots for the music videos remains a difficult terrain as A&F Quarterly. However, the reliance on neither offer clear narrative structures and beach scenes is greater than a few videos. their storytelling and meaning creation Videos that featured beach scenes in- remains fragmented and contested. There clude, LFO’s “Summer Girls,” 98 Degrees’ are few clear, direct links between a music “I Do” and “Give Me Just One Night (Una video and any specific brand and, as such, Noche),” Aguilera’s “Genie in a Bottle,” and textual analyses must be malleable to or- Spears’ “Sometimes.” Spears’ “Don’t Let der to find the links. The above pages offer Me Be the Last to Know” seems like the three different modes of analysis to better closest replica to A&F Quarterly, as Spears understand the transfer of aesthetics be- and her love interest in the video embrace tween Abercrombie & Fitch’s marketing on a secluded beach. The love interest is and popular music videos. The first anal- topless for the entire while Spears is wear- ysis of the “Summer Girls” video explored ing and jean shorts. The scenery, howev- how a direct call out by a song works to 334 Lascity / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 325–337 link the brand and the video aesthetics. Finally, future research could pur- The linkage between “Summer Girls” and sue how particular props, costumes and Abercrombie & Fitch was notable, but also other elements get picked up and reused relatively unique as there are few other ex- throughout the popular culture landscape. amples of fashion brands getting a direct While the above specifically flowed from a call out within a song. The second analysis fashion brand, it is assumed that the ad- looked at specific music videos to explore vertising is not the only contributor and how the self-contained videos replicat- the aesthetics, costumes and props offered ed the aesthetics of Abercrombie & Fitch up in music videos could easily be adopt- through its costumes and other elements. ed by the advertising world, as well. More- Notably, these videos replicated not only over, a question remains as to whether the Abercrombie & Fitch advertising mi- the fashion brand’s aesthetic came first or lieu, but also the aesthetics found in “Sum- whether it latched onto an existing trend. mer Girls.” The final analysis linked specific elements, such as costumes, props and settings, across music videos to show the 10 Conclusion extent of the repetition. As with all historical analyses, the This paper examined how the brand aes- above analysis offers a specific cultural thetics of Abercrombie & Fitch could be linkage for these specific elements. These seen through popular music videos be- findings cannot be extended to any gen- tween 1998 and 2001. The fact that the eral population and any extension of this brand’s marketing images could have been research needs to be undertaken with its ripped from popular music videos (and own careful analysis. That said, the above vice versa) helped drive Abercrombie & research offers some starting points for fu- Fitch’s cultural influence and financial ture research. success and speaks to a notable symbiot- First and foremost, this research sug- ic relationship between fashion branding gests that cultural ideas and aesthetics get and mediated popular culture. Howev- reproduced and used across the spectrum er, there is still ample work to be done. of mediated popular culture. Specifical- Acknowledging the influence of fashion ly, the above pages examined how a the aesthetics within music videos calls for a Abercrombie & Fitch brand aesthetic was re-examination of the past productions reproduced within music videos, but this and provides a different critical lens to dis- could also be seen in other visual realms, cuss contemporary and future works. including popular films and television of the time. 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352

What plus-size means for plus-size women: A mixed-methods approach Deborah A. Christel, President and CEO of Kade & Vos* Susan C. Williams Née Dunn, Washington State University, Department of Apparel Merchandising, Design and Textile *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Western fashion is constantly evolving and in order to obtain notoriety, brands need to positively connect with consumers. Individuals who wear plus-sizes are acutely aware of their reduced clothing choices and rely on language cues to find clothing. Unfortunately, the categorisation of plus-size consumers is fraught with discord and frustration. Fashion communication should consider consumer needs and preferences. However, the language used to classify plus-size consumers has yet to be examined. Plus-size women were recruited online to rate twelve terms associated with plus-size women’s clothing. The survey collected a total of 324 responses of age, height, weight and ratings of terms used to classify plus-size apparel, such as Women’s, Curvy. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and analysis of variance to compare differences considering age and body mass. This study revealed 96% of the sample ranked the classification Women’s higher than Plus-Size. The study offers insights into how plus-size consumers view sizing communications. It also offers a useful ranking of terms that fashion companies can adopt to ensure they are communicating in language that the intended consumer prefers. This study contributes to research on social identity of clothing size, plus-size consumer experiences, and further validates the multidimensional challenges faced by plus-size consumers.

Keywords plus-size, communication retail strategy, merchandising, narrative, mixed-methods, consumers, apparel, fashion, marketing

1 Introduction White, Black and Mexican-American rac- es and ethnicities, now wears between a The plus-size consumer has gained atten- Misses size 16–18” (Christel & Dunn, 2016, tion from retailers over the past decade as p. 4). Despite the millions of average size apparel companies continue to publicly customers who are eager to buy, plus-size contemplate the inclusion or exclusion of fashion greatly suffers from marketing plus-size clothing. Current estimates sug- and merchandising neglect (Anderson & gest that over 67% of American women Simester, 2008). wear plus-sizes (Garcia, 2015) and as lim- There is little consensus what qualifies ited retail establishments offer plus-sizes, plus-size clothing and as fashion rapidly this issue is now critical and hotly debated changes, the way brands communicate in fashion media (Czerniawski, 2015; Kim, with consumers must adapt. Lee and Steen Jolly & Kim, 2007; Norman, 2017; Scarabo- (2015) state, “Women’s (plus) is listed as to & Fischer, 2016). Plus-sizes are loosely 1X–4X and 14W to 28W” (p. 279). Bubonia classified as women’s numerical sizing 14 (2012) states that “[w]omen’s designates and above (Bogenrief, 2012). “Size 14 typ- full figure adult females using even num- ically caps the size charts of most Ameri- bers followed by W’s. Sizes in this range can-distributed stores and brands” (Chris- typically include 14W–24W” (p. 165). Fur- tel, 2016, p. 1; see also Alexander, Pisut, & thermore, Brown and Rice (2014) define Ivanescu, 2012; Peters, 2015). Meanwhile, the plus-size category as: “the average American woman, including

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.009 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 340 Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352

Women’s sizes fit the adult woman of average the term plus-size and some seek to elim- height who has a full, mature figure. Women’s inate its use entirely (Garcia, 2015). The sizes feature less waist definition and longer term is viewed as problematic because, sleeves than Misses sizes. Plus-sizes, large many women feel the category is margin- size, or Women’s departments and special- alising and suggests they are a small group ty stores are increasingly likely to designate outside the mainstream whose fashion Women’s sizes for what were formerly Misses needs are secondary. On the other hand, size designations, for example, even num- some women feel the plus-size classifica- bered sizes 16 to 20 or 14 to 24. Thus, it is often tion helps them locate their clothing sizes. unclear whether a garment was designed for A popular culture article from 2015 sur- a large Misses figure type or a true Women’s veyed plus-size women’s mixed feelings figure type – the two differ. (p. 207) about the term plus-size. A woman stated,

An analysis of the top grossing 100 U.S. “there is an underlying stigma about someone online retailers found that plus-sizes who wears ‘plus-size’ clothing is also linked range in size designations from 12–38W to the negative connotations of terms such and 0X–6X with variations up to 11.5” in as ‘fat,’ ‘obese’ or ‘unhealthy,’” while another measurements for the same size desig- stated, “I don’t mind it; it makes finding my nation (Dunn, 2016). The vast definitions clothes easier. But it’s not the reality of Amer- and differing proportions in plus-sizes, ican (especially women’s) sizes.” (Avilia, 2015) while well-meaning, further muddle the functional purpose of the classification Newer designers, such as Melissa McCa- (Norman, 2017). While the term plus-size rthy, agree with the sentiment and elim- is viewed as marginalising, it also serves inated the use of any plus-size narrative a functional purpose and thus has dual in their clothing collections (Wang, 2015). meaning; plus-size is both a social con- Department stores have signage indicat- struct that marginalises women and plus- ing sections of merchandise typically clas- size is a merchandising category that helps sified by gender and age. For example, the women locate clothing sizes (Peters, 2015, Juniors department refers to females in see also Christel, 2018). There is anecdotal their teen years and is typically styled for evidence written about plus-size categori- youthful appeal. Other designations in- sation, yet no academic or peer reviewed clude the children’s section, misses, wom- studies have been asserted to determine en’s, and men’s departments. However, the the usage, opinions or preferences of the plus-size classification groups a demo- plus-size consumer. Furthermore, the de graphic by size and does not directly in- signation of plus-size was constructed dicate consumer gender or age. This mer- without accord or consideration of the chandising structure is the first in which a growing market. mass market clothing section provides ap- Popular press suggests that plus-size parel by size without considering gender, women are marginalised and are frequent- style, demographic or psychographic data. ly treated with less respect than thinner Plus-size apparel must consider more than women (Refinery29, 2016). To combat the size, because target market spans age, life- discrimination, several social movements style, values, interests, attitudes, marital or have emerged. For example, #plusisequal, relationship status, socioeconomic status, Dove’s Real Beauty campaign, the fat ac- political perspectives, occupation, sex, ceptance movement, and the body-posi- gender, sexuality, social participation, and tive movement. The body-positive move- geography, amongst others (Ryan, 1966). ment encourages people to adopt more These diverse factors require different forgiving and affirming attitudes towards styles at a variety of price points. Many their bodies, with the goal of improving retailers consider style preferences that health and well-being instead of a goal correspond to certain age groups, such as body weight. In conjunction with that Juniors, but style preference by age group movement, popular culture has disputed has little consideration for plus-size indi- Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 341 viduals. While smaller adult women may holding prejudiced views against the out- shop in Juniors, which has its own as- group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The central sumptions of styles, larger women have hypothesis of social identity theory is that no alternative female section to choose in-group members look for negative as- from. Further complicating shopping be- pects of people in the out-group, as a way haviour, and highlighting the social group to increase the in-group self-image (Mc- identity and privilege accompanied with Leod, 2008). being thin, some plus-size women re- Previous research indicates that in- sort to shopping in the men’s sections to dividuals have social identities with age find items that fit their bodies (Christel, (Garstka, Hummert & Branscombe, 2005; O’Donnell, & Bradley, 2016). Twigg, 2014), abilities and disabilities (Bo- Collectively, the purpose of this study gart, 2015; Buse & Twigg, 2015), and sex is to identify terms that plus-size women and gender (Pauletti, Cooper, Aults, Hodg- find desirable for communicating their es, & Perry, 2016). Each of the aforemen- clothing classification. It is our hope to tioned concepts are physical traits as well provide, through empirical research and as socially constructed phenomena. In the theoretical analysis, a voice for larger con- same respect, body weight and size is both sumers and clear information to retailers a physical trait and a socially constructed about the plus-size market, how language clothing category. One study found that in fashion communication is perceived body weight and size have the properties amongst plus-size consumers, and wheth- of a social identity and that overweight and er retailers should modify their approach. “obese” women have a stronger identity with weight than normal weight women. In this regard, Asbury (2011) found there 2 Literature review are cognitive, affective and behavioural components of weight identity which may Social identity theory posits that a person’s help explain why women often say, I am a sense of who they are is based on their size ____, instead of I wear a size _____. group membership(s). In this regard, Ta- Considering weight and size as a so- jfel and Turner (1979) proposed that the cial identity; thin consumers would be groups which people belonged to (e. g., categorised as the in-group and plus-size social class, family etc.) were an important consumers as the out-group. The group- source of pride and self-esteem. “Groups ings are divided by the many negative give us a sense of social identity: a sense character traits associated with “obese” or of belonging to the social world” (McLeod, plus-size individuals (Eisenberg, Street & 2008). Based on cognitive groupings, hu- Persky, 2016). People with a larger body are mans naturally group objects, events associated with negative characteristics and people. This is further recognised such as lazy, weak-willed, unintelligent, as in-group (us) and out-group (them). and non-compliant with diet and exercise Therefore, our culture divides people into (Diedrichs & Puhl, 2016; Durso, Latner, & them and us through a process of social Ciao, 2016). From social identity theory, categorisation (McLeod, 2008). Through the prejudice views of larger people serve this natural categorisation, the difference to enhance the self-image of thin individ- between groups and similarities of each uals which maintain the group structures. group are exaggerated (see also, Tajfel & As clothing is inexorably linked to the Turner, 1979. body and aids in communicating roles and Social identity theory speculates that identity (Allik & Realo, 2004; Celik, 2016; humans are motivated to enhance and pro- Nagar & Gandotra, 2016; Tiggman & Lacey, tect the self, in order to increase self-im- 2009), it is critical to examine our commu- age and enhance the status of the group to nications with plus-size consumers, or in which they belong (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). this scenario, the out-group of the fashion It has also been found that in-groups can industry. increase self-image by discriminating and 342 Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352

McMichael argues, “While fatter peo- ›› RQ2. What are the preferred terms cate- ple in contemporary society are often gorised by BMI? Does body mass affect subjected to weight-based oppression, plus-size women’s preferred terms for thin people are conversely advantaged apparel signage? by this system of oppression. ‘Thin priv- ›› RQ3. What are the preferred terms cate ilege’ refers to the unearned advantages gorised by age group? Does age affect conferred to thinner people. It is a key plus-size women’s preferred terms for pathway through which fat oppression apparel signage? is maintained. Often invisible, thin pri vilege fundamentally shapes our lives” (McMichael, 2013, as cited in Bacon, 3 Methods O’Reilly & Aphramor, 2016, p. 42). Having a thin body means that you can turn on During the spring of 2016 participants the television and see people with your were recruited via purposive sampling figure, fit into seats and desks comfortably, with an advertisement posted on a public receive better quality healthcare, are more news webpage of the researchers’ institu- likely to get a job and promotions, have tion located in the North West of the Unit- little educational barriers, and are treated ed States. The advertisement requested with more respect at restaurants (Roth- women aged 18 and over, who identified blum & Solovay, 2009). Thin privilege also as plus-size and/or wear women’s size 14 includes being able to go to any clothing or higher, to complete a 10-minute survey store, as opposed to specialty stores, and about plus-size shopping. In order to reach find clothing in your size (Bacon, O’Reil- a range of demographics, the researchers ly, & Aphramor, 2016). and graduate student volunteers posted There are rarely words used to classify the recruitment call on their social media. non-plus size clothing because, anything The advertisement also requested partici- other than plus-size is considered the pants share and re-post the advertisement norm, standard, regular or in-group. The on their social media networks in order importance of being thin is perpetuated to increase the reach of participants. This by fewer plus-size clothing options (Chris- method is also known as a snowball meth- tel, 2014), and this practice maintains the od that assists in recruiting individuals power of who can and cannot participate from a target group. A total of 422 respon- in certain fashions. Words used to define dents initiated the survey, N = 324 were consumer groups remain a critical tenet completed and included in data analysis. of fashion communications that studies Participants were requested to complete a communication in design through visu- short demographic section and one ques- al branding, trends, culture, styling and tionnaire. Demographics included age, imagery, digital illustration, social media, height, weight, country of residence, and brand development and brand manage- waist measurement. ment. This exploratory study examined The questionnaire, titled Term Prefer- language used in the fashion industry for ences, read: “Imagine that you are going on plus-size consumers through an online a shopping trip to find a blouse. Shopping survey. The objective was to determine the stores and retailers have different terms terms that plus-size women find desirable and signs to describe the clothing section or undesirable for the fashion industry for larger women. Please indicate how to use in communicating their clothing desirable or undesirable you would find classification and to further analyse the each of the following terms if you read it findings within social identity theory and on a sign to indicate where larger clothing fashion communication. Based on the was located.” The options were Women’s, literature review, the following research Large Size, Queen, Plus, Plus-Sizes, Plus questions are posed: Womenswear, Custom, Curvy, Outsized, ›› RQ1. What are the most and least pre- Women’s Plus, Womenswear, and Super ferred terms for plus-size women? Women’s. Participants used a five-point Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 343 scale (i. e., 1 = very desirable, 2 = desirable, Table 1: Demographic characteristics 3 = neutral, 4 = undesirable, and 5 = very of participants (n = 234) undesirable) to rate each of the 12 terms. Factor Range M SD The researchers selected the terms through Age 18–76 44.10 13.85 an academic literature review and with the Weight assistance of plus-size consumers from the Pounds 130–560 226.42 54.33 fashion program (who did not participate Kilograms 59–253 102.7 24.64 in the study). The terms were presented in Height the order listed above. Inches 48–83 Centimeters 121.92–156.82 Waist 4 Statistical analyses Inches 29–70 41.56 7.2 Centimeters 74–178 105.0 18.3 Participants were categorised based on BMI kg/m² 17.8–97.6 36.7 9.5 body mass index (BMI) and age. BMI is a % person’s mass (kg) divided by their height Race (m) squared. It is unofficially the US na- American Indian 2.0 tional system for body size measurement, or Alaska Native as “The National Institutes of Health de- Asian 1.2 fines normal weight, overweight, and Black or African America 2.0 “obesity” according to BMI” (U. S. Depart- Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 1.0 ment of Health and Human Services, 2013, White or Caucasian 94.0 p. 20). With the rise in larger bodies over Country of Residence the past century (Finucane et al., 2011), USA 94 body size, or BMI classification, has be- Canada >2 come a critical concept in discourse and Other: Australia, Asia >1 been used in fashion research (King, Shap- M = mean, SD = standard deviation iro, Hebl, Singletary, & Turner, 2006). There are no official US sizing standards and sizing systems differ in measurements, the BMI and age groups, the mean rating labelling, and proportions (Dunn, 2016; for each term was compared with that for Reczek & Benson, 2016), making it difficult the other eleven terms using Tukey’s range to classify human bodies by clothing siz- test (Ramseyer & Tcheng, 1973). To con- es. Furthermore, the average woman has trol for the number of tests directed, the a range of five sizes in their wardrobe (Lu- experiment-wise error rate for each group bitz, 2016) and arranging participants ac- of comparisons was set at α = .05. Descrip- cording to garment size would have been tive statistics were calculated for all par- problematic. Participants’ BMI was cal ticipants. Differences in the ratings of BMI culated per the Center for Disease Control and age groups were further assessed by and Prevention “obesity” classifications: individual analysis of variance. Difference Overweight = 25–30, “Obese”1 I = 30–35, between groups, for ratings of individual “Obese” II = 35–40, and “Obese” III = 40+ terms, were considered statistically signif- (Centers for Disease Control and Preven icant at p ≤ .05. tion, 2016). Participants were also grouped by age; 18–35, 36–50, 51–64 and 65–78. First, a multivariate analysis of vari- 5 Results ance was performed using SPSS. Within A total of 324 completed surveys were used 1 The term “obesity” medicalizes human di- in data analysis. Demographic data is pre- versity and do harm to fat people. As fashion and fat studies scholars, “overweight”, sented in Table 1. Participants had a mean “obesity”, “obese I, II,II” are placed in scare age of 44.1 (±13.85) years, mean weight of quotes in order to be consistent with the dis- 226.4 (±54.33) lbs., and a mean BMI of 36.7 course we aim to represent. (±.58) kg/m², classifying the mean BMI as 344 Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352

Table 2: Demographic characteristics of participants in four BMI groups

Group n M Weight Height BMI Pounds Kilograms Inches Centimeters (kg/m²) Overweight 58 44±15.95 177.05±16.64 80.31±7.55 66.73±2.96 169.5±7.5 27.92±1.33 Obese I 84 44.13±13.78 200.89±20.78 91.12±9.5 66.08±3.31 167.8±8.4 32.28±1.47 Obese II 68 44.25±14.16 234±22.8 106.14 ±10.34 66.12±2.86 168±7.3 37.55±1.45 Obese III 91 42.69±3.29 258.23±54.13 117.13±24.55 64.73±3.29 164.41±8.35 47.92±9.23

Table 3: Demographic characteristics of participants in four BMI groups

Age Group n M Weight Height BMI Pounds Kilograms Inches Centimeters (kg/m²) 18–35 96 27.25 ± 4.48 223.5±48.05 101.38±21.8 65.96±3.54 167.54±91 36.32±8.48 36–50 95 42.29±4.02 240.44±.51 109.1±29.26 66.35±3.49 168.53±8.86 38.73±10.9 51–64 98 56.7±3.24 220.67±50.38 100.1±22.85 65.90±2.67 167.39±6.78 35.82±9.44 65–78 35 68±3.42 208.75±45.71 94.68±20.73 65.56±4.86 166.52±11.88 34.35±8.36

Table 4: Ranking of preferred terms for largest group (n = 91) were within a BMI of plus size women 35–40.

Rank Term M SD Participants were also grouped by age. Table 3 demonstrates demographics 1 Women‘s 1.97 0.93 2 Curvy 2.64 1.23 divided by age into 18–35, 36–50, 51–64 3 Women’s Wear 2.65 1.15 and 65–78. The smallest age group (n = 35) 4 Plus 3.17 1.05 represented ages 65–78. 5 Women‘s Plus 3.22 1.15 6 Custom 3.26 1.17 RQ1. What are the most and least 7 Plus-Size 3.33 1.05 preferred terms for plus-size women? 8 Plus-Women‘s 3.56 1.01 Table 4 demonstrates ranking and mean 9 Large Size 3.88 0.96 ratings of each term in all age and BMI 10 Queen 3.88 1.03 groups. Of the twelve terms, the most pre- 11 Super Women‘s 4.41 0.78 ferred terms were: Women’s, Curvy, and 12 Outsized 4.69 0.59 Womenswear. The nine remaining terms Preferred term was assessed using a five-point scale with anchors of Very Undesirable (5) to Very Desirable (1), SD=standard deviation were rated as neutral, undesirable and very undesirable. The terms Outsized, Super Women’s, Queen, Large Size, Plus Womens- wear, Plus-Size, Custom, Plus, and Wom- “obese” I. The largest group (n = 91), were en’s Plus were rated more undesirable than classified within BMI of 35–40. Six per neutral or desirable. cent of the sample identified as minorities (including 2% American Indian/Alaskan RQ2. Whether or not BMI has an Native, 2% Black/ African American, 1.2% effect on plus-size women’s preferred Asian, 1% Pacific Islander/Hawaiian) and terms for apparel signage. 94% identified as Caucasian. The major- While there are significant differenc- ity of respondents were from the United es between women by BMI, the mean States with small responses from Canada, scores indicate that all women, exclu Australia, and Asia. ding body mass, have similar preferenc- Participants’ BMI was calculated to es in store signage. There is a significant determine “obesity” classifications (i. e., difference in the mean scores of terms BMI >40). Table 2 characterises partici- based on BMI (Roy’s largest root = 0.001, pants by BMI into ranges set by the Center F (12,242) = 2.849, p<0.05). The findings for Disease Control and Prevention. The reveal that four terms had significant dif- Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 345

Table 5: Demographic characteristics of participants (n = 234)

Group Large Size Queen Super Women’s Outsized Mean ± SD “Overweight” 3.61±1* 3.76±.993 4.17±.825* 4.80±.401* “Obese” I 3.88±.993 3.91±1.08 4.42±.753 4.70±.542 “Obese” II 3.89±8.96 4.09±1.04* 4.58±.599* 4.53±.813* “Obese” III 3.99±9.47* 3.71±1.03* 4.41±.797 4.69±.610 Sign .035 .037 .007 .024 Preferred term was assessed using a five-point scale with anchors of Very Undesirable (5) to Very Desirable (1) *indicates significance p < .05 ferences in preference depending on BMI on five terms including Queen, Women’s, group. Women classified as “Obese” I are Large Size, Super Women’s, Curvy, and significantly more likely to prefer the term Womenswear. The term preference Queen, Large Size (p = .035) than “overweight” F(3,271) = 1.516, p = .014, partial ƞ² = .038, is women. Women classified as “Obese” II are statistically more preferred amongst 51–64 significantly more likely to prefer the term year olds (M = 4.09) than every other age Queen (p = .037) than “Obese” III women. group; 18–35 year olds (M = 3.60), 36–50 The term Super Women’s is slightly more year olds (M = 3.96), and 65–78 year olds likely (p = .007) to be preferred amongst (M = 3.84). There was a significant differ- women in the “Obese” II group than “over- ence between age groups on the term weight” women. The term Outsized was preference Curvy, F(3,271) = 3.131, p = .026, more likely to be preferred by Overweight partial ƞ² = .034, with 65–78 year olds women (p = .024) than “Obese” II women. (M = 3.00) statistically less likely to pre- Findings reveal non-significant differenc- fer the term than 18–35 (M = 2.55), 36–50 es in the remaining terms. The term Wom- year olds (M = 2.42), and 51–64 year olds en’s was the highest rated option, deemed (M = 2.91). Women’s was slightly less pre- as very desirable and desirable by 72% ferred by 65–78 years old (M = 2.28) than of Overweight women, 78% of “Obese” I 51–54 year olds (M = 1.81). The term Super women, 74% of “Obese” II women, and 72% Women’s was significantly less preferred “Obese” III women. Table 5 demonstrates by 36–50 (M = 4.47) and 51–64 (M = 4.47) the significant differences found in term than older women aged 65–78 (M = 4.12). preferences between BMI groups. The last term, Womenswear, was more desired by ages 36–50 (M = .79) than wom- RQ3. Whether age effects plus-size en aged 65–78 (M = 2.92). There was not a women’s preferred terms for significant difference between age groups apparel signage. on terms Large Size, Super Women’s, Plus, The highest rated term by all age groups Plus Size, Plus-Womenswear, Women’s was Women’s. Seventy-seven per cent of Plus, Custom, Outsized, or Womenswear. women aged 18–35 rated Women’s as very Excluding age and BMI, 96% of the desirable and desirable with similar rat- sample rated Women’s, as neutral and ings of 69% amongst 36–50 aged women, very desirable. Indicating that 96% of 77% amongst 51–64 year-old women and plus-size women prefer the term Wom- 73% by women age 65–78. There was a en’s over Plus-Size as a clothing size des- significant difference between age groups ignation. Seventy-eight per cent rated when considered jointly on their term Womenswear as neutral, desirable or very preferences for apparel signage, Wilks desirable, and 73.44% reported Curvy as ∆ = .810, F(36, 768.927) = 1.579, p < .018, neutral, desirable, and very desirable. On partial ƞ² = .068. A separate analysis of vari- the other hand, 99% reported Outsized, ance was conducted for each dependent 97.04% reported Super Women’s, and variable and evaluated at α = 0.05. Sig- 91.78% reported Large Size as very unde- nificant differences between age groups sirable, undesirable, or neutral. The ma- 346 Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 jority of all age groups and BMI reported size. The sentiments reflected confusion, the term Queen to be undesirable or very frustration, and annoyance with the cur- undesirable. While there are significant rent clothing system. For example: differences between age and BMI for the ›› One participant commented, Why can’t undesirable terms, based on the mean all Women’s clothes be called just “Wom- scores, Outsized, Super Women’s, Large en’s”? Size and Queen are not recommended for ›› Another participant commented, Why designating women’s plus-size clothing in do they even need distinguishers for the fashion industry. The terms, in order women that are larger? Why does of desirability, for plus-size consumers is a 22 all of a sudden become a big X? Women’s, Womenswear and Curvy. or a PLUS? Why doesn’t clothing simply have numbers to measure the size? I don’t understand the need to separate 6 Open-ended comments plus size and “normal” size clothing in a store anyways. Women are women re- At the end of the survey, an open-end- gardless of size. ed prompt elicited comments or sug- ›› Another participant further comment- gestions about language used in the ap- ed, Why does there have to be another parel industry. Thirty-eight per cent, or term. Why can’t stores just have racks 124 participants commented in response with different sizes. We’re bigger, not to the query, “Please provide comments stupider, we can read sizes. or suggestions for other terms to describe apparel for larger women.” Five themes 2 Suggesting new practices emerged from both long and short com- Nearly one-third of the comments includ- ments: 1. Questioning current practices, 2. ed a suggestion for a new practice of cloth- Suggesting new practices, 3. Confirming a ing categorisation or placement. Of these, merchandising term, 4. Suggesting a new the two most frequent suggestions includ- name, and 5. Discrimination, segregation, ed 1) using physical body measurements, and separation. as with men’s clothing, and 2) organize Three coders independently analysed all women’s clothing in the same section. the comments and conducted a binary For example; analysis to calculate Krippendorff’s alpha ›› One participant commented, All sizes inter-coder reliability estimates for each are on the same rack, all styles should be theme (Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). Reli- in the same section, regardless of size. ability coefficients for each category were ›› Another participant commented, It as follows: 1. Questioning the current prac- may not be appealing, but ALL clothing tices (α = 0.93), 2. Suggesting new practices needs to be by measurement. No guess- (α = 0.70), 3. Confirming a merchandising ing involved. There needs to be a stan- term (α = 0.91), 4. Suggesting a new name dard across the industry. (α = 0.77), and 5. Discrimination, Segrega- ›› Why not use actual measurements, like tion, and Separation (α = 0.73). Each com- they do for men’s clothing? ment was treated as the unit of analysis, with the five themes being coded for pres- 3 Confirming a merchandising term ence/non-presence for each response. Nearly one fourth of the comments were New merchandising names and new prac- a confirmation or reinforcement of the tices for organising or labelling clothing terms used in the survey. The comments were recorded to look for similarities with- appeared to justify or add reasoning to in those themes. their term selection while also crossing between other themes such as questioning 1 Questioning the current practices the current practices. For example; One-quarter of the comments included a ›› One participant commented, How about question about how or why plus-size clo Women’s -no qualifier needed. thing is labelled or categorised as plus- Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 347

›› Another participant commented, I’m to describe their apparel and many object- ok with plus size, no need to cause con- ed to the method of segregating plus-sized fusion than [sic] it already can be. clothing. People with larger bodies in the ›› Another participant further comment- United States accept discrimination with ed, I really like the use of women’s wear. regularity and the findings of this study I don’t understand why clothing isn’t suggest that women who wear plus-size just labeled [sic] according to size want to be viewed as women and not as a though. Why do they even need distin- different group or other. guishers for women that are larger? The examination of language for women who wear plus-size provides crit- 4 Suggesting a new name ical insight as to how fashion communi- Forty per cent of the comments suggested cation further marginalises women and new terms that were not included in the perpetuates elitism in the fashion industry survey. Of these, the most common term by grouping women in sizing categories. recommendations were “full figured”, “ex- Cultural discourses stigmatise plus-size tended sizes”, and “real women”. Several as unattractive and unhealthy. Perhaps comments included the desire for new the use of the term plus-size is a method words without, for example, “loaded val- to maintain the status quo of the in-group. ues.” The fashion industry has mirrored this discourse and created a clear divide between 5 Discrimination, segregation, the attractive/healthy/in-group and the and separation. unattractive/unhealthy/out-group. The Approximately one-fourth of the respons- groups’ language and communications es specifically addressed feelings of being vary between clothing brands and main- separated or treated as other. These com- tain the plus-size consumer in a constant ments were similar to many of those sug- state of confusion and in doing so, keeps gesting a new practice. For example; the power in fashion reserved for the thin. ›› One participant commented, How about As one respondent asked: “Imagine if plus just put all the clothes together so we can was the normal section, and everything all shop for the same thing without feel- else were minus or straight size. Wouldn’t ing shamed into finding the large size it feel weird? But we do it to us fat people section stashed behind the shoes where all the time.” This comment highlights one no one can see us. example of how communication in the ›› Another participant commented, I don’t fashion industry is rooted in thin privilege think there should be different sections. (Bacon et al., 2016). There should just be clothes, and the Many companies have marketed pro ‘regular’ clothing should come in all the ducts for women who wear plus-size with sizes. Stop marginalising [sic] us. the purpose of embracing diversity, expos- ›› Another participant commented, The ing and criticising thin-privilege, elitism, clothing should not be separate in the and exclusion which are still at the heart women’s section. Meaning, it should of the fashion industry. While many Amer- not be segregated to another section. icans claim to value equality, the inequal- ity and discrimination in groupings that frame women by clothing size is evident. 7 Discussion Whether implicit or explicitly bias, retailers that limit sizes are in itself direct evi- Plus-size women in this study rated the dence of those companies’ view of larger majority of merchandising terms very un- women. desirable/ undesirable for communica- Some participants commented the tion in the fashion industry. Respondents word plus-size is acceptable and politi- felt that many terms are divisive because cally correct. For example, one participant of the segregation used in merchandising. stated: “I’m ok with plus size, no need to The majority preferred the term Women’s cause confusion than [sic] it already can 348 Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 be”. While other participants and feminist Social identity theory posits that when scholars feel euphemisms such as heavy, there is competition for a positive iden- large, voluptuous, and big-boned are only tity, individuals who already possess the used by people who find the truth distaste- positive identify are motivated to en- ful (Wann, 1998). Wann (2009) suggested hance and protect their identities (Rubin that plus-size women should embrace the & Hewstone, 2004). As we’ve found, there word “fat” and reclaim it as any other ad- are many negative associations and ex- jective such as tall or short. The difference periences as a plus-size consumer, and in views can be understood through social therefore dismantling the segregated siz- identity theory. As humans are motivated ing classification is a key motivation for to avoid uncertainty and ambiguity (Krug- plus-size women. However, the belief of lanski, 2004; Kruglanski, Pierro, Mannet- social mobility, leaves some women striv- ti, & De Grada, 2006) some women prefer ing to permeate the group boundaries. to maintain the plus-size clothing group Meaning, some plus-size women need the because dismantling it would cause con- group boundaries to define their success fusion. if they are able to join the in-group. Evi- Further illustrating social identity dence of this attempt to change body size with clothing size, participants report- and wear smaller clothing, can be seen in ed experiencing unfair treatment when the 60-billion-dollar revenue of the diet shopping. It has been found that even and weight loss industry (Williams, 2013). the smallest hint of categorisation, leads In another example, Gruys (2012) found people to favour their own groups (Tajfel, that plus-size women who talked about Billig, Bundy & Flament, 1971). Group ex- wanting to lose weight received better periments have found that the mere fact customer service than women who did of a grouping of people produces eth- not. This indicates that the boundaries of nocentrism and competitive intergroup clothing size groups are culturally agreed behaviour (Diehl, 1990). Through social upon as an easy threshold to cross and ex- identity theory, plus-size women are the plain why women who express a desire to out-group to the smaller sized/normal/ lose weight are treated with more respect regular women’s in-group, which may be during clothes shopping. viewed as a major threat to the virtuous The concept of clothing size in-group nature of the thin in-group. Thin individu- and out-group is a social construction of als are viewed as having, and thus valuing, the good and bad body. Group status is willpower, adherence to diets and a supe- communicated on clothing size labels and rior morale (Bacon et al., 2016). Defending the interpretation of those sizes is cultur- and preserving in-group values against ally bound. Perhaps a shift in language out-groups may be construed as a mor- and fashion communication can contrib- al imperative and perhaps drive implicit ute to identity beyond the physical. In and bias behaviours (Mummendey & Ot- thinking of consumers primarily as wom- ten, 1998). Maintaining the distinction been, and secondarily as clothing wearers, tween groups functions to protect the thin we can shift the thought process from I in-group because group threats are inter- am a size______, to I wear a size______. preted as individual threats (Thomas, Mc- Aspects of clothing, retail, and consumer Garty & Mavor, 2016). For example, stating experiences affect plus-size women’s so- that plus-size clothing takes up too much cial identity, and in this examination, we valuable floor space (Pinckney, 2014) is an expose the hierarchy of in-groups and out- attempt to justify the practice, maintain groups in the fashion industry. Redefin- the groups, and ward off accusations of ing the social value and restructuring the prejudice and discrimination. practices within fashion communications Our findings show that women who related to sizing, merchandising, design- are out-group (plus-size), despite age or ing, advertising, marketing, and retailing BMI, simply want to be referred to, and for plus-size women is needed. However, classified with the in-group (women). restructuring of fashion communication Christel / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 339–352 349 is unlikely unless the in-group recognises body measurements and hip shape varia- their thin-privilege and makes concerted tion based on Size. USA data. International efforts towards equality and inclusion in- Journal of Fashion Design, Technology stead of aggressively attempting to main- and Education, 5(1), 3-12. doi:10.1080/ tain the current segregated sizing system 17543266.2011.589083 (Jetten, McAuliffe, Hornsey & Hogg, 2006). Allik, J. & Realo, A., (2004). Individualism-col- This study of language and fashion lectivism and social capital. Journal of communication goes beyond surface lev- Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(1), 29–49. el and reveals the deeper construction doi:10.1177/0022022103260381 of power through social identity in the Anderson, E.T. & Simester, D.I., (2008). Re- fashion industry. Plus-size women ac- search note—does demand fall when count for 67 per cent of the US population customers perceive that prices are unfair? (Bauknecht, 2014) and addressing social The case of premium pricing for large identity could positively impact women’s sizes. Marketing Science, 27(3), 492–500. self-image. This study looked at the word Asbury, M.E., (2011). Exploring Weight Identity: plus-size as communicated as a merchan- An Examination of the Cognitive, Affective, dising classification and reinforced the an- and Behavioral Components of Weight, ecdotal evidence found in popular Amer- (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kan- ican fashion literature. Generalizing the sas). data beyond North America would not be Avilia, T. (2015, October 27). We asked women appropriate at this time and further stud- what they think of the term “plus-size” ies are needed. With a smaller sample size, here’s what they had to say. Mic Network there is also random variability to consid- Inc. Retrieved from https://mic.com/arti- er. With the current sample of N = 324, we cles/127415/we-asked-women-what-they- can expect 5–7% variability in estimates think-of-the-term-plus-size-here-s-what- for generalizing the findings (Fay, Hallo- they-had-to-say#.oSn7HNcCD ran & Follmann, 2007) and the research- Bacon, L., O’Reilly, C., & Aphramor, L. (2016). ers believe the results to be generalizable Reflections on Thin Privilege and Re- to North America. While the scope of this sponsibility. In E. Cameron and C. Russell paper does not include the logistics of im- (Eds.), The fat pedagogy reader: Challeng- plementing the practice of merchandising ing weight-based oppression in education all Women’s sizes together, it is evident that (pp. 41-50), New York, NY: Peter Lang the overwhelming majority of women who Publishing. wear plus-size desire to eradicate clothing Bauknecht, S. (2014, July 20). Fashion Brands size segregation. 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Communicating seduction. Luxury fashion advertisements in video campaigns Paula von Wachenfeldt, Stockholm University, Fashion Studies [email protected]

Abstract This study examines the different themes of communication that take place in video ad campaigns deriving from the French luxury fashion houses Louis Vuitton, Dior, Chanel, Cartier and Hermès. By using semiology as a method we were able to recognize the themes of adventure, seduction, love and play in the videos. This study explores also how the myth becomes an important meaning-maker of the luxury commodity and fills it with sensations and pleasure. Unlike all other ads, we could see that the meaning of luxury in the Hermès’ ones was not directly connected to the objects per se but to the experience of human senses in contact with nature. We could further conclude that the visual communication of the ads has no need to be logical as long as it can seduce with its positive signs. The object of luxury constitutes a strong communication tool helping the viewer to discover new places, to fall in love, to create magic and to experience the amusement of play. Embedded in recognizable social narratives, the objects in the moving image are provided with a seductive meaning able to support the eternal myth of luxury.

Keywords video advertisement, communication, luxury, myth, seduction.

1 Introduction to the seductiveness and the magic of the renewed commodities. ”All you need is luxury”, says the e-mail If this logic of profit is character- ad from the travelling site Secrete Escapes istic of the fashion industry then we could (personal e-mail, 2016) invoking one of presume that its luxury sector ought to be Beatle’s greatest hit where the word “love” directed by different criteria. As we have has obviously been replaced by “luxury”. investigated in “The Myth of Luxury in a Needless to say that the hit “All you need Fashion World” (2018), a luxury brand re- is love” reflected the very foundation of lies by definition on its own cultural her- the hippie community ideals of the sixties, itage sufficient in itself to uphold the rep- facing today a paradigm shift where luxury utation of the house. We argued however and self-indulgence represent the new in- that communication and marketing strate- terests of a globalised world. gies of luxury brands have joined the com- The fashion industry has had a great mercial principles of the fashion business, role in communicating these material based on increased production and easy interests with the aim of selling dreams, access to the products. In this joined busi- aspirations and fantasies to the consum- ness logic of fashion and luxury it is there- er. If fashion is the biological child of a fore tempting now to examine contempo- commercial rationale it is largely due to its rary visual communication of five French ephemeral nature. Renewal in styles and luxury houses. For this purpose, we have trends has been chiefly relying on adver- selected twelve video ad campaigns for the tising and marketing strategies. “Adver- houses Louis Vuitton, Dior, Chanel, Cartier tising has grounds for optimism”, states and Hermès shot between 2006 and 2017. accurately Gilles Lipovetski (1994, p. 156). This selection is due to the recognition of Optimism in the sense that the consumer these houses as classical luxury maisons can never reach the end of his commer- with long tradition of craftsmanship and cial daily life as he is repeatedly exposed know-how, and therefore good representa-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.010 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 354 Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 tives of the luxury fashion sector. The ob- by Voltaire in his poem Le Mondain from jective is to explore the semiology of luxu- 1736 (von Wachenfeldt, 2013). The inter- ry fashion through the different themes of active consumption, on the other hand, communication in the moving image and follows the logic of social endorsement consequently, to understand the effects on and emanates from an individual or group the viewer. Following Barthes (1990, p. 10), embracement of various communication we consider semiology as the analysis of practices where advertising is a powerful the imaginary objects (in contrast to the feature. This kind of consumption is ad- real objects) leading us to the perception ditionally promoted today by the devel- of the images raised by, in this case, the opment of social media and the display video ads. This method will enable us to of one’s material acquisitions on Youtube discover the meaning that comes out from or Instagram, to name but a few, becom- the collective representations of luxury ing hence a global feature of daily activi- fashion objects. We argue that this mean- ties (von Wachenfeldt, 2012, 2015). Based ing in the luxury fashion world is connect- on this assumption, we will also examine ed to the myth as significant component the kind of consumption that is advanced of luxury. Claiming a priori that the expe- in the video ads and its role in preserving rience of luxury is intimately connected to the myth of luxury in the 21st century. We sensations and pleasure, we intend equal- consider the myth as a leitmotiv of com- ly to look closer on how these two compo- munication in the luxury fashion sector nents interact in the “image-speech” so as due to its capacity to bring into light the to uphold the myth behind many luxury collectively unconscious and make it con- brands. Before being an object of premium scious. It is additionally a way to under- quality, luxury is an abstract notion that stand advertising as a communication tool represents the opulence and the refine- and how it affects the consumer’s beliefs ment of the upper-class. This is, however, and behaviour. We will therefore be look- the outcome of the mythification of luxury ing at the “image-speech” of the campaign as it had been reserved for the very few up ads and the socio-cultural practices that to the nineteenth century. That said, the it embraces. This “image-speech” is com- myth has continued to be a fundamental posed of two modes: the picture in motion communication tool as it is the condition and the language. Advertising seen from a sin qua non of the essence of luxury. Con- societal perspective, as it is the case here, sidering the myth as a kind of speech, an draws on different theories including se- oral or written message including any kind miotics, literary studies and sociology of writings or representations like photog- (Hackley and Hackley, 2015, p. 19). Our raphy, cinema, shows and publicity (Bar- investigation of the myth telling in adver- thes, 2009, pp. 131–132), we intent thus to tising will consequently draw on theoret- explore its embodiment in the campaign ical perspectives from Barthes’ semiotics films. (2009) and Baudrillard’s and Lipovetsky’s We argue further that the materializa- social theories of consumption (1998, tion of the myth takes place through differ- 2005, 1983, 1994). ent social practices aiming to reinforce the consumer’s craving for luxury consumption. In this regard, we consider the act of 2 Discovery, seduction and love consumption as being either subjective or interactive. The subjective consumption 2.1 Louis Vuitton revolves around personal indulgence and The video ad campaign The Spirit of travel is connected to sensations of comfort and from Louis Vuitton Cruise 2016 Collection pleasure. Visits to health resorts, culinary, is filmed in the desert of Palm Springs, travel and art experiences for instance are California, by the photographer Patrick all representatives of this intimate enjoy- Demarchelier. “A quest for freedom and ment that appeals to the human senses adventure on the other side of the world and that have been rhetorically celebrated is what the Louis Vuitton “spirit of trav- Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 355 el” is all about” says the introductory text success is a way of personifying them. We on Louis Vuitton’s website. In this desert would like to draw a parallel here between scenery we find the actresses Michelle Wil- this “humanisation” of the objects and the liams driving a car while Alicia Vikander, Voltairian rhetoric on luxury from 1736. somewhere else in the desert, is walking As we have investigated in “The Language with a pink Louis Vuitton handbag. A black of Luxury in Eighteenth-Century France” and white snake is crawling towards her. (2013), luxury commodities are valuable To her voice saying “I don’t walk behind because of the physical sensations they I find new path” the snake is now held in provide human beings. In this, the objects her fearless hands. This scene is followed become one with the subject. In the same by others where Vikander is surrounded way, the Louis Vuitton handbag in the by many Louis Vuitton trunks, and later Cruise 2016 ad campaign is connected to on the actress is in a palm forest holding a the adventure of two cinema stars, sharing new model of handbag, admiring the high their experience of discovery travel. Ab- palm trees that surround her. The whole stract notions like adventure and freedom video is imbued with the spirit of adven- are given a life through the handbags. It is ture and the excitement of new discover- further interesting to see how the scenery ies. To the voice of Vikander saying “In- of the ad (the image) is completed by the spired by the past we make the future” the speech saying that the past is the keystone two actresses are finally united in the same on which the future of the house is built scenes but without any real interaction, upon. This “image-speech” links togeth- except for the handbags that each one of er past, adventure, success, celebrity and them carries along. In fact, the handbag fantasy to perpetuate the mythical ele- appears to be the only thing they share in ments of luxury in the Louis Vuitton bag. their travelling experience. “Above the or- Thanks to all these attributes, the house dinary to the extraordinary”, say now the does not “walk behind”. two voices. Many features in this video rely on 2.2 Dior the primary business focus of the Louis If travelling is a precious key theme for the Vuitton house, namely “travel” and “bags” French trunk maker from 1854, seduction originally related to practical arrange- and femininity can be attributed to the ments. But practicality is not a luxury at- house that created the flower woman. The tribute and thus a visionary world has to ad campaign Lady Dior Grey London by be created in order to communicate a John Cameron Mitchell from 2010 is the meaning to the body of the brand. This is story of attraction, magic and temptation. where the viewer can dive into the magic The French actress Marion Cotillard is a of the desert and the palm tree forest, get- showgirl performing in a time glass before ting hence the sense of adventure. More- the enchanted public. While the red sand over, using celebrities in advertisement is slowly moving down the glass exposing is quite a common feature but we would her body bit by bit, the public is thrilled of like to advance here that the personas of excitement. Cotillard grasps her grey Dior Williams and Vikander also correspond handbag looking for something but then, to the properties that the house wants to with a tricky smile, puts it back to take be associated with, namely success, talent out a key holder from her bustier. Slowly and passion. The Golden Globe Award and strolling with her key from one man to an- Oscar nominations for Williams and the other, her eyes finally fall on the actor Sir Oscar for Vikander can be considered as Ian McKellen in a wheelchair. Indifferent emblem of these properties. As such, they to his physical disability, Cotillard throws epitomize the “above the ordinary” em- over the key to him, and in the follow- bracing the supposedly outstanding char- ing scene he is in her dressing room. The acter of a luxury house. Connecting fur- same grey handbag is once again used to ther the commodities of the house to the pick up a Dior pocket flask that she drinks human attributes of passion, talent and from and handles over to McKellen. Cotil- 356 Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 lard uncovers gently his paralysed legs and perience of emotions where the commod- caresses them while he is still holding the ities are idealized for their healing power. Dior pocket flask in his hand. The magical Dior’s minute-long ad campaign from touch of the French actress is still present 2014 The Future is Gold by Jean-Baptiste in the next scene by means of a Dior pen Mondino for the perfume J’adore adds that she takes out from the same hand- another compelling spectacle to the pres- bag in order to help a painter to finish his tigious reputation of the house. Charlize painting. Once her missions are done she Theron walks gracefully through La Gal- reappears elegantly dressed to the same erie des Glaces at the Versailles palace handbag, applauded by the public and when a long cloth in silk falls down from heading towards the exit door. The dis- an opening in the ceiling, revealing a abled man is shouting out his distress and piece of the sky above. “The past can be the painter goes crazy on the canvas. There beautiful” says Theron and climbs on the is a moment of wonder when the disabled cloth towards the opening in the ceiling. suddenly rises up from his chair and the “A memory, a dream […] the only way out painter looks astonished at his beautiful is up. It’s not heaven, it’s a new world, the portrait. Cotillard walks out towards the future is gold, j’adore Dior” says the allur- striking light and the enchantment of the ing voice of Theron. Unlike Lady Dior Grey moment is unmistakable. It is all in the London, this video does not involve emo- handbag. tions of empathy, frustration or distress. Dior’s ad campaign involves the key It is a commercial of a fantasy scene shot elements of magic and seduction to com- in a splendid place with a dazzling actress municate the spectacular character of the in gold, playing the seductive feminine house. The leitmotif of the story imbeds woman. The colour of the clothing and the the spectators in emotions of empathy, surroundings reflect directly the gold top frustration and amazement, crowned by of the perfume flacon of J’adore. Moreover, a catharsis at the end of the video. In this gold as an element represents luxury, cho- atmosphere of emotions and temptation, sen and used since ancient times by the the Dior objects get a prominent role as royals. The features of palace, gold, beauty they represent comfort and aid: the pock- and femininity reflect all the qualities and et flask relaxes, the pen provides help, and characteristics that the house Dior wants all of this is contained in the magic hand- to be associated with. These attributes bag carried by a seductive woman. In his take us further back to the idea of heritage analysis of advertising, Lipovetsky (1994) where “the past can be beautiful”. Heri- asserts that “Seductivness can […] be free- tage includes preservation of tradition and ly exploited for its own sake; it shows off Dior as an haute couture house – and thus as hyperspectacle, displaying the magic of an institution of craftsmanship skills – can artifice in stagings indifferent to the real- promote its image through the different ity principle and to the logic of plausibil- features of the video. The perfume J’adore ity” (p. 158). Indeed, none of the features leads the way up to a new discovery and in the video are credible. Their role is thus a new world. The luxury commodity is, de to create an ersatz drama with a handbag, novo, full of sensations and reverie helping a pocket flask and a pen as important sig- the human beings to explore new impres- nifiers of a luxury brand. What remains by sions. Needless to say that this commercial the spectator is a story of wonder where plays on the superlative and can certainly the Dior objects have the power to release. not be taken literally. But this is exactly the The brand’s name is “humanized, given a point: the superlative becomes a playful soul and a psychology” (Lipovetsky, 1994, element in the ad and can therefore be p. 158). In this context, the luxury objects easily adopted by the spectator. In fact, we become indispensable in the illustration are smoothly led to connect the fragrance of sentiments and in people’s contact with Dior to beauty, splendour, high tailoring each other. This representation of luxury and not least playfulness. And we can al- is, once again, connected to the human ex- most smell it. Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 357

2.3 Chanel the second relates to the implausibility of Chanel No 5’s commercial Train de nuit di- the end of the plot. Let us go back to Li- rected by Jean-Pierre Jeunet and featuring povetsky (1994) here when he describes the French actress Audrey Tautou offers the character of advertising that another interesting themes of sensuality and discovery. Tautou catches up the train does not seduce homo psycho-analyticus, but and while standing in the narrow corri- homo ludens. Its effective communication has dor, a handsome young man passes by. to do with its playful superficiality, with the A frozen moment where he cannot make cocktail of images, sounds and meanings it of- a move while breathing her perfume and fers without any concern for the constraints of a mutual affinity arises. Well in her cabin, reality or the seriousness of truth. (Lipovetsky, she poses the flacon of Chanel No 5 on 1994, p. 160). the table. The train passes through different landscapes and the actress seems to In effect this “cocktail” is significant in be having a pleasant dream as her naked communicating the message of Chanel’s body moves in a sensual way between the iconic fragrance. The video is shot in an ex- sheets. The young man walks down the citing place (the scenes of the train and the corridor and is about to knock on her door sightseeing are charming) to the sound of while, simultaneously, she is awake and the train rolling at night and to Billie Hol- can feel his presence. The flacon is shaking iday’s romantic song “I am a fool to want and its shadow is on the wall of the cabin. you”. Seduction has no need to be close to They never meet again on the train. Arriv- reality as long as it can nourrish the myth ing to Istanbul, Tautou goes on a discovery that is embedded in many love stories. Let trip in the oriental city when suddenly, on us emphasize here in, accordance with a boat, she catches the handsome man in Barthes (2009, p. 131), that a myth is nei- the lens of her camera. In the next scene, ther the object (the perfume flacon) nor she is back at the train station but stops the idea behind the object (luxury and suddenly when she feels somebody’s love) but the mode of signification and presence in her back. The young man ap- the form that create a system of commu- proaches her from behind and kisses her nication (p. XXX). Correspondingly, the ad sensually on the shoulders and the neck. campaign of Chanel No 5, is the form that They are both standing in the middle of a contains the speech with its many signifi- mosaic floor with the Chanel’s intertwined ers conveying the discourse on beauty and C in gold. sensuality of the luxury object. Love stories are many times kept alive thanks to the myth that surrounds them 2.4 Cartier and because of the positive feelings they Other love stories are to be discovered in involve, regardless their end. They are The Proposal from 2015, Sean Ellis video therefore easily remembered. Remem- campaign for Cartier. The inauguration brance is further an important element in scene displays the recognizable French advertising as the aim is to lead the con- symbol, The Eiffel Tour, followed by scenes sumer to the awareness of the product. A of three young couples that bump into sensual meeting between two people is a each other hastily and accidently without recognizable feeling from reality or from being acquainted. The scenes of the three cinema and by associating Chanel No 5 love stories succeed each other resulting with it, the consumer can experience a cer- in a linear narrative: a couple in a taxi car tain familiarity. The perfume is the engine is on its way to the airport, another one of this encounter revolving around beauty, is at the Rodin Museum while the third sensations, and not least the unexpected. represents a desperate man who is late Like the commercial of Dior, Chanel pic- to his rendez-vous. The girl at the Rodin tures the seduction and the playfulness. Museum receives an image of the statue While the first trait is present in every “Suzon” on her cell phone while her boy- scene through the emotions of the actors, friend suddenly disappears. The following 358 Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 scene takes us to a dialogue at the airport surprise and not least entertainment. The where the woman is wondering why she story of three young men offering amazing is leaving and how much he will miss her, Cartier rings to their girlfriends might be and in the next scene we see the desperate perceived as a hyperbolic act but would this man running up the stairs to catch up his kind of overstatement trouble the viewer? girlfriend in the elevator. “Je voulais rendre Hackley and Hackley (2015, pp. 19–20) un- ton anniversaire plus mémorible”, says the derline that “consumers are expected to be young man with an obvious English ac- able to distinguish between untruth and cent while the elevator doors open up. The humorous hyperbole, but the advertisers comicality of the situation appears here as make every effort to blur this distinction” he is using a non-existing word in French (p. XX). In fact, the viewer is rather seduced (rhyming possibly with horrible) and is by the lovable storytelling and the beauti- therefore directly corrected by a lady in ful jewellery as both features interplay in the elevator. Back to the airport scene, the order to create the effect of seduction. The couple is now kissing when the man, on meaning is created through the charming the sly, takes his girlfriend’s passport out attempts of the young men to obtain the of her handbag. At the museum, the girl, acceptance for love and marriage through once has reached the statue, gets anoth- the agency of Cartier’s highly recognized er image-message representing this time aesthetics. This is the “immediate impres- a part of the Rodin statue “Le penseur”. sion” that the myth aims at despite the ir- The other young man is still running up rationality of the action (Barthes, 2009, p. the stairs after the elevator and at the air- 155). In this, the myth encounters the na- port, before the check-in desk, the woman ture of advertising itself since a fascinated is seeking desperately after her passport consumer can take it for granted (Hackley while he is helping her with her search. and Hackley, 2015, p. 14). Also the theme The tension is rising in the three narratives of luxury, embodied in the Cartier objects, when, suddenly, the little famous red box is highlighted through the supremacy of of Cartier appears in the statue’s hand and French culture as both the Eiffel tower and is grabbed quickly by the boyfriend (who Rodin’s sculptural art figure strongly in the had placed it there); the other man is at his video. This results in a sophisticated view knee at the airport taking out one item at on luxury as high material culture. Cartier the time when he, at turn, presents the red can thus firmly position itself as an hon- box to his fiancée, and the third man final- ourable company with a long sociocultural ly reaches the right floor saying “je t’aime” heritage. while opening the red box. Moments of great surprise and happiness for everyone and the final scene of the video shows Ro- 3 The natural and the playful din’s stunning sculpture “Le penseur” with the Eiffel Tour behind it. The short film 3.1 Hermès ends up where it started, namely with the If adventure, magic, seduction and love great symbol of Cartier’s national and cul- have been recurrent themes in the adver- tural origin, the Eiffel Tower. tising campaigns for Louis Vuitton, Dior, The theme of love is part of Cartier’s Chanel and Cartier, playfulness and na- profile as the company has the iconic col- ture would be the ones of Hermès’ com- lection “Love” since the 1970’s. Love is also mercials. The film La fabrique de la Soie a strong emotional experience that can be directed by Craig McDean in 2016 takes recognized and sympathised with. What us to Hermès’ silk workshop where the more is, these three love stories have a famous scarfs are produced. A model is humoristic undertone that can easily me- either lying or running on the working diate the message to the viewer: namely tables where all the scarves are prepared. that love can be beautifully expressed and Throughout the remainder of the film, experienced with the help of a luxurious the same model plays around with the ring. Luxury here is connected to humour, exquisite and colourful scarves, touching Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 359 them and rolling them around her body. the basic element of life and the films rep- This feeling of gaiety is accompanied to a resent this meaning by connecting it to cheerful and speedy music that reinforces human sensations. And the commodity, the feeling of lightness, play and juvenili- in this case the perfume, is the bottle con- ty. These same sensations are illustrated taining this synergy. in the video Maxi-Twilly Cut from 2016 We can conclude here that Hermès’ where young models are skating in a real video campaigns do not display any attri- skatepark with the famous “carré de soie” butes of magic or seduction. The themes bound around their neck, hair and wrists. are basic, referring either to elements in The ad is groundbreaking as it reverses our nature or to the pleasure of playing. The view of the scarves as chic and reserved to representation of the Hermès commod- a specific higher group. The commodity ities in the commercials above is in fact in the ad is part of the freedom of the play subordinated to nature or to amusement. and as such, its meaning as luxury item is Nonetheless, in the latest commercial naturalized. for the spring summer shoes collection The earlier commercial Bandanas 2017 the focus is on the feet wearing male de soie from 2014 features the same idea and female sandals and other shoes from of playfulness. A teenager is guiding her Hermès. The fast-changing images and horse through Paris and in the following the cheerful music create a rapid tempo in scene, her horse has been overtaken by the film. But once again, there is no sup- other girls. The western theme is added to plementary ornamentation, neither of the a Parisian setting with western music and objects nor of the framing of the brand. fashion style accompanying the famous Hermès bandanas as horse blankets, flags and headbands. The young girl’s ability 4 The construction of magic-meaning to interact with the horses and to control them enables her finally to get back We have argued at the outset that sensa- her own one, guiding him happily back tions and pleasure are intimately con- through Paris, as in the first scene. nected to the experience of luxury and at- Unlike the other houses investigat- tempted to show how luxury brands make ed here, Hermès’ commercials do not in- use of this connection in their video adver- volve any extraordinary features or intense tisements. We suggested further that con- emotions. The plot is often very simple sumption of luxury goods can be mainly and does not allude to luxury or opulence, of subjective or interactive type and in the neither does it take place in sophisticated following we intend to explore the kind of places. The mini films of the perfume Terre consumption that prevails in our advertis- d’Hermès illustrate well this particularity. ing material. Videos from 2006, 2013 and 2016 revolve The analysis of the twelve film ads all around the same features: earth, wind, identified different sensations emanating water and horses. In the one from 2006 the from the themes of discovery, magic, se- plot takes place in nature with a man grab- duction and play. Pleasure, as a personal bing the sand in his hand to the sound of indulgence, is at the heart of the idea of the horse gallop and the wind. The com- consumerism and the condition sine qua mercial from 2013 shows a man working non for its essence. In this regard, Baudril- the land and drying his sweat while a voice lard (1998, pp. 34–35) speaks of “le vertige saying “From dust you are to dust you will de la réalité” that is realized through the return”. In the mini film from 2016 for the consumer goods. In order to help us es- same perfume, we see a horse galloping, cape the “closure” of everydayness, mass beautiful rock formations and a man div- communications offer a “simulacrum of ing in the ocean. The synergy between na- the world”. This simulacrum, replacing re- ture, horses and human beings are central ality, comforts us with the positive signs of in these commercials. The perfume’s name security that are imbedded in the images. itself, Terre (earth), reflects the meaning of “Consumption is governed by a form of 360 Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 magical thinking; daily life is governed by ple from the exclusive Swiss watch house a mentality based on miraculous thinking”, Chopard. The printed ad “Happy Dreams” states Baudrillard further (1998, p. 31). We represents a young model jumping in the have seen how this idea of magic embod- air with a happy smile while pointing out ied the themes of adventure, seduction with her index towards the watch on her and love identified in the ad campaigns. wrist. The cheerful physiognomy of the This “magical thinking” can be connected model in Chopard’s ad is in direct relation to the type of subjective consumption re- with the watch itself. The diamond watch lying on the idea of personal indulgence makes people happy as it might realise filled with thrill and joy. Herein, the ads their dreams. Watch and diamonds lead to speak to the individual as if he would be or are the equivalent of happiness. That is specially chosen to experience the plea- what Barthes (2009, p. 156) calls “natural sure of luxury. relationship” in the eyes of the observer. Moreover, since the ads build narra- We prefer to term it as pseudo-natural re- tives with recognizable themes and emo- lationship since it is a constructed one, us- tions, their meaning can be easily adopted ing the material object to affect the state of by the consumer. As a powerful commu- mind. Seeing advertisement from a socio- nication tool they affect the consumer’s cultural perspective, Hackley and Hackley attitude and can therefore be associated (2015) state accurately that with the interactive consumption. In this regard, they assist people in exploring new advertisers provide the suggestion, and, as sensations through the luxury commod- consumers, we complete the gestalt. Gestalt ity: The Louis Vuitton bag promotes the psychology refers to the way people com- discovery, the Chanel No 5 triggers love, plete the circle of meaning from partial cues the Dior bag does magic, the Cartier rings or prompts. […] Advertising plays with the generate humor and surprise and finally, grey area of meaning, using implicit connota- Hermès’ bandanas engender the play. The tion and suggestion as well as making explicit objects deriving from these houses are ide- claims. (p. 18). alized for their capacity to create all these vibes and excitement, becoming therefore We suggest in consequence that the image- important symbols of the house’s luxury speech of the ads form a circle of different attribute. components that interact semantically We could advance further in the same with each other. The luxury object is em- vein that the “image-speech” represent- bedded in different social narratives revolv- ed in the ads supports and maintains the ing around the themes of travel, attraction, double function of the myth. Following Barthes (2009, p. 140), this double function “makes us understand something and Figure 1: Myth of luxury it imposes it on us”. Correspondingly, the commodities are fed with meaning that is easily perceived by the consumer. And The object in the ad campaigns although this latter is helped through the understanding process of the myth, he still can’t distinguish its “semiological system” and sees it therefore as a “causal process” (Barthes, 2009, p. 156). If you carry a Louis Social narratives Myth of luxury Brand Vuitton handbag you will experience magic places, if you use Chanel No 5 you might fall in love, if you wear a Dior bag you could create magic, if you buy a Cartier ring you will surprise and seduce and if you wear Meaning the Hermès bandanas you will gain the sense of play. Let us add another exam- Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 361 love and play. Each narrative generates the cial practice that is easy to relate to and to meaning of the object, connecting it fur- perceive. The myth of luxury that these ads ther to the brand behind it. This would il- maintain does not have to be reasonable lustrate the Barthesian “causal process” as for the consumer, as for him and for her, it is perceived by the consumer (Figure 1). the real semantic features are not crucial At the heart of this circle, we find the as long as the message in the communica- myth of luxury supported and perpetuat- tion is conceivable and agreeable. ed by the interaction of these four com- In this logic of belief lies also the strat- ponents. And what is the myth if not this egy of personalization of commodities. “vertigo of reality”? This vertigo helps us J’adore talks to me as an individual, it is to create an identity through the meaning what the I worships. “I don’t walk behind of the object. Baudrillard (1998) points out I find new path” as Alicia Vikander says in that: the Louis Vuitton ad, “Je t’aime” as in Cart- ier’s one. The individualization suggests [y]ou never consume the object in itself (in that the I is a strong selfhood that needs its use-value); you are always manipulating to be rewarded and responded to. Simply objects (in the broadest sense) as signs which “Because I am worth it” as in L’Oréal’s ad. distinguish you either by affiliating you to Interestingly, Lipovetsky (1983, p. 155) your own group taken as an ideal reference or in L’ère du vide considers mass consump- by marking you off from your group by refer- tion as a formula where the accessibility of ence to a group of higher status. (Baudrillard, all to cars, television, blue jeans and Coca- 1998, p. 61). Cola coexists with the personalization and the accentuation of singularities. It is not surprising that this formula can be said to A handbag from Louis Vuitton or a ring characterize fashionable objects. What is from Cartier helps us – at least at a mimet- more remarkable though is that this comic level – to confirm our belonging to the munication strategy is even adopted by higher group, both culturally and socially, the luxury industry. or in any other case, to socialize with this We could conclude from this that group. If we moreover cannot purchase there is an ambiguous attitude when lux- a Dior handbag, we can still buy the per- ury brands meet advertising. Luxury is fume of the house. “J’adore” is not only the supposedly for the happy few while adver- ersatz of the costly dress but also of the tising aims at reaching everyone. Luxury lack of sensuality in daily life that can be speaks to a higher personal choice while compensated by the smell. The discourse advertising addresses the masses. Indeed, of advertising consists of this particular today’s communication of luxury plays ability to rock us in a recognizable secu- on the mythical and unique image of the rity initiated by the narratives. Certainly, brand whilst adopting the seductive strat- the viewer does not literally believe in the egy of mass-mediated fashion goods. message of the ad: A handbag is not the adventure itself, the perfume cannot take us to heaven, a proposal does not require a 5 Conclusion full diamond ring and scarves do not necessarily entail playfulness. It is neither the We departed from the hypothesis that the rhetoric of the ad nor the information giv- myth is an important meaning-maker of en by it that generate the direct effects on luxury. The analysis of the video ad cam- the consumer but the “underlying leitmo- paigns from Louis Vuitton, Dior, Chanel, tiv of protection and gratification” (Bau- Cartier and Hermès allowed us to see the drillard, 2005, p. 181) that the ad compass- recurrent presence of a hyperspectacle es. These leitmotivs of pleasure, attraction, featuring adventure, magic, seduction and entertainment and love that we have seen play, all of them being important units of and that have been represented through the mythified luxury commodities. The the luxury commodities constitute a so- representations of the objects in the short 362 Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 films connect their existence to the human Hackley, C. and Hackley, R.A. (2015). Advertis- experience, giving them the power to dising and promotion. (3rd Edition.) London: cover, to heal, to seduce, to fall in love and Sage. to play. In this respect, the objects endorse Lipovetsky, G. (1983). L’ère du vide. Essais the expected representation of the idea of sur l’individualisme contemporain. Paris: luxury as something exceptional. Analyz- Gallimard. ing the different signs in every video has Lipovetsky, G. (1994). The empire of fashion. enabled us to identify the frequency of hy- Dressing modern democracy. Translated perbolism in the narratives. The ads in fo- by Catherine Porter. Princeton: Princeton cus here were all based on the superlative University Press. as a tool to seduce and trigger the fantasy von Wachenfeldt, P. (2018). “The Myth of and the need of the viewer. Luxury in a Fashion World”. Fashion, It is noteworthy that, unlike the other Style and Popular Culture, 5(3), 313–328. houses, Hermès’ ads do not revolve around von Wachenfeldt, P. (2013). “The Language of the extraordinary character of the objects Luxury in Eighteenth-Century France”. but rather around the human experience, In Hancock H. J. et al. Editors, Fashion in whether it is discovered through the con- Popular Culture. Literature, Media and tact with nature or with the elementary act Contemporary Studies (pp. 209–223). of playing. The significance of luxury by Chicago: Intellect. Hermès is not connected to the objects per von Wachenfeldt, P. (2012). Fashioning the self se but to the experience of senses. In that in pre-modern and post-modern society. Paper sense, the Hermès’ commodity does not presented at Cimode (2012). 1° Congresso play a relevant role in the relation between Internacional de Mode e Design. Guimarães: humans and nature. Universidade do Minho. Retrieved from We could further see that every com- http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/ modity is built on different recognizable 1822/29259, pp. 1362–1371. social narratives that enable the percep- von Wachenfeldt, P. (2015). The taste of the tion of its meaning. Referring to travel, to good life: Representations of luxury in seduction or to love is an experience that Swedish media. Luxury, History, Culture, the viewers can easily relate to. In fact, Consumption, 2(2), 91–113. the “image-speech” of the ads takes place through a circle of different components that secure the double function of the Videos myth, being both understandable and controlling. Dazed by this seductive verti- Adit France (February 3, 2016). The proposal. go, we can effortlessly preserve the eternal Retrieved from https://www.youtube. myth of luxury. com/watch?v=QIvu4o60dNI555r Chanel. (2011, March 8). Train de Nuit – CHANEL N°5. Retrieved from https:// References www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5r5PXBiwR0 Fashionistas Daily (June, 2011,). Lady Dior Grey Barthes, R. (1990). The fashion system. Translat- London. Retrieved from https:// ed by Mathew Ward and Richard Howard. www.youtube.com/watch?v=keU74IKqltQ Berkeley: University of California Press. Feelunique. (September 10, 2014,). Dior J’adore. Barthes, R. (2009). Mythologies. Translated by The Future is Gold Annette Lavers. London: Vintage Books. Hermès (September 13, 2016). Maxi-twilly cut. Baudrillard, J. (1998). The consumer society. Retrieved from https://www.youtube. Myths and structures. Translated by com/watch?v=EID_Acm0f0g Chris Turner. London: Sage. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ Baudrillard, J. (2005). The system of objects. watch?v=vlP0FfHeiH8 Translated by James Benedict. London: Louis Vuitton. (2015, October 16). The spirit Verso. of travel from Louis Vuitton. Retrieved Von Wachenfeldt / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 353–363 363

from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=WLq7HFkuFp4 LovE in the Mist (2017, May 27). Hermès Spring Summer 2017 Shoe Collection. Retrieved from https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=Y2DqrFO5S14 PegaseBuzz. (2014, July 11). Bandanas de Soie. Retrieved from https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=XWX4OQo4-Ns Tendance Parfums. (2016, February 3). La pub Terre d’Hermès 2016. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tMwCT6j83a4 TheCologneReview. (2011, March 5). Terre d’Hermès by Hermès International. Retrieved from https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=cu_TtoZbrks Vivayce Channel. (2017, March 6). La fabrique de la Soie. Retrieved from https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-nPXAPaLcE Wallace, S. (November 27, 2013, November 27). Terre d’Hermès. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ov8iLepmdB8

Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381

Body in fashion films: The new net-aesthetic era Simonetta Buffo, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milano, Istituto Marangoni Milano [email protected]

Abstract With “fashion film” we mean those online videos that are peculiar to fashion industry and are developing their own language and new types of brand narration. The field of study presented here to is related to language. The objective is indeed to better understand how this new communication tool has influenced the conventional language of fashion images through the development of new codes or a transformation of the existing ones. The object under examination is, in particular, the body as a preferred communication code within this industry. This body is not viewed by fashion as a simple object to dress, but rather as a mediating channel between the individual’s individuality and their need for communication, or better to say, their need to establish a relationship within its context. To do so, it seemed appropriate to start with the examination of the history of fashion images by concisely analysing how the body has changed its communicative role over the decades. Further analysis was then conducted in order to focus on the new meaning undertaken by the body in fashion films. As a consequence, the result is a complex and extremely rich picture.

Keywords fashion film, fashion language, codes, fashion photography, fashion images

1 Body in fashion: codes therefore leads the individual to live his and languages own body with awareness and self-determination, even more in modern times - Body as social product (Bourdieu, 1987) the individual is inspired by patterns com- is an important communication tool that ing often from images of the various media builds and conveys its own identity: the he is subjected to, so as to feel comfortable body mediates every relationship between in his own social relationships. the individual and the social context he In particular, fashion images have in- belongs to, as well as it primarily establish- terpreted the woman and her body over es a self-relationship to gain identity. the years – through these images one can In a semiotic perspective, the body understand how women have been con- reveals the form of the individual-signifier ceived, what has been and is still trans- also through garments, which then trans- gressive and what are the stereotypes relate the individual-signified’s being and lated to body. essence, that is his values. Garments represent the language the In his book The Fashion System, body adopts to communicate itself: gar- Barthes (1967) starts from the question: ments redefine and narrativize the body “… but which body is the Fashion garment by contextualizing it. Besides the fashion to signify?” (p. 269). of garments, there is therefore the fashion Body and garment mutually generate of the body, which is continuously re-se- meaning: body and fashion attract and re- manticized as a bearer of quintessential pel each other, in a constant game of new values in different historical, social and significations for new significances. costume periods. Indeed, fashion images French semiologist Greimas (1983) are not about general but alive clothes – states that body is the place where we find body’s aim is moulding and giving fashion values, which moderate the relationship world a soul. More specifically, we could between subject and him/herself. This re- say that body in fashion becomes a narra- lationship results from a process, which tor through the use of images – we can in

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.011 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 366 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 fact experience a dream when looking at been able to structure an authentic lan- those women shown in the pictures from guage over time, which is as highly recog- the early 20th century to the present day. nizable and clearly characterized by rules, Fashion images’ primary purpose was to symbols and intrinsic codes as any other translate the idea of beauty by showing a kind of language. perfect beauty of a perfect woman for a In the introduction to this book, we perfect dress. That body was consequently read: perfect. By retracing the history of fashion In order to formulate this opinion, I have images, we see how the body interprets spent many days browsing through the pages this abstract model of perfection over the from the old editions of the premier fashion years and, especially, how these images magazine Vogue Italia, and collecting the yes- have always made a dream of perfection terday’s and today’s ad campaigns. Likewise, I come true by codifying the idea of beau- have watched the online short movies of the ty into ever-changing languages. Body is leading brands. This was the beginning of an the place of life, experiences, feelings; it extremely fascinating and interesting experi- is also the object and instrument used to ence which allowed me to outline the journey communicate and seduce the others, and made by fashion, even if it was not always a it is forced to adapt, at least partially, to a conscious path yet clear anyway. (p. 9) (trans- changing gaze. lated by author)

We are considering only one code of this 2 Fashion body through the time: language, because it is probably the most a short history crucial in building fashion brand imageries: the body code and its evolution over Albert Liberman, Vogue’s artistic and ed- time. itorial director from 1941 to 1994, stated Our findings lead us to identify four that fashion photography is not a photo different ways of living and interpreting about clothes, but rather a photo about a the body in the last millennium woman (Angeletti, Oliva, 2012). a Art Body Starting off with this suggestion and b Narrating Body adopting a semiotic approach, our at- c Free Body tempt is to interpret the body, which is d Desire Body. narrated by fashion photography as shape of a (fashion) content, both content and Each of these bodies had its own expres- shape being seen over the time. sive peak in a given historical, socio-cul- For this reason, we have seen the body tural and even artistic context. This is the as code, which communicates the classic reason why each body characterizes and fashion luxury exclusivity and distinctive- is characterized by its period of origin ness. and development. All these categories are It is certainly true that photography however not limited to their development is often outlined in semiotics as indexical period, but rather they are still enriching sign, or just index, due to the so-called the fashion language over the decades, as physical continuity between sign and ob- it is evident by looking at the contempo- ject rary photographers. In order to provide a better insight into each category, we will (…) The current presence of photography in- therefore take several contemporary fash- forms us that, in a certain moment, the pho- ion photographers as an example, whose tographed object was in front of the camera style recalls one of these four interpreta- lens. (Volli, 2003, p. 28; translated by author) tions of the body code, and without forgetting that fashion language is so rich In my previous study (Buffo, 2012), I have and unique thanks to the contamination however shown how fashion images have Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 367 and combination of these great masters of icality in favour of a polite and timeless photography through the times. femininity. Let’s see them one by one. Just a few years after De Meyer, Horst The first is Body as Art, which first ap- P. Horst (1906–1999) will be however the peared in the U. S. on the pages of the re- first fashion photographer to celebrate the cently born Vogue magazine. body by recovering its true authenticity – Indeed, Vogue meant to be the first model of the other great photographer fashion magazine to serve as trends lov- G. Hoyningen-Huene (1900–1968), at the er and promoter through fashion images, beginning it was only as photographer and it started as a magazine addressed to that Horst turned De Meyer’s sculptural a special, feminine, elitist, cultured and body into pure sensuality, a body in con- highbrow audience. stant balance between image and imagery. In 1913, Mr. Condé Nast (just a few One of his most famous images portrays years after the purchasing of that small a woman on her back, wearing a corset magazine, i. e. Vogue), decided to confide drawn by Mainbocher. This image, struc- in a photographer so as not to simply show tured as a trompe l’oeil, shows only the garments but rather create trendsetting back chest of the girl, without legs, as if images in terms of taste, clothing and any she were leaning against a shelf. The light other topic to arouse interest in this nar- effects and the malicious slip-on corset, row, selected and exclusive female audi- with its ribbons lasciviously falling on the ence belonging to the American high so- shelf, are in harmony with this perfect and ciety. The photographer’s name was Adolf tonic (though not too muscular) model’s de Meyer, the first to establish a close rela- body, thus creating a soft aura of fascina- tionship between art and fashion, between tion. This is one of the first images to cel- pure research and what will be later called ebrate the body and an idea of beauty as a cultural industry. He infused not only his harmonious balance of shapes. photographic skills in fashion images but Begun by Horst, this trend then took primarily his sophisticated style, which on different but always consistent ele- became firmly popular during those years. ments through other great fashion pho- Thanks to him, an aesthetic taste took on tographers’ lenses, such as Irving Penn a broader meaning for the first time, thus (1917–2009) in the Fifties and Sixties, who allowing us to talk about aesthetic massi- completely sacrificed the model’s identity fication. and personality in his quest for contem- His images depicted imageries where plation and aesthetic gratification – the the dream was directly exhibited and bodies he chose are therefore the result women looked ethereal and unreal, un- of an exquisite and formal exercise made conscious models of the new fashion up of lines, volumes, silhouettes and chro- world. Neither their body nor their gar- matic values. ments were the protagonists, but it was The same pleasure in the body’s aes- rather the dreamlike atmosphere able to thetic contemplation, still in perfect bal- turn every woman into a model to create ance between image and imagery, can be that desire always needed by fashion. found today in the Peruvian artist Ma- As mentioned before, this photo- rio Testino, born in Lima in 1954. He was graphic signature didn’t fade out com- indeed absolutely able to portray celeb- pletely, as we still find the same dreamy rities with magistral skills, thus restoring environment in some important con- their most authentic identity: his famous temporary fashion photographers: one of exhibition showing the pictures of Prin- them being of course Paolo Roversi (1947). cess Diana is an evident example, but we His style is also blurred and surreal and also have to mention his fashion shots decisively pictorial, where bodies seem where the body shapes (and garments) celestial and impalpable creatures, noble- are celebrated in their harmonious natu- women of past eras deprived of their phys- ralness, which is sensually provocative yet never vulgar. 368 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381

Continuing our historical journey, the cover pages he published on Vogue Ita- we find a new type of body code that was lia during his 20-years collaboration with first interpreted by Richard Avedon (1923– the magazine. Through his shots, he nar- 2004), who was the fashion photographer rated many different stories (some relat- that turned models into actresses. ed to ethical issues) by showing frames of The situations represented by Avedon imaginary and hypothetical movies, such during the first phase of his career, which as in “Cinematic” which is focused on the we could consider as the most narrative violence against women (Vogue Italia, phase, nourished mythological imageries 2014) or in “State of emergency,” focused where reality and dream coexisted togeth- on the terrorism (Vogue Italia, 2016). er and complemented each other, whereas Coming back to the Sixties, we now the heroines populating these legendary find a body that changes its social role. In stories looked like celestial women of a fact, the youth movements, above all, pro- near but distant world at the same time. posed a new role for the body that became The goal of his images was subject of several battles for social and sexual emancipation – the body is exhib- that of being not so much a picture of a ited and sometimes paraded. One of the well-dressed beautiful woman as a revelato- greatest interpreters of fashion images was ry glimpse of a feminine psyche confronted the revolutionary David Baily, who is por- with a situation involving action or passion. trayed in the movie Blow Up by Michelan- (Sargeant, November 8, 1958) gelo Antonioni (1966), a personal friend of Mary Quant (the terrible girl who invented His storytelling ability was combined with the miniskirt) and Mick Jagger, voice of the a style compliant with the ongoing trends Rolling Stones. He was the photographer of fashion images of the second half of the who best interpreted this breathe of fresh Twentieth century, which aimed at setting air that London was able to express during a global style and life attitude rather than those years. In his pictures, uninhibited showing a simple parade of garments. bodies are charged with new expressions Thanks to Avedon, the Body becomes in and contents, thus resulting strongly erot- fact a Narrating Body: his images displays ic and decisively provocative. The body ever-young bodies with perfect shapes becomes Free Body, free to show up, ex- and movements. The body started to de- press itself and create a new language velop its own language, fully based on ele- while the model shows herself uninhibited gance and refinement, exclusivity and lux- under the lens of his camera (Lehndorff – ury. An example is the famous image for Trulzsch, 1986). Dior (1955), where the model Dovima (ac- The landmark is therefore the dis- ronym of Dorothy Virginia Margaret Juba, placement from a dressed body to a ma- 1927–1990) stands between two huge el- terialized body. Fashion begins to enrich ephants and spreads her arms upward in the body with more physical vibrancy and an extremely elegant gesture. The winding sexual connotation so as to acquire more body of the model and her refined compo- visibility and a completely different social sure communicate an authentic sensuality dignity from the past. Fashion photogra- in a surreal context. phy tends to develop an imagery oriented Throughout the years, the body exac- towards the transgression of sexual be- erbates even more its storytelling aptitude haviours while body becomes object and in photography, as it is evident today in subject of the Desire Body. photographers who show different styles Another fashion photographer imme- and photographic personalities, such as diately after the ’70s, and very well-known David LaChapelle, Peter Lindbergh, Ste- for his strongly erotic images, was the Pa- ven Meisel and Annie Leibovitz just to risian Guy Bourdin. In his photographs the name a few. product is independent – what matters is It’s worth mentioning the American provoking through sexual allusions mixed photographer Steven Meisel (1954), and with violence and blood doses. His bod- Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 369 ies are conscious bodies involved in the During the Twentieth century, for example, scenic fiction that aims at nurturing the woman’s clothing has become more and more desire. A few years later, Helmut Newton reduced and simplified, more dynamic and made the woman’s body a conscious ob- ascending upwards. If in the early years of ject of voyeurism, a carnal body proud of the century the female body representations showing off its materiality. It’s worth men- were made up of corpulent silhouettes, which tioning a new and forerunner aspect of tended to recall the heaviness of the earth- recent trends, that is the body artificiality: ly wealth, in the following decades the body the paraded body is evidently moulded by has become decisively thinner and lighter. sophisticated beauty treatments and lined And slimming remedies and diets have pro- up with the artificiality frontier. A so cold gressively become the standard for both gen- perfection that bodies seem to be almost ders … (Codeluppi, 2012, p. 7) (*TN) bionic. He said: In this social process, technology plays an “In my work we operate a distinction between important role, also because images show models and real people. We never consider an artificial body that can crumble and models equal to real people” (Newton, 1984, then put back together itself. p. 13) (*TN). And he also added: “The fashio In the 1999 the movie “Matrix” con- nable woman is this: an infinite amount of tributed to imagine a pixeled body, in a gears.” (Newton, 1984, p. 10) (*TN) world where technology is the real protagonist of an unreal life. This strong physicality of bodies visible in fashion images remains also in the Eight- ies and increasingly extends to male bod- 3 New millennium: between ies, which become at the same time object hyper-bodies and pixeled bodies and subject of desire – muscle-bound, gym built, perfect bodies. In his volume The Matrix (2010), the phi- Herb Ritts (1952–2002) was one of losopher and sociologist Žižek observes the most iconic fashion photographers that the innovation of this movie is not wit- of the Eighties and Nineties – aloof from nessing the fortunes of a hero who acts in garments and completely focused on an artificial, manipulated and controlled both male and female bodies, Ritts shows universe, but rather that this universe be- nurtured and clean-cut bodies with mas- comes a virtual reality, thus marking a rad- sive workout and expensive beauty treat- ical reduction of our sensorial experiences ments. The artificial seems to clash with and acknowledging the images a huge se- the natural body look to then perfectly ductive power. blend together. The 1999 Pirelli calendar is Images do not simulate reality, but a clear statement of Ritt’s approach – the rather hide its incompleteness and incon- American athlete Alek Wek is covered with sistency: a shiny paint overlapping his body which enhances even more its perfection. The The film is not wrong when highlighting the body becomes a dress. EXISTENCE of the Real beyond the simula- If we consider the contemporary pho- tion of the virtual reality – as Morpheus says tographers, it’s absolutely worth mention- to Neo when showing him the ruined land- ing the German photographer Ellen von scape of Chicago: “Welcome to the desert of Unwerth (1954): the most authentic New- the Real” (…) the function of every single Ma- ton’s heir, given her voyeuristic style and trix is to conceal this inconsistency … (Žižek, the way she treats the female body. Dif- 2010, p. 16) ferently from Newton, the location of her pictures plays a greater role and the scene The film Matrix was able to foresee the theatricalization becomes much more current, real trend of 2018 – the dichotomy filmic, but the body is a conscious protag- between real reality and virtual reality. Im- onist pleased with the desire. ages mediate between these two univers- 370 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 es and serve as bearers of new stories and of the photographers who mainly contrib- generators of new suggestions. uted to narrate artificial, manipulated, ab- The individual completes the search stract bodies. for an abstract aesthetic perfection to These body images animate and mo- become a body-image, an envelope that tivate the consumption experience by makes use of the aesthetic surgery to nurturing fictional imageries that escape achieve its own goal and become a body to the uncertainty of what is real, thus trans- be displayed on a shop window, precisely a lating the individual’s fulfilment into the “shop-windowed body” (Codeluppi, 2007). certainty given by the purchased objects. Today’s individual only wants to like Therefore, the body dissolves into image, himself even more than being liked by in the enchantment of the mise-en-scène. others. This absolutely matches with the The idea of Beauty has evidently current post-modern or hyper-modern changed and fashion market is exploring society, where the individualism trend is new frontiers: five years ago, Miuccia Pra- fully underway and every choice made by da said: the individual privileges the self to the det- riment of the surrounding. Today we seek “Ugly is attractive, ugly is exciting. Maybe be- refuge in ourselves to satisfy personal and cause it is newer,” she said. “The investigation immediate pleasures, in a mood of com- of ugliness is, to me, more interesting than the mon mistrust in the social fabric and fu- bourgeois idea of beauty. And why? Because ture. Selfies are the apologia of this trend. ugly is human. It touches the bad and the Codeluppi also says about the body: dirty side of people. You know, this might have been a scandal in fashion but in other fields It is therefore inevitable that individuals of art it is common: in painting and in movies feel able to freely manipulate their body to it was so common to see ugliness.” (Duffin, achieve those communication goals they 2013) set for themselves. This gives life to the “flow body”, namely a body in a state of per- In reaction to the New Millennium con- manent change, having no fixed bound- sumption models and this hyper-modern aries nor identities and attempting at not (or post-modern) individualist individu- having to depend on the laws of biology. al, fashion suggests an anti-model: fash- (Codeluppi, 2012, p. 114, translated by author) ion does not seek the Beauty anymore, but rather different ideas of beauty (even The artificial invades the natural, the body achieving the ugliness sometimes), be- often becomes a hyper-body. Since the because there is not only one Beauty to be in- ginning of the new Millennium, body has spired by but everyone is free to interpret, become a flow-body: nothing is fixed and mould and express his/her own beauty. body looks like a packaging that can be Fashion films play a crucial role in transformed and manipulated. The body this body evolution, especially because becomes a malleable surface on which to they were born for the web. Moreover, new draw its identity. Artificial invades the nat- technologies are so much influencing the ural, and the body becomes a hyper-body. body perception and representation that This hyper-body often becomes the we can easily state fashion films are devel- protagonist of fashion images – motion- oping a new net-aesthetics by using new less bodies featuring unnatural poses, in- codes and creating new kinds of language. expressive eyes, masks deleting the faces Indeed, bodies in fashion films do not or even covered and hidden faces to cancel appear as a model to strive for, that is the their identity. idea of a contemplated beauty. Fashion Slender, hybrid bodies between man- films rather show Post-Modern or Hyper- nequins and dolls or even puppets that Modern bodies: they reflect those indi- only live virtually weightless, transsexual, viduals who are focused on themselves, feeble creatures. Craig McDean, Tim Walk- determined to state their individuality er, Miles Aldridge, Steven Klein are just few and uniqueness, confident of being able Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 371 to be true to themselves without compro- seriously rethink what role the moving image mises, living for emotions. Therefore, in can play within fashion (…). (p. 118) the fashion film’s dreamy world there are no right nor wrong models: what emerg- The clear trend (or the need) of fashion es is the possibility to always be authentic communication is therefore to develop thanks to fashion and regardless of age, a new language for those moving images sex, gender and species. There is no “right where the body code is acknowledged a beauty” in the represented body as this is key aesthetic and narrative role. a body that is not apparently interested in We therefore try to understand if there its physicality. are some recurring types of body in these Showstudio.com, an interactive fash- fashion films that affect the world of the ion platform, nowadays famous as House fashion images in general, to then re-think of Fashion Film, also investigated the idea at the language of the images in the New of the Ugly in a fashion film. The fashion Millennium, which can be above all iden- film title is “Beyond the glass” by Ruth Hog- tified as fashion images, whether static or ben. In this short-movie, woman’s body moving. does not appear in its physicality but is rather the simulacrum of itself, continuously committed in a chameleonic meta- 4 Body in fashion film: the new morphosis – a body that continuously net-aesthetic era moves, escapes and chases, that is fright- ened and frightful (bearing in mind nu- (…) fashion media partecipate in the norma merous Hitchcockian quotations). This lization and codification of the body. (Shinkle, body is unreal and pixeled, which leads us 2013, p. 176) into the Other cyberspace world ruled by some Matrix. Fashion films are a particular category of It is precisely from the fashion films online videos, whose origin is really uncer- that new images showing moving bod- tain. “100 years of fashion film: frameworks ies emerge as interpreters of new fashion and histories” is one of the Uhlirova’s arti- tales. cles (2013), whose name is given to the fact Over the last decade, fashion films that: have indeed become a strongly relevant phenomenon for fashion industry: we The article carefully negotiates the fashion find those made by brands to show their film as a form that must be considered within collections, as well as fashion films dedi- multiple frameworks, namely cinema and the cated to create new brand narration forms new media, fashion industry, entertainment, (such as the Miu Miu’s with the “Women’s and art practice. (p. 237) Tales” saga). Likewise, we also find fashion films made by some fashion e-magazines However, we will not hereunder consider like Nowness, or fashion e-commerce like the fashion industry videos as something Mytheresa.com in collaboration with sev- outside the web. eral fashion brands. Moreover, there are In fact, several communicative mod- some online created by some novice film- els (i. e. the Jakobson’s in 1963) state that makers and presented at the worldwide regardless of the communicative flow, the fashion film festivals or simply uploaded channel influences the message produc- on some target websites, such as a Vimeo tion both in the contents and form selec- channel, that is fully independent and tion, thus adapting codes and rules to the dedicated to fashion films. new context in which the message acts. As Uhlirova (2013) writes, We will therefore consider only the online fashion videos in order to under- Fashion film’s recent proliferation on the In- stand their features and influences that ternet and beyond has demanded that we may directly come from the virtual world of the web. 372 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381

Based on our previous studies, it also New Millennium when the web under- results that fashion films are a separate went a considerable development that is category of online branded videos, and still ongoing. not only because they have a distinctive This abovementioned new communi- name which makes them different from cative identity works on two aspects - the the others but rather because we think first is the new brand narrations, regard- (and will try to prove) they were able to less of whether the video develops or not develop their own communicative identi- a narrative plot; the second is represented ty to then become a communication tool by a new language made up of new codes. used also in other industries. It might be Indeed, fashion films are the natural worth considering that in 2014 the BMW evolution of the languishing fashion im- car manufacturer released the online vid- ages but, at the same time, they are their eo starred by Tilda Swinton and named the revolution. Fashion films have managed to movie just as fashion film. turn the traditional brand communication On the matter Uhlirova stated (2013)“ into bodies’ movements, which are often exciting and suggestive and sometimes As a heterogeneous cultural form with no purely aesthetical. clearly predefined stylistic criteria or conventions, the fashion film eludes any attempt at a The fashion image has been historically seen neat classification as genre. (p. 120) as static, but digital media offer a departure from the past by introducing a constant flow In our opinion, many signals lead us to- of moving images and active spectatorship. day to consider that fashion films are a full The idea of “permanent presence” suggests communication gender. fashion is constantly renewed and at the same As we already mentioned one year ago time caught in the here and now. (Khan, 2012, (2017), p. 248)

Since the beginning of the new Millennium, What we are about to analyse is how the fashion has developed new types of messag- body is narrativized in these fashion films es concerning the contents, producing new (whether narrative or not), as the body is techniques and showing its ability to use new often their lynchpin. technologies with a greater eagerness and strength than other markets. (…) Several fashion films, which belongs to “The Fashion Body”, make this connection between Additionally, in all the main fashion cities photography and history of the moving image in the world we find Fashion Film Festivals. through a renewed focus on the body. (…) The There are at least 4 today considering only cinematic film creates a sense of linear time. London, of which the first in absolute was The photograph is forever locked in the past organized by Central Saint Martins in 2006, and the digital image offers a permanent pres- Fashion in Film; the second city that hosted ence. Fashion is caught in its own reflection – this event was Paris, with ASVOFF, organized locked in the past, it has begun to move and is by the fashion designer and blogger Diane part of a new and permanent presence. When Pernet, and a festival that has today achieved we watch the body films inside the frames its ninth edition. (Buffo, 2017, pp. 295–296) of “The Fashion Body,” we remember that a symbolic notion is created through move- Today there is even a fully independent ment – today fashion is no longer still. (Khan, Vimeo channel whose name is, indeed, A 2012, p. 249) Fashion Film Channel. It’s however hard to determine exact- For about 9 years (since we started to deal ly the time when the first fashion film was with fashion communication), we have put online. We therefore prefer to consid- been carefully observing this new com- er a timeframe when everything started munication object: we have looked at the to take shape, that is the beginning of the fashion films made by the most important Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 373 fashion brands, as well as the online fash- tial in a market that more than any other ion films of Nowness or ASVOFF, the Vimeo needs to create always new imageries. section fully dedicated to fashion films, The analysis leads us to detect two ap- and even the online fashion-mags that parently opposite macro-categories: often offer their own production, without A. Concrete Body mentioning all the rest offered by the net. B. Abstract Body One of the most stimulating aspects for As the code can influence a language, our curiosity is related to how the body is so each of the aforementioned codes treated and become a fundamental code mostly belongs to and characterises re- to produce fashion tales. We are also aware spective and different categories of fash- that our observation and categorization ion films. cannot fully complete the fashion films A. The first is the Concrete Body: we supply on the web and, in fact, this is not are talking about a real body as it appears our aim as we recognize the impossibility in its everyday life, where its individuali- of such pretension. The online language in ty – and not its appearance or shape – is general, and the fashion films language in shown. These characters do not show al- particular, is living a continuous experi- ways perfect bodies, even though they are mentation and transformation. models, because their personality is the As Uhlirova said (2013): real protagonist. This interpretation of body is the If we accept fashion film as a genre, we have equivalent in the filmic language of the to accept a notion of a genre not as a static set previously mentioned narrating body of of stylistic or material commonalities but as fashion photography. It’s a body that nar- an ever-evolving historically bound category rates and talks about itself, reveals and which is fluid and at time even self-contradic- shows itself. tory. (p. 122) Within this category, a further distinction is possible between narrative body The result of our observation is however and hyper-realistic body. that these types of “bodies” represent the main current fashion trends, as they are A.1. A narrative body is typically cinematic: mostly recurring and often mark an im- it is a body that walks along the fashion portant change compared to the icono- film development, makes the sequence of graphic tradition of fashion. events possible, sometimes shows its evo- We think that this type of interpreta- lution, where the emotions of the charac- tion is useful to grasp and handle the fash- ter evolve as well. This body is character- ion communication of the New Millenni- ised by its actions and the choices that the um. Even less than fashion photos, fashion character makes. films do not reproduce clothes but rather Within this category, body carries out offer ways of interpreting the contempo- a storytelling project, with or without a rary women and men, thus showing their narrative plot. First of all, a narrating body contradictions and complexities and tell- shows us an individual’s story, be this a ing the ways through which the individu- woman or man, a personal story with the als perceive themselves and the surround- individual’s feelings and interactions with ings with their body. the context, as well as her/his interactions Analysing these videos will be also in- with the others. This individual is some- teresting to retrace the important history times shown while he is living an internal of the fashion images. or external conflict, but his moment of What immediately surprises is that redemption is rarely displayed. This body body in fashion films is declined in differ- often struggles and fights or simply shows ent and multiple kind of stories. Fashion the signs of its weariness, its face does not films have furtherly enriched the value smile, rather the emerging feeling is that and semantic content of the “body” sign, of individuals who are tireless fighters. An thus celebrating its communicative poten- example could be the fashion film by Peter 374 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381

Lindbergh for Vogue, released at the end The narrative body often develops an of 2016. We are talking about Walking, the idea, which represents a key concept for Peter Lindbergh’s tribute to the late Editor- the brand’s visual identity. It’s the case of in-Chief of Vogue Italia, Franca Sozzani. Gucci, Pre-Fall 2018, and again directed by Its images show some of the most pop- Glen Luchford. ular models, who are more or less young, such as Mila Jovovich, Carolyn Murphy, Michele along with lens man Glen Luchford Helena Christensen, Isabeli Fontana, Kar- and art director Christopher Simmonds, have en Alexander, Karen Elson and Lara Stone reflected on university campus protest of 1968 while they walk through the streets of New Paris for inspiration. That moment was ripe York. They walk among ordinary people with French Nouvelle Vague of the late Fifties and we feel like they want to be common and Sixties – a movement comprised of the people wrapped up in their thoughts. inspiration of rebellious filmmakers François Their unveiled thoughts, which are not Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard. During the conveyed by their bodies nor by their ac- month of May 1968, radical change was tions, mostly fascinate the viewer who occurring in Paris as students, hungry for can be captured by this illusory normality change, marched on the Sorbonne Universi- and heaviness of their being wistful. They ty. This time of immense change was fuelled move and then stray from the camera and by the fresh cultural lingual of Jean-Paul Sar- again stare at it, thus offering us a close- tre’s existential philosophy of rock ‘n’ roll and up that talks about them as women. In a new era of participatory democracy. (Re- this fashion film there is no narrative plot, trieved from www.theimpression.com) meaning that no characters’ evolution is provided, but these bodies still allude These bodies speak about the history of to these women’ personal story by stag- a generation, about fights, protests and ing their different personalities and ways rebellions of the 1968 youth: they fought of feeling – the firm lines of the New York against traditions and clichés and told majestic buildings are opposed to the soft- their desire to change the world by prov- ness of their gestures and are sometimes ing their being different from the past. slowed down by an editing that expands These stories appear consistent to a brand the duration of their movements. Thanks that wants to address a young and cul- to the musical box that accompanies the tured public, which wants to go against entire video, this editing choice projects the grain. It’s a brand that is proposing its the viewer in a hybrid dimension, between revolution in fashion in terms of product, the real and the imaginary. target, and language. The narrative body is also that body The narrative body seems to be the that narrativizes and thematises, as we can direct emanation of that aforementioned see in fashion films with a narrative plot, narrating body of the fashion photographs for example in the Kenzo’s fashion film for starting from Avedon. With fashion films, the SS 2018, Yo! My Saint. In this fashion that body releases its communicative po- film, the director Ana Lily Amirpour pro- tential and completes the narration with poses a Japanese version of Blow Up (by movements and sounds thus becoming the aforementioned Antonioni) – it’s about story. It could be very interesting to inves- the seduction story between the photogra- tigate the new kinds of fashion stories. pher and his model, which is mediated by the camera. On the photographic set, the A.2. Different is the case of the hyper- dressed yet true girl’s body is opposed to realistic body. a mannequin’s naked, cold and still body, We consider the term “hyper-realism” which is unable to communicate and pro- in connection to art: hyper-realism means voke emotions (even if hostile and danger- an image so extremely faithful to reality ous), because emotions can create addic- up to the tiniest details, which embraces tion. a technical perfection often comparable Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 375 to the photographic quality, yet aggressive unveils their erogenous zones, as well as sometimes. their sighs and the desires of these bodies In a general backdrop of the routine that have changed so much over the years. aesthetisation, which is an attitude that It dwells with impunity and almost com- has been lasting for few decades (let’s placently on the folds of their old skin. No think at Pop art and Op Art of the ’60s), we full bodies are shown, but rather a puzzle move to a semiotic materialization of art – of images to recompose in our mind, thus culture officialises everything in terms of defiantly giving more room to the behold- signs and signs circulation and transcribes er’s imagination. These two bodies convey everything into cultural, aesthetic and eroticism to the limit of pornography and museographic terms. Baudrillard warns without any pleasure. against this risk and, in the art of disap- A body shown in its hyper-realism, pearance, he states: and therefore no beautiful nor ugly (as Baudrillard would say), is what we often In the images I see in America or Europe – be find in Saint Laurent’s fashion films. In the they video images, paintings, products of the Winter 2017 film by Nathalie Canguilhem, plastic arts, or audio-visual or synthesized the male models are shown in a sort of box images – are literally images in which there or squared room with numerous pipes like is nothing to see. They leave no trace, cast no those of the makeovers scaffolding. Every- shadow, and have no consequences. (…) The thing is surrounded by the darkness with a only feeling one gets from such images is that metallic blue light and alienating music – behind each one there is something that has the models move in this environment and disappeared. And they are but this: the trace have an exaggerated skinny body, on the of what has disappeared. (…) Once freed from borderline of anorexia. Especially in one reality, we can produce the “realer than real” – frame, the camera lingers on the bony ab- hyperrealism. It was in fact with hyperreal- domen of a boy by highlighting his bone ism and pop art that everything began, that structure and showing a small scar - the everyday life was raised to the ironic power models never smile and their gaze some- of photographic realism. (Baudrillard, 1988, times challenges and invites us to enter in p. 48–49, translated by author) that borderline dimension. We could do plenty of examples (it’s worth mentioning And fashion seems to have followed a sim- the fashion film “Brighton Sorts” made by ilar path in the New Millennium: a body Nick Knight and Britt Lloyd for a Vogue realer than real is shown in some fashion British Editorial published on April 2018), films, a body dissected, scanned, almost but what we would like to point out is how radiographed by the camera, unreservedly today the fashion images in magazines of- and shamelessly. ten use the same language. In fact, they dis- A perfect example is the fashion film sect and explore the human body from top by Rankin for the perfume S&X launched to bottom to generate types of images that in November 2017. Besides the recent were really rare in the last Millennium. We Hunger, Rankin is the British artist who co- can think at some Solve Sondsbo’s images founded AnOther Magazine with Jefferson (such as those published on November Hack in 2001, and even before gave life to 2017 in a Vogue editorial entitled “Utopia”) Dazed & Confused. or those by Toiletpaper, a creative labo- In his S&X unisex perfume, designed ratory founded by Maurizio Cattelan and by the award-winning fragrance design- Pierpaolo Ferrari, or some photographs by er Azzi Glasser, he tells three stories of Brigitte Niedermair (Wallpaper Magazine, touching bodies, no matter who they are, March 2018 editorial). because there is always something to Alongside these bodies narrated by share when skin touches skin. In one of the fashion films, whose human aspect the three, the bodies of an old man and and recognizable physicality are however woman cling to one another – the cam- shown, there is another way of narrativiz- era lingers on these bodies’ details and ing the body: the abstract body manner. 376 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381

B. Now we analyse the Abstract Body. of the past century. As it happens in Sur- The innovative choice is not to show realism images, this body seems to be far the body as expression of a concept, which from any aesthetic-related concern – its was already done by fashion in the past as ambition is not to show itself as an expres- we have also mentioned, but what’s inno- sion of beauty or reality or an excellence of vative in the Abstract Body of the New Mil- what is real, it is rather the protagonist of lennium is the absence of that aesthetical a beyond-reality, in a virtual or dreamlike pleasure typical of the history of fashion dimension. This body represents a new images. subconscious where everything is overtly The Abstract Body is an unreal and de- fake, as it is a product of the creator’s imag- materialised body whose representation is ination. This body is sometimes projected theatre-like dramatized so as to create an into the future at a high speed, changing intense gap between the observed and the constantly like some images of the ’20s Fu- observer. turism. The bodies defined here as mutant An artificial veneer invades the crea- bodies belong to imaginary and distant ture and creeps under the skin – in fashion worlds from reality, likewise they seem to images, the plastic body alternates with set up the fashion dream we are currently the real body, thus triggering a mashup of experiencing, between the need of run- the skin and the inwardness of the subject. ning away and the quest for a new balance. This body interpretation embodies In our view, the mutant body is de- also some artists and contemporary sing- clined in other two different interpreta- ers – it’s worth mentioning Lady Gaga for tions: the doll body and the cyber body. example who, even if often naked, has B.1.a The doll body is overtly and in- frequently displayed her body as a sur- tentionally created to be staged for a hy- face on which to draw her artistic vein. In perbolic world – it’s the body of the an- the fashion film related to her perfume by droids who have acquired human traits to Steven Klein, The Fame, she stages her av- replace them. The filmmaker and photog- atar: a provocative, fame-hungry woman rapher Tim Walker is certainly one of the who turns into a monster surrounded by a best interpreters of this sort of body. In dreamlike imagery that celebrates the aes- his fashion film Mechanical Dolls (2011), thetic criteria of ugliness and grotesque. a group of models are displayed not just The bodies belonging to this category do with the look but also the typical move- not emerge as bodies to dress but are rath- ments of the puppets, which seem to be er surface-bodies that translate the con- guided by a species of puppeteer who is in stant becoming. turn puppet. They are will-less doll-bod- We can also define two categories in ies, incapable of emotions and conscious- this sector – the mutant body and the il- ness. Their hard slap looks like a mask that lusion body. does not betray their true identity. In Like a Doll, another fashion film B.1. Within the first category we find the for Vogue Italia January 2012, Tim Walker mutant body, namely a body embodying shows us the model Lindsay Wixon mak- transmutation rather than disguise and ing human yet repetitive movements in a standing elsewhere with a sort of theatri- sort of dollhouse and evidently pleased in cal complacency. The effect on the viewer this woman-doll hybrid dimension. is similar to Brecht’s estrangement (1898– It’s worth mentioning Steven Klein, 1956) – a “distancing effect” that warns the another great interpreter of this type of viewer who no longer identifies himself bodies set in a urban and futuristic con- with what he is witnessing as it is evidently text. A perfect example is Kate Moss for Al- distant from his real world. exander McQueen SS2014, who is shown in A mutant body, in fact, is a fake body, a platinum blonde version holding a voo- an artefact, a sort of man-made avatar. doo doll, which is her duplicate that will This body reminds us of Surrealism, the be thrown in a bin by herself. The atmo- artistic movement born at the beginning sphere is definitely dark: the colours, en- Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 377 vironment, feelings inspired by the video is a frenetic and chaotic new dimension. accompany a kind of unsolved foreboding, But this game of shapes can eventually re- thus reminding us Alexander McQueen’s mind us something similar to everyday life world. It depicts a nightmare where emo- where every moment gets rapidly burned, tions, fears, anxieties of this woman are where the online/offline experiences the absolute protagonists rather than cause the endless and confused mix and the actions she does, which are instead match we live in, thus making us unaware quite incomprehensible. In this context, victims of a technological pleasure. it’s noteworthy to mention Philipp Plein’s It’s a body that physically experiences fashion films, such as that made for the its virtual dimension, as in the fashion film FW 2016–2017 by Steven Klein where me- Amazing and out of control (2014) by Love chanically animated toys mingle with hu- Magazine starring Cara Delevigne, where man figures of different genders and ages the protagonist lays on a bed of candies, and seem to join all together what looks sings and smiles while she interacts with like a game. The bodies displayed look the emoji appearing on the screen which mechanical and jerk, also due to an editing however seem to coexist with her inside choice that wants to highlight this aspect, the screen. and some of them are covered in tattoos. Likewise, in fashion film for Prada In this regard, the brand Philipp Plein Real Fantasies by Atlantis Film for SS 2016, states: or in another one for the FW 2016 collection by fashion photographer and filmaker In a neon-lit future world, filled with turmoil Steven Miesel, the models move in a space and danger, the battle between good and evil between the real and the unreal. In both rages on. Under attack from invisible forces, movies, the models’ physical reality is in everyone must choose a side in this epic fight contrast with the strong artificiality of the to the end. The struggle is real but there is backdrops where their bodies take shape. hope. We need to search deep inside ourselves The frames taken from these fashion films to find the belief, strength and determination have then become the still images of the to become superhuman. We can harness hid- two advertising campaigns published on den powers within us all. Regardless of gen- fashion magazines. der, nationality or age, we can be heroes … B.2. The other main category of the Starring Chris Brown, Carmen Dell’Orefice, mutant body is the illusion body – a body Soo Joo Park and Crystal Renn as the ultimate that cancels the human figure and em- super team, the Autumn/Winter 2016 cam- phasizes the energy and force it gives off paign features a cast of diverse characters. in the space it moves in. This body is pure (Retrieved from Philipp Plein http://www. abstraction and is complacent about its youtube.com) shapes in quest of extreme aesthetics. We can define the abstract body as illusion B.1.b. On the other hand, the cyber-body body, as it is the expression of a dancing reveals the merger between man and ma- dream or misleading metamorphosis. It is chine, a body that decomposes and re- often expression of an amplified and sec- composes, it melts and then restores its tioned movement, which is made possible image, it transmutes and then returns to by the latest hi-tech images. This body is itself. As in Matrix movie, this body is of- fully plunged into a virtual and dreamlike ten pixeled though in these fashion mov- “second life” where everything is a game ies it appears as expression of the brand’s that everyone can play. These bodies dance harmony or disharmony. An example is and fluctuate, thus supporting the musical the fashion film #asif by Nick Knight and notes of the fashion film soundtrack, as it Simon Foxton (2015) for Vman magazine happens in the Missoni SS 2018 fashion Here we find a mix and match of moving film, or better in the latest Rag&Bone fash- images with a psychedelic mood where ion film. The latter features an industrial each image appears and disappears in less shed location where all bodies, who are than a second under our eyes. The result no longer slaves of the daily life greyness, 378 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 unwind in harmonious dances and create making his body abstract. Likewise, it’s synergies with the super-colourful people impossible not to mention Adolf de Meyer, surrounding them. the first fashion photographer as well as This is the film Why can’t get along: the first to make an amazing photo shoot with the great dancer Vaclav Nijinsky en- “Can we all get along?” This question posed gaged in the rehearsals for the Après-midi by Rodney King during the Los Angeles riots d’un Faune show. This show aroused a in 1992, which began following the acquittals huge controversy among the public due to of the four officers that beat him, remains a its intense eroticism, which was portrayed relevant question over 25 years later given the by de Meyer’s pictures. political turbulence and turmoil that we are However, some changes in the fash- experiencing today in the US. “Why Can’t We ion films were possible thanks to the new Get Along,” the latest rag & bone film feature media: just as the mutant body seems alters the quote slightly but asks the same like an avatar, so too the illusion body is question at a time where society appears to a body that was able to emancipate from be less in sync. (…) The concept started from the typical static nature of photography the way people spend too much time on their thanks to the filmic language of the online phones and do not really see one another, said videos, and thus becoming expression of Wainwright at the film premiere at The Metro- that movement and life that both clothes graph. “It morphed from there. We wanted and fashion need. The frames of these to do something that was cool and creative short movies are sometimes captured by and fun and visually very impactful. That’s all the fashion mags as static images and the we really cared about.” (Retrieved from www. result is a sort of ping pong between the impression.com) plasticity and dynamism typical of the Haute Couture. It’s worth mentioning the fashion film In short, our observations can be sum- Mine all Mine by Tell No One for Nowness. marised in a scheme that we call “Moving A wondrous ballet where clothes and bodies in fashion films”: music are the authentic protagonist is As we previously mentioned, we think showed – the music draws the soul of that these are the main current trends and garments and people are just their per- we believe that what herein examined formers. As in a theatrical performance, a could allow us to share some conclusions. merger of dress and individual is displayed What stands out the most is that fashion in order to reveal a state of mind. The end films’ net-aesthetics gives life to different is especially interesting as it gives us a pos- kinds of storytelling bodies which seem to sible interpretation – clothes can indeed emancipate both women and men from live without men or women, but men and old archetypes or beauty stereotypes. Ac- women are just lifeless without clothes. cording to us, the greatest novelty is that Likewise, the numerous fashion films the new bodies do not want to be admired by showstudio.com for Gareth Pugh de- nor liked as they do not show off flawless serve a mention, such as the film for body shapes and sizes nor look for accep- FW 2009 where women walk and move in tance or confirmations. The new body a sort of futuristic dance and their bodies achieves two different goals that are cov- look extremely bidimensional. ered in two different ways: The illusion bodies remind us the ›› the first one is the importance of being, ever-present close relationship between as it is evident when fashion films show dance and fashion as well as between a body that want to state a personality dance and cinema. This is why the danc- or simply her/his emotions, thus being body properly finds its place also in the coming expression of a self-focused, online fashion film. In Dance Serpentine unique and, at the same time, change- by Lumiere Brothers (1897), Loile Fuller’s able individuality. The message leads body enlivens a magic display of colours us to think that there is not a right way with a continuous spiral movement, thus of being as the right choice is just being Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 379

Figure 1: Moving bodies in fashion films

Concrete Bodies Abstract Bodies Beeing Not Beeing

Narrative Body, the human body Mutant Body, the avatar

Body-Doll Cyber-Body

Hyper-realistic Body, the broken body Illusion Body, the soul of clothing

human, not perfect but authentic and ly avant-garde brand communication as living for feeling; its goal is to produce a distant engagement from the traditional logics of persuasion. ›› the second one is the free adventure of Therefore the body, as the key code not being, as it is evident when fashion of this language and market, is no longer films seem to be a sensory experience: an aspirational model nor a classic idea of in these films, the body enters in a sur- beauty, meant as a beauty of shapes. In- real dimension where everything is deed, it is rather a body that can tell sto- possible and the viewer can loose him- ries about an extra-ordinary personality, self/herself. as it is evident in the fashion images that often show us old women with a pecu- We fully agree with Uhlirova (2013) who liar private history (such as Joni Mitchell, states: 71, for Saint Laurent; Joan Didion, 80, for Celine; Jessica Lange, 65, for Marc Jacobs The fashion film does not always blatantly Beauty; Charlotte Rampling, 69, for Nars; implicate the viewer as a consumer and has, Catherine Deneuve, 71, for Louis Vuitton; generally, a greater degree of autonomy from and Anjelica Huston, 63, for Gap). the fashion it displays or connects, as it is What stimulates our curiosity, and less concerned with social and psychological that should be deepened by further anal- processes of identification, persuasion and ysis, is the Beauty paradox in the Western reassurance than is the case in more conven- countries, which is shown in these inter- tional marketing. And therein precisely lies its pretations of the body in fashion: now- appeal for brands who are certainly not blind adays the Real Beauty is extending to- to the new marketing trends that eschew wards a Transmuting Beauty, which goes conventional advertising in favor of a more beyond the traditional boundary of the authentic experience. (Uhlirova, 2013, p. 121) known and opts for the new post-modern or hyper-modern aesthetic world where Fashion films therefore sense the current nothing is set nor predetermined. This trends in society as well as the hyper- ever-connected and self-focused genera- modern consumer’s apathy towards the tion is producing a new era, which is char- traditional advertising, reason why they acterized by new aesthetics (intended as develop a new language for the online performed Beauty) and where the border communication, which is often a decisive- 380 Buffo / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 365–381 between real and unreal is weak: we call it 6(7), New York: David Publishing, 409–419. Net-Aesthetics. doi:10.17265/2160-6579/2016.07.005 In our opinion, it is still important to Buffo, S. (2017), Brand narration and fashion verify if this language, which is so strong- films. Journalism and Mass Commu- ly affected by the Western social and aes- nication, 7(6), New York: David Pub- thetic trends, could be well received by lishing, 292-304. doi:10.17265/2160- Countries where the consumption society 6579/2017.06.002 has recently developed. Let’s think at Rus- Buffo, S. (2012). Modalità espressive del fashion sia, India or China. Looking at the fashion advertising. Milano: Franco Angeli Editore. magazines editions in those Countries, we Codeluppi, V. (2012). Ipermondo. Roma-Bari: can notice how the models more or less Laterza editore. reflect the classic idea of beauty translat- Duffin, C. (August 25, 2013). Miuccia Prada, ed in its “local forms” – in fact, in India head of luxury brand label, speaks of fasci- the models are women with perfect and nation with ‘ugliness’, Telegraph, Retrieved winding bodies, whereas the girls in Chi- from http://www.telegraph.co.uk na are still beautiful but much less curvy. Escalas, J. E. (2009). Self-referencing and Looking at those magazines, in fact, you persuasion: Narrative transportation have the impression of coming back to the versus analytical elaboration. Journal ’90s fashion images in Countries where of Consumer Research, 33(4). 421–429. the consumption society started many de- doi:10.1086/510216 cades ago. Fabris, G. (2003). Il nuovo consumatore: Analysing more in deep this topic verso il post-moderno. Milano: Franco would be really interesting, also because Angeli Editore. the language of images (as well as the ver- Fiorani, E. (2010). Abitare il corpo. Milano: bal language) belongs to the culture and Lupetti Editore. history of each population. Besides this, Greimas, A.J. (1983). Del senso II. Milano: the risk of the Western brands is proposing Bompiani Editore. fashion tales that use an incomprehensi- Jakobson, R. (2002), Saggi di linguistica gen- ble or even neglected iconographic lan- erale, Milano: Feltrinelli (original work guage by some populations. published 1963). Kapferer, J.N, & Bastien, V. (2010). The Luxury Strategy: Break the Rules of Marketing to References Build Luxury Brand. London: Kogan Page. Khan, N. (2012). 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397

Key challenges for the fashion industry in tackling climate change Matthew Hibberd, USI – Università Svizzera Italiana, Institute for Media and Journalism (IMeG), [email protected]

Abstract The global rise in the earth’s surface temperature in coming decades will bring with it increased instances of flooding, drought and volatile weather patterns. One of the main industries affected is fashion, which is responsible for some 5% of current global carbon emissions (Bauck, 2017). There is common acknowledge- ment that every stage in the production of garments for the fashion world creates pollution and emission problems: from sourcing and use of scarce water resources in the production of cotton, to farming processes in the production of leather, from the use of industrial dyes and synthetic textile fibres to the need for ships, planes and lorries to transport the final product globally. This article explores the main challenges facing the fashion industry from climate change. The main argument of this essay is that fashion has grown to be a key exemplar industry of global capitalism, often being associated with the positive and negatives excesses of globalisation. It is also therefore seen as one of the key industries responsible for climate change causing much reflection within the industry as to how this key issue should be tackled. On the plus side, the fashion industry can capitalize on its modern high-profile status to bring real attention to climate change issues through publicity and media attention. The global scale of clothing manufacturing and distribution, and the pollution it helps to create, has led many in the industry to seek ways to promote climate change initiatives in the industry. This aspiration, though, is a most difficult one in an industry with complex global production and distribution chains and one which is so embedded in modern consumer culture, often blamed for the worsening environment degradation worldwide.

Keywords climate change, global warming, globalisation, modernity, post modernity

1 Introduction main industries affected is fashion, which is responsible for some 5% of current glob- Climate change is a major social issue fac- al carbon emissions (Bauck, 2017). Every ing the human race. Expert predictions stage in the production of garments for the relating to climate change are extremely fashion world creates pollution and emis- bleak with some arguing that global tem- sion problems: from sourcing and use of peratures are likely to rise by about 3°C scarce water resources in the production by 2100, ranging from 2°C to 5°C (Stern, of cotton, to farming processes in the pro- 2006). The global rise in temperature in duction of leather; from the use of indus- the coming decades will bring with it in- trial dyes and synthetic textile fibres to the creased instances of flooding, drought and need for ships, planes and lorries to trans- volatile weather patterns. This will have a port the final product globally. And some significant impact on basic water supplies issues offer a no-win solution to the indus- and food production especially if, as pre- try, for example, in the choice of whether dicted, the world’s population increases to use leather, cotton or synthetic materi- to around 11 billion people by 2050. Cli- als as a main fabric in the garment-making mate change will impact on all countries, production process. but current advice is that it will have a The main aim of this article is to ex- disproportionate effect on countries in plore the main challenges facing the fash- rapid development from agricultural to ion industry from climate change. For industry-led economies (Hibberd, 2013b; this article, I define the fashion industry 2014; 2016 and forthcoming). One of the as the design, manufacturing, distribu-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.012 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 384 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 tion, marketing, retailing, advertising, focus attention on climate change with and promotion of all types of apparel particular attention paid to two popular from the most expensive haute couture British climate change initiatives. This and designer fashions to ordinary every- paper is based on interviews with climate day clothing (Britannia, 2017). The main change experts and those working within argument of this essay is that fashion has the campaigning industry including 10:10 grown to be a key exemplar industry of and the WWF’s Earth Hour campaign, the global capitalism, often being associated two initiatives examined here. with the positive and negatives excesses of globalisation. It is also therefore seen as one of the key industries responsible 2 Fashion, consumption for climate change causing much reflec- and global capitalism tion within the industry as to how this key issue should be tackled. Fashion is often The development of the fashion indus- celebrated in the media and closely asso- try is intimately tied in to the wider eco- ciated with the shiny postmodern world nomic, political and cultural transforma- of international celebrity status, conspic- tions of the past two and a half centuries, uous consumption and global advertis- namely the rise of nationalism. The key ing campaigns. The downside to this are features of European nationalism are a the dire work conditions many garment unitary political authority (the state) and workers still face in parts of the developing a national culture. Nationhood has also world with the debilitating combination favoured those societies that have evolved of low wages, long working hours and hot similar cultural habits through the slow or cramped working conditions. Indus- sedimentation of multi-culturalism and trial injuries are also a daily risk for many by the emergence of a single political au- workers. Many of these same arguments thority (Giddens, 1990, pp. 50–58). As Kate are being played out when it comes to cli- Nelson Best outlines in her history of fash- mate change. On the plus side, the fashion journalism, fashion has always been ion industry can capitalize on its modern laced with nationalism ever since Louis IV. high-profile status to bring real attention The rise of European nationalism in the to climate change issues through publicity late 18th Century constitutes a key period and media attention. The global scale of when the processes of nation-building clothing manufacturing and distribution, along with industrialisation and urbani- and the pollution it helps to create, has sation brought about the reconfiguration led many in the industry to seek ways to of social classes and traditional econom- promote climate change initiatives in the ic ties (Best, 2017). The emergence of new industry. This aspiration, though, is a most urbanized social classes and the growth of difficult one in an industry with complex educational systems and cultural institu- global production and distribution chains tions also brought about changes in how and one which is so embedded in mod- societies viewed clothing. In this sense the ern consumer culture, often blamed for fashion industry remains tied to national the worsening environment degradation boundaries and cultures, which often play worldwide. out in ritual clothing events being tied to This article will be split into five parts cities and national occasions. So at one including this introduction and the con- level the relationship between fashion and clusion. The next part of the essay will climate change, the most global of chal- explore the relationship between global lenges, is mediated through national con- capitalism and fashion. The third section texts, especially in the mass media, and introduces the challenging issue of climate one key way for the industry to make the change for those working in clothing and climate change issue visible is via the na- textiles. In the fourth section, we examine tional consciousness. broad attempts of using public campaigns, But at the same time theorists label which include fashion involvement, to fashion as a key player in promoting post- Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 385 modern values not modernist ideas of na- social media or other digital forms. As tionalism. Indeed, if the nation-state is a Giddens argues, ‘social relations through political configuration of modernity, the communications and the media have be- advent of a postmodern condition has also come re-embedded in various social plac- warranted an urgent rethink on how cities and physical spaces’ (Giddens, 1990, zenship and consumerism can be hypoth- p. 3). The rise of the western postmodern esised outwith the nation-state, especially state has been facilitated by monopoly in relation to fashion. Anthony Giddens capitalism and international trading and argues that in the period of modernity – migration. Concentration of wealth in defined broadly as the age of industrial many countries has created a ready sup- capitalism – the concept of time-space ply of cheap labour, leading to millions distanciation has occurred: the separation seeking work and new lives in other coun- of time and space through the intensifica- tries, breaking the traditional boundaries tion of worldwide social relations. Social of face-to-face relationships. New global relationships have to an extent become diasporas have emerged resulting in the disembedded and disconnected from tra- redefinition of cultures including, it is of- ditional face-to-face interactions. Instead, ten argued, new global cultures including social relationships via communications fashion. The postmodernist makes the and the mass media have become reclaim that multi-national companies and embedded across different social places global NGOs have assumed as much im- and physical places (Giddens, 1990, p. 3). portance as most nation-states (Melucci, The jump to a postmodern condition has 1990:, p. 335; Schlesinger, 1992:, p. 13). occurred through the acceleration in the The development of giant fashion globalising and unifying tendencies of companies highlights the congruence of capitalism. The rapid expansion of glob- financial muscle with cultural hegemony. al capital accumulation, aided by instant Global fashion businesses are driven by media and communication networks, and readily identified brand names. No matter a supply of cheap, international labour, whether a brand is expensive and available has resulted in a further distribution of world-wide or modestly priced and on sale social relationships across time and space. only locally, it will embody a guarantee of This has created conditions in which a authenticity. That is, it will be what it ap- new social order can emerge. The post- pears to be and its origins are known, at modernist claim is that this new econom- least as regards the identity of the compa- ic, social and technological revolution has ny producing it. Associated with a brand’s impacted on how culture is made and re- authenticity is its consistency, the fact that made. Some theorists have emphasised it can be depended on to deliver a certain the increasing economic and political im- quality each time it is bought. A global portance of multinational companies and brand such as Zara can be relied upon to special interest movements, effectively provide a particular range and quality of bypassing the nation-state (Melucci, 1990, clothing around the world. The element p. 335; Schlesinger, 1992, p. 13). of trust, born of experience that consum- The fashion industry is not only linked ers feel towards a certain brand simpli- to modernist concepts such as national- fies the making of future choices for them ism but increasingly to ideas of postmo- from among the plethora on offer. Thus it dernity. The onset of the postmodern con- makes possible a saving of time and effort dition through the rapid intensification of through a reduction of perceived risk. In global economic and social relationships, this respect, the appeal of a brand to a con- mass migration and the development of sumer can be said to be rational or func- ICTs and digital media, has given rise to tional. But it is also emotional or experien- the concept of globalisation. Social rela- tial. As with anything that communicates, tions, in part, have become disconnected there is also a connotative or cultural di- from traditional face-to-face interactions mension to consider, i. e. those less easily and are commonly conducted through defined associations which are triggered 386 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 in people’s values. Some of these effects The subcultures with which we have been will be culturally determined, while oth- dealing share a common feature apart from ers will be the result of individual personal the fact that they are all predominantly work- experience. The global appeal of fashion ing class. They are, as we have seen, cultures brands makes the industry a perfect fo- of conspicuous consumption – even when, rum for climate change awareness and as with the skinheads and the punks, certain promotion. Few global industries have the types of consumption are conspicuously re- international recognition like fashion. The fused – and it is through the distinctive ritu- argument therefore is that industry-wide als of consumption, through style, that the initiatives, harnessed by the global brands, subculture at once reveals its “secret” identity could place climate change at the centre of and communicates its forbidden meanings. It social marketing campaigns. is basically the way in which commodities are And, yet, the rise of global fashion used in subculture which marks the subcul- brands and multinational conglomerates ture off from more orthodox cultural forma- have met with increasing resistance from tions. (Hebdige, 1979, pp. 102–103) the disparate collection of groups opposed to globalisation, most famously exempli- In essence, therefore, the buying and con- fied perhaps by Naomi Klein and the No sumption of clothing, in recent times, Logo lobby, but increasingly occupied to- has also occurred through the myriad of day by environmental groups. Those with- subcultures within societies, each with its in and outside the fashion industry have own sets of norms, rituals and values that long been aware of resistance or struggles distinguish it from more orthodox cultural relating to clothing, environmentalism formations. In that sense, any alignment and nationality. The Swadeshi movement of the global fashion industry towards in India until Independence in 1948 used climate change promotion must also un- clothing as a key symbol of Indian resis- derstand the complexities of the modern tance and struggle to British rule. The consumer and their sets of values and aim to promote indigenous Indian cotton norms that might often fall at odds with production and boycott dominant British those of wider society. It is no accident, for imports of cotton and garments was also example, that one of the leading emerging given a strong sustainability agenda by clothing designers in punk rock London, Mohandas K. Gandhi. British-made cloth- Dame Vivienne Westwood, identified with ing would be burnt at gatherings, with the political agendas of prominent subcul- Indians exhorted to wear Indian-made tures, including environmentalism, long clothes or make their own. What Gand- before those agendas became accepted by hi and others preached is what we would wider society. And it is the sheer heteroge- today call localism, which is a key idea for neity of modern fashion styles and tastes many supporting sustainability or envi- as well as of contemporary consumers ronmentalism (Yerra, 2014). that may help us understand why it has And in other areas, too, the concept been so difficult for the fashion industry of resistance has even played a promi- to unite fully behind climate change in re- nent role in giving the fashion industry cent years, as we discuss in the next sec- increased energy and drive. For example, tion. much of the energy driving the reemerging British fashion industry in the 1960s and 1970s was premised on protest and resis- 3 Climate change and global fashion tance against the prevailing social order of the day. Clothing was a key part of iden- As stated earlier in this essay, the fashion tity among those groups rebelling against industry is often linked to the various ten- society: mods, rockers and, especially, dencies of global capitalism. According to the punk rock movement of the 1970s. In different political standpoints, fashion can Dick Hebdige’s classic text, Subculture: The either be seen – positively - as promoting Meaning of Style, he argues that: new forms of liberal individual or collec- Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 387 tive power in contemporary societies or – denied claims until clothing labels were more negatively – as instrumental in re- pulled from the rubble of the building inforcing economic and social disparities demonstrating that leading brand names such as poverty and human rights viola- were having clothes produced in the build- tions in the developing world through em- ing at the time of collapse (Rezwanul, Wali- ployment contracts. And the latter point is ur, & Gul, 2017). Five years on, support for important because climate change is also the victims of the Savar Building collapse becoming increasingly associated with has been, at best, patchy. Some companies global economic and social inequalities or national associations, such as Benetton, and UN Millennium Goals initiative. One have made payments to support injured argument often cited is that that develop- workers or bereaved families of workers ing nations will be disproportionately af- or instituted codes of conduct for mem- fected by climate change and that a funda- bers producing clothing in the developing mental link exists between environmental world to ensure that any sub-contracting damage and poverty. This argument, put of work does not lead to deterioration in forward by the likes of former British worker employment rights. Other compa- Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, sees cli- nies, though, have been less forthcoming mate change as an issue about justice as in support. The main accusation today well as economic development (Brown, is that the fashion industry has been un- 2008). Linking poverty alleviation to cli- able to work in unison to help workers in mate change has placed many industries, one of the poorest countries in the world including fashion, under the spotlight of (Rezwanul, Waliur, & Gul, 2017. So if sup- criticism placing them on the defensive. port is less that complete in such a case There is a strong body of opinion, espe- directly associating the industry with a cially among development aid groups, building collapse, what chance, if any, is NGOs and charities that many fashion there of concerted industrial support for houses outsource production of their such countries in the aftermath of some clothing to developing nations for pure- climate change-related disaster, such as ly economic reasons, paying little more flooding or drought? And at this point in than subsidence wages with workers often time major support is lacking in this area. sub-contracted to smaller companies that It can be argued that many industries, not offer horrendous working conditions and only fashion, need to greatly improve their employment environment. The argument work with local and national stakehold- goes that lip service is often paid to the ers in becoming more active with climate idea of ensuring all workers earn a proper change adaptation. living wage or work in more humane con- This lack of any concerted or unified ditions. response to the Savar disaster might not One example of this, though not indicate any lack of willingness for many linked directly to climate change, was the in the industry to act for the mitigation of response after the Savar Building collapse climate change and involvement in public in Bangladesh in 2013 that saw more than awareness campaigns. And, indeed, some 1000 textile workers die. This was despite fashion companies and prominent indi- calls immediately prior to the disaster that viduals have for decades been looking for the building in question should be evacu- ways to make the whole garment-making ated as unsafe, a call that went unheeded process more environmentally friend- by the building owner under pressure to ly and to mitigate the process of climate let companies continue producing cheap change. Initiatives are abound, locally, clothes. Because the building housed nationally and internationally, of environ- many sub-contractors, many of the main mentally-conscious designers, producers, clothing houses in the west, including distributors and department stores, initi- the likes of Benetton and Walmart, were ating ways to make the industry greener. unaware that their clothes were being This can range from the recycling of fabric produced on site. Some companies even and textile materials, including plastics, or 388 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 the use of sustainable materials in the pro- coordinated, producing positive results duction of clothes, to encouraging con- while raising levels of encouragement for sumers to lower temperatures on washing further action. machines. Low temperature washes are There is also evidence that the indus- less harmful to the environment than high try was broadly supportive of internation- temperature washes. And the clothes tend al attempts to limit the impact of climate to last longer too. One prominent cam- change, most notably through the Paris paigner, as cited already in this essay, is climate change agreement in December Dame Vivienne Westwood. In 2014, in an 2015, which many sustainability officers interview with the Guardian, Westwood working for the big fashion houses wel- argued: comed as a key measure to support fashion companies reduce their carbon footprint. “Do I feel guilty about all the consumption However, there were also those in the in- that the fashion world promotes? Well, I can dustry worried by the additional costs to answer that by saying that I am now trying businesses associated with the agreement to make my own business more efficient and new climate change regulations and and self-sustaining. This also means trying who argued that this might deter a more to make everybody who works in it happy, if concerted favourable industry response I can.” … “What I want people to be able to (Abnett, 2015). And the argument of this do is to buy well, by first choosing well and essay is that industry-wide efforts with cli- then making it last. And I also believe that if mate change have tended to lack compre- everyone wore just a few beautiful things, hensive strategies – see discussion above – there would not be such a climate change with many within the industry recognizing problem,” she said. “In my view it is worse for that climate change can be better tackled someone to come out of a shop with an arm- effectively through broader civil society ful of new T-shirts made in a sweatshop, than initiatives. it is for a rich lady to buy one beautiful dress.”

She adds: 4 Fashion industry and climate change campaigns “The designer aims,” she said, “to work on areas with achievable goals and she chronicles her activities on the website Climate Revolu- Thus the latter point highlights the fact tion.” She sees the western economy as “in- that for many working in the fashion intertwined” with ecological danger, “like two dustry, the only comprehensive way to snakes.” “I can’t speak for the views of other tackle climate change is to align the indus- fashion designers. Some of them don’t seem try to broader political and social initia- to be interested in anything but fashion and tives such as international climate change they even go on holiday with designers and agreements, government initiatives to magazine editors, but they have all been very meet lower carbon emission targets and supportive of me.” (Thorpe, 2014) environmental campaigns run by NGOs. There is also support for the greater use of Although by no means can Westwood be educational and promotional activity is re- giving a ringing endorsement to the fash- quired if global citizens are to be persuad- ion industry here, more and more fashion ed to change their lifestyles and promote companies have embedded sustainability more sustainable forms of living. One such into corporate identity schemes, corpo- area where the climate change campaigns rate (good) governance, branding, mar- and programmes are being increasingly keting, stakeholder relations, ethical in- encouraged is in Corporate Social Respon- vestments and other ways in recent years. sibility initiatives (CSR). Jones, Bowd and These efforts, such as by Professor Helen Tench (2005) define CSR as Storey, British artist, designer and academic, have become more concerted and Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 389

Corporations being held accountable by ex- also form a pernicious barrier to effective plicit or inferred social contract with internal corporate behavioural change. and external stakeholders, obeying the laws There have however been increas- and regulations of government and operating ing attempts among companies, includ- in an ethical manner which exceeds statutory ing fashion, to adopt green “values” in requirements. This “ethical manner” is placed branding and marketing campaigns. From at the core of the entity’s strategy, exempli- food and drink producers to supermarket fied by proactive community involvement, chains, from energy companies to fash- philanthropy, corporate governance, corpo- ion-chains, companies are being asked by rate citizenship, addressing of social issues, a social media, NGOs and public about their commitment to the quality of its products and green credentials. CSR is being increasing- services, human rights, health, safety and the ly utilised in green debates and campaigns environment and its staff … While all the time adding, arguably, environmentally-friend- this accountability should ensure a continual ly and sustainability as value-added di- emphasis on generating growth, revenue and mensions to campaigns (McGarvey, 2007). profit for the corporate entity and its share- The number of green campaigns has holders/owners, facilitating this process ei- mushroomed in the past three decades in ther directly or through positive effects on the line with the growth of CSR and, increas- entity’s intangible assets, such as brands and ingly, corporate groups are working with reputation. (p. 4) leading NGOs, media outlets and other campaign groups on climate change is- Much CSR work does indeed have an eth- sues. We will now look at two British cases, ical dimension where businesses go be- both of which have received widespread yond basic economic and legal require- support of the fashion industry. As part of ments to do what it sees is ‘just’ and ‘fair’, research in to climate change, we spoke exceeding public expectations of normal to representatives of the 10:10 campaign, business practice. In ideal circumstances, London, and the Earth Hour in Scotland, businesses become exemplary corporate UK, examining instances of fashion in- citizens working with public and private volvement. sectors alike to further community projects or government policies, thereby providing social value-added outputs. CSR, 5 The 10 : 10 campaign1 at best, recognizes that environmental degradation and pollution are not inevita- The 10 : 10 carbon emission reduction ble and that opportunities for community campaign which, although still less than consultation and involvement should be a decade old, has suggested a number of maximized. But historical and contem- potentially fruitful pathways for involv- porary practice demonstrates that busi- ing ordinary people and organisations at nesses can fall well short of basic CSR re- all levels in climate-related behavioural quirements, especially in their advertising changes. 10:10 is a brainchild of the British and marketing campaigns dealing with film maker, Franny Armstrong, in her re- environmental claims. Promoting ‘green’ sponse to overwhelming public responses issues is merely given lip service in the to her climate documentary, The Age of pursuance of greater corporate profits or Stupid. Its central idea is to encourage and seen as ‘window dressing’, as author and provide the necessary facilities for individ- advertising executive John Grant put it: “You can’t put a lettuce in the window of 1 Research for these case-studies were carried a butcher’s shop and declare you are turn- out as part of a project funded by the British ing vegetarian” (Quoted in Aitken, 2007. Council in New Delhi, India. I would like to thank the Council for its financial support Advertising greenwash is highlighting and also my two co-investigators, Alka To- the growth of marketing spin rather than mar and Dr An Duc Nguyen, for their help providing serious credence to corporate and support in conducting the research pro- ecological credentials. And, as such, it can ject. 390 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 uals and organisations to cut their carbon bon emissions … One of the mistakes climate emission by 10% in one year, and then an- campaigns have made over the years has been other 10% in the following year, and so on to think that people would be engaged by until it reaches the lowest possible level. doom stage scenarios … The truth is that we … Those who sign up are committed to ad- a lot of people are not going to be engaged by dressing this compound year-on-year 10% being told everything is terrible and the world challenge and are given practical advice to is coming to an end and it’s all our fault. You do so. need to align all your activities to some part By some quantitative measures, the of their daily life. Take them through their campaign had an early considerable suc- daily channels and use the narrative and lan- cess. Within six months of its launch in guage … which chime with them. September 2009, it had drawn nearly 60 000 sign-ups (including not only in- (The other point to engage the less engaged is dividuals but also thousands of organi- that) we have to be realistic about the ability sations such as schools, businesses and of people to change and the time scale that local councils) and raised a modest but people can change – and that is the good thing impressive £ 400 000 budget from private about this campaign. Perfect is the enemy of donors, trusts and funds. One of the earli- good and perhaps one of the mistakes that est supporters of the campaign was Dame have been made, quite likely unwittingly, is to Vivienne Westwood. Why such large and ask people to change their behaviours to such high-profile followings within a relatively an extent that they become the kind of perfect short time? The answer to this question low-consuming individuals. And I think that might require a long list of factors – such as it is not realistic and should be sacrificed for the motivation and creativity of its young being good – lots of people being good rath- team, its diverse and effective use of var- er than a small number of people being per- ious media outlets and platforms (includ- fect. (Harvey, personal interview with An Duc ing a formal partnership with the Guard- Nguyen and Matthew Hibberd) ian from the very beginning), its working tenets and principles and so on. But per- In practice, this philosophy translates into haps the underlining reason lies in the promoting and encouraging people and core philosophy of the 10:10 campaign: organisations to gradually change the way everyone can cut their carbon emissions they live or operate so that they can cut as long as it is tied to their daily life in a carbon emissions at the same time as sav- practical way. Instead of following the usu- ing money (through, for instance, efficient al method of communicating and educat- energy or fuel or water use), improving ing people of the potentially dramatic but their health (through fruit and vegetable still distant and abstract impact of global diet), feeling happier and more worthy, warming, 10:10 takes a pragmatic stance, and so on. The key objective, according endeavouring to drive people from the to the campaign’s content manager, Mal- “what’s the point in me in this big thing?” achi Chadwick, is to create a narrative towards the “Yes, I can do it” or “Yes, it is that is “sufficiently catchy and sufficiently beneficial for me” mindset. As its former inclusive so that people … get interested director, Eugenie Harvey, explained: in it … and do something about … their emission”. At a more operational level, this My mantra is that … you have to meet peo- includes practical “down to earth” simple where they are, not where you think they ple instructions that people can print out should be … Effective CC engagement is from its website and stick on their wall or about recognising the reality of people’s lives fridge – such as and speaking to that reality … People have busy, complex lives and it’s not easy. So it’s not ›› turning down your thermometer realistic to expect them to radically change or ›› turning off radiators in hallways reengineer those lives to the sort of life styles ›› applying for a grant to insulate your loft we know are necessary to start to reduce car- and walls Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 391

›› changing light bulbs longer. And when they do start falling apart, ›› buying and selling second-hand things there’s Sophie’s mending masterclass with ad- ›› only running full dishwashers and was vice on how to repair them … Sophie Barclay hing machines. has sewn many a pocket and patched a fair few pairs of jeans in her time. As a freelance One of the earliest examples of fashion-re- costume designer and maker, she has become lated initiatives organised through 10:10 her friends’ first choice when their clothes are was promoting second-hand fashion. The in need of a quick fix. But she assures me that Guardian’s Patrick Barkham’s highlight- there’s nothing too sophisticated going on ed his own attempts to cut down on new “Anyone can do this – it’s fun and it’s easy. I do clothes purchasing: it in front of the TV!” (10:10, 2018)

I have suits for work, shorts for running, boots What, then, has been the overall impact of for climbing mountains, tracksuit bottoms 10:10 on actual behavioural changes on its for vegetating, flip-flops for the beach, party participants? This, unfortunately, remains shirts for partying and reassuring knitwear for to be assessed. 10:10 has not been able meeting great aunts. I have five pairs of gloves, to quantify its real impact, since it does four hats and two eye-masks. I have most bas- not use any mandatory reporting system es, and all extremities, more than covered. Like in which participants provide feedback most people, I find shopping in our soulless on their action year. However, voluntary malls and tatty clone high streets an increas- reports from participants show at least ingly tedious chore. Clothes, however, remain a good deal of anecdotal evidence of en- the exception. Retail therapy still works for me couraging and sometimes very impressive in the likes of Zara and H&M, where you can changes. buy a whole fresh look for a couple of hundred quid. As a shy teenager, clothes made me feel better about my crap body; a new shirt still 6 WWF Earth Hour gives me a lift for at least three wears. After that, the shirt is still fine but the buzz wears One of the most popular environmental off. This is a familiar consumerist addiction. events each year that attracts many fash- But I have almost as many years behind me ion companies is the WWF Earth Hour as shirts; I should grow out of such cheap, Initiative. Every year fashion events are confidence-boosting tricks. Giving up buying organised around this occasion. The Earth new clothes has a “hair shirt element which Hour is a global event organized by World is not appealing to most people,” says Chris Wildlife Fund (WWF) and is held annually Goodall, author of Ten Technologies to Save in late March (this year at March 24, 2018). the Planet. “There is something hard-wired The key requirement of Earth Hour con- within us that makes us desire things even sists of asking households and business- when we don’t need them. The idea we have es to turn off their non-essential lights or got to consume less is incompatible with the appliances for one hour to raise awareness culture of the moment.” Rather than go cold for climate change. Earth Hour was started turkey, Goodall recommends “I wean myself in Australia in 2007, when more than two off this clothes addiction by continuing to buy million residents of Sydney participated secondhand.” (Barkham, December 31, 2009) by turning off all non-essential lighting and other electrical appliances. Many oth- Another prominent campaign by 10:10, er cities and countries, including the UK and also fashion linked, was holding sew- (we study the Scottish initiative for this ing masterclasses teaching young people research) then adopted the event in 2008. to repair clothes rather than buy new ones. WWF argue on their website that This initiative was led by Sophie Barclay: Earth Hour is a simple idea that’s quickly There are a number of things that you can do turned into a global phenomenon. Hundreds to keep your clothes in good condition for of millions of people turning off their lights 392 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397

for one hour, on the same night, all across the I would say probably the main reason for us planet. But it’s not to save an hour’s electric- working on Earth Hour at all is because we ity. It’s something much bigger. WWF’s Earth know that after the Scottish Climate Change Hour is about people coming together to put Act we still need to keep up the pressure and the focus on this brilliant world we all share – the momentum to make sure that Act is de- and how we need to protect it. Not just for an livered. So you can have all the best laws in hour a year, but every day. Because a healthy the world, the best targets in the world, but planet isn’t just good for polar bears or tropi- if there’s nobody there that keeps pushing cal tree frogs. It’s essential for us all. It’s easy them to be delivered then forget it. So I’ll be to forget how much we depend on it for food, quite blatant for working on this, in Scotland fuel, water, fresh air … And the truth is our anyway, is because we see the opportunities modern lifestyles have been taking a toll on to keep the pressure, the momentum and the our planet. WWF already tackles a lot of the understanding of climate change on the agen- environmental impacts – like deforestation, da. Whether it’s in the media, political, busi- endangered species, and the impacts of cli- ness, whatever it was, we know that it offers mate change. But Earth Hour is a chance for a great vehicle to do that. That has meant we everyone to say they’ll do their bit. And that’s have engaged quite heavily politically in Earth never been more vital. And, Earth Hour is a Hour, more so than perhaps in other coun- celebration. It’s always a night to remember – tries and certainly more so than they’ve done whether it’s a special candlelit evening at at the UK level because we’ve wanted to show home with friends or family, or a night out on politicians that people care. the town, or watching the spectacular global switch-offs from landmarks like the Eiffel The other key reason for Earth Hour was Tower, the Pyramids of Giza, Times Square, to raise public awareness and allow partic- Sydney Opera House … (WWF, 2018) ipants to take concrete measures lowering their carbon footprint for one hour and The first key point to make about WWF then in subsequent weeks and months: Scotland is its close relationship to British and international equivalents on the one The challenge has changed every year, so the hand, but the importance of the Scottish first year it was just a case of putting it on the political agenda on the other hand. As map, what was really nice to have was the fact their Scottish communication officer ar- that they had done it so well in Sydney, so we gues: had something to show, there was something visual, there was a buzz. The interesting thing Some of our efforts are driven by a result of was that even though we didn’t do it here that what we do as part of WWF UK, but the very year, different people did participate in the fact that we have an office here in Scotland is Earth Hour round the world because they because we’re meant to look at different ways heard about it and got excited by it. Some have of doing things, we have our own parliament, taken part in Earth Hour on the day, you know, culture, you know, so as many institutions by switching off their building, some of them in Scotland we will operate and engage in a have said “I don’t have a building to switch off, slightly different way, than say, we would do I’ll do something else.“ The backbone for our it at UK level. work in Scotland has actually been our local authorities and they give us an opportunity to The Scottish context therefore guides communicate with communities in Scotland what WWF Scotland does. An important we wouldn’t otherwise get to because either element to their operations is to lobby the we can’t reach them with our advertising or Scotland Government to maintain pres- we’ve got no existing connection with them. sure and momentum on regulatory con- One of the most powerful alliances has been cerns. The Scottish Climate Act of 2008 with our local authorities. has sent ambitious targets for Scotland to reduce its carbon footprint by 2020. As In 2018 this includes working with Scot- WWF’s communication officer argued: land’s biggest city council, Glasgow, to Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397 393 organise a range of initiatives around the Arguably, as argued above, the quantita- Earth Hour day on 24th March. The focus tive effectiveness of such campaigns is un- of events in 2018 included highlighting the known and public response in terms of be- efforts of the fashion industry to tackle cli- havioural change can often limited. There mate change. Among the events organised are arguably multiple reasons for why peo- by WWF and Glasgow Council were: ple remain resistant to altering lifestyles to in the face of apocalyptic warnings on “Waste, not Want” – sustainable fashion brand, climate change, but attempts such as the KPCouturé, will be aiming to encourage con- WWF’s Earth Hour or the 10:10 initiative versations around sustainability in the fashion demonstrate how individuals can feel industry as well as showcasing their products part of a larger movement and undertake including clothing and accessories from do- practical solutions to help cut carbon foot- nated scrap fabric and jewellery from plastic prints. building waste processed in their on-site plastic processing centre. 7 Conclusion And During the recent COP 24 Summit on Cli- “Rags to Riches” – showcasing articles made mate Change in Poland (November-De- from everyday throwaway materials and lan- cember 2018), a new fashion-related ini- tern making. (Glasgow Council, 2018) tiative was launched called the Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action. The Another major partner in 2016 was the initiative contains 16 pledges with the H&M clothing group that used the WWF broad aims of reducing greenhouse gas Earth Hour event to launch environmen- emissions in the fashion industry and en- tally friendly clothing ranges: couraging policy changes to help combat climate change. While such an initiative is All the garments are certified organic cotton, welcome, some have pointed to past fail- following strict environmental and social ures of the industry to unify behind green criteria. Designs are recognizable by their issues. As the journalist Victoria Moss ar- realistic prints of iconic species at risk. The gues: collection will be available in H&M stores worldwide and online starting 29th of Sep- The current predicament of the fashion in- tember. 10% of the sales price of the collec- dustry makes me feel uneasy, partly because tion will support WWF’s work in conserving I am culpable for being part of a culture that endangered species. The Kids collection fea- pushes the new in and must-haves, but also tures animal prints of species such as the ti- because the sea of bad news surrounding the ger, panda, snow leopard, polar bear and the worst practices of the industry is not new: we finless porpoise, that are facing many threats know that child refugees are being drafted including habitat loss, water pollution and in to work in garment production in Turkey; the impact of climate change. The collection that fast fashion factories in this country have mainly consists of comfortable and easy to been paying its workers far less than the min- wear organic cotton-based items such as long imum wage; that 1 134 garment workers died sleeve sweaters, T-shirts, dresses, tights, trou- when the Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh sers and pyjamas for babies and kids between collapsed on top of them; that farmers in In- 1,5 and 14 years old. The aim of the collection dia are ending their lives because they are so is to inspire H&M’s customers to care for the in debt to the companies which buy their cot- planet as well as to highlight our transforma- ton, but also trap them into expensive deals tional partnership, which focuses on water to purchase GM seeds and fertilisers; that in stewardship and climate action, as well as Prato, Chinese immigrants work at night in strategic dialogue related to both H&M’s and basements ensuring luxury labels a “Made in the fashion industry’s broader sustainability Italy” cache. Not to mention the burning of challenges. (WWF, 2016) old stock and unused fabrics, the catastrophe 394 Hibberd / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 383–397

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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410

Taste-making in turbulent times: Vogue and its social networks Rachel Matthews, Australian College of the Arts [email protected]

Abstract Vogue is a long-standing taste-making institution, with a reputation for drawing together a selection of the most fashionable people, places, and products in its monthly magazine. In the mass-communication systems of the twentieth century, expert knowledge conveyed through monthly magazines was important and effective. However, the digital context of the twenty-first century enables instant access to fashion information, influences and influencers, allowing us to be as informed as many experts. The paper uses Actor-Networks (Latour, 2005) to examine the evolution of taste-making practices in fashion communication. Content from British Vogue May 1967 and May 2017 provides the data for a comparative analysis of changing methods of influence in fashion. This qualitative case study considers how Vogue has responded to the networked conditions of the contemporary communication environment and what its digital strategy can reveal about new methods of influence. It identifies how the ongoing structural changes to fashion communications continue to reshape institutional tastemakers such as Vogue, online and offline.

Keywords Vogue, taste, influence, networks, taste-making

1 Introduction British Vogue magazine from May 1967 with Vogue from May 2017. Fashion magazines have been an import- The fashion magazine has been the ant method of circulating information on subject of analysis in areas of fashion stud- fashion style and taste, with Vogue a dom- ies, social sciences and cultural studies, inant title in this field for over a century. In used to explore media and communica- the mass-communication systems of the tion practices (Moeran, 2004; Rocamora, twentieth century, the magazine format 2009), commerce and consumer influence was an important and exclusive resource (McCracken, 1993; Crane, 2000) as well as for those interested in fashion. However, gender and identity construction (Jobling, the digital context of the twenty-first cen- 1999; McRobbie, 1996). The Fashion Sys- tury has revolutionised our access to fash- tem by Roland Barthes (1967) details a sig- ion information and changed the way we nificant semiotic analysis of how fashion engage with fashion media. Fashion ideas magazines produce ‘fashion’ through word distributed via magazine format now exist and image. Through this work, Barthes es- alongside a variety of fast moving, interac- tablished a foundation for research into tive competitors. fashion magazines as cultural products, Despite the demise of some magazines and offers insight into the fashion system and a decrease in circulation figures, Vogue through the signs and linguistic systems stands as a highly-regarded and influential that communicate ‘fashion.’ The studies brand in the fashion media landscape, with undertaken in the twentieth century have the magazine central to its profile. Howev- analysed the fashion magazine situated in er, to maintain relevance and to compete systems of mass communication, before in these networked and fast-moving con- the media communication landscape was ditions, it has had to evolve. This paper transformed by digital networked tech- uses the magazine as the starting point to nologies. Fashion magazines have subse- explore the changing methods of influence quently been examined at the intersection in fashion communication by comparing of so-called old and new media as much

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.013 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 400 Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 of society integrates mobile communica- (Latour, 2005). He uses the term ‘actant,’ tion into their daily practices (Rocamora, rather than ‘actor’ to capture any manner 2012; Moeran, 2015; Lynge-Jorlen, 2012). of things that play an active role in shaping Inevitably, much of the investigation into associations. This is particularly relevant contemporary fashion media has shifted to fashion, where many interactions and to blogs (Rocamora, 2011; Pham, 2011; communication practices are mediated Titton, 2015 amongst others), fashion film through objects, situations, bodies and and video (Khan, 2012), as new modes equipment. In this case study, the maga- fashion communication emerge. zine represents a convergence or consoli- This paper adopts a socio-cultural dation of such a network (Law, 1992). Fur- perspective on the magazine as a social ther, emphasis on the network in Latour’s object and examines both its position in theory provides a relevant structure for the relational networks, and its significance analysis of communication. The charac- as a node in online and offline networks. teristics of a network are used to identify It begins by detailing the theoretical pos- the nodes and links that shape Vogue’s itons and methods that have informed social networks (beyond its magazine cov- the research, before describing a range of ers), whether through technological pro- findings from content analysis undertaken cesses or as social practices. of British Vogue May 1967 and May 2017. In combination with Latour’s notion The comparative case study highlights of actor-networks, this research uses dis- the changing characteristics of content, course analysis to examine the taste-mak- communication channels and message ing content within Vogue. It adopts Mi- making. The analysis provides new insight chel Foucault’s ideas on discourse and on how fashion taste-making institutions discursivity that propose a broad set of (such as Vogue) that were established ‘statements’ converge to form popular during an era of mass-communication are discourses that influence what is ‘say- adapting to contemporary networked con- able’ and ‘thinkable’ about a topic at a ditions. Further, the findings, whilst drawn particular historical moment (Hall, 1997, from limited data, suggest an underlying p. 73). Foucault proposes that certain dis- adjustment to the way concepts of fash- course emerges across a range of texts, ionable taste are made meaningful in the in actions and conduct, and at a range twenty-first century. of institutional sites, thus characterising a way of thinking or state of knowledge. This perspective expands the scope of what is 2 Method involved in knowledge production and representation and is fitting for the diverse The magazine has been described as ‘a nature of ‘fashion statements’ made in bounded entity’ (Fuery, 2009), and indeed contemporary fashion communications. its covers create the impression of a singu- The work of both Latour and Foucault lar unit. However, this paper explores how have guided the research strategy here, in the magazine can be understood as the order to understand events and effects that material effect of an interacting network occur through interaction, convergence of heterogeneous entities; representing a and connection, rather than through sepa- network consolidation. Underpinning this ration, boundaries and division. They also approach is Actor-Network Theory (ANT) bring issues of materiality and practice proposed as an alternative social theory by into the analysis of social behaviour, two Bruno Latour (2005). important characteristics of fashion com- Latour’s theory considers the asso munication. ciations and relations of human and The paper uses detailed content anal- non-human ‘actants’ and proposes a new ysis of two British Vogue magazines (May understanding of the ‘social’ through a 1967 and May 2017), produced fifty years focus on the interconnections that make apart, as a way of breaking apart and iden- up collectives, networks or assemblages tifying the taste-making entities assem- Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 401

Figure 1: Network mapping and visualisation: British Vogue May 1967 and May 2017

Note. Illustration by Matthews (2017). bled in each edition. This comprehensive production of the magazine. May 1967 has examination classifies all ‘actants’ as ei- a larger page format, but less pages than ther explicit elements if they are included the May 2017 edition (1967 = 170 pages / in editorial features, or implicit elements 2017 = 248). The thickness and glossiness if included in advertising. Products, peo- of the pages in May 2017 stands in contrast ple, places and activities make up both the to the matt and rather ‘papery’ quality of editorial and advertising content. Scrutiny May 1967. There is also a noticeable differ- of this content also reveals the shape of ence in the quality and quantity of colour Vogue’s communication networks, a mesh reproduction between the two editions, of interconnections that reaches well be- with May 2017 containing vibrant colour yond the magazine cover. Visual mapping saturated images throughout, while May techniques have been used both as a pro- 1967 has colour on covers (front and back), cess of data gathering and as a method of but very limited use of colour in editorial data analysis (Cosgrove, 1999). This is an images (with a majority of fashion images approach adapted from critical cartogra- in black and white). It is the advertising in phy and is used as a way to visually doc- May 1967 that brings colour to the maga- ument and interpret actor-networks and zine content. discursive formations. There are differences in distribution channels, Vogue edition in 2017 is available across a range of formats including mobile 3 Results: Content analysis phone and iPad. This alters the material quality of the magazine experience, whilst The comparative qualitative analysis of extending accessibility. In 2017 Vogue the two editions of Vogue magazine of- magazine is published monthly and has fer some clear physical differences in the 21 International editions, whereas in 1967 402 Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410

Vogue magazine was published 16 times 4 Explicit content analysis per year with six International versions. Figure 1 (Network Mapping and Visuali- The comparative analysis of magazine sation: British Vogue May 1967 and British content in this research sub-divides the Vogue May 2017) illustrates the changing material into explicit content and implic- communication channels of Vogue be- it content. In Figure 2 (Visualisation of tween 1967 and 2017. Content Analysis: British Vogue 1967) and The content of each magazine details Figure 3 (Visualisation of Content Analy- further communication channels of Vogue sis: British Vogue 2017), explicit content is content. In 2017, Vogue content is creat- detailed in the inner circle of the diagrams ed and edited for the Vogue (UK) website, while implicit content is mapped in the Facebook, Snapchat, Pinterest, Tumblr, outer circle. This distinction reflects the Instagram and Twitter. The magazine also difference between items that Vogue staff promotes multiple offline, face-to-face felt were important to include, and those immersive Vogue experiences to be had items that have paid to be included. Al- in 2017, such as Vogue night out (shop- though this distinction provided useful ping event), Vogue festival (career advice structure for the analysis process, there and behind the scenes insights) Vogue are some elements, such as advertorials or café (food and fine dining) and Vogue Vogue promotions that are difficult to clas- conference (fashion industry network- sify in this way. ing, debate and think tank event). In ad- Comparison of the explicit content in dition to the Vogue brand extensions, the 1967 and 2017 reveals marked similarities magazine publicises Condé Nast (Vogue’s and differences. Although both editions parent company) enterprises. These in- of Vogue contain content that details a se- clude promotion of other magazine ti- lection of fashionable products, people, tles – House and Gardens, World of Interi- places and activities, the way these ele- ors, Tatler, Vanity Fair, Glamour, Traveller ments are framed in the magazine content and Love as well as Condé Nast College of displays stark differences. The number of Fashion and Design (fashion education), product types discussed in the editorial and Condé Nast Luxury Conference (dis- content in May 1967 appears very lim- cussing the changing notion of luxury). ited compared to May 2017 (1967 = 15, This cross-promotion of other Vogue and 2017 = 27; see Figure 2 and 3). In the earlier Condé Nast publications was also evident edition, there are very few images of the in 1967, although to a lesser extent. Titles products, other than garments, included such as House and Garden, Brides, Wine for discussion and where images are in- and Food and Vogue Knitting are publi- cluded, these are in black and white. Fash- cised in May edition of 1967. The details ion products (garments and accessories) of these extended communication are are discussed using a range of simple de- included in Figure 1 to build a picture of scriptors such as beachwear, city-daywear, Vogue’s network connections eveningwear or young ideas. In compari- In considering the seismic changes son, all products whatever their type are that media communications have un- accompanied with styled colour visuals dergone in recent times, a comparison of in the editorial content in 2017. Fashion these magazines reveals two very different products are grouped and themed in nu- communication networks. Unsurprisingly, merous and creative classifications. So, the analysis details a much more complex types of dressing become sub-divided of- system of links and nodes that reflects a fering multiple options around times of greater (physical and virtual) reach in May day, attitude, location and colour palettes, 2017 compared to May 1967. in fashion features such as “20 Ways to Summer-ise your Style” and “How to make Pink Chic.” Of specific interest regarding the explicit content, is the way books, jewellery, Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 403 beauty products and the home are treated the models (even where Jean Shrimpton very differently in Vogue magazine fifty and Twiggy feature), and no credit for hair, years apart. Books feature in both editions; make-up or styling. Notably, many articles however, in 1967 their inclusion is as a list do not acknowledge a named author. In of book reviews that evaluates the quality 1967, there are only two articles that proof the writer or story. In 2017, the books file individuals, these are actors and an included are briefly described in terms of artist. There is also a short piece on select- their visual appearance and suitability as a ed social engagements attended by minor coffee table book. Jewellery is framed as an aristocracy and foreign royalty, with no- investment by a contributing writer from one from the world of fashion mentioned. the Financial Times in 1967, whereas today In Vogue 2017, almost everyone who jewellery (including items with precious has contributed to content has both a stones) is presented as an essential fashion credit and a short profile. There is a sec- accessory. The beauty content in 1967 lists tion included after the contents pages products that specifically target the out- dedicated to contributing photographers side appearance of the body; descriptions and writers (with mini biographies). Vogue of tanning, hair dyeing or hair perming staff are highly visible, with three articles products are framed as aids to achieving written from a first-person perspective by a particular notion of female appearance. magazine staff. Throughout the explicit Beauty features more heavily in 2017, and content in 2017, there are a broad range the list of products extends to treatments, of people profiled from across fashion and services and experiences with a focus on beyond. Artists, musicians as well as actors holistic wellness rather than perfecting a from across film and television are includ- particular exterior appearance. Nutrition, ed, with extensive information about their exercise and meditation emphasise ‘natu- childhood, home life and professional ral’ approaches to beauty and wellness in pedigree. In addition, people from across this product category in 2017. The home fashion, beauty and lifestyle, ranging from and its products feature in both editions of emerging names through to established Vogue. In 1967, it forms the backdrop for figures form a central part of the contem- discussions of hospitality and home-mak- porary content of Vogue. ing, for example, in an article that de- Of course, both magazines draw to- scribes how to make alcoholic drinks that gether different types of entities that form will compliment salads (including what notions of fashion because of the perpet- type of glasses in which to present the ual changing nature of fashion. However, drinks). In 2017, the home is referenced as there is also a shift in the discourse on a place to display tastes and inspirations “fashionableness” between the two maga- or as a reflection of identity and lifestyle. zines. In May 1967, despite the emergence This is exemplified in an article that takes of new young fashion during this period, the reader inside the home of American the discourse defines certain boundaries of designer Tory Burch (The Tory Vote). fashion, focusing on appropriate physical However, there is a more significant appearance and behaviours. In May 2017, and over-arching observation from the pluralistic concepts of fashion emerge, detailed content analysis of these two opening up the nature of fashionableness magazines, concerned with the people beyond the consumption of products and who contribute and converge in these dressing up. Rather than defining, it sug- magazines (as network consolidations). gests multiple ways one can participate in In Vogue from May 1967, there is little evi- fashion, for example, via experiences and dence of the people who produce the con- interactions with others and by employing tent of the magazine. There is a discreet methods of self-improvement that work list of staff on the contents page, photog- from the inside as well as the outer appear- raphers are credited in photo shoots and ance of the fashionable self. there are two short profiles of contributing writers. However, there are no credits for 404 Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410

Figure 2: Visualisation of content analysis: British Vogue 1967

Note. Illustration by Matthews (2017).

5 Implicit content analysis ferences in format. In May 1967, there are full page colour adverts throughout the Analysing the implicit content in the form magazine, but there are also a large num- of advertising provides further insights on ber of small (quarter page or less) text the shifting relational networks of Vogue. based adverts, with little or no image. In Although this material is included for a fee, May 2017, there are some strip or half page the nature of this content reflects research adverts and all advertising content is in (and assumptions) about Vogue readers. colour with images. Both magazines have In comparing the advertising content an extensive classified section at the back from 1967 and 2017, there are certain dif- of the magazine, even this has some ac- Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 405

Figure 3: Visualisation of content analysis: british vogue 1967

Note. Illustration by Matthews (2017). companying photographs in 2017 com- to promote new collections of garments, pared to 1967. accessories, perfume and lifestyle. Both magazines have full colour mu The findings of the comparative anal- lti-page adverts in their implicit content. ysis of the implicit content gives a con- In the earlier edition, multi-page adver trasting picture of product types promoted tisements are dedicated exclusively to in the two magazines (1967 = 28, 2017 = 15; synthetic fibres such as Crimplene and see Figure 2 and 3). In 1967, items range Terylene. These adverts resemble fashion from wigs and slimming products through shoots with models wearing 1960s style to New Zealand lamb, cigarettes and after- dresses made of the synthetic fabrics. The shave. This stands in contrast to the limit- contemporary edition has multi-page ad- ed product range included in the 2017 edi- verts that also resemble editorial fashion tion, which is restricted almost exclusively shoots; however, these pages show only to fashion garments and fashion accesso- luxury designer brands that use the space ries with the exception of two adverts for 406 Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 beauty products. Advertisements found in and cultural knowledge and resources of both editions do employ global locations, the brand – education, industry presen- such as Paris or Italy, as a signifier of qual- tations, think-tank conferences, festivals ity and sophistication. They do this in the about careers in fashion as well as shop- imagery used as well as including written ping and retail events. These offline activi- reference, whether for wine, perfume or as ties offer a way for ‘Vogue the institution’ to a place of origin for handcrafted accesso- connect and engender trust through inter- ries and watches. personal means and mark an adjustment There are different themes that emerg- in the relational networks within which es through the implicit content of these Vogue is situated, in contrast to the bound- two magazines produced fifty years apart. ed or closed experience of Vogue magazine A large portion of adverts in 1967 promote in 1967. products for the physical improvement Analysis of explicit content notes an of the female self; wigs and hair-piec- expansion in the range of people, products es, contouring underwear and slimming and activities in Vogue of 2017, whilst vari- products, make-up and ‘unwanted hair’ ety of products advertised had contracted. removal products that will all help to tame The discourse around the wide assortment the imperfect female body. There is em- of people, products and activities connects phasis on improving exterior appearances fashion with the broad cultural landscape in order to please others. However, in 2017 and proposes fashion as something that the implicit content focuses on fashion is accessible for everyone. It addresses its products and accessories and the lifestyle readers as more informed, experienced implications of their branding. There is and discerning than their 1967 counter- almost no reference to physical self-impart. In 2017, Vogue readers do not employ provement, rather the emphasis is on ful- fashion for social competition or confor- filment of the self through brand/product mity; rather they presume contemporary investment. consumers draw on a range of fashion objects, knowledge and experiences for pleasure, empowerment and entertain- 6 Discussion ment, so they propose multiple options. Furthermore, the shift in explicit content Content from British Vogue May 1967 and towards symbolic consumption of services May 2017 provides the data for a compar- (through engagement with nutritionists ative analysis of changing methods of in- or therapists) as non-material displays of fluence in fashion. How has Vogue evolved taste, further diversifies notions of fashion in response to the networked conditions luxury and exclusivity in Vogue. of the contemporary fashion communica- Vogue in 2017 draws on a variety of tion environment? What can Vogue maga- voices to convey its views on fashionable zine content and its digital strategy tell us taste. It no longer seeks to send a singu- about new methods of influence and taste lar or specific message about what is ‘in’ formation in twenty-first century? fashion or the height of taste each month. This case study provides insight on The content is distinctly people focused, how Vogue has extended its reach in to- individuals are made visible, human and day’s networked fashion communica tion relatable through first-person articles, environment. Vogue produces multi- candid self-portraits and personal infor- platform content and engages its users mation. This gives the fashion messages in through all media channels, whilst main- Vogue variation and a level of authenticity. taining the tangible experience of the By highlighting the collection of different magazine as part of its communication people whose views are captured in Vogue, strategy. Vogue has also developed other the fashionable message gets expressed avenues of brand communication; multi- and diffracted. It also has the effect of ple face-to-face immersive activities that breaking down “Vogue the institution” into demonstrate the accumulation of creative Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 407 something resembling a collective of indi- order to function as a sign, with the sub- vidual contributors. jects reproducing existing social hierar- So, what does this tell us about meth- chies. ods of influence and taste formation in The actor-networks and discursive the twenty-first century? Recent studies formations analysed in the May 2017 edi- of fashion communication have focused tion of Vogue do not promote a clear des- on the power of social media influencers ignation of fashionable taste that, if fol- (bloggers, Instagram stars and Youtube lowed, create visible difference from other vloggers) to command attention and pro- sections of society. Vogue seeks to present mote fashionable taste. This reflects a so- multiple modes of fashionable taste and cial shift, where the fashion consuming more plural views on fashionable objects, public seek out stylish individuals who are ideas, settings and activities. To reflect this able to competently demonstrate a version and the change in public preference away of fashionable taste on a level that is more from institutional influences, this paper accessible to them, in preference to fash- proposes that Antoine Hennion’s ideas on ion institutions. The examination of Vogue taste formation provides a useful lens on magazine and its social networks in 2017, contemporary mechanisms of influence demonstrates how this established institu- on fashion. In the Pragmatics of Taste (Hen- tional tastemaker is adjusting its messages nion, 2004), Hennion outlines a theory that and practices to break down its perception understands taste and taste-making as re- as an institution, by putting people, their flexive practices performed in and through lives (including their vulnerabilities and our attachments to objects and communi- experiences) out for public consumption. ties, in relations with others and relations Further, by ensuring that all contributors with ourselves (Hennion, 2004, p. 131). His are named and given a profile including a ideas have been developed in the social picture and personal details, the monthly conditions of the twenty-first century and magazine becomes more akin to a cre- seek to open up taste to a greater diversity ative assemblage or forum – rather than a of analysis. Hennion shares Latour’s focus monthly edict from a large organisation. on the interconnection between subject The shift in consumer preference from and object and between the human and institutional tastemakers to the tastes non-human proposed in ANT (Hennion & communicated through individual perfor- Muecke, 2016, p. 291). mance suggests a need to consider alter- Activities that develop our tastes, are native or changing conception of taste for- described as acts of tasting or experimen- mation. Many studies of taste formation tal interactions that help to bring forth and the impact of media and communica- differences “in” objects and “in” the sensi- tions on taste are founded on Pierre Bour- bilities of the taster (Hennion et al, 2005, dieu’s work, Distinction: A Social Critique p. 675). So, our taste emerges through on the Judgement of Taste (1984). Bour- acts of tasting, but is further shaped and dieu’s formulations are based on French advanced by the gestures and behaviours society during the 1960s and 1970s. For that accompany it, by the support and re- him, taste is a device to create visible dif- sponse it receives from others and on-go- ference from other sections of society and ing adjustments and re-alignments as to shore up one’s own social position, it is our associations develop. Many sources about separation and division (Bourdieu, and elements inform and influence our 1984, p. 59–60). The consumption of cul- subjective experience. His view of how turally significant products and the asso- taste develops more closely aligns with ciated performance of consumption are multi-layered methods of influence that central to his ideas on how taste works as accumulate through our online and offline a means of “fitting in” or “standing out” in interactions. This conception of taste for- society. Products (including fashion ob- mation enables a consideration of the mi- jects), are given meaning by institutional cro/macro nature of contemporary fash- mediators (such as magazine editors), in ion ‘statements.’ 408 Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410

Hennion’s ideas on taste formation not simply concerned with dressing up, provide a useful perspective in this study. but that exist in situations and locations, He describes taste as “based on medi- through services and experiences, also via ations, bodies, objects, situations and health and well-being. equipment” (Hennion, 2004, p. 136) that In May 2017, the content is distinct- converge and help to create attachments. ly “people” focused. The adjustments in This has the potential to capture the way Vogue’s practices resonate with the work- we engage with fashion across media plat- ing methods of today’s social influencers, forms, interacting with different elements who have reshaped and personalised the in the noisy crowded communication fashion communication and taste-mak- landscape as well as our lived experiencing practices over the last decade. These es of fashion. In addition, it enables a new individuals engender trust and effect in- perspective on the adjustments that Vogue fluence on fashionable taste through in- is making to its taste-making practices, terpersonal communications about their breaking down its institutional perception. lived experiences. This perspective enables a clearer under- This paper argues that the shifting standing of how an interacting network communication practices captured in the of heterogeneous entities can take effect magazine are a means of changing the on our taste in the contemporary fashion perception of Vogue as a hierarchical insti- communication context. tution that seeks to dominate fashionable taste. Their promotion of a wide variety of fashionable entities depict fashion as a 7 Conclusion plural domain, down-playing former notions of exclusivity. The multiple brand The purpose of this paper has been to ex- extensions that facilitate different types of plore the evolution of taste-making prac- face-to-face or immersive fashion experi- tices through an examination of Vogue ences removes the perceived boundaries magazine as a long-standing and well-re- around fashion defined by insiders and garded fixture in fashion media. It uses outsiders. These changes create the im- two editions of British Vogue produced pression of Vogue as a creative collective, fifty years apart (May 1967 and May 2017) with eclectic individuals contributing their as a starting point, recognising the mag- own ideas and perspectives on how to be azines as the material effect of a network fashionable. consolidation. Employing the concept of The idea of “Vogue, the institution” actor-networks as well as content and disappears to influence the brand’s activ- course analysis, this paper has identified ities along two very different paths. On certain changes in Vogue over fifty years, one level, Vogue plays on its heritage and both as a social object and its role in pro- long-standing reputation to invoke sta- ducing networks of meaning in fashion. bility and trustworthiness; demonstrated There are a number of physical and by its venture into fashion education and visual differences between the two mag- fashion conferences, for example. On an- azines including the quantity and qual- other level, Vogue seeks to diminish the ity of colour image content. As detailed idea that it is a well-established and sta- above, there are also changes to the types ble institution. Through emphasis on the of products, brands and activities includ- variety of its creative contributors and oped in the advertising content, notably the erations across social media platforms it growth of Vogue and Condé Nast brand encourages readers to see it as agile and extensions. However, the key findings adaptable in 2017; to see it as a brand ca- emerge from the comparative analysis of pable of communications that are as fluid the explicit content. Vogue magazine con- and individual as any of today’s social intent has evolved over time to promote a fluencers. breadth of ways to be fashionable. It con- In the turbulent and digitally disrupt- structs conceptions of fashion that are ed era of fashion communication, it is easy Matthews / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 399–410 409 to overlook the fashion magazine, classi- tives intersect with personal tastes and our fying it as out of date. Nevertheless, if the lived experience of fashion. magazine can be understood as an opportunity to study the convergence of network effects in contemporary communication References practices – it still has much to offer. Barthes, R. (1967). The fashion system, trans lated by M. Ward & R. Howard. New York: 8 Limitations Hill and Wang. Borelli, L. (1997). 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Communicating material characteristics in a digital age: Three case studies in independent fashion Alexandra Tuite, Queensland University of Technology, School of Design Creative Industries Faculty [email protected]

Abstract This article focuses on the intersection of the material and the digital in the independent fashion sector, with a focus on ways in which digital media and contemporary communication tools are being used to unite them. It explores the tension between the opportunities provided to small business in the contemporary media landscape and its use in a sector closely associated with a nostalgic valorisation of material qualities related to nature, artisanship and luxury. It further examines ways in which the communication of material characteristics through technological platforms contributes symbolic value to independent fashion as a cultural product. Thematic analysis was conducted of online texts and images related to three contemporary American independent labels in a three-year period (2014 –2017). The study finds that instead of being viewed as a threat to the independent fashion sector’s driving ethos, technology has been embraced as a tool allowing independent fashion producers to amplify their voices as they challenge existing fashion paradigms.

Keywords independent fashion, independent cultural production, fashion communication, digital media, mediatization

1 Introduction Technology has amplified the voices of independent fashion businesses. Though Los Angeles-based independent fashion on the one hand it is acknowledged that designer Jesse Kamm runs a small busi- this creates global competition in the sec- ness with a big online presence. An inter- tor, it is argued on the other that contem- net search for her eponymous label re- porary technologies are empowering and turns results in the first two pages for her provide new opportunities for small-scale business website, her Instagram profile, designers to engage with a broader audi- stockist pages and interviews with blog- ence (Webster, 2016). It has simultane- gers, media outlets and retailers. Kamm ously been argued that production in the has over 70 000 followers on Instagram, independent fashion sector may rely on with whom she shares content on an al- an industry niche emphasising material most daily basis. Posts range from updates concerns related to garment construction, about new styles and product launches provenance, textile quality and fit (Les- to images, videos and stories of her familie, Brail, & Hunt, 2014; Molloy & Larner, ly, home and office. Interviews profile her 2013). This article focuses on the intersec- tastes in clothing and passion for surfing, tion of the material and the digital in the share images of her self-made furniture independent fashion sector, with a focus and offer insight into her design philoso- on ways in which digital media and con- phies. Information about the label and op- temporary communication tools are being portunities to purchase items produced by used to unite them. It explores the tension Kamm are readily available and abundant, between the opportunities provided to though Kamm employs just a handful of small business in the contemporary media staff and had still been working from a landscape and its use in a sector closely home studio until mid-way through 2017. associated with a nostalgic valorisation of material qualities related to nature, ar-

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.014 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 412 Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 tisanship and luxury. It further examines is highly prized (Dolan, 2010; Hesmond- ways in which the communication of ma- halgh, 1999; Newman, 2009, 2011; Reilly, terial characteristics through technological 2007). Importantly, research also suggests platforms contributes symbolic value to that independent cultures can be elitist independent fashion as a cultural product. given their drive to exclude mainstream practices and connect with a narrow, knowledgeable audience that possesses 2 Defining independent fashion the requisite amounts of what Bourdieu would term cultural capital (Hesmond Independent fashion is a broad term lack- halgh, 1999; Newman, 2011). The role ing definition. The term is often linked to a played by the consumer in identifying business structure or economic status. For and categorizing independent culture example, in his study of branded fashion is central and divisions between “main- retailers, Aspers describes independent re- stream” and “independent” are created tailers as “private shops” (2010). However, and mapped not only by producers but by financial independence is a nuanced con- networked participants (Newman, 2011). cept. For example, does part-ownership It is also important to acknowledge that or the financial involvement of a business independent businesses may not be en- partner or personal partner disqualify a tirely separate from the mainstream mod- business as being considered “indepen- els they oppose, but rather operate from dent”? within the same broader system (Crewe, Others have suggested that inde- Gregson, & Brooks, 2003; Gauntlett, 2011). pendence is strongly connected with an For the purposes of this study, inde- attitude that expresses itself aesthetical- pendent fashion businesses are classified ly, ideologically or in some combination as those in which the designer-owners of both. Australian fashion curator and have a prominent presence and could historian Danielle Whitfield writes that be perceived to have creative control. independent fashion is situated at the in- They are also businesses that offer prod- tersection of “art, craft and fashion” and ucts demonstrating an attitude of inde- writes that it may be provocative or radi- pendence from the perceived dominant cal (2010). Leslie, Brail, and Hunt’s (2014) characteristics of mainstream fashion study of the independent fashion sector models in the early twenty-first century in Toronto highlighted the importance of (rapid turnover of styles, overconsump- authenticity for those businesses and their tion, opaque supply chains and unpredict- emphasis on cultural values associated able quality). with sustainable or “slow” fashion, including high quality, reduced consumption, ethical production and localized supply 3 Technology and fashion chains. Other researchers have suggested consumption that independent fashion businesses emphasize a local perspective, but also active- Technology has provided new ways for ly oppose the mainstream (Cuba, 2015). participants in cultural fields to connect Together, these studies suggest that the and consume. In fashion, technology and perceived creative control of the designer social media platforms such as Instagram or business owner – and the resulting in- play an increasingly central role in the dependence of attitude of the business – is industry, facilitating the literal and figu- what is important, rather than a financial rative consumption of fashion on a newly arrangement or formal business structure. wide-ranging scale. Online shopping has Research into independent cultural been embraced by consumers following production in music and film seems to a tentative start, and businesses such as support this perspective. In independent Asos, Net-a-Porter, Matchesfashion.com, cultures in these fields a distinct authorial Amazon, Yoox, Shopbop, Garmentory and voice, perceived as direct and unfiltered, Farfetch continue to be globally influen- Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 413 tial. Large traditionally bricks and mortar online presences draw on physical initia- retailers such as department stores, luxury tives for a multi-faceted and holistic ap- brands or chain stores continue to build proach to sales. Net-a-Porter offers a print their online presences. Consumers can magazine available at newsagents and by shop using websites or apps, and some re- subscription. Matchesfashion.com is the tailers use widgets to allow consumers to online arm of a chain of pre-existing Lon- purchase goods through social media plat- don boutiques, where private shopping forms like Facebook or the photo-sharing and styling services are offered. Retailers app Instagram. or designers without permanent physical Instagram has become highly influen- retail presence may also create pop-up tial since its launch in 2010 and bloggers events or host travelling trunk shows so with large numbers of followers are paid that consumers can see, touch and try on to wear clothing by labels they promote; their clothing. This is a popular practice models or celebrities are sometimes said for independent fashion businesses too. to be selected for work based on the size They may offer a limited pop-up experi- of their Instagram following (Gallagher, ence in a store with a similar audience or 2016; Hope, 2016). It has also been sug- may operate a stall at a high-end craft and gested that fashion retail store design is design market. However, they struggle to being influenced by Instagram photogra- compete with the scale and scope of activ- phy tropes such as posing in front of walls ities undertaken by larger businesses and for “outfit of the day” photos (McDow- digital workarounds are important, where ell, 2017). Rocamora suggests that digital they may collaborate with other creative media has become so deeply embedded businesses on videos or blog posts that in contemporary life that it may actual- showcase their clothing in a range of life- ly shape the practices of fashion industry style situations and aesthetic settings. participants, including in instances such as those listed above (2017). She draws on the concept of mediatization to consider 4 DIY, independent and alternative: this. For example, Rocamora discusses the Making things outside of way in which fashion parades are increas- mainstream models of production ingly focused on social media content development, particularly as bloggers have As technology and online shopping have become influential participants in the in- flourished, some consumers are drawn dustry. Rocamora also cites the example of instead to what they perceive to be more one of (UK luxury brand) Burberry’s stores authentic products such as handmade, whose “digital-first” design reflects that of small-batch or artisanal goods. As Luck- its website and features digital multimedia man writes, “when you are a ‘digital na- offerings such as fitting room mirrors that tive’, analogue is new” (2013, p. 50). Luck- suggest complementary items for pur- man’s study of the contemporary craft chase or provide additional product infor- movement and the rise of online craft mation (Cartner-Morley, 2012; Rocamora, marketplace Etsy suggests that hand- 2017). made, artisanal goods have acquired new The material aspects of clothing re- meaning in a culture in which most goods main relevant and physical connections are mass-produced. She also suggests that with consumers are important commu- participants in the independent (she uses nication channels and sales tools. Free the terms “indie”) crafts sector position shipping and free returns is a common it as an alternative to “mainstream con- offer for many large retailers and some sumer culture”, noting that this continues small ones too, as they work to overcome a trajectory originating from the British one of the key challenges of selling cloth- Arts and Crafts movement at the turn of ing online: it needs to be worn on the body the nineteenth century through to the and, by extension, needs to fit and feel a counter-culture movements of the 1960s particular way. Businesses with significant and 1970s (2013, p. 264). 414 Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423

Importantly though – as Luckman’s bly, a combination of the two) fuelled by a focus on the online craft marketplace Etsy desire for products and connections with would suggest – this is not occurring in consumer communities not available in isolation from technology, but rather in the mainstream. It is not a rejection of cap- tandem with it. The contemporary fash- italism or its drive towards consumption, ion industry has been characterized as but rather a way to operate within that sys- prioritizing speed, overconsumption and tem in what participants perceive to be a low prices (Webster, 2016). It has been more authentic way. In addition, contem- suggested that the contrasting position porary technologies are allowing the voic- put forward by small fashion businesses es of these independent communities to offering artisanal services and high quali- be more globally audible than ever before, ty at mid-range price points and who take and to provide potentially powerful alter- advantage of technology to do so, enables natives to dominant or traditional models them to carve out a niche in which they of consumerism. can survive, and even flourish (Webster, 2016). Relatedly, Anderson argues that technology allows makers to be both local 5 Method and global and “artisanal and innovative”; he calls the makers movement a new in- For this study, a thematic analysis was con- dustrial revolution (2012, p. 16). “DIY” cul- ducted of images and texts describing the ture and the makers movement have been work of three independent fashion labels: closely linked to “indie” or independent Shaina Mote, Jesse Kamm and Elizabeth movements and research has shown that Suzann. The data sources were texts and technology is being used to highlight the images produced by the designers them- voices of these cultures and connect their selves, by retailers who stock their prod- participants in a newly amplified way. ucts and by fashion journalists. Materials Brent Luvaas says the concept of DIY is a cover an approximately three-year period central proposition in independent cul- (2014–2017). The designers chosen were tural fields and credits the internet with purposively selected because they advo- making it more popular and more widely cate for an understanding of the materials accessible since the 1990s (2012). from which their clothing is made and the David Gauntlett discusses connec- impact of those materials on the wearer’s tions between making, DIY and craft. He experience of their designs. Additionally, notes the complexities of the word craft, they each have a self-declared interest in which is sometimes used as an antonym high quality, natural or hard-wearing ma- for art; art being perceived as more supe- terials. Selecting designers who have lo- rior, more elite (2011). After detailed ex- cated themselves in secondary fashion cit- ploration, he defines craft as “the careful, ies (Los Angeles and Nashville) rather than thoughtful process of making something the established fashion center of New York with the hands” (2011, p. 80). He argues is also deliberate. Though their businesses that products made using digital tools or differ in size and age and embody different for online consumption qualify equally as lifestyles, these designers share what could craft, because of the making process be- generally be termed a minimalist aesthet- hind them. In fact, Gauntlett suggests that ic sensibility and in the case of Kamm and the internet offers the potential to chal- Mote share stockists. lenge dominant models of consumerism This study has limited generalizability. because it allows alternative voices and in- A focus on American designers provided a dependent cultures to not only create, but broad range of data, but risks a geographic “be effectively heard” (2011, p. 231). bias particularly important to note given Regardless of classification as DIY, in- that country’s historical association with die or maker, what these cultures appear the types of textiles used by the contem- to share is an attitude towards production porary designers in question. The history and consumption (and most likely, nota- of American fashion highlights a tradition Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 415 of hard-wearing natural textiles. For in- but nonetheless showing “a definite hand stance, Claire McCardell, described as “the to pieces like the almost-textural, mottled most important American ready-to-wear coloring of a sweater inspired by [textile designer of the twentieth century”, often artist Anni] Albers’s sketches” (K. Ander- used linen and cotton and advocated for son, 2015); a retailer writes that her piec- clothing that was practical and comfort- es are characterized by “fine tailoring and able as well as feminine (Steele, 1991). high-end construction; all hand made in However, this study is not intended to be the USA” (Need Supply, n. d.). an exhaustive one, and represents a pilot In interviews and profiles such as study for a larger project aiming to provide these, Mote and her work are often con- a more detailed examination of consump- nected with ideals associated with maker tion in the independent fashion sector. culture. “Maker” has become a popular Instead, it is hoped that this study will ini- catch-all term in the worlds of fashion, de- tiate discussion about how fashion’s mate- sign and food in recent years, and is asso- rial characteristics are expressed through ciated with values including authenticity, technology, and the central role the mate- quality and a rejection of the perceived rial qualities of clothing play in attributing toxicity of mainstream materialism. It symbolic value in the independent fashion primarily seeks to highlight the presence sector. of the maker and promotes handmade, artisanal products over mass-produced ones. These types of products offer a “re- 6 Shaina Mote prise” from contemporary life and suggest a nostalgia for times gone by (Luckman, In Japan, there is great respect for the process 2013, p. 254). A tactile, hands-on approach and how things are built. It was fascinating is also reported as extending to other ar- to observe the impact of time on the creative eas of these designers’ businesses and process. For instance, the brush and broom lives, further consolidating the portray- maker’s family has perfected their product al of highly personal and hands-on work over the course of three generation (sic). practices of a “maker” deeply connected When you hold their items in your hands, you to her craft. Rocamora suggests this type feel where each curve has been carefully con- of practice is part of a process of “transub- sidered and designed with specific purpose. stantiation” in her analysis of Bourdieu’s (Shaina Mote qtd in The Dreslyn, 2015) writings on fashion, writing that “the way designers decorate their houses, their life Shaina Mote is based in Los Angeles and and lifestyle […] enter the objects of mate- creates clothing that can be worn in mul- rial production to invest them with sym- tiple ways. She worked in various roles in bolic value and become an integral part the fashion industry before starting her of the fashion these designers produce” own label, including as a vintage buyer (Rocamora, 2002, p. 350). For instance, and pattern maker. Her website lists the Mote describes the décor of her home to textiles she uses and their provenance. For Austin-based boutique Kickpleat in a pro- instance, the tencel used by the label is de- file from which readers can click through scribed as being made from “sustainably to purchase Mote’s garments: harvested eucalyptus trees” and the wool they use “comes from a family-run mill in My home is very laid back and typically smells Italy that has been weaving cloth for de- like Palo Santo wood or Copal. I am starting a cades” (Shaina Mote, n. d.). Her clothing mini collection of Brahms Mount cotton blan- ranges in price from around USD 300–500. kets – I love the idea that they are handwoven Her website states that “the Shaina Mote in the US. My boyfriend and I have made a woman eschews the reign of the trend in lot of the furniture together. Our space is very favor of timeless self-expression” (Shaina wabi sabi, (a lot of natural wood), neutral in Mote, n. d.). Mote’s work is described by tone with a solid collection of plants. (Kick- Vogue.com as not being “outwardly crafty”, pleat, n. d.) 416 Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423

In this instance, the aesthetic is one that “Vogue Video Fashion Week” in which they relies not on items of great monetary val- share “ready-to-wear concept films curat- ue, but items aligned with maker culture, ed by Vogue.com editors” (“Video Fashion including handmade or personalized piec- Week,” n. d.). It could certainly be argued es and earthy, natural materials. However, that print media’s thirst for online content what is suggested is not an unfiltered nat- has driven this trend, though these types ural world, but a selective, curated vision of shareable, click-friendly videos have be- of what nature can provide. Another pro- come increasingly common for indepen- file of Mote by a fashion journalist notes dents like Mote as consumers seek online that: “Art is a perennial inspiration […] and content that extends the consumption ex- for Fall she looked to a desert landscape perience. and Donald Judd’s Marfa, Texas, studio, which lent the collection its palette of neu- trals and a muted red” (K. Anderson, 2016). 7 Jesse Kamm For the uninitiated, the details may seem boring or monotonous, but for those in I remember something Thoreau wrote that the know they reflect carefully appraised resonated so deeply with me about how a man detail and imagery drawn from the natu- who mends his own clothing and builds his ral world and merged with references from own dwelling is a contented man. I think this the world of high art. is why I am so content in my life. I feel like I Mote’s website features a clean, min- don’t need that much stuff […] In our modern imal design in which the neutral toned society we’ve lost that ability to enjoy home clothing is photographed on a pale back- [economics] or wood shop. Nobody has those ground. She features a film – also shared skills anymore. We’re out of touch with things on Vogue.com – in which her clothing is that are basic and important. (Jesse Kamm seen on a cellist in addition to models; qtd in Hartman, 2015) they stand under a blue sky at the Cha- teau Marmont hotel in Los Angeles while Jesse Kamm is a Los Angeles-based fashion birds chirp and sheer fabrics sway in a designer who focuses on menswear-in- gentle breeze (“Shaina Mote Fall 2017: spired tailored clothing in natural fibers. Video Fashion Week,” 2017). There are She describes the textiles she uses as “fine numerous cues here for consumers who and sturdy … because I want the piec- can read them: a water glass placed by es to last a very long time” (Jesse Kamm, the cellist suggests purity and health; the n. d.). She is best-known for her 1970s-in- inclusion of a cellist links independent spired high waisted sailor pants, known fashion with high culture fields like clas- as “Kamm Pants”. These are available in a sical music; and the framing of the Cha- range of colors, including denim and some teau Marmont together with billowy, sheer limited-edition colors. She is “committed and feminine fabrics brings to mind Sofia to making everything in the USA, because Coppola’s films (known for her feminine it is important to me to support my com- stylistic devices) rather than grittier Hol- munity” (Apiece Apart, 2015). Her designs lywood stories of drug overdoses or wild are sold through Kamm’s website and by parties. This type of multimedia market- international independent fashion bou- ing tool relies on multiple, overlapping tiques. Her clothing ranges in price from practices that depend heavily on the idea around USD 300–600. of hypertextuality Rocamora discusses As suggested by the above quote, from (Rocamora, 2012). Elements related to the Kamm to a New York Times fashion writer, video are connected in a web of meaning as a designer she promotes a simple life- in which who is doing the sharing (Vogue style and is often portrayed as possessing and Shaina Mote), where it is being shared a “can-do” DIY attitude. This attitude is (websites and social media) and what is supported visually by the designer, a lanky being shared are equally important. Vogue. former model, who shares images on her com has a dedicated video series entitled Instagram account of herself wearing her Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 417 designs as well as the house she and her contribute symbolic value to these gar- husband built in Panama, where they go ments for in-the-know consumers. on annual surfing holidays. She occasion- Los Angeles facilitates the referencing ally shows her own sparsely furnished in- of ideals and values that are surprisingly teriors (noting Donald Judd as a source of pastoral given its sprawling urban envi- inspiration) and they are sometimes used ronment, notorious smog and the munic- as incidental accompaniments to a pho- ipal struggles of any large city. This is not tograph of a sunset or other natural phe- the Los Angeles of Hollywood trivialities, nomena. Suggestions of a DIY or maker riots or packed highways. Instead, it is culture ethos in texts and images recall a version of that city in which a thriving all that the ethos suggests - authenticity, maker culture is foregrounded and where quality, provenance – but could also be there are palm trees, beaches, healthy seen here to invoke nostalgic pastoral ide- eating, outdoor lifestyles and mid-cen- als. There is a sense of an idealized lifestyle tury modernism. California also carries in which vast spaces, outdoor living, good strong connotations of counter-cultural health, honest work and independence traditions. A New York Times article about from industrialized life feature strongly. the resurgence of artisan craft fairs de- Participants in the independent fash- scribes Los Angeles as the home of “Cali- ion sector often refer to the places in which fornia-style spirituality,” where “the look these businesses are based, which in this and language of spiritual seeking … goes case is outside the US fashion industry’s back to the origins of the state” (Hartman, commercial center of New York. Prove- 2014). Kamm sunbathes and discusses nance is important. By noting Kamm’s her passion for surfing during one inter- location in Los Angeles, her creative in- view (Makinson, n. d.). She is described dependence is already suggested. Kamm’s by Vogue.com as recalling a memory “over studio is located “at the top of a quiet LA a mid-morning snack of dried apricots at mountain, after the winding steep streets her Mount Washington studio, flashing a and amongst the urban wilderness” (Mak- grin that emphasizes both her Joni Mitch- inson, n. d.). She tells one journalist that “I ell cheekbones and Midwestern bonho- don’t feel like I’m in ‘fashion.’ I mean I do, mie” (Crowley, 2014). The accompanying but I feel like this is just a craft and it’s been image shows Kamm and 18 friends and fulfilling me for almost ten years and I love creative colleagues wearing her designs, it and I love that other people love it, but I standing outdoors in dappled sunlight. don’t live and die by it” (Makinson, n. d.). The colors are neutral, except for some By describing what she does as a craft, muted watermelon pink and lime, and Kamm aligns herself with other makers, their stances are strong. rather than with the fashion industry. A The lifestyles portrayed are not un- Vogue.com journalist writes: like the sunny, unreal world inhabited by Barthes’ “woman of fashion”, unburdened [Kamm is] the go-to designer for a community by everyday concerns and trivialities (Bar- of L. A. Eastsiders (think Brooklyn with palm thes, 1990). This kind of communication trees), creative types such as photographer could be dismissed as trivial marketing Hilary Walsh, jewelry designer Annie Costello hype or a fashion version of the over-the- Brown, and textile designer Heather Taylor, top language found in the television satire who appreciate how her pared-back aesthet- Portlandia, with its parody of hipster cul- ic translates into versatility. ‘I can wear Jesse ture (Armisen et al., 2011). However, this Kamm to a wedding or the farmer’s market,’ would be too readily dismissive of inde- explains Taylor. (Crowley, 2014) pendent business enterprises being run by women – many of them from home while Statements such as these and their inclu- also balancing family commitments – that sion of references to other creatives serves have been successful over a number of to validate and further celebrate the work years in spite of global economic insta- of these designers. They elevate them and bility. Instead, it may be more useful to 418 Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 think of this fantastical language as ex- including its provenance and how long it actly the point. It is fashion, after all, and takes to biodegrade (Elizabeth Suzann, though they provide products outside of n. d.-e). Clothing available on the site the mainstream system these designers ranges from around USD 150–400. still participate in it by producing and sell- Pape is active on social media, partic- ing fashionable clothing. These interviews ularly Instagram, and actively seeks con- and product descriptions are used to com- sumer feedback on her work. Her designs municate with like-minded producers and are mostly cut to stand away from the body consumers and not to engage with indi- and she produces them in neutral colors viduals outside of that circle. There is a in wool, silk and cotton. Instagram photos sense that sector participants are speaking reflect this and often show a product at with one another in something of an echo close range, with a description of the item chamber, mediated through technology. and a suggested outfit or a benefit of that Just as the fictional characters of Portland- textile. Through various digital platforms, ia may share an unspoken understanding Elizabeth Suzann clothing is portrayed as that organic chicken is preferable or that being hard-working, versatile clothing that jewelry should be locally handmade, con- can be worn on a variety of occasions. The sumers interested in purchasing cloth- label’s blog is a critical online tool used ing from Kamm or her stockists identify for communicating detailed information with the lifestyle (however idealized) she with consumers about product launches embodies and recognize the cues about and changes to garment designs as well it in texts and images as they are passed as demonstrating ideas for how to wear through various communication chan- the clothing. There are also profiles of staff nels. members and features on Pape. One blog post on the brand’s website shares Pape’s experience of her clothing as she packs a 8 Elizabeth Suzann selection of her designs for a family holiday (Pape, 2016b). The post explores in close I don’t want to make anything I can’t take a detail what she wore at which occasion nap in. (Pape, 2016a) and not only how she looked, but how she felt in each outfit. She admits to wearing In contrast to the glamour of Shaina Mote’s the same outfit several days in a row and Chateau Marmont cellist or Jesse Kamm’s notes her height, weight and size. Another “Joni Mitchell cheekbones,” the Elizabeth post provides tips for mothers and “moms- Suzann label by Nashville-based designer to-be” on which items from her collections Elizabeth Pape seeks to offer clothing fit for would best suit them: they are advised that the challenges of quotidian life and her la- black is great for hiding stains, linen is du- bel provides an emphasis on lived experi- rable and stain-resistant and pockets are ence when talking about fashion’s material crucial. Another post offers ten ways to characteristics. Pape began her business style six items and create a versatile travel selling on the online craft marketplace wardrobe, noting that “you can pack only Etsy and at craft fairs including the Rene- these pieces, and easily dress for any oc- gade Craft Fair in Chicago and the Porter casion on a week-long adventure” (Pape, Flea Market in Nashville. Her business has 2015). Claire McCardell designed a six- an online-only, direct-to-consumer model piece travel wardrobe in the 1930s - hers and clothing is made to order in her own in “denim and black butcher cloth” (Steele, warehouse. The brand’s website says they 1991, p. 104) – and Pape could be seen as use “only the highest quality, natural fiber carrying on in the American fashion tradi- cloth [which is] significantly more duration of easy-to-wear sportswear separates ble, feels better against your skin, and gets cut from sturdy textiles. Says Pape in one softer with each wear” (Elizabeth Suzann, post, “comfort, versatility, ease of mobility, n. d.-g). A dedicated page on her website and washability – those are the essentials” lists every textile used and its qualities, (Pape, 2017). Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 419

This is not the imagined, idealized paint, dust, chalk, well-worn and used, world that Kamm or Mote’s consumers paired with trusty denim and clogs on an may inhabit, but one that expresses alter- artist like long-time favorite Eva Hesse” native desires: in this case, an easy, unclut- (Elizabeth Suzann, n. d.-c). A wool dress tered wardrobe. The subtext of many of description reads: “the wool/alpaca blend Pape’s blog posts and social media posts is incredibly soft and warm, and light on is one of a well-constructed wardrobe the skin. It strikes me as something my fa- that avoids potential complications in vorite strange artists from the 1970’s would moments of what Sophie Woodward calls wear on a chilly desert night in Marfa” “assemblage”; it is a vision of the stream- (Elizabeth Suzann, n. d.-b). Product imag- lined wardrobe as significant achievement es on the website show models captured in (Woodward, 2007). This reflects a broad- movement: arms held above heads, with er interest in contemporary culture with legs kicked out or caught mid-stride; one ideas of minimalism and reduced con- campaign shows the model in socks, with sumption, seen in documentaries like that minimal makeup and hair styling. of bloggers “The Minimalists” or in books The quality of the fabric is often linked like Marie Kondo’s “The Life Changing with longevity and a sense of style that is Magic of Tidying” (d’Avella, 2015; Kondo, “beyond” fashion. Designers like Mote, 2015). Like reflecting on times gone by as Kamm and Pape construct a version of being more “simple” and hence more de- fashionability whose allure is drawn from sirable, wistful references to minimalism, a rejection of popular trends and the per- reduced consumption or slower lifestyles ceived ills of mainstream fashion. Sustain- may seem ignorant of the realities of those ability is not the primary focus, rather the for whom material abundance is unattain- focus is on buying fewer, better things to able. Nonetheless, it reflects the anxieties which one can form a lasting attachment. of affluent cultures and what appears to be “Slow has never been this chic,” writes one fetishized here is an ease of living. Many New York Times fashion writer in a pro- popular fashion blogs or stories by fashion file of designers including Pape (Phelan, journalists offer advice on how to minimize 2017). There is a suggestion that wearing one’s wardrobe, how to develop a person- timeless designs like these offers freedom al style “uniform”, how to build a “capsule from the dictates of fashion while still wardrobe” or how to free oneself from the rendering the wearer fashionable. These time and energy spent on deciding what to pieces are, in many ways, “anti-fashion” wear each day (Collings, 2015; Kahl, 2015; in the way that Elizabeth Wilson uses the Lau, 2015; Rector, n. d.; Vazquez, 2015). term: elegance that never draws attention While the notion of a uniform is a complex to itself; simplicity that is “understated” one with broad social and cultural applica- (Wilson, 1985, p. 183). In a way, this type of tions (Craik, 2005), in this context it refers clothing also represents what Wilson calls to a repetition of dressing representing the “oppositional fashion,” which actively op- discovery of one’s own personal style and a poses the mainstream. Further consolidat- kind of self-affirming self-discipline. ing this is the fact that Pape has eschewed Pape often mentions the idea of seasonal collections for a set of three core “wardrobe building” and her designs are ones: the signature collection, cold weath- not trend-driven. The simplicity and time- er collection and warm weather collection. lessness of Pape’s designs is conveyed Additionally, of the three labels examined through descriptions of the fabrics and for this study, Pape’s is the only one to of- their hardworking qualities. The Patti Shell fer an extended sizing range. The label has is made of “washed linen knit […] cool and previously run a “diversity campaign” in slinky like soft, fibrous chain mail” (Eliz- which women of various sizes, shapes and abeth Suzann, n. d.-f). The silk crepe she ethnicities from around the United States uses is “meant to be worn, not coddled” were flown to Nashville to participate in a (Elizabeth Suzann, n. d.-a). She envisions photo shoot for the website (Elizabeth Su- a longline linen vest being “covered in zann, n. d.-d). Photographing these wom- 420 Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 en wearing the label’s designs allows con- the maker in the garment’s construction is sumers to see the clothing on bodies that shown through intimate Instagram posts more closely resemble their own. or personalized videos; the good health Timeless designs that reject tradition- and good vibes sewn into every piece are al collections or industry cycles allow the demonstrated using references to fellow consumer to picture themselves in the creative producers and images of nature; garments and to consider how they would and beautiful, natural, high quality fabrics fit in to their lifestyles. It recalls the process that will find a home in the wearer’s ward- Findlay writes about when she suggests robe for years to come are shown in blog that in moments when particular items posts with holiday snapshots or are worn of clothing appeal to us they may “offer by musicians and artists and captured in the possibility of metamorphosis in their ethereal short fashion films. Rather than wearing” (Findlay, 2016). As Findlay writes, being seen as a threat to the indepen- this imagining can occur through both the dent fashion sector’s ethos, technology worn and unworn garment: through both has been embraced as a tool allowing in- the imagined self and the sensory experi- dependent fashion producers to ampli- ence of clothing. Woodward writes, follow- fy their voices as they challenge existing ing Hansen and Tarlo, that “clothing is not fashion paradigms. Future research could defined by what it has been in the past, but identify and trace commercial outcomes what it can be in the future” (Woodward, for these designers that are directly linked 2007, p. 13). The loading of these items to their digital communication methods; of clothing with symbolic value makes it would also be beneficial to better un- them desirable tools through which in- derstand how the various communication dependent fashion labels can encourage channels available to independent cultur- consumers to enact their desired futures, al producers may be used to complement whether highly idealized like Mote’s and one another. Kamm’s or grounded in (elevated) daily ex- Extending on this aspect, future re- periences like Pape’s. search into the ways in which these (often very small) businesses gain, use and share the skills required to use contemporary 9 Conclusion communication tools would offer valuable insight into the nature of entrepreneurial Independent fashion producers are com- work in the creative industries. This sug- municating with a broader range of con- gested area for future research is further sumers than ever before, facilitated by indicated by findings in this study that advances in technology and the use of support Rocamora’s assertion that fashion contemporary digital media tools. Though producers and consumers are adopting these high-tech, rapid and globalized new methods of consuming and retailing methods of communication could be seen fashion at the same time as they are adopt- to be at odds with the priorities of the sec- ing technology and digital media (2017). In tor related to nostalgia, small-scale pro- the independent fashion sector, material duction, and handmade or artisanal prod- characteristics are used as a way of sepa- ucts, some labels have embraced these rating the sector from the mainstream and new opportunities and found ways to use independent fashion labels have found technology to promote these aspects of new ways to convey these symbolic values their work. Images, interviews, social me- using multimedia technology. Some uses dia posts, videos and blog posts are used could be seen as reflecting a mediatization to suggest luxury, individuality, vitality and process, for example Shaina Mote’s video creativity related to material qualities, and or Elizabeth Pape’s bloggable packing lists these are positioned in opposition to the or diversity campaign models. Others, like speed, low quality and anonymously pro- musings on where one might wear a Jes- duced garments associated with the main- se Kamm dress or sharing images of the stream system. The ever-present hand of designer’s home, are more reflective of Tuite / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 411–423 421 mediation rather than mediatization. This Crowley, E. (April 15, 2014). The modern look suggests that producers in the indepen- of Boho that’s sweeping LA. Retrieved from dent fashion sector are flexible and willing http://www.vogue.com/866377/the- to adapt to new technology and changing modern-look-of-boho-thats-sweeping-la/ modes of communication, despite the Cuba, L. (2015). Surge Peruano, surge! Towards nostalgic focus on nature, artisanship and a cartography of independent fashion de- material luxuries at the core of the sector’s sign in Peru. Fashion, Style & Popular Cul- driving ethos. ture, 3(1), 51–62. doi:10.1386/fspc.3.1.51_1 d’Avella, M. (Director). 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437

Fashion influencers and Instagram. A quasi-perfect binomial Cristina González Fernández, Freelance journalist specializing in fashion [email protected]* Raquel Martínez-Sanz, University of Valladolid, Department of Journalism [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Influencers, thanks to their ability to connect with the public, have revolutionized brand communication, making it less invasive and at the same time attractive and dynamic. This research explores the behavior followed by the main Spanish fashion followers, focusing on the strategies and resources used in their communication through Instagram profiles. The gradual incorporation of men into this sector requires identifying whether the publication of habits in this social network vary or not with respect to the author’s gender. In addition, compliance with Spanish legislation on advertising is monitored, which obliges the authors to explicitly indicate any message that promotes a product or service from a contractual agreement.

Keywords influence marketing, instagramer, social networks, brand communication, millennial

1 Introduction Freberg, 2011). This quality, together with the interest that its communication pro- Social media 2.0 enables the user to nar- vokes, and which translates into a volu- rate in first person both the consumer minous community of users, gives rise to experience and the treatment received by what is known as a social influence. the brands. At the same time, and through This clear leadership in a large num- these tools, the user has the possibility ber of young people causes that many to approach the evaluations provided by commercial brands, and especially those their peers. The word of mouth, far from linked to the fashion and beauty sector, disappearing, has been increased with find in the profiles of these leaders the social media as the circle of confidence of perfect showcase to enter, in a non-intru- people who no longer have to necessarily sive way, into the imagination of its tar- be physically close increases (Li & Bernoff, get audience and become infected with 2011). the credibility and trust that they radiate. If there is a collective especially linked Through influence marketing, the condi- to this way of proceeding, it is the young tions that regulate the professional rela- public, the so-called Millennials (Bolton, tionship between brand and prescriber are Parasuraman, Hoefnagels, Migchels, Ka- established (Uzunoˇglu & Kip, 2014), mak- badayi, Gruber, Loureiro & Solnet, 2013) ing direct reference, among other issues, who find in the digital space the perfect to actions, times or remuneration. How- platform to make known their way of life, ever, the Spanish legislation is clear in this their knowledge or opinions on the subject regard, the recipient must be able to dis- they feel very familiar. tinguish paid messages, and consequently However, only a small percentage of of advertising nature, from those that are them demonstrate the ability to influence, not, even if they are signed by individuals that is, to generate a reaction in their fol- (Martínez & Gaona, 2016). lowers and, consequently, that their rec- This research focuses its interest on ommendations, experiences and opinions the fashion industry, one of the most are positioned as a preferred option over profitable in the world and with the great- the rest (Freberg, Graham, McGaughey, & est attraction power among young people

https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.015 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 426 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437

(Ribeiro-Cardoso, Teixeira & Santos, 2016; and way of proceeding of the influenc- Pérez, Clavijo, Luque, & Pedroni, 2017). In ers varies depending on the gender. this context, the main objective is to examine how the main fashion influencers in Spain carry out a brand communication in 2 The evolution of the influencer their Instagram accounts, the social media phenomenon network that has seen its users aged between 16-30 years increase as well as ap- The figure of the social influence is born preciation, especially among women (IAB with the emergence of Web 2.0. The fo- Spain, 2015; 2016). rums were the first digital scenario open If the formula of the social influence to the exchange of opinions but soon the is summarized in having a large commu- conversation was moved to the blog, a nity of followers and the ability to interfere better structured space that cultivated all in the decisions of third parties mainly kinds of themes and interests and that in- related to tastes, interests and/or desires corporated other expressive possibilities (Booth & Matic, 2011), this work is inter- besides the text (Martínez-Sanz, 2013). ested in identifying the strategies devel- The variant of the ego-blogger –logbook oped by these opinion formers (igers1) dedicated exclusively to publicizing the aimed at increasing their community and personal experiences carried out by its au- their ability to influence. Likewise, and in thor- resulted in the advancement of some a transversal way, it is intended to observe of the characteristics of younger fashion if the communication (themes, language, influencers (Uzunoˇglu & Kip, 2014). tone, images, etc.) differs between men As Gillin (2009) explains, the appear- and women influencers or if on the con- ance of Google AdSense in 2003 marked a trary there is a homogeneous behavior val- turning point when introducing the eco- id for both genders. nomic and therefore lucrative variable in Consequently, the resolution of these the activity of blogs. The advertising put objectives invites us to answer the follow- under its spotlight the most visited and ing research questions: best positioned blogs, thus initiating the ›› To what extent do you identify the mes- competition of brands by appearing in the sages in accordance with the brand (in- most demanded web spaces according to fluence marketing) of those which are the related themes. The segmentation of created through initiative by the fash- the public became a necessity and a clear ion prescribers? The purpose is to find success factor in any advertising campaign out if these opinion former’s inform (Rojas & Redondo, 2017). Blogs also served their community of the establishment to relaunch content marketing when they of a professional link – punctually or discovered that updated comments, based continously – with a brand and how it on the focus of the subject and the con- is evidenced. cern to cover practical needs of the public, ›› How important is the image and text made its author a reference source. in the influencer’s communication However, it has been the social net- through Instagram? Through this ques- works that have taken the influencer tion, how the role played by each of phenomenon to its peak, serving as a these components in this eminently vi- professional springboard for many young sual social network is valued. people whose outfits, suggestions and ›› Are there differences between the tech- purchases serve as inspiration for the rest niques employed by fashion prescrib- (Ribeiro-Cardoso et al., 2016; Colliander & ing women and their male counterparts Marder, 2018). From a commercial point of when using their Instagram channel? It view it is fully understood that the recom- is about knowing if the communication mendation from a trustworthy source is a decisive factor when purchasing a prod- 1 Iger is used as a synonym of instagramer and re- uct or service (Bigné, Küster, & Hernán- fers to the most active users of this social network dez, 2013; Benítez-Eyzaguirre, 2016). In González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 427

Figure 1: Posts of several instagramers with the dress distributed by Lord and Taylor

Sources: @nanysklozet; @emilyanngemma; @halliedaily 428 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 addition to this, we must add that social connecting and providing the public with networks are not understood without in- what they are looking for. teraction, without the active participation The research carried out by Wied- of the recipient. This causes that the con- mann, Hennings and Langner (2010) sumer can assume at the same time the points out the most determining qualities role of creator, contributing with his reac- of the profiles that aspire to achieve social tions to mold the evolution of the brand influence in the fashion sector. (Castelló, 2010). ›› Tuning in with users in terms of age, One of the first and most outstanding gender and location. Internet users cases of influence marketing in the field tend to interact and establish social of fashion was launched in 2015, encour- relationships with people with whom aged by the American firm Lord and Taylor they share common characteristics. (image 1). This brand asked 50 leading in- ›› Linked with fashion. stagramers to upload a photo on the same ›› Specific experience and knowledge. day and at the same time with a particular ›› Innovative behavior. The appeal in be- dress from their new collection, making ing the first to try, go or experiment and the garment run out after a few days. With then narrate it in the first person. this initiative, the brand achieved that the ›› Risky. They do not fear changes and do dress was seen by consumers as a must- not place limitations when applied to have, stimulating them to acquire it. With inflcuening themselves. this example the industry understood that the capacity for conviction is powerfully A significant percentage of the followers of superior if it comes from a close voice, in these opinion formers are young people which it has trust and may have a trade- (IAB, 2016), members of the so-called Mil- mark despite its advertising efforts. lennial Generation (Ruiz Cartagena, 2017). This group, born between 1981 and 2000, does not understand the world without In- 3 The attractiveness of the prescriber ternet. Moreover, the Web represents one of its main sources of information, in ad- If there is something that characterizes all dition to being the main drivers of online the influencers, it is their active presence consumption. Regarding this McCormick in social media networks, which leads (2016) determines that the millennials as- them not to limit their activity to only one, sociate with each product a brand (burg- but to expand and adapt their message to er – McDonalds, cereals – Kellogs, luxury the different platforms (Martínez & Berro- car – Ferrari, etc.) establishing with them cal, 2017). The domain and specialization a relationship of self-representation and of each one of them has derived in well- favoring that the brands become an exten- known users like: instagramers, youtubers, sion of themselves. tweeters, etc. to refer to the user generat- However, as Pedro Rojas and María ing content of each space. Redondo (2017) have discovered, young Likewise, the social influencer is a people do not talk to brands; they are person with a wide community of follow- hardly interested in interacting with them. ers who trust the information provided by Hence the need to find other mechanisms them and to whom they share common for companies to impact their target audi- interests. With regard to their communica- ences. To fill this gap, influence marketing tion, the possibilities are very varied: from has proven to be an effective and profi purely informative messages, including table tool to generate engagement (As- recommendations or practical advice, to wani, Ghrera, Kar, & Chandra, 2017; Cas- the story of experiences, lifestyles or opin- telló & Pino, 2017). The figures support it: ions. Even the language has a wide range 65% of fashion professionals say they have of possibilities: text, photographs, emojis, carried out actions or campaigns with in- videos, etc. In short, what is involved is fluencers in 2016 (Launchmetrics, 2017). It is no coincidence that the influencer phe- González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 429 nomenon was born in the midst of an eco- enced (Venegas, 2015). The purpose is not nomic crisis, demonstrating that it obtains only to get a comment that recommends better results than traditional advertising the acquisition of a particular item or and at a lower cost, without forgetting the complement but to convince the opinion possibility of brands controlling the return former of the benefits of the brand and, on their investment and keeping track of naturally, to become its ambassador. their derived sales. The professional relationship with the company increases to the next level and adjoins the advertising when the influenc- 4 Plan and guide influence er agrees, in exchange for a fee, the type in networks of message to be published, the bias that must be applied to his comment -clearly Influence marketing consists of the con- positive-, and the regularity; all in order to tact and link established by a company strengthen the attributes of the product. with influential users of the network-blog- This new status suppresses the freedom gers, instagramers, youtubers, celebrities, of the influencer to make an objective etc. Previously identified to multiply the judgment of his opinion. In this regard, reach of its brand communication. Influ- Spanish legislation is clear: the recipient encing marketing fuses corporate commu- must have obvious signs that separate the nication with advertising by extracting the informative messages from the advertis- best from each one, in order to ultimately ers; otherwise, misleading advertising oc- generate a link with the user that ends up curs (General Advertising Law, 1988, Un- making him loyal (Castelló & Pino, 2015). fair Competition Law, 1991). In addition, this relationship sup- According to Luis Díaz (2017), when poses a mutual benefit for all the parties: advertising agencies contact an influencer while the brand is impregnated with the to create a campaign, they are sent a brief credibility and confidence radiated by the in which they specify what the brand ex- prescriber, he/she sees thier work reward- pects to obtain. Subsequently, everything ed by strengthening his/her position and related to the communication that the in- professional relevance since all the con- fluencer must issue is agreed, including tent, of an organic nature – and therefore, the characteristics of the images that will not paid-, together with the interaction accompany their messages. The depth of the users, contributes to improve the that can be achieved in the negotiation is web positioning and with it its visibility. To such that it can include aspects like the ap- achieve such optimal results, it is essen- plication or not of filters, the aesthetics of tial that brand and influencer share values the image, the elements that have or not to and ways of doing and thus provide natu- appear or how to highlight the promoted ralness to communication. It is about that product. It is usual for the brand to request the effort is channeled towards the same the explicit mention of its name or the use direction and contradictions do not occur. of a specific hasthag in textual messages. In most of the occasions, the first en- To avoid misunderstandings, the brief can counter with the brand occurs when the include a section called mood board with company, convinced of the quality of its illustrative examples that serve as inspira- products or services, is open to impartial tion to influence and ensure the harmony people, specialized in the sector, to prove, between brand and the prescriber. manipulate and/or experience it. It is not strange, therefore, that many influencers receive free samples or are invited to cer- 5 Methodology tain presentations or events in order for them to make a subsequent mention in If as explained, the influencer tries to their networks, transferring to their com- build loyalty and expand its community munity of followers the experience, the of users through social media, this work treatment and / or the impressions experi- aims to analyze the specific techniques 430 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 used by different opinion formers in fash- ning of the research and the cathegories ion through their respective Instagram of the answers (close/open) that are ex- accounts. For this, it has been used the plained next. empirical method of investigation called The template was composed of four “case-study” (Yin, 2009; Stake, 1995) rec- sections: ommended particulary when the next ›› Composition: It is derived from the ele- circunstances happen; attempt to provide ment the publication is articulated and and answer for the questions “how” and include three variables: a) type of pho- “why”; the researcher has weak control tography: unpublished, image of file, gif over the events and when the interest is or video; b) at what time of the day the about a current phenomenom bound with user used Instagram: in the morning, in the real life (Yin, 2009). This method, rein- the afternoon or at night; and c) the day force the explanatory character of it versus of the week. the exploratory or descriptive. ›› Repercussion: In this section we mea- The investigation focuses on the study sure the impact made by each publica- about the publications and interactions tion and record a) the number of likes achieved by 13 leading Spanish fashion in- and b) the number of comments re- fluencers are studied from a quantitative ceived in the first 24 hours is quantified. and qualitative point of view. According ›› Visual content: Describes the elements to the method choosen the tecnique for that are represented and clarifies how research is the content analisys technique they were captured. In this section, for the objective posed by its ability to there are nine variables: a) the influ- combine observation and data produc- encer is identified in terms of presence tion, with its interpretation (Krippendorff, or absence; b) the condition of the pre- 2004). To ensure it’s rigorness, an analysis senter: person, object or landscape; c) template was developed that emphasizes the type of plan used: general, medium, both the visual and textual aspects of the selfie, American or detail plan. Next, ex- message and the interactions received. plain the implications that this type of The creation of this tool about collecting plane entails; d) how the image is cap- data has been base on Castelló and Pino’s tured: spontaneously or with prepara- investigation (2015); and Selva and Caro’s tion; e) what the scene reflects: personal proyect (2017) and searching posts on In- moment, state of mind or profession- stagram. On this fase we established the al life; f) esthetic: if the composition most relevant indicators according to the is careful or careless; g) if commercial goals and hypothesis showed at the begin- brands appear explicitly and which are

Table 1: Main features of the fashion influencers analyzed

Gender Name Profile Followers Agency Publications issued/ analyzed Female María Turiel @meryturiel 391 000 Go Talents 47/14 Female Inés Arroyo @ines_arroyo 342 000 Okiko Talents 22/9 Female María Valdés @marvaldel 263 000 Go Talents 33/7 Male Luis J. García @lewisonn 224 000 Influence Code 5/3 Female Marta Soriano @msorianob 145 000 Go Talents 34/10 Male Alejandro More @alejandrojamo 135 000 Influence Code 12/1 Female Adriana Boho @adrianaboho 115 000 Influgency 31/7 Female Marta Vidaurreta @martavidaurreta 108 000 Go Talents 19/4 Male Aarón Fernández @aaronfernandezmoda 74 100 Hamelin 16/5 Female Sara Domenech @saraemdi 73 400 Influgency 31/6 Male Miguel Carrizo @miguelcarrizo 39 500 Okiko Talents 37/7 Male Gaby Rope @gabyrope 31 700 Influgency 5/1 Male Fernando Montoya @montoya_nando 28 500 Influgency 18/3 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 431

mentioned; h) if labels are integrated April 12 (Wednesday), April 16 (Sunday), within the image and of what type; and April 20 (Thursday), April 24 (Monday) i) it is verified if there is explicit allusion and April 28 (Friday). to the location and which are the most From a total of 311 publications is- repeated. sued by the 13 specialists in April 2017, the ›› Textual content: This category monitors study corpus was composed of 77 mes- the text with five factors: a) the lan- sages whose impact – number of com- guage(s) used is indicated; b) if emojis ments – was recorded 24 hours after being appear in the configuration of the text published through screenshots. Reassur- message and c) if there is mention of ing the reliability of the inter-encoders a other profiles and what percentage cor- book about codes has been designed and responds to brands and which to peo- a preliminary test was done for the mea- ple; d) quantification and classification surement of the matches. of the semantics of the hashtags are quantified and classified and e) checks if the commercial collaborations be- 6 Results tween brand and influencer are clearly expressed. From a quantitative point of view, it is observed that the influencers with the most Finally, and valuing the message as a followers were those who published most whole (image plus text), intentionality is of the messages, although it is necessary specified. to clarify that the volume of activity was To carry out the selection of the in- much higher – almost double – in the fluencers, three aspects were taken into profiles of women than men. For them, account: 1. Membership in an influenc- the average relative to the entire month er agency in Spain 2. Direct and tangible was 31 entries – one per day – while they link with the fashion sphere 3. The volume published 16 messages per month, which of their digital community. The selected represents approximately one publication sample included the two genders: women every two days. (54%) and men (46%) with a non-parity The messages, in 98.7% of the cases, percentage since the presence of women were configured by unpublished images, in the field of fashion prescription is con- which means prioritizing the photogra- siderably higher. In spite of everything, it phy and the personal style of each author, is observed that the incorporation of the but at the same time, relegating the ex- male gender is progressive. This situation perimentation to the rest of the available motivates that our study, among other is- formats such as videos, gifs or memes, of sues, is interested in recognizing if there great social acceptance. Fashion experts are strategies of differentiated influence choose Sundays and the night time slot as between men and women to connect with the preferred time to upload content. the community of followers. With regard to the scope achieved by As shown in Table 1, the final sample each publication, although it is true that it was constructed as follows: is not possible to indicate the number of The study of the profiles took place visualizations obtained, it has been possi- in the month of April of 2017, analyzing ble to record the number of likes that each in detail all the messages published along message reached in the first 24 hours, seven non-correlative and random days. confirming that it was not only seen but it To guarantee these premises and, in addi- was enough of the follower’s liking to de- tion, to avoid coincidences on the day of serve the gesture of clicking on I like it. The the week, the selection of the multiples of 77 publications received a total of 580 503 four days was adopted as a criterion. Con- compliance samples, with @meryturiel sequently, the dates in which the corpus being the most acclaimed by far. of analysis was collected were the following: April 4 (Tuesday), April 8 (Saturday), 432 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437

Figure 2: Photography with labels that identify brands

Source:https://www.instagram.com/p/BS8ob9hjsKc/?hl=es&taken-by=adrianaboho

Table 2: Composition of the title according to the gender of the profile

Title Female profiles Male profiles Entirely in Spanish 48.2% 50% With some expressions in English 5.4% 5% Entirely in English 34.0% 20% In Spanish and English 0.0% 25% Composed only of emoji(s) 12.5% 0% Composed of text and emoticon(s) 78.6% 70% Includes hashtags 46.4% 90%

6.1 Visual aspects The type of plan most commonly used As for the photographs – the central core is the general one, identified in half of the of the Instagram message – the influenc- images and aimed at showing the full-bod- er appears in nine out of ten images. Data ied influencers, allowing them to show that goes down slightly if we only look at their complete looks. In 21%, the plan is the male profiles (85%). In addition, the of medium type, one of the most used in prescribers studied appear as absolute fashion photography because it discovers protagonists of the image in 88% of cases. up to the waist, allowing seeing the face up In the other situations, either they share close and the upper garment that is worn. the protagonism or it falls entirely in a In the same proportion (21%) you opt for landscape or an object. For the latter, the the American level that lets you perceive most common are the fashion accessories: up to your knees, so it is a good option wristwatch or sunglasses. In the images when you want to give importance to ac- in which the influencer was absent, val- cessories such as bags or backpacks. Self- ues such as relaxation and calm applied ies (self-portraits) only appear in 3% of the to places or landscapes and qualities such images. This format, which only has room as elegance and comfort for objects were for the representation of the face, barely promoted. allows the display of clothes or accessories González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 433

Figure 3: Publication that reinforces the location

Source: https://www.instagram.com/p/BTWTLy9F-bN/?hl=es&taken-by=montoya_nando]

Figure 4: Repeated mention to a brand that suggests a professional relationship between the parties

Source: https://www.instagram.com/p/BSy2VxRACzG/ 434 González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 so their use is very residual. The remaining perform a double promotion: visual and 4% corresponds to the detail plan used ex- textual. clusively to show specific objects such as In spite of everything, if there is a com- watches or bracelets worn by them. mon pattern in both genres, it is the care A feature present in all images, re- for the staging of their images, even when gardless of the gender of its creator, is its they do not appear, which is manifested evident prior preparation. With the aim of especially in the placement and order of not diverting the Internet user’s attention, the elements and in the chromatic har- a good part of the photographs are made mony, being able to get to see images that on basic backgrounds – generally walls stand out for their artistic quality. or doors – concentrating the interest in the influencer’s outfit. His position tries 6.2 Textual aspects to convey spontaneity and naturalness, Although Instagram is an eminently visual although nothing that appears is casual. social network, it admits spaces for writ- In spite of everything, and with a clear ining, such as the title of the publication, tention to connect with the followers, dai- photography labels and comments. ly and simple situations are staged, linked with the day to day of the young people as All publications had their own title: Near- an excuse to show what clothes they wear. ly half (49.1%) written entirely in Span- Women’s profiles abound with pho- ish while 5.2% also incorporated some tographs that capture personal moments Anglo-Saxon expression throughout the such as makeup, walking or enjoying a message. 27% was written entirely in En- drink. The simulated movement of arms glish and 12.2% in both languages, circum- or legs and above all, orienting the gaze to- stance, the latter, only present in profiles wards the horizon transmits the sensation managed by men (table 2). In any case, the of having been captured in full action. In appearance of a second language gives the the case of men, the pose is more evident profile a more professional and accessible by directing his gaze towards the objective image. In the remaining 6.3%, and pres- of the camera. ent only in the profile of women, the title The fact that all the instagramers ana- was composed only by icons. Despite this, lyzed are part of a specialized advertising it is observed that emojis are a common agency allows to deduce that they are in- resource used by influencers of both gen- terested in the promotion of brands. While ders, since in 76.3% of the messages the it is true that we can not ensure that at the presence of at least one is appreciated. time of the analysis the influencer received Another valuable resource that Insta- a financial consideration for it, it is no- gram admits in the titles of the publica- ticed that most of the publications (82%), tions is to mention another profile – value in addition to exhibiting clothes, fashion as an example: “Thank you very much to @ accessories or physical spaces, they name Converse for these shoes” – which allows brands through labels inside the image, to the user to be redirected to a new space. reinforce the message and eliminate any It is observed that male profiles are more type of doubt about the origin (image 2). It inclined to use it, since it is present in nine must be recognized that if it does not do so, out of ten publications, while in women only in 18% of the cases would it be possi- we only find the reference to another ac- ble to recognize who markets the product count in half of the messages. This feature exhibited through the identification of the is used by fashion influencers to redirect isotype, isologo or imagotype representa- commercial brands and, to a lesser extent, tive. For example, the appearance of a polo personal profiles. shirt with a crocodile to automatically as- An equally uneven use presents the sociate that garment belongs to the firm mention of the location from which the Lacoste. Therefore, it is observed that most photograph was taken. This information is of the influencers, both men and women, located in the header, next to the name of the author of the publication and is visible González & Martínez-Sanz / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 425–437 435 in the case of boys in 80% of their entries, examples linked to leisure, gastronomy while in the case of girls it does not exceed and tourism. 18.2%. For the latter, it is evident that the physical space is an accessory element although when it is insinuated it is always to 7 Conclusions praise it explicitly. Positive bias that also translate male profiles. Circumstance that With the aim of delving into the figure of is one more indication to suppose that the fashion influencer, this research ana- a professional relationship has been es- lyzes the communication resources used tablished. For example, the photo session by the main Spanish fashion prescribers done by @montoya_nando in the Forecast on Instagram, paying special attention to clothing store. their use of the image and the text. Like- With regard to intentionality, and tak- wise, it is investigated in the possible dif- ing as a reference the message as a whole, ferences between genres and in the ful- it is observed that the objective of 80% of fillment of the law in matter of Publicity, the publications of male influencers and verifying if the messages include any kind 49% of female publications is to explicit- of elements that distinguish the commer- ly promote a garment, a fashion space or cial publications – the previously agreed – , a product. The way of proceeding in this of the free and autonomous recommenda- situation is quite similar in both genders: tions of their authors. the article or physical space appears in The careful observation of the publica- the image monopolizing the maximum at- tions of 13 influencers concludes that none tention while the text does not skimp on of them specified explicitly having a pro- flattery including, in addition, the direct fessional relationship with a brand despite mention to the brand by hashtags and / or identifying behaviours such as the follow- your Instagram account (image 4). In these ing, which, although they are not unequiv- cases, those closest to the professional link ocal proof of cooperation, do represent between influencer and brand, there were a sign: constant compliments, repeated no explicit signs that confirmed a possible reference to specific brands and their In- paid collaboration between the two par- stagram profiles, and use of hashtags that ties. Fact that if proved would be in contra- either explicitly contained the name of the vention of Spanish law. same brand or had been created by them The rest of publications – 20% for men following the slogan of their last campaign. and 51% for women influencers – aims to It was observed that all these procedures maintain the link with their community converged in the same message in 80% of of followers by showing their day to day. the male publications, while the female in- This circumstance serves as an excuse to fluencers were more subtle combining the describe their outfits and detail, usually most commercial intentionality with the through labels, the clothes they carry. In care of their community of followers⸺pre- this category there is also room for advice, sent in 51% of the publications. Purpose, recommendations or draws: technique the latter, which materialized through the that allows to quickly increase the num- detailed description of their outfits; the of- ber of followers and the visibility achieved, fer of suggestions or advice; or with the an- since, generally, it requires participants to nouncement of discounts and promotions upload an image and label the product. in certain brands. Seen all this, we can identify that most They were more prolific during the of the entries published by the influencers month analyzed – they published about on their Instagram profile have a com- twice as many messages as their male col- mercial objective aimed at promoting leagues – and less interested in identifying and improving the image of products and the geographical space from which the brands linked to the field of fashion and / photographs were taken. 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Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

The impact of attitudes towards influencers amongst millennial fashion buyers Patricia SanMiguel, University of Navarra, ISEM Fashion Business School* Simone Guercini, University of Florence, Department of Economics and Management Teresa Sádaba, University of Navarra, ISEM Fashion Business School *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this paper is to identify influencers and the way they affect the behavior of millennial buyers in the process of consuming fashion goods. The paper examines the literature on opinion leaders, ranging from the origins of the concept to its developments within the context of the Internet. The shift from influential to influencer and the different types of influencer are examined and certain hypotheses regarding the role of influencers (including all the influential players) regarding fashion-buying millennials are presented. The paper presents the results of qualitative and quantitative empirical research based on focus groups and in-depth interviews with 22 university students. Findings from this research and their implications regarding the different stages of the millennial buying process are discussed.

Keywords buying behavior, influencer, opinion leaders, millennials, fashion.

1 Introduction and marketing strategies (Guercini and Runfola, 2015; Guercini et al., 2018). The first two decades of the twenty-first Most fashion items become fads by century have witnessed a number of key a contagious effect. They are transmitted revolutions in the digital world. The wide- both by recommendation and by imita- spread use of the Internet, the develop- tion, in a similar manner to an epidem- ment of virtual communities and the cre- ic. Social media play a fundamental role ation of multiple devices (Castells, 2001) in this transmission, whilst technology have transformed the way in which indi- helps us to capture them. The fashion con- viduals interact and consume (Sádaba, sumer is increasingly informed, prepared 2015). Social media users can now connect and connected to the online community with people from all parts of the world, es- (Sádaba, 2015). In this new scenario, the tablish real-time conversations and share dissemination of fashion trends “does not opinions on products purchased around exist as a force or an abstract idea, but is the five continents (Mir-Bernal, 2014). materialized through the actions of dif- In recent years, the social media has ferent agents and the mutual interaction become a realm for participation and col- amongst all of them” (Martínez Barreiro, laboration, one in which users have taken 2006, p. 201). over the role of companies in the genera- Today, consumers have the ability tion of content (Castells, 2001). Consum- to express their opinions, share their ex- ers live on the Internet and spend an in- periences and make recommendations, creasing number of hours throughout the not only within their immediate circles, day surfing the net, leaving traces of ev- but within the entire online community erything they do, the things they like most thanks to the arrival of blogs, social media or the sites they frequent. In the fashion and smartphones (Sádaba & SanMiguel, industry, the Internet presents some sig- 2014; SanMiguel & Sádaba, 2018). Some nificant benefits regarding development, influentials (who previously only influ- growth and business internationalization enced their closest social circles) become https://doi.org/10.24434/j.scoms.2018.02.016 © 2019, the authors. This work is licensed under the “Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivatives 4.0 International” license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). 440 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 influencers, featuring a status and form awareness and the dissemination of new of recognition amongst a community of products. These studies are usually car- followers. So, with the generalization of ried out by communication and marketing the Internet, new kinds of definitions re- agencies that evaluate their communities garding influencers have appeared (Gillin, of followers and the engagement they gen- 2007; Johnson & Young, 2012; Ranga & erate, analyzing case studies of products Sharma, 2014). with high sales volumes due to their rela- Nowadays, when we talk about influ- tionship with influencers (Brown & Hayes, encers, we mean celebrities, sportsper- 2008; Mediakix, 2016). sons, bloggers, Instagramers, Youtubers In academic terms, with the advent of and consumers who can help companies the Internet, most studies that address the broaden their reach and brand awareness topic of opinion leaders have focused on for a specific target audience that follows the identification of influentials on the In- their content in an active way. Their influ- ternet (Agarwal et al., 2008; Akritidis et al., ence is based on the knowledge and pas- 2009, 2011; Song, et al., 2007). These stud- sion they have regarding a specific theme. ies have largely been carried out within The frequent and continuous use of social the fields of the Information Sciences, Web media allows them to create a communi- Searching, Web Intelligence, etc. ty and generate bonds of trust (Brown & Few studies have attempted to ana- Hayes, 2008). In the case of celebrities or lyze the influence process through a more athletes, their influence is also due to the qualitative perspective. There is a gap in interest and admiration they generate the literature regarding the role that in- amongst consumers. fluencers play during the buying process: As has been shown in previous studies what is the influencer’s role in the gener- (Sádaba & SanMiguel, 2014), fashion influ- ation of needs and product searches, re- entials and influencers occupy a key posi- garding the evaluation of alternatives and tion in the fashion industry through their in relation to purchase and post-purchase blogs and social media. They assume the phenomena? And how can we typify in- role of references, advisors, disseminators fluencers and the way they influence con- and models of behavior regarding the use sumers? and consumption of fashion products. This study addresses the impact of 2.1 Objective influencers, including all the influential The objective of the present study is to an- players, on fashion consumption and analyze those players that influence univer- alyzes the role of these opinion leaders in sity students during the process of buying the consumption process in relation to fashion products (clothing and accesso- millennials. The paper include two main ries) and the ways in which this influence parts: 1. Review of literature on influenc- is exercised. To do this, we analyzed the ers, from the origins of the concept to its following: 1) the fashion consumer profile developments within the context of the In- of young university students; 2) how the ternet.; 2. Qualitative and quantitative em- purchase process of young university stu- pirical research through sample of focus dents works; 3) the different players that groups and in-depth interviews based on influence each stage of the process; and university students from Madrid (Spain) 4) the type of influence exercised by these born between 1999 and 1991. players. Before explaining the hypothesis of the study, it is necessary to clarify the fol- 2 Research objective and hypotheses lowing: First, we shall understand the pur- Most current studies surrounding the in- chasing act as a process: the stages that a fluence phenomenon are largely limited to consumer follows once he has a need or highlighting the role that influencers have creates a need and until he buys a product as opinion leaders in relation to brand and uses it. SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 441

Second, We shall focus on influential which they can collaborate through the players: those people, media or brands creation of brand values and the dissem- that exercise influence by changing opin- ination of messages (Harris & Rae, 2009). ion or behavior in individuals. Third, we Multiple authors point out that eWOM shall consider young university students: (Electronic Word of Mouth) has a positive individuals residing in Madrid, between influence on the adoption of products, the ages of 18 and 25, who are studying a impacting consumers’ awareness, interest degree (postgraduate, master’s or doctor- and decision-making stages (De Bruyn & ate) at a university in Madrid, Spain. Lilien, 2008, p. 153). Individuals need to support their shopping experience with in- 2.2 Hypotheses formation from peers, with other personal The general hypothesis of this research is experiences (Yoon & Han, 2012). However, that young university students are influ- not all individuals share information and enced throughout their buying process influence consumers in the same way. by different influential players. This hypo Web 2.0 has allowed the creation and thesis is made up of the following sub- distribution of content generated by us- hypotheses: ers and it is within this context that the ›› H1: Despite the increase in influencers, influencer phenomenon has emerged. close circles still play a key role in the According to the “Annual Social Network- evaluation and purchase decision staging Survey” produced by the Interactive es. Advertising Bureau (2017), 85% of Internet ›› H2: The social groups that young peo- users between 16 and 55 years of age state ple belong to continue to exercise a that they are still influenced through social significant influence, despite growing media. They follow the profiles of those individualism and the social trends that they consider to be “ahead” and they iden- fashion proposes with the expression of tify with the group, seeking inspiration or a unique and personal identity. imitating their style. ›› H3: Access to and purchase of products Opinion leadership studies began in on the Internet is mostly through the the 1940’s with research by Katz & Lazars- mobile devices that young university feld and Merton and Weiman, and have students possess. continued up until the beginning of the ›› H4: Instagram emerges as the new so- second millennium. Since the 1950’s, there cial media par excellence. has been talk of two types of leadership: formal leadership, which is assigned by the position of power held by certain peo- 3 The emergence of opinion leaders ple due to their social status or profession; in the online age and informal leadership, associated with people with “almost invisible and certain- Internet has provided consumers with a ly unconscious leadership from person new channel to disseminate their opin- to person, intimate, and daily:” what are ions, reaching a greater number of peo- known as influentials (Katz & Lazarsfeld, ple than traditional word-of-mouth could 2011, p. 140). achieve (Mir-Bernal, 2014). These conver- Internet enables consumers to take sations occur especially on social media on a central role in spreading trends and such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram opinions about brands (Zhang, Zhao, & and Twitter, where consumers provide or Xu, 2016) and, consequently, studies on the seek information and advice about prod- role of consumers as influencers have in- ucts they wish to buy (Choi, Chiu, & To, creased. In fact, some researchers have talk- 2011). ed about the return of influence (Schaefer, Users share their opinions and expe- 2012). Therefore, the Internet represents a riences, having an impact on: 1) consum- boom in influence and a diversification of ers, who can advise or discourage the ac- the types of influencers. quisition of a product; and 2) brands, with 442 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

The diversification of influencers is a et al., 2007). It should be noted that many consequence of the characteristics of the studies have been carried out by digital Internet, which 1) democratizes the mes- marketing companies that specialize in sage dissemination channels (creation influencer marketing (Klout, 2013; Solis, of blogs and various platforms to share 2016; WOMMA, 2017). Studies in the ac- content), 2) trains individuals to create ademic field have also been developed. contacts with people from anywhere in Most have focused on what influencers the world, expanding networks and 3) in- are, marketing strategies with influenc- creases the speed of message dissemina- ers and types of collaborations between tion and increases the power of virulence brands and influencers (Galeotti & Goyal, (Jove, 2011). 2009; Uzunoˇglu & Misci Kip, 2014; Watts & Within this context, the term “influ- Dodds, 2007). However, there are few stud- encer” has begun to be used to designate ies that analyze how influencing impacts all those people who have the capacity from the point of view of consumers, as to influence the online environment and opposed to the perspective of marketing whose power of influence is recognized agencies or the influencers themselves. by a community of followers and a large In 1999, the RoperASW and Burson- number of Internet users. The Internet Marsteller companies conducted a study transforms influentials (unofficial leaders) of online opinion leaders in the USA and into influencers, opinion leaders with a called them “e-influentials” (Smith, 2007). public and official status within their com- A few years later Burson-Marsteller (2005) munities of followers on social media. developed new research on opinion lead- In view of these changes, companies ers in the field of technology: Next Gener- have had to adapt and find other ways to ation of Influencers. The company Tapin- reach consumers, taking into account the fluence analyzed the effectiveness of sales fact that consumers increasingly demand through marketing with influencers and close and transparent communication published a report entitled The Future of with companies (Cabosky, 2016). Within Influencer Marketing (2016). Mediakix, an this context, the role of influencers is es- influencer marketing agency, developed sential for spreading trends and bringing The COM’S Guide to Influencer Marketing brands closer to consumers (Zhang et al., (2016), in which it classifiedinfluentials 2016). Consequently, new marketing through social platforms. The Altimeter strategies known as influencer marketing, company published The Influencer Mar- which stands for “the art and science of keting Manifesto: Why the Future of Influ- involving people who are influential on encer Marketing Starts with People and the Internet to share brand messages with Relationships Not Popularity. This study their audience, in the form of sponsored notes: “the difference is, and this is im- content” (Sammis et al., 2016, p. 12). That portant, that influential people have the is to say, it is the means by which com- same weight as their peers or ‘people like panies send messages to their audience me’, which is among the highest forms of through other consumers who share their influence that are mentioned among con- story and generate interest. sumers in one study after another” (Solis, It should be noted that popularity can 2016, p. 1). be a by-product of influence or authority. The Word of Mouth Marketing Asso- But influence cannot be measured sole- ciation, in its The WOMMA Guide to Influ- ly by the size of a community. Influence encer Marketing (2017), defines influence means having the ability to cause an effect as the ability to cause or contribute to or change a form of behavior (Solis & Web- another person taking action or changing ber, 2012). opinion/behavior. “An influencer is some- Research about the role of influencers one who has greater than average poten- regarding the decisions of consumers has tial to influence others. The people who continued to develop (Danny Brown & influencers affect are influencees, defined Fiorella, 2013; Kiss & Bichler, 2008; Song as a person or group of people who take SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 443 action or change opinion/behavior as the colleagues and neighbors who share opin- result of exposure to information provided ions and advise. These close circles would by an influencer. Influencer Marketing is be the influentials defined by Lazarasfeld the act of a marketer identifying and en- anf Katz. gaging influencers to share information Nowadays, the dissemination of fash- with influence in pursuit of a business ion trends occurs through a process of “vir- goal” (WOMMA, 2017, p. 4). ulence”, which is an idea also suggested by With the arrival of the Internet, influ- Wiswede (1971). “It is a pattern of fashion ence began to be measured through “Big dissemination ‘by contagion’ and a form Data.” Although there are multiple vari- of propagation such as AIDS or epidem- ables, an analysis of influentials usually ics” (Martínez-Barreiro, 2006, p. 189). This focuses on three variables (Armano, 2011; process of dissemination by contagion Burke, 2016; Klout, 2013; Solis, 2017): was explained in a meticulous manner by ›› Reach: the size of an influencer’s follow- Gladwell (2014), who emphasized the ex- ing or audience size on any given social istence of individuals that accelerated the channel. Within that reach, the engaged processes of dissemination. Literature has reach is the size of audience within this called these opinion leaders “influentials” following that will actually engage with (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955; Keller & Berry, the posts. 2003; Weimann, 1994). ›› Relevance: the alignment of the inter- The fashion process is understood as ests of an influencer – content that is a form of collective behavior and a social published and what it offers – with the mechanism of change, through which brand, the sector and its audience. an object or trend is transmitted from its ›› Resonance: the quality of the influen- creation and introduction to society as a tial-follower connection and its ability whole, accepting that product or tendency, to influence the behavior and purchas- until its obsolescence (Weimann, 1994). es of the community of followers. In the course of these creations and disseminations, many players are involved Influencers are usually categorized into (Crane, 1999): brands, designers, advertis- four groups according to the size of their ers, agencies, magazines, etc. However, in community variables (Burke, 2016; Klout, the present study we will focus on the role 2013; Solis, 2017): of influencers, which are currently of great ›› Celebrities: actors, artists, sportsper- importance in the new consumer para- sons and other social media stars, they digm. Influencers are especially important are also called mega influencers. They amongst millennials and post-millennials. usually have more than one million fol- Therefore, the present study is focused lowers. on the younger members of Generation Y, ›› Mega influencers: bloggers, instangram- Spanish university students born between ers or experts in a subject who reach 1999 and 1991. Members of Generation Y, more than 1 million followers. often called Millennials (Cantoni & Tardi- ›› Macro-influencers: executives, journal- ni, 2010; Oblinger, Oblinger, & Lippincott, ists, bloggers, Instagramers and You 2005; Reeves & Oh, 2008), frequently they Tubers who reach around 1 million–10K are defined as people who were born be- followers. tween 1982 and 2002. We should point out ›› Micro-influencers: customers or em- that, as noted by Reeves and Oh (2008), ployees who reach around 10K–1K fol- there is no agreement regarding the range lowers. of years that defines millennials, so some authors talk about post-millennials when In order to analyze the impact of the dif- referring to those born at the beginning of ferent players that influence consumer 2000. decisions, the influence of the media and Millennials are the first generation to surrounding circles was also analyzed. We grow up surrounded by digital media and understand “close circles” to mean friends, are accustomed to buying and socializing 444 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 online (Howe & Strauss, 2009; Reeves & tified as a driving force of online shopping Oh, 2008; K. T. Smith, 2011). Millennials (Fromm, Butler & Dickey, 2015; Howe & are the largest generation group since the Strauss, 2009; Smith, 2011). baby boomers, constituting a key target Millenials are a key target of influencer for fashion companies (Portolese Dias, marketing (Pophal, 2016; Solis, 2016). Due 2003; Smith, 2011; Smith, 2012). It should to the great use of social media (Facebook, be noted that this generation has been de- Instagram, YouTube, Twitter), especially nominated in multiple ways: Digital Na- amongst the youngest millennials – those tives; Gen.com; Generation Next; Genera- born in the late 90’s-, the influencer market- tion Tech; Generation Why; Generation Y; ing phenomenon has impacted in a special Generation 2000; Instant-Message Gener- way on these consumers. Some research ation (Cantoni & Tardini, 2010; Rapetti & highlights how social media have become Cantoni, 2013). their main source of information, which The massive advent of Information means they look for information created and Communication Technologies (ICTs) by consumers like them before making a has significantly impacted people every- purchase (Raines, 2002; Howe and Strauss, day life (Rapetti & Cantoni, 2013). This 2009; Smith, 2011; Smith, 2012). impact produces differences between Mil- lennials and older generations, therefore Generation Y has been analyzed by several 4 Methodology and results researchers. The implications of the adoption of new technologies in everyday life The present study features a qualitative and education have been analyzed mainly and quantitative methodology based on from three points of view: 1) enthusiasts, focus groups and in-depth interviews. who think that new technologies make ›› First, the data from the focus groups are young people more capable and have dif- presented where the role of influencers ferent cognitive abilities; 2) stakeholders, is most focused. who analyze the effects of ICT on young ›› Second, we analyze the in-depth inter- people, as they can be more violent and views from a qualitative perspective. suffer addition or harassment; 3) critics, ›› Third, we analyze the in-depth inter- who criticize the lack of localized studies views from a quantitative perspective and analysis (Cantoni & Tardini, 2010). in order to offer a fashion consumer This research can provide data on the test- profile and some initial data in relation ing of this generation in the case of Spain. to influencers. Several studies describe millennials as: happy, optimistic, confident, accepting The present research differentiated be- of authority, cooperative, happy to play tween the buying process of men and wom- as a team, hopeful, goal- and achieve- en, which is why the focus groups were ment-oriented, civic-minded, inclusive, carried out separately, one with women self-sufficient, technology savvy, con- and the other with men. The results of the nected, and open to change and diversity analysis are shown comparatively between (Cantoni & Tardini, 2010; Howe & Strauss, the genders. From a historical, sociological 2009; Portolese Dias, 2003; Raines, 2002). and marketing point of view, the use of, in- Smith (2011) points out that millen- terest in and consumption of clothing and nials are an essential ingredient in the accessories shows great differences be- development of electronic commerce, as tween both sexes, men and women. These they have grown up socializing and buying differences were especially evident during online (Smith, 2011, p. 489). Millennials the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, consider computers and mobile phones but have been present throughout history to be essential tools. Through them they (Kruger & Byker, 2009; Mitchell & Walsh, communicate, access digital newspapers, 2004). Researchers such as Browne and use social media and can buy anywhere Kaldenberg (1997), Auty and Elliott (1998) in the world, which is why they are iden- and O’Cass (2004) have shown that wom- SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 445 en are more involved and more interested the key role of opinion leaders or influenc- in fashion than men. The decision-making ers in the transmission of messages. behavior of men and women in relation to This research technique has been fashion goods and style presents consider- used frequently in market studies in or- able differences (Mitchell & Walsh, 2004). der to define the social images of products Rocha et al. (2005) pointed out how and brands and analyze the opinions, as- gender was a key factor in fashion con- sessments and reactions of consumers, es- sumption studies; gender had a high im- pecially before introducing a new product pact on lifestyle attributes because women onto the market (Gil Flores, 1993; Morgan, and men had different expectations about 1996). fashion products. Inequalities regarding This qualitative research technique consumption were also analyzed by Catalá may be used to obtain information about (2007) and Crane (2012). Recent AIMC re products or even about a concept, service search (2015) points out that men prefer or institution. The researcher seeks to dis- quality and brands, while women give cover the focus group’s perceptions, feel- greater importance to trends and sales. ings, attitudes and ideas.

4.1 Focus groups 4.2 Sample of focus groups Focus groups are a research technique As has been shown in multiple studies, the preferably used in the field ofsocial scienc- consumption of information and fashion es. It is a “non-directive” technique whose products is very different between both purpose is the controlled production of a sexes (Auty & Elliott, 1998; Browne & Kald- discourse by a group of subjects that are enberg, 1997; Crane, 2012; Kruger & Byker, brought together for a limited period of 2009; O’Cass, 2004). Therefore, in order to time in order to discuss a certain topic pro- obtain quality information and facilitate posed by the researcher (Gil Flores, 1993, discussion in the focus groups, individuals p. 120). The technique of focus groups be- were separated by gender. Two focus groups gan in the 1940’s, with Paul Lazarsfeld and were held: one with only young female uni- Robert Merton (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2011), versity students and the other made up of researchers who analyzed and discovered young male university students.

Table 1: Data regarding the research focus groups

Data regarding focus groups Number of focus group conducted: 2 (one with men and another with women) Number of participants in the focus group: in the first 10 women, in the second 9 men Dates when women group were held: Thursday, May 4, 2017, at 7:30 p. m Dates when man group were held: Thursday, April 27, 2017, at 7:30 p. m. Duration: 60 minutes each group

Data focus group university women Data focus group university men Women Age Education Man Age Education Code Code W 01 21 Law M 01 23 Business W 02 22 Pharmacy M 02 19 Psychology W 03 20 Teaching M 03 24 Labour Relations and Human Resources W 04 19 Tourism M 04 23 Fashion MBA W 05 19 Advertising and Public Relations M 05 25 Corporate Communication W 06 22 Management M 06 19 Managment W 07 20 Psychology M 07 19 Advertising and Public Relations W 08 21 Protocol and Organization of Events M 08 20 Marketing W 09 24 Political Science M 09 23 Agricultural Engineering W 10 19 Sports Science Source: Compiled by authors 446 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

The selection of the sample was carried The descriptors were linked to the cat- out in a standard manner, appealing to the egories discussed during the session: what convenience of obtaining a sample that fashion is and its importance at a day- represents multiple profiles: fashion-lov- to-day level; ways of consuming fashion; ers and non-fashion-lovers; age range; brand preference, platforms, styles; indifferent universities and degrees. Within fluential players in everyday fashion con- the homogeneity, a certain heterogeneity sumption; and the use of social media and was sought in terms of sociodemographic their relationship with influencers. Subse- characteristics, areas of study and interest quently, comparisons of the answers were in fashion, in order to increase the breadth made within each discussion group and of experiences, perceptions and opinions between the two focus groups of different that could be contributed by the partici- genders, in order to identify the consump- pants. tion processes,profiles of consumers, and The focus groups were held in a meet- the influence path. ing room at the University of Navarre in The most significant data extracted Madrid, an open space that facilitated during the focus group dynamics empha- conversation amongst all the members of sized the relationship and differences be- the group and permitted the participants tween both genders and the different char- to see one another. The discussion group acteristics of the participants (Table 2). was recorded with a tape recorder and Today both men and women give im- filmed for only 15 minutes, with the aim of portance to fashion. It represents their not inhibiting the participants, since they own image and the way of presenting might feel thatvideo was an intrusive me- themselves to the world: “I like fashion, it’s dium, as indicated by Morgan (1996). The a way of expressing myself” (W04). They characteristics of the focus groups that are concerned about the opinion that oth- were held are summarized in Table 1. ers may have of their dress and personal style. Women give more importance to the 4.3 Analysis and results of focus groups differentiation of their personality through The analysis is situated at a descriptive fashion: “I have my own style, I do not like level and is presented through a narra- to dress like the rest of my friends” (W10). tive report, as advised by Gil Flores (1993). Most men dress like their group of friends Following the recommendations of On- does and do not have as much need for wuegbuzie et al. (2011), the analysis was differentiation. expounded in three stages: 1) the data was The influence of negative comments fragmented into small units, assigning is greater amongst women than amongst them descriptors; 2) the fragments were men.”Most of the time we dress in a simi- grouped according to the established de- lar way, although if I buy some shoes and scriptors; and 3) a report was developed my friend doesn’t like them, I don’t care” expressing the content according to the (M07). They buy fashion alone in a phys- established themes and descriptors. Fur- ical manner, but accompanied in an on- thermore, based on the guidelines and line manner. “I tend to be alone when I buy recommendations of Morgan (1996) and something, but most of the time while I’m Onwuegbuzie et al. (2011), some micro- buying I send a picture to my sister or my analysis of the gathered data was car- best friend; they know me well and they ried out. For this reason, on occasion our usually advise me” (W08). presentation of the data includes certain Regarding social media: men, in gen- statements such as “the whole group eral, are more passive users and spend agreed …,” “all but one use …,” “the ma- fewer hours on them, but both see content jority buys …” These statements were daily through this application. Men follow made during the group discussion, with some female influencers because they like the moderator also carrying out a micro- to see images of pretty girls: “I don’t follow analysis of some variables that were being many influencers, although from time to discussed. time I see profiles of the best-known influ- SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 447

Table 2: Main results from the focus groups

Theme Main result Male behavior Female behavior Interest and importance For both genders, fashion is Some men dress out of necessity, Women give more importance to of fashion important; it is a way of but do not give importance to fashion as a symbol of belonging expressing your personality fashion to the group and differentiation of their personality

Influenced by Close circles Family and by the group more The pressure of the group is globally. greater for women. Friends can determine the use or not of a certain look

Why do you buy clothes and On impulse, I create a need Only when I really need On impulse, because I like it accessories? something or because it’s fashionable

Visit online stores or fashion Weekly Only when I need to buy Daily or weekly related websites? (except for those men who really like fashion, who would visit websites more frequently)

Buy online Once a semester Specific products Once a month, in sales and (such as sneakers) promotions. Buy more than one product in each order. Websites: ASOS, Wallapop, Amazon …

Go shopping Shop alone. What influences When they want to buy a Usually alone, sometimes with them the most is the price necessary product or replace a close friend. a garment. Buy for special occasions – with someone close or somebody familiar

Social media Instagram main social media Passive users and spend fewer Active users Daily use hours than women

Follow some influencers Follow many influencers as a source of inspiration

Sharing information about To ask for an opinion, through With mothers or couple With close friends or sisters purchases WhatsApp

Regarding influencers Follow influencers on Instagram Follow few influencers, but They follow many influencers and YouTube. especially related to sports or in all areas. Influencers influence Influencers are sources of some passion such as fine food, them by inspiring them, gener- information. cars or photography. ating new needs and serving as Massification of influencer They do not have much impact role models Little consumer loyalty towards when it comes to buying clothes the influential Source: Compiled by authors encers … they are very pretty girls” (M08). Men do not care much if the influencers Only those men with the greatest interest have contracts with brands and do not in fashion and lifestyle claimed to follow show much interest in the personal life of profiles of male influencers frequently; the influencers. By contrast, most of the but, in general, influencers don’t make any women indicated an interest in the per- impact when they buy. Women follow in- sonal life of the influencers. Women follow fluencers for inspiration, to be informed influencers of all kinds, related to fashion, of the latest trends or for gossip. Men and lifestyle, sports, gastronomy, travel, ac- women both believe that many influenc- tresses … They believe that many influ- ers work with brands as if they were mod- encers lose their personal style because of els and that they wear clothes from some their collaborations with brands and that brands because they are paid to do so. they become advertisements: “some influ- 448 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 encers have lost their personal style, brands 4.4 Qualitative analysis of in-depth give them a lot of money, but they lose their interviews: focus on influencers personality and they all end up being the After the focus groups were held, some same” (W03). They follow important influ- 22 in-depth interviews were conducted in encers in order to stay up to date. They like order to analyze and deepen our under- photographs, but they know that they will standing of the opinion held by young uni- not be able to buy many of the products versity students regarding influencers and that influencers wear. They like to follow the different players that influence them small-scale influencers that look more like during the process of purchasing clothes them and have a style that they can imi- and accessories. tate more easily. For them, influencers are In-depth interviews are a qualitative a source of inspiration and information research technique “in which one person about new brands or trends. (the interviewer) requests information Men and women emphasize that, to- from another or from a group (interview- day, there is a certain massification of in- ees, respondents) to obtain data regarding fluencers due to social media:“Many peo- a particular aspect. It presupposes, there- ple want to be influential to get brands to fore, the existence of at least two persons give them products or earn a bit of ‘money’, and the possibility of verbal interaction” not everyone gets to be influential, I guess it (Gil Flores, 1993, p. 167). depends on luck, a nice body and skill using The steps regarding this qualitative social media” (W06). Among the skills to access to our knowledge of social reality be influential, the following aspects were can be determined by the following points highlighted: the importance of being pho- (Olabuénaga & Ispizua, 1989, p. 30): 1) en- togenic, the quality of photographs, having tering the process of social construction, an attractive and fun personality for vid- reconstructing the concepts and actions eos, and being well connected with other of the studied situation; 2) describing famous influencers. Participants in the fo- and understanding the detailed means cus groups emphasized two ideas: 1) they through which subjects embark on mean- do not always follow the same influencers ingful actions and create a world of their or pay them equal attention; they often get own and of others; 3) knowing how to cre- tired of seeing the photos or the life of the ate the basic structure of experience, its same person for a long time; 2) the con- meaning, its maintenance and participa- sumer seeks creativity and authenticity in tion through language and other symbolic the contents published by the influencers, constructions; 4) making use of in-depth which is why each person follows certain descriptions, reducing analysis to areas influencers that they like and are often not limited to experience, through immersion known, although they also continue to fol- in the contexts in which it occurs. low famous influencers because everyone talks about them. 4.5 Characteristics and sample It should be noted that impulse pur- of in-depth interviews chases and the acquisition of garments The in-depth interviews proposed for the that are not necessary are increasing. The present study were semi-structured inter- majority of these impulse purchases are views Each interview lasted between sixty caused by continuous visits to the web- and ninety minutes and they were divided sites of brands and by the impact of influ- into two parts. First, a broad conversation encers on Instagram, the result of gener- took place regarding the participants’ inating a constant desire for products and terest in fashion, the fashion concept, the new ideas. In addition, the appearance ways young people buy things, their per- of new pages or apps such as 21Buttons sonality and their environment (how their (www.21buttons.com) facilitates finding friends, hobbies, characteristics of their information more easily and results in the social environment were defined, groups, consumption of the same products as those friends, etc.). In addition, they talked about posted by influencers on social media. the question of influencers (what they SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 449

Table 3: Data regarding the in-depth interviews

Data in-depth interviews Number of in-depth interviews conducted: 22 in-depth interviews (11 with women and 11 with men) Dates: The interviews were conducted in the month of May 2017 Duration: between 60 and 90 minutes

Case Gender Age Education W01 Woman 22 Journalism W02 Woman 23 Architecture W03 Woman 19 Civil engineering W04 Woman 24 Political science W05 Woman 25 Teaching W06 Woman 22 Law W07 Woman 22 Journalism W08 Woman 21 Protocol and organization of events W09 Woman 25 Pedagogy W10 Woman 20 Children’s education W11 Woman 22 Nursing/Telecommunications M12 Man 21 engineering M13 Man 25 Marketing M14 Man 24 Architecture M15 Man 21 Literature and philosophy M16 Man 21 Law M17 Man 19 Advertising and PR M18 Man 23 Industrial engineering M19 Man 21 Economics M20 Man 24 Business management M21 Man 20 Medicine M22 Man 23 Industrial engineering Source: Compiled by authors thought of them, what they served for and that broadly represent university students. who they followed). Second, more specif- In this respect, the respondents featured ic questions were asked, obeying an order different ages, areas of study and different (pragmatic level), content (semantic level) degrees of interest in fashion (Table 3). and general guidelines (normative level) required in a standard questionnaire, with 4.6 Findings from the qualitative the objective of obtaining systematized analysis of the in-depth interviews and equal information in the form and The following is a summary of the results order of all the interviewed cases (Ber- and findings from the interviews and a ganza & Ruiz, 2005). The interviewer was brief comparison of different aspects re- a similar age to that of the interviewees, garding men and women. an aspect that may have helped to over- With regard to the activities that most come the distance between the researcher young university students pursue in their and the interviewee and may have favored free time, we might highlight the follow- communication (Guercini, 2014). ing: listening to music, surfing the Inter- For this purpose, some 22 persons, net, and being with friends and family. We 11 female university students and 11 male can confirm that the Internet plays an es- university students residing in Madrid, sential role in their day-to-day lives. All the were selected. The selection of these 22 cas- university students interviewed claimed es was carried out for convenience. The to constantly use their mobile devices, sampling of typical cases provided infor- and heavily use WhatsApp and the social mation from certain cases judged represen- media, Instagram. In most cases the par- tative of the whole (Estrada & Deslauriers, ticipants claimed that the latter is their 2011), with the aim of obtaining profiles favorite social media and they also stated 450 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

Table 4: Main results from the in-depth interviews

Theme Main result Male behavior Female behavior Instagram Favorite social media They like to see photos; Generates wishes and needs Average of 5 hours a day it entertains them

Opinion about influencers Opinion about influencers They don’t have an opinion Influencers are a showcase about influencers; they do for brands, although they are not care much for influencers becoming more superficial because they do not help them They like how they dress and at all they find them inspiring Through influencers they discover new trends and ideas about how to dress

Impact of influencers regarding Generates needs and a desire Influencers have no influence on They would like to look like purchase to be like them them when they go shopping their influencers, because they always wear the latest fashion

Favorite fashion influencer Jon Kortajarena, Mariano Maria Pombo, Lovely Pepa, Di Vaio, Sergio Carvajal and Dulceida, Mypeptoes, Marc Forné Inés Arroyo, Marta Lozano and Mery Turiel

Influence of their close circles Take their opinion into account Mother, Couple Mother, Sisters, Best friends and come to them for advice They trust their opinion and value the fact that they tell them the truth Source: Compiled by authors that they spend an average of 5 hours a an interviewed) and so they take their day using the app. Most young women in- opinion into account and come to them terviewed declared that “Instagram often for advice. On the other hand, it is a desire generates wishes and needs.” to belong to the group that makes them During the in-depth interviews the look alike and influence one other. In ad- types of influencers were explained and dition, two of the cases analyzed declared examples of Spanish influencers were put that they almost never ask for advice and, in place so that they could identify what if they do, it is not to question if something type of influencers they followed and is attractive or ugly; they are more interest- which influenced them the most. ed in whether a garment suits them or not. Women believe that influencers are All but one of the men interviewed becoming more superficial and the con- were influenced by the opinions of their tent seems to be very similar amongst all close circles, because they consider that of them. Despite this, through influencers they are people who care about them and women discover how to dress success- always want the best for them. Within this fully and this influences them when they circle, the role of mothers and girlfriends buy. Men do not usually have any opinion as influential people is highlighted. about influencers because they do not care for them much. Men state that in- 4.7 Quantitative analysis of the fluencers have no power over them when interviews: focus on purchasing they go shopping. processes When asked about the influence of As a result of the quantitative analysis of their close circles, two ideas stood out. On the 22 in-depth interviews, through a set the one hand, mothers, sisters and closest of closed questions we were able to discuss friends advise them the best, because they the following: A) behavior on the Internet; already know them. They state this be- B) profile as fashion consumers; C) impact cause “as they love us, they would never let of influentials on the purchasing process. us go poorly dressed on the street” (wom- SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 451

A Behavior on the internet bought things in stores before sales and Interviewed university students use com- still do not carry everyone; “Late majority” puters or laptops mainly at home (68% I am one of the latest trends when I already only use it at home). Some 64% stated that have many people from my environment they use a laptop or PC around 1 to 3 hours and I buy in sales; “Lagger” I wear things a day. Some 68% of the cases analyzed do that have been in fashion and in stores for not use tablets, and when these are used, a long time, and I find it hard to carry new it is mainly at home. Regarding the use of things and risk. Smartphones, 100% of cases stated that With respect to the adoption of trends they always have them with them and 77% in relation to the Rogers curve (2010), use it actively for over 6 hours a day. only 4% of the cases were defined as in- Social media. Only four individuals novative, 13% of them were early adopt- stated that they did not have Instagram ers, 36% formed part of the early majori- and 73% were dynamic users of this social ty, 18% were part of the late majority and media, actively interacting and sharing 27% were laggards. In relation to the in- content. Some 50% stated that they use terest that fashion produces, seven of the Instagram between 3 and 6 hours a day. respondents (32%) declared that it gener- Regarding Facebook, only one individu- ated little interest and the remaining 68% al claimed not to have an account, whilst stated that it generated interest or consid- 54% were dynamic users of this social me- erable interest. Half of the sample (50%) dia. Some 18% declared that they use Face- claimed not to be fashion-lovers, whilst book between 3 and 6 hours a day, while 40% of the respondents stated that they 45% used it for less than an hour a day. gave little importance to fashion. In relation to Snapchat, 86% of cases Some 27% buy clothes and/or acclaimed not to use this social media and cessories every 15 days and highlight the only two of the cases did so in an active periods of discounts and promotions as manner. The use of Twitter was also limit- key purchasing moments. With regard to ed, with 77% of cases claiming not to use expenditure on clothes per month, ten of Twitter and only two doing so actively. Fi- the cases spend between 0–50 euros, seven nally, 64% watched videos on YouTube, al- between 50–70 euros, three between 100– though only four of the respondents used 150 euros and two more than 150 euros. this platform in an active manner, inter- The majority of students (64%) buy clothes acting with the content. When asked about and accessories with their parents’ money. their favorite social media, 68% claimed Sometimes parents give them money and that it was Instagram, whilst 27% claimed other parents go shopping with their chil- it was Facebook. dren and pay for the products. 36% of the students claimed to purchase most of the B Profile of fashion consumers clothing and accessories with the money To operationalize the consumer profiles in earned from their work. They usually work relation to the Roger model, we construct- in part-time jobs or sporadic jobs (eg, ed sentences to define each of the five some women claimed to be nannies or profiles and then asked the participants waitresses). Although the most expensive to define themselves by selecting one of products or clothes for special occasions, them (self-definition) and explain why such as weddings or parties, are paid by they identified with that profile. The sen- their parents. The most frequent moment tences to define the Roger’s profiles were for buying is during the weekend (82%) the followings: “Innovative” I wear what and the purchases take place mainly in I like and I usually wear things that lat- high streets and with the brands of large er become fashionable; “Adoptant early” retailers. I am one of the first in my group to wear Only three of the cases stated that they something new that nobody has yet, but did not buy online; the rest bought online, who has seen it in magazines or influenc- especially during sales or promotions, at ers; “Early majority” I am one of those who night or from their laptop. Only a minori- 452 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

Table 5: The impact of fashion influence players on the purchasing process

Stage Action Influencer 1st – Need Help me build my own personal style by inspiring me Close circles (or generation of the desire to buy) Macro influencer Mega influencer Copying their looks Close circles Mega influencer Macro influencer Help me discover new brands or products Close circles Macro influencer Mega influencer Generate new needs Close circles Micro influencer Macro influencer 2nd – Product search When I look for a product I look at the clothes and brands people wear Close circles Macro influencer Micro influencer Who do you ask fashion advice from? Close circles Macro influencer Mega influencer 3rd – Evaluation of alternatives When deciding on choosing to buy one thing or another what influenc- Close circles es you the most? Macro influencer Mega influencer Changing your opinion based on your advice or photos you see Close circles Macro influencer Micro influencer 4th – Purchase How much their opinion influences when it comes to buying Close circles Macro influencer Mega influencer 5th – Post purchase Who do you tend to compare and ask for opinion your purchases with? Close circles Macro influencer Micro influencer You would change some of your purchases because of the opinion they Close circles give you or the images you see Macro influencer Micro influencer Who do you tell or show what you usually buy? Close circles Micro influencer Macro influencer Source: Compiled by authors ty of the respondents (31%) bought online shopped, this online research being car- through their mobile phones. ried out mainly through their Smartphone We can highlight the fact that 82% buy (60%). Most of these cases (86%) granted most frequently in physical stores. Some considerable importance to the price and 59% stated they bought for reasons of ne- they defined themselves as loyal to the cessity, and mainly in stores and shopping brands they like. On the contrary, only 22% centers. 36% because they were looking gave importance to the method of produc- for products, or they were visiting a store tion of the garments and whether these or they were looking at websites and de- methods were sustainable. cided to buy a product in a more impul- sive manner; only 4% declared that they C Impact of Influencers on the purchased fashion in order to socialize. It Purchasing Process is noteworthy that 55% declared that they The processes of identification-creation gave importance or considerable impor- of a need, desire to buy whimsically, the tance to the opinion of other individuals. search for products and payment, are Some 50% of the cases could be defined stages that are mainly performed alone. as customers who researched online and On the contrary, the stages of evaluation, SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 453 purchase and post-purchase, are carried do not have the end goal of wanting to sell out in the company of other individuals, you a product. emphasizing evaluation with friends, and Although all university students find the purchase and search for feedback with confidence in the recommendations made the couple. by their group and imitate their style, it is During the stages of the purchasing important to note how women also receive process, different aspects were analyzed confidence from what they see amongst and those players who were most influ- influencers, who serve as a point of refer- encial at each moment (media, celebri- ence and an indicator that something is ties, mega influencers, macro influenc- fashionable. On the contrary for men, in- ers, micro influencers and close circles) fluencers do not provide a source of con- were identified, as indicated in Table 5. fidence and self-esteem. Men prefer the We operationalized the influence using a advice of their mothers or partners. 1–5 scale, where 1 means no influence and Regarding influencers players amongst 5 completely influenced. millennials, both influencers and people The results obtained were present in in close circles (family and friends) have a all stages and circumstances analyzed: re- great deal of weight in decision-making be- spondents were most influenced by their fore young people consume clothing and close circles, followed by medium influ- accessories. When analyzing the stages of encers and small influencers. All data and the purchasing process or the customer tables are presented in Appendix 1. journey, we can observe that influencers have a greater role in the stage of inspiration and during the search for products. 5 Conclusions, limitations On the contrary, close circles are the ones and future research that influence more clearly in the stages of evaluation, purchase and post-purchase. Interviewed, both men and women, are Hypothesis 3 and 4 has been validat- consumers strongly influenced by social ed. The most commonly used devices media and influencers. Through these are smartphones. Smartphones are used channels they generate wants and create throughout the day, especially to be con- needs throughout the time they spend nected through WhatsApp and social me- viewing content online. They are hyper dia. Among the latter, Instagram is the informed, constantly discovering new most popular social media used. Universi- products and seeking information about ty women use it more actively by posting them through social media, leading them pictures and stories, while men use it in a eventually, in many cases, to the store. In more passive way. Both genders spend an relation to the hypothesis of the investiga- average of 5 hours a day using this means tion we can point out: of social media. Hypothesis 1 and 2 has been validat- Following our analysis of the inter- ed. The influence of the close circles (fam- views and focus groups, we can conclude ily and friends), the ones that Lazarsfeld that the great influencers are linked with and Katz (1955) analyzed explaining the monetary arrangements with brands and role of influentials, is stronger in the entire are seen as a new advertising media and as purchasing process of the analyzed young models of aspirational behavior. millennials than the influence of digital in- In terms of managerial implications, fluencers. communication companies and fashion By contrast, small influencers, espe- brands must make the right choice of in- cially people from close circles, are associ- fluencer when creating a campaign to ated with a passion for fashion as a hob- boost their marketing strategy, since each by, not as a profit-making exercise. Their type of influencer plays a greater role in recommendations are made with genuine each of the different stages of the purchas- sincerity and they make them in your best ing process. interests. They know and advise you and 454 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460

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Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 21(1), 1–16. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12145 458 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. X–XX % 4.5 9.1 9.1 13.6 13.6 13.6 40.9 18.2 13.6 13.6 27.3 40.9 18.2 27.3 27.3 22.7 18.2 18.2 19.2 31.8 22.7 22.7 22.7 18.2 27.3 3 3 3 9 4 3 3 3 n 9 4 6 6 5 4 1 4 2 4 7 5 5 5 4 6 2 Close social circles % 4.5 9.1 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 9.1 0.0 4.5 9.1 4.5 4.5 9.1 9.1 68.2 13.6 68.2 13.6 63.6 22.7 54.5 13.6 18.2 63.6 13.6 1 2 1 3 2 3 n 2 0 2 5 0 1 3 2 1 4 1 3 2 2 15 15 14 12 14 Micro influencers % 9.1 9.1 4.5 4.5 0.0 9.1 4.5 9.1 4.5 59.1 18.2 36.4 18.2 18.2 22.7 45.5 27.3 18.2 36.4 18.2 18.2 22.7 45.5 18.2 22.7 2 2 4 1 8 4 4 n 5 1 6 0 4 2 8 1 4 4 5 2 4 5 1 13 10 10 Mega influencers % 9.1 9.1 4.5 4.5 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 4.5 9.1 4.5 63.6 13.6 40.9 27.3 18.2 59.1 13.6 50.0 13.6 13.6 18.2 50.0 18.2 18.2 Types of influencers Types 3 2 2 1 9 6 4 n 1 2 2 2 3 2 9 3 5 3 2 4 4 2 1 14 12 11 Macro influencers % 9.1 9.1 4.5 0.0 9.1 4.5 0.0 4.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 77.3 50.0 18.2 18.2 68.2 13.6 13.6 50.0 13.6 13.6 18.2 63.6 22.7 13.6 2 2 1 2 2 0 n 2 1 3 3 0 1 3 3 4 1 5 0 3 0 17 11 15 11 14 Celebrities % 0.0 0.0 4.5 9.1 0.0 4.5 4.5 0.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 4.5 86.4 59.1 13.6 22.7 68.2 13.6 13.6 40.9 18.2 22.7 50.0 22.7 13.6 0 1 3 n 5 0 0 1 3 3 0 2 9 4 5 2 2 1 5 2 3 1 19 13 15 11 Mass media Never Never Value scale Value (1= never; 5 = Always) Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Sometimes Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Often Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Almost always Sometimes Often Almost always Always Always They help me by inspiring and forming my personal style When I look for a product I focus on the clothes and the brands that are worn Action analyses I copy “looks” They help me to discover new brands and/or products They create new needs for me - Statistical analysis of the position Influencers/players in different stages purchasing process Product search Necessity (Gener st. nd. ating the desire to buy) Stages of the buying process 2 1 Appendix A1: Table Continuation of the table on following page SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. X–XX 459 % 0.0 9.1 9.1 13.6 13.6 27.3 31.8 31.8 22.7 27.3 13.6 22.7 36.4 18.2 22.7 18.2 18.2 18.2 18.2 27.3 3 3 n 0 2 6 7 7 5 6 3 5 2 8 4 5 4 4 4 4 6 Close social circles % 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 0.0 4.5 4.5 9.1 4.5 9.1 4.5 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 81.8 77.3 77.3 68.2 13.6 n 1 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 0 18 17 17 15 Micro influencers % 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 9.1 9.1 4.5 0.0 0.0 81.8 54.5 13.6 13.6 18.2 13.6 63.6 13.6 59.1 27.3 13.4 n 0 3 0 3 4 3 0 1 2 2 3 1 0 6 3 0 18 12 14 13 Mega influencers % 4.5 9.1 4.5 4.5 0.0 4.5 9.1 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.0 77.3 63.6 13.6 18.2 63.6 18.2 59.1 13.6 22.7 Types of influencers Types n 1 2 3 4 1 1 0 1 2 4 1 1 3 5 1 0 17 14 14 13 Macro influencers % 9.1 0.0 9.1 0.0 4.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.0 81.8 90.9 95.5 86.4 n 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 20 18 21 19 Celebrities % 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 9.1 0.0 9.1 0.0 9.1 9.1 4.5 0.0 86.4 13.6 81.8 77.3 72.77 n 1 3 2 2 0 1 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 1 0 19 16 18 17 Mass media Never Never Value scale Value (1= never; 5 = always) Sometimes Sometimes Often Often Almost always Almost always Always Always Never Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Sometimes Often Almost always Always Who do you seek fashion advice from? How much are you influenced by opin - ion? Action analyses When it comes to deciding to choose one particular thing or another to buy. who influences you the most? Do you change your opinion as a result of being given advice or through photos that you may have seen? Evaluating Buying rd. th. alternatives Stages of the buying process 4 3 Continuation of Table A1 Continuation of Table Continuation of the table on following page 460 SanMiguel et al. / Studies in Communication Sciences 18.2 (2018), pp. 439–460 % 4.5 0.0 13.6 27.3 40.9 13.6 22.7 18.2 13.6 22.7 22.7 27.6 22.7 22.7 27.3 3 n 1 6 9 3 5 4 3 5 5 6 0 5 5 6 Close social circles % 0.0 4.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 9.1 0.0 4.5 0.0 77.3 13.6 81.8 13.6 86.4 n 0 3 1 1 0 3 0 1 2 0 1 0 17 18 19 Micro influencers % 0.0 9.1 4.5 4.5 0.0 9.1 0.0 4.5 0.0 72.7 13.6 68.2 13.6 13.6 86.4 n 0 3 2 1 3 1 3 0 2 0 1 0 16 15 19 Mega influencers % 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 9.1 4.5 0.0 0.0 9.1 4.5 0.0 77.3 72.7 13.6 86.4 Types of influencers Types n 1 2 2 0 2 3 1 0 0 2 1 0 17 16 19 Macro influencers % 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 9.1 0.0 4.5 95.5 90.9 86.4 n 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 20 19 21 celebrities % 4.5 0.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 9.1 9.1 0.0 0.0 9.1 4.5 0.0 86.4 77.3 86.4 n 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 0 0 2 1 0 19 17 19 Mass media Never Value scale Value (1= never; 5 = always) Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Sometimes Often Almost always Always Never Sometimes Often Almost always Always Who do you usually compare your shop - ping with? Action analyses Would you change Would some of the items you bought due to the opinion you were given or because of the images you may have seen? Who do you usually tell or show the things that you buy to? Post purchase th. Stages of the buying process 5 Continuation of Table A1 Continuation of Table