MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCES, MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY KATO MARTINS 16/U/18783 SUPERVISOR: PROF. ORYEM H. ORIGA

TITLE: EFFECT OF LIGHT AND WATER GRADIENTS ON THE GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF BENGHALENSIS AND COMMELINA AFRICANA ON MAKERERE CAMPUS.

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES, MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY, COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOTECHNOLOGY OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

18 APRIL, 2019.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this report to my dear mother Nalongo Jesca and my brother Wasswa Tonny in appreciation of their love, care and support they gave me during my entire research project.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a matter of pleasure to glance back and recall the path one traverse during days of hard work and perseverance. It is still great at this juncture to recall the faces and spirits in the form of a supervisor, friends, and dear ones. I would consider this work nothing more than incomplete without attending to the task of acknowledging the overwhelming help; I received during the endeavor of mine.

I would first thank the almighty God for thus far he has brought me.

I am overwhelmed with heartfelt feelings of gratitude and profound indebtedness to my supervisor Prof. Oryem H. Origa for equipping me with the necessary knowledge and skills during the entire research project. Indeed, his guidance was profound.

With all my love and affection, I record my indebtedness to my mother Nalongo Jesca and brother Wasswa Tonny for their abundant moral encouragement, willing support and inspiration, without which it could not have been possible for me to attain this stage.

I am grateful for the help and support rendered by my fellow students in my program. i.e. Julius Okwir, Ntambi Saidi, and Paul Ssemanda for their support and encouragement during the research project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 6 SECTION 1 ...... 8 1.0. INTRODUCTION ...... 8 1.1. Background...... 8 1.2. Problem statement ...... 13 1.3. Main objective...... 13 1.4. Specific Objectives...... 13 1.5. Significance of the study ...... 13 1.6. Hypothesis ...... 13 SECTION 2 ...... 14 2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14 SECTION 3 ...... 17 3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 17 SECTION 4 ...... 19 4.0. EXPECTED RESULTS...... 19 4.1. ANALYSIS OF THE OBTAINED DATA...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.2. CONCLUSION ...... 25 SECTION 5 ...... 26 5.0. REFERENCES ...... 26 5.1. APPENDICES ...... 29

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted to assess the effect of light and water gradients on the growth and distribution of Commelina behghalesis and Commelina africana. This was specifically conducted in periods of high water content (January) and periods of low water content (March) Five replicates of one by one meters quadrants for each condition were set, i.e. low water content – full illumination (LF), Low water content – partial illumination (LP), High water content – full illumination (HF) and High water content – partial illumination (HP). The study was conducted in the vegetation cover behind the Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology and Biotechnology in Makerere University. The Commelina spp were monitored and their length of stem, number of visible leaves, number of shoots and length of the internode were measured, counted and recorded.

Length of stem, number of visible leaves (transformed), length of the internode and number of shoots results were subjected to three-way ANOVA to determine the effect of light and water gradients at P=0.05. Significant effect of water content were observed on Commelina benghalesis (ANOVA, P<2.081e-15) the effect of light on Commelina africana also showed a significant difference (ANOVA, P<1.625e-3). Control methods of these two obnoxious weeds; C. benghalesis and C. africana on Makerere University should be designed

SECTION 1

1.0.INTRODUCTION 1.1.Background. Makerere campus is an institution proudly known for research. Many of its sites have been adopted for the growth of different both local and foreign. But for a couple of years, they have been affected by noxious weeds including Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana. It is believed that after studying the conditions for the growth of Commelina africana and Commelina benghalensis, they can be controlled thus favouring the growth of the research plants.

Scientific classification of Commelina benghalensis

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Monocots

Clade:

Order:

Family:

Genus: Commelina

Species: Commelina benghalensis

Commelina bengalensis can be an annual or perennial herb. Leaves are ovate to lanceolate, 2.5- 7.5cm long, 1.5-4cm wide, with parallel venation, entire leaf margin and pubescence on top and bottom. The leaf sheath is covered in red and sometimes white hair at the apex which is the primary identification factor for this species. Stems can be erect or crawling along the ground rooting at the nodes or climbing if supported, 10-30cm in height, 20-90cm in length covered in a fine pubescence and dichotomously branched. Flowers are produced in clusters, funnel shaped, fused by two sides 10-20mm long, 10-15mm wide, on peduncles 1-3.5mm in length (Flanders, 2007; Prostko, 2005; Webster et al.,2005). Ariel flowers are staminate, perfect and chasmogomous with 3 petals, 3-4 mm long. The upper two flower petals are blue in colour, with the lower petal lighter in color and much less prominent. Seeds are rectangular, 1.6-3mm long, 1.3-1.8mm wide, brown to black in color and have a netted appearance.(Prostko,2005; Webster et al.,2005)

The incredible growth in the presence of Commelina benghalensis in the south eastern United States since the mid 1990s had been associated with a number of drastic changes in the cropping systems: Among these changes are the elimination of use of pre-emergence herbicides with soil residue activity in cotton crops, the increased use of reduced tillage along with the elimination of cultivation as a method for controlling weeds, reliance on glyophosphate based systems in cotton or glyophosphate based systems in cotton or glyophosphate resistant cotton.(Webster, 2007; Webster 2006).

However, in Africa and India, leaves and stems of Commmelina benghalensis are chopped and cooked as vegetables and used as a feed for livestock. Most species of C. benghalensis are also used as medicinal for ailments such as sore feet, sore throat, burns, eye irritation, thrush in infants and stomach irritation. Specifically in South Africa, it is used to combat infertility. (van der berg, 2004)

Commelina benghalensis is often found on disturbed sites, forest edges, road sides, agricultural sites, and home gardens. Vegetation and flower growth are optimal between 30 – 35 degrees Celsius but can grow between 20 – 40 degrees Celsius (Van der Burg, 2004; Webster et al., 2005). Commelina benghalensis acts as a herbaceous perennial in its native range and as an annual weed in the southeastern United States. Propagation of C. benghalensis can be both sexual and vegetative, and can possess both aerial and subterranean flowers. Aerial flowers are chasmogamous and self fertilizing, producing one large seed and 4 small. Subterranean flowers are cleistogamous (self fertilizing and do not open), producing one large seed and two small ones. C. benghalensis has the ability to germinate throughout the growing season. The rate of reproduction of this plant rivals that of any agronomic weed (Prostko, 2005; Webster et al., 2005).

Commelina benghalesis is listed as one of the world’s worst weeds, affecting 25 crops in 29 countries (Webster et al., 2005). It has been reported as affecting the following crops: rice, tea, coffee, soybeans, cotton, maize, sugarcane, cassava, peanuts, pineapples, cowpeas, sorghum, roselles, barley, jute, sisal, beans, sweet potatoes, grapes, cereals, groundnuts, chili, lemon, navel orange, tomato, balsam apple, apricot and peach. (NAPPO, 2003).

Commelina africana

Family: Commelinaceae Species: Commelina africana

Other names of Commelina africana include; Yellow Commelina, wandering Jew, dayflower (En). Comméline, Comméline africaine (Fr).

Origin and geographic distribution

Commelina africana is indigenous and widespread in Africa, occurring from Senegal to Ethiopia, and south to South Africa. It occurs also in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Australia Uses In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania the leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are chopped and boiled in water or in fresh or sour milk. Sesame seeds and groundnut paste are added for flavor and consistency. This vegetable is eaten with the staple food as a substitute for more preferred vegetables. Many other uses are reported for Commelina africana. In Kenya and Tanzania, the leaves are fed to livestock, especially pigs and rabbits. The flowers provide bee forage. In Kenya an infusion of the plant is used as a wash to reduce fever, and pounded stalks are used to treat colds and coughs in children. Fluid from the spathes is applied locally to cure eye diseases. The Zulu of South Africa bathe the body, especially of a child, with a cold infusion in cases of restless sleeping. Similarly, an infusion of the leaves is sprinkled over the resting place of a restless child in Zimbabwe.

The Sotho in southern Africa take a decoction of the plant with Tephrosia capensis Pers. for treatment of a ‘weak heart’ and nervousness. In DR Congo the root is used for the same purpose. In Zimbabwe and South Africa, a concoction of the root is used as treatment for venereal diseases and to treat women with menstrual cramps. This preparation is also used for pelvic pains and bladder complaints Botany Perennial herb with tuberous fusiform fleshy roots; stem creeping or straggling. Leaves arranged spirally, simple; leaf sheaths 0.8–3 cm long, with purple tinge, ciliate along the free margins; blade generally lancolate, 6–11.5 cm × 1.2–2.2 cm, apex acute, glabrous except for the ciliate margins, rarely sparsely hairy, veins parallel. Inflorescence a leaf-opposed cyme; peduncle 8–40 mm long; spathe 0.9–2.4 cm long, margins free, glabrous except for the ciliate margins. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, yellow, rarely protruding from the spathe; lower petal linear-lanceolate, c. 5 mm × 2 mm, paired petals with claw 3–4 mm long, lamina broader than long, c. 4 mm × 6 mm; upper three sterile, with cross-shaped anthers, medial with filament 4–6 mm long and anther 1.5–2 mm long, the two lateral (lower) stamens with smaller anthers. Fruit a capsule 5–6 mm long, 3-celled, 3–5-seeded, the 2 ventral locules each 1(–2)-seeded (by abortion of the lower ovules) and dehiscent, the dorsal locule 1-seeded, indehiscent. Seeds variable in size, cylindrical-rectangular in outline, 2.2–3.5 mm × 1.3–2 mm, dark brown; testa rough (farinose granules) and pitted; hilum small, round. Commelina africana is a variable species, in which many varieties are distinguished. The typical variety, is a cultivated plant grown as a vegetable. Commelina africana is easily distinguished from the other Commelina species by its yellow instead of blue, purplish or pink flowers. The flowers open from 7–10 am Ecology Commelina africana occurs in secondary growth and disturbed localities, and as a weed on farms. In Senegal it grows in marshes. After the onset of the rains, the plant sprouts earlier than other plants and it is therefore useful as a fodder plant after prolonged drought. The same applies for its use as a vegetable; it is available earlier than commonly cultivated species.

Management

In Uganda and Tanzania Commelina africana is not cultivated or protected by local people. It is common as a weed and therefore easily accessible. The leaves are collected in the rainy season for immediate use. They are not stored. Genetic resources and breeding No germplasm collections or breeding programs are known to exist for Commelina africana. Because of its abundance in Africa, there is no danger of genetic erosion. Prospects Despite its multiple uses, the plant is reported not to be marketed in Tanzania. It is not a very popular vegetable. Prospects for its development as a vegetable crop seem bleak.

1.2.Problem statement There is no research that has been done to determine the impact of water and light gradients on the distribution of Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana on Makerere campus The areas on Makerere campus where I shall conduct my research include the following;  The land behind the department of zoology  And also the land besides FST 1.3.Main objective. To determine the effect of light and water gradients on the growth and distribution of Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana on Makerere campus. 1.4.Specific Objectives. • To determine how soil water content affects the growth of Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana. • To determine the effect of full and partial illumination on the growth of Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana.

1.5.Significance of the study The findings from this research will be used to design control methods of these two weeds; Commelina benghalensis and Commelina africana on Makerere campus.

1.6.Hypothesis Soil water content and illumination have no effects on the growth and distribution of Commelina banghalensis and Commelina Africana on Makerere campus

SECTION 2 2.0.LITERATURE REVIEW Commelina benghalensis

Tropical spiderwort (Commelina benghalensis); also called Benghal dayflower poses a serious threat to crop production. Tropical spiderwort has been present for more than seven decades (Faden, 1993), but only recently has it become a weed in agricultural fields. Identified as an isolated weed problem in 1999, tropical spiderwort became the most troublesome weed. In 1983, the USDA designated tropical spiderwort as a federal noxious weed (USDA-APHIS, 2000). Tropical spiderwort had become problematic and was ranked as the ninth most troublesome weed in cotton by 2001 (Webster, 2001)

Distribution of Commelina benghalensis

Tropical spiderwort is listed among the world’s worst weeds, affecting 25 crops in 29 countries (Holm et al., 1977). It has been documented as a weed problem throughout Africa in bananas (Musa spp.), corn (Zea mays L.), cotton, pastures, soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Wilson, 1981). The native range of tropical spiderwort is thought to be tropical Asia and Africa. The current distribution of the weed includes Australia, Africa (Cameroon, Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Uganda, South Africa, United Republic of Tanzania, and Zambia), Asia (China, Japan, India, Korea, and Indonesia), the Pacific Islands (Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Hawaii, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu), South America (Brazil, Bolivia, French Guiana, and Paraguay), the , and North America (United States and Mexico) (Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, 2004; Faden, 1992; Faden and Hafliger, 1982; Harvard University Herbaria, 2004; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2004; New York Botanical Garden, 2004; Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk, 2004; Royal Botanical Gardens Kew, 2004).

Biology and Ecology

In its native habitat, tropical spiderwort is a rainy season weed, requiring moist soil conditions for establishment (Kaul et al., 2002). The range of tropical spiderwort emergence in Japanese fields was extended by 2 m in irrigated fields relative to that in non-irrigated fields (Matsuo et al., 2004). Once established, tropical spiderwort will survive dry soil conditions. Germination of aerial and subterranean seeds of tropical spiderwort occurred at 250 and 300 C, but no germination occurred at 100 C (Gonzalez and Haddad, 1995). Optimum temperatures for germination ranged from 180 to 250 C for aerial seeds and from 210 to 280 C for subterranean seeds, although subterranean seeds tended to germinate faster than aerial seeds (Ferreira et al., 1999). The importance of light for germination is not clear. Light was not required for germination in one study (Gonzalez and Haddad, 1995). However, another study indicated that the germination of aerial seeds was improved with light, whereas subterranean seeds were light- insensitive (Matsuo et al., 2004). Preliminary studies regarding the biology of tropical spiderwort indicate that it is capable of rapid growth and reproduction. Tropical spiderwort plants that were seven weeks old added approximately six new leaves per day, whereas plants that were eight weeks old produced 2.5 new spathes per day (Webster, 2004). Aerial spathes contain one staminate and as many as three perfect flowers, with each perfect flower producing a fruit that usually contains five seeds (Faden, 2000). The rate at which tropical spiderwort was able to reproduce rivals that of any agronomic weed, including the vegetatively reproducing purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) (Hauser, 1962). Tropical spiderwort began to dehisce mature seeds by 45 days after plant emergence, and some of those seeds germinated two weeks after dehiscing (M. G. Burton, unpublished data). With a continuous emergence pattern and rapid reproduction, tropical spiderwort has the potential to produce multiple generations within a single growing season.

Commelina africana

Commelina africana differs from most other Commelina species by having pretty, small, canary- yellow flowers instead of the usual blue flowers, and also the spathe (bract) is simply folded and not joined.

Description

Commelina africana is a spreading, perennial herb up to 0.5 m high, glabrous or variously pubescent; the rootstock is hard and woody, with hard, thick, long roots. Leaves are variable, oblong to linear, flat or folded, up to 120 mm long but usually smaller, glabrous or glabrescent to variously hairy. Spathes are folded, dry inside, solitary, pedunculate (stalked); apex acute to long acuminate (tapering), often falcate (sickle-shaped). Inflorescence of two cymes (flower clusters) well developed. The flower varies in size, petals yellow. Flowering time: October to March. Commelina africana is divided into four varieties.

Distribution and Ecology

Widespread in Africa, Madagascar and the Arabian Pennisula, in forests, savanna and grassland. Very common in southern Africa. The plant is a spreading herb that flourishes in sandy soil in rocky areas where it spreads rapidly.

The plant grows very well in a wet sandy soil or during good rainfall seasons. The major pollinators of this plant are insects, mainly ants. By using the plants, human beings also contribute to seed dispersal

SECTION 3 3.0.MATERIALS AND METHODS The method is line transect;

A string was laid along the ground in a straight line between two pegs as a guide to a sampling method used to measure the distribution of commelina species.

Sampling was rigorously confined to the two Commelina species that are actually touching the line. This was done through use of (1m x 1m) quadrats along the line. So, a series of squares of (1m x 1m) over a distance of 50m2 were placed in a habitat of full and partial illumination; Commelina species within those quadrats were identified, counted, measured and recorded during periods of low water content and high-water content in the soil.

The research area was divided into 4 parts namely; A, B, C and D where A and B were subjected to wet season whereas C and D were subjected to dry season.

IN THE WET PERIOD (JANUARY).

A. Quadrats under full illumination were subjected to the determination of growth parameters that included: length of internodes, number and size of leaves, number of leaves, number of shoots, length of stem, and number of shoot adventitious roots. B. Quadrats under low illumination were subjected to the determination of growth parameters that included: length of internodes, number and size of leaves, number of leaves, number of shoots, length of stem, and number of shoot adventitious roots. IN THE DRY PERIOD (MARCH) C. Quadrats under full illumination were subjected to the determination of growth parameters that included: length of internodes, number and size of leaves, number of leaves, number of shoots, length of stem, and number of shoot adventitious roots. D. Quadrats under low illumination were subjected to the determination of growth parameters that included: length of internodes, number and size of leaves, number of leaves, number of shoots, length of stem, and number of shoot adventitious roots.

Water gradient was measured using an oven dry method regardless of the seasoning considered; it consisted of taking a soil sample of 200g, determining its exact fresh weight, and drying the sample in an oven at a temperature of 105 0 C to 110 0 C for 24 hours, then weighing the sample and determining the moisture loss by subtraction.

SECTION 4 4.0.RESULTS.

80

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e CBFL

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a r

CBFH h t 40

w CBPH

o

r G 20

0 No. of shoots Length of stem No. of leaves Length of nodes Growth parameters

Growth parameters included; length of internodes, number and size of leaves, number of leaves, number of shoots, length of stem, and number of shoot adventitious roots.

For A;

. Increase in the individual leaf areas. . High adventitious root value in the shoot branches. . Commelina benghalensis is expected to have attractive small flowers with deep ink blue petals.

For B;

 Increased leaf area in relation to restriction of irradiation this enhances repaid photosynthetic surface and establishes the interception efficiency.  Internode elongation which also brings about branch length.  Branch curving which is a plant strategy to maximize light harvesting.  Pale blue ink petals for Commelina benghalensis flowers.

For C;  Commelina benghalensis is expected to have attractive small flowers with deep ink blue petals.  Both Commelina africana and Commelina banghelensis are expected to grow taller than their normal height.  Low adventitious root value is expected since the plants are subjected to full sunlight.

For D; o Light restrictions result in a greater mass allocation to the shoots than the roots. o Internode elongation which also brings about increased branch length. Pale blue ink petals for Commelina Benghalensis.

4.1.DISCUSSION Commelina benghalensis

By three way Anova analysis

At (P<0.05), Water content, illumination and their interaction have a significant effect on the number of shoots, length of stem, number of leaves and length of nodes.

However at (P<0.05), the effect of water content is on Commelina benghalensis is significantly higher(P= 2.081e-15).

Using a graph pad prism, the steady growth in the growth parameters of Commelina benghalensis under high water content regardless of the illumination is due to the extensive adventitious root system that absorbs water from the soil, however though, the broader leaves also play a vital role not forgetting the trailing nature of its stems along the ground increasing the surface area for water absorption by the root system.

Commelina africana

At (P<0.05), illumination, water and their interaction have a significant effect on the length of the stem and number of leaves.

In fact at (P<0,05), the effect of light on Commelina africana is relatively low (P=0.001625).

Using a graph pad prism, there is a general slight growth in the parameters. However, in conditions of low water content regardless of the nature of illumination, no commelina species were observed. Its vegetative sprouts are activated by water.

Because of its thickened, fibrous root system and its stems trailing along the ground with some erect branches, some growth was noticed, shoots with a reasonable number of leaves were observed much more better in full light conditions.

From the expected data, Commelina africana and Commelina benghalensis subjected to full illumination and much water content levels produce deep blue ink petals, grow beyond their normal height, have high adventitious root value in the shoot branches as compared to Commelina africana and Commelina benghalensis subjected to low water content levels and low illumination which have pale blue ink petals, increased leaf area, increased adventitious roots in the shoot branches. The values obtained from the growth parameters will be tabulated and means calculated. Graphical illustrations will be generated using the statistical package GraphPad Prism 8.0.2 of the obtained data to ease comparison. Results shall be statistically analyzed by conducting a three-way ANOVA test, it compares the mean differences within and between the groups that have been split on two variables.

4.2.CONCLUSION It’s true that Commelina benghalensis can still develop in conditions of partial light intensity however its vegetative growth is much more under full illumination. For Commelina africana, it folllows the same trend however its vegetative growth is not as much as Commelina benghalensis. Commelina benghalensis whole plant mass increases greatly with high water content especially during full illumination. There is always a positive impact on the all growth parameters including the length and abundance of adventitious roots. However, in conditions of low water content, the rate of growth and distribution of Commelina benghalensis is low and not steady. Commelina Africana tend to even disappear during conditions of low water content regardless of the light intensity available

RECOMMENDATIONS Much is unknown about how invasive weeds like these Commelina species interact with the environment, this study is entirely on illumination and soil water content.Now that these Commelina species grow and distribute efficiently in high water content levels regardless of the intensity of light. These weeds can be well reduced or controlled by managing the the amount of water reaching the interested areas under study. These methods could be digging trenches and terraces, housing field areas among others. More research should be done on the effect of nutrition content of the soil for the growth and distribution of commelina species.

SECTION 5 5.0.REFERENCES 1. Australia’s Virtual Herbarium. 2004. Web page: http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/ avh/. Accessed: April 03, 2019. 2. Faden, R. B. 1992. Proposal to conserve Commelina benghalensis (Commelinaceae) with a conserved type under Art. 69.3. Taxon. 41:341–342. 3. Faden, R. B. 1993. The misconstrued and rare species of Commelina (Commelinaceae) in the eastern United States. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 208–218. 4. Faden, R. B. 2000. Commelina. In N. R. Morin, ed. Flora of North America. New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 192–197. 5. Faden, R. B. and E. Hafliger. 1982. Commelinaceae. In E. Hafliger, ed. Monocot Weeds. Basel, Switzerland: Ciba-Geigy. Pp. 100–111. 6. Ferreira, M. I., C. F. Reinhardt, and M. I. Ferreira. 1999. The role of temperature in the germination of subterranean and aerial seeds of Commelina benghalensis L. S. African J. Plant Soil. 16:165–168. 7. Gonzalez, C. B. and C.R.B. Haddad. 1995. Light and temperature effects on flowering and seed-germination of Commelina benghalensis L. Arq. Biol. Tecnol. 38:651–659. 8. Harvard University Herbaria. 2004. Index of botanical specimens. Web page: http://brimsa.huh.harvard.edu/cms-wb/specimenpindex.html Accessed: April 03, 2019. 9. Hasskral, Justus Karl (1867) “Commelinaceae” in schweinfworth, Georg. Beitrag zur Flora Aethiopiens (in German) Berlin: G. Reimer. Pp 206-214. 10. Hauser, E. W. 1962. Development of purple nutsedge under field conditions. Weeds 10:315–321. 11. Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The World’s Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. 609 p. 12. Katende, A.B., Ssegawa, P& Birine, A 1999. Wild food plants and mushrooms of Uganda. Technical Hand book No. 19. Regional land management unit/ SIDA, Nairobi, Kenya 490. Pp 13. Kato, CS., 1996. Pharmacological investigation of one Ugandan medicinal plant: Commelina africana. BSC thesis, Department of chemistry, Faculty of science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. 48. Pp. 14. Kaul, V., N. Sharma, and A. K. Koul. 2002. Reproductive effort and sex allocation strategy in Commelina benghalensis L., a common monsoon weed. Bot. J. Linnean Soc. 140:403–413. 15. Leistner, O.A. (ed.). 2000. Seeds plants of southern Africa : families and genera. Strelitzia 10. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria. 16. Matsuo, M., H. Michinaga, H. Terao, and E. Tsuzuki. 2004. Aerial seed germination and morphological characteristics of juvenile seedlings in Commelina benghalensis L. Weed Biol. Manag. 4:148–153. 17. Missouri Botanical Garden. 2004. W3—Specimen Data Base. Web page: http: //mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html. Accessed: April 3, 2019. 18. Nakaayi – Kiwanuka, W., 1998. Extraction and identification of biologically active compounds from Commelina africana. BSC thesis. Department of chemistry, Faculty of science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. 48 pp. 19. New York Botanical Garden. 2004. The Virtual Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. Web page: http://scisun.nybg.org:8890/searchdb/owa/ wwwspecimen.searchform. Accessed: April 3, 2019. 20. Obermeyer, A.A. & Faden, R.B. 1985. Commelinaceae. Flora of southern Africa 4, part 2: 23-60. Botanical Research Institute, Pretoria. 21. Ogwal, E.N.K 1997. A taxonomic study\y of the genus Commelina in Uganda. MSC thesis, Department of Botany, Faculty of science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, 162 pp 22. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. 2004. Plant Threats to Pacific ecosystems. Web page: http://www.hear.org/pier/threats.htm. Accessed: April 3, 2019. 23. Phillips, E.P. 1929. Commelina africana. The Flowering Plants of South Africa 9: t. 321. 24. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. 2004. Electronic Plant Information Centre. Web page: http://www.kew.org/searchepic/searchpage.do. Accessed: April 3, 2019 25. Schumann, Karl moritz (1895). “Commelinaceae” in Engler, Adolf. Die pflanzenwelt ost –Afrikas und der Nachbargebiete (in German).C. Berlin:D.Reimer, pp. 134-137 26. Tredgold, M.H., 1986. Food plant of Zimbabwe Mambo press, Gweru, Zimbabwe. 153 pp. 27. USDA-APHIS. 2000. Federal Noxious Weed List. Web page: http:// www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/permits/fnwsbycat-e.PDF. Accessed: April 3, 2019. 28. Van Wyk, B-E. & Gericke, N. 2000. People's plants: a guide to useful plants of southern Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria. 29. Walt, J.M. & Breyer- Brandwijk, M.G., 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern Africa, 2nd Edition.E.and S. Livingstone, London, United Kingdom. 145. Pp 30. Watt, J.M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern Africa, edn 2. Livingstone, Edinburgh. 31. Webster, T. M. 2001. Weed survey—southern states: broadleaf crops subsection. Proc. South. Weed Sci. Soc. 54:244–259. 32. Webster, T. M. 2004. Tropical spiderwort (Commelina benghalensis): and you thought sicklepod was bad? Proc. Weed Sci. Soc. North Carolina. Web page: http://www.wssnc.ncsu.edu/2004/proceed.html. Accessed: April 3, 2019. 33. Webster, T. M. and G. E. MacDonald. 2001. A survey of weeds in various crops in . Weed Technol. 15:771–790. 34. Wilson, A. K. 1981. Commelinaceae—a review of the distribution, biology, and control of the important weeds belonging to this family. Tropical Pest Management. 27:405–418.

5.1.APPENDICES Appendix I: Work plan QUADRAT TIME

JANUARY MARCH

A  Measuring the  Measuring the length of the length of the internodes and internodes and stem using a tape stem using a tape measure measure  Counting the  Counting the number of shoots number of shoots and leaves and leaves B  Measuring the  Measuring the length of the length of the internodes and internodes and stem using a tape stem using a tape measure measure  Counting the  Counting the number of shoots number of shoots and leaves and leaves C  Measuring the  Measuring the length of the length of the internodes and internodes and stem using a tape stem using a tape measure measure  Counting the  Counting the number of shoots number of shoots and leaves and leaves D  Measuring the  Measuring the length of the length of the internodes and internodes and stem using a tape stem using a tape measure measure  Counting the  Counting the number of shoots number of shoots and leaves and leaves

Appendix II: Budget ITEMS QUANTITY PRICE AS PER AMOUNT (shs) Strings 6 5,000. 30,000. Hammer 1 30,000. 30,000. Tape measure 1 10,000. 10,000. Gumboots 1 20,000. 20,000. Paper bags 10 300. 3,000. Bucket 1 7,000. 7,000. TOTAL 100,000.