Buddhism in Scripture and Practice

Buddhism In Scripture and Practice K.R. Paramahamsa 1 Table of Contents Page No Preface 5 1. Buddhism – An Overview 7 2. Evolution of Buddhism 10 The Buddhist Canon 10 Theravaada and Sarvaastivaada Scriptures 12 The Ascendancy of the Mahayana in India 16 3. The Teachings of the Historical Buddha 18 Original Teachings 18 Philosophical Teachings 30 Moral Doctrines 42 Meditative Teachings 46 4. Schools of Buddhism 50 Role of Schools 50 The Hinayana Schools 52 The Mahayana Schools 61 5. Samskaaras 68 Samskaaras in Buddhism 68 The Doctrine of Momentariness 70 Karma 75 6. Abhidharma Philosophy 77 Distinction between Sutra and Abhidharma 77 The Inception of Abhidharma 84 Dharma – Factors 86 Matrices 104 7. Abhidharma Literature 106 The Theravaada School 106 The Sarvaastivaada School 114 8. Epistemology 127 General 127 Perception – Perception of Particular 128 Inference 133 Verbal Knowledge 136 Validity of Knowledge 137 Time 139 The Doctrine of Illusion 140 Body is the Only Sense Organ 143 Mind Alone is the Sense Organ 145 Momentariness Vs Apperception and Historical Consciousness 146 2 Causal Law and I-consciousness 148 Being and Non-being are not Coordinates 150 Knowledge of Existence 151 Relativism –Positive and Negative Expressions 152 Tathataa, Tathyam, Satta and Satyam 153 Dharmadhaatu 154 9. Life’s Ideal 155 10. The Buddhist Way to Liberation 158 The Philosophy of Liberation 158 Meditational Practices 166 11. Assimilation with Vedanta 176 3 4 Preface Buddhism arose more than 2500 years ago in India in an atmosphere of great philosophical ferment. It was the atmosphere in which the sacrificial religion was systematised in the Mimamsa, the philosophical ideas of the Upanisads were crystallized, and the ideas of independent thinkers, not owing allegiance to either, were trying to gain their foothold in the Indian thought. All these philosophies were philosophies of life according to the reality as understood by their propounders. All the philosophical sects at that time, except the Chaarvaakas, were indeed ascetic. Buddhism arose out of the sects independent of the Mimamsa and the Vedanta. It incorporated what it considered to be the best from all, both the orthodox and the heterodox. It became one of the world’s greatest religions, and contributed one of the highest of philosophies. The founder of Buddhism, Gautama, known to the world as the Buddha, the Enlightened, participated in a critical and creative movement to synthesize ancient, traditional worldviews, which vied for the collective heart of India in his time. Interestingly, some of the most influential thinkers the world has ever known such as Confucius and Lao-tzu in China, Zoroaster and Socrates in Persia and in Greece, Jeremiah and Deutero Isaiah in Israel also belonged to the same period with a variation of a few decades on either side. The Buddha was the most influential individual to emerge from the then intellectually and religiously stimulating period in India. Buddhism, as a religious teaching, is valid independently of any special status of its founder, the Buddha. As a system of thought, and a spiritual thought, Buddhism ever remains theoretically valid. The Buddha evoked the admiration of even the orthodox Mimamsakas and Vedantins by the gentleness and nobility of his character, and also by the clarity and simplicity of his teachings. He was accordingly absorbed into the Hindu pantheon. His philosophy, in its latest stages, looked so similar to the Vedanta that it was eventually assimilated to it. As such, Buddhism gradually lost justification for separate existence and disappeared from India, except for a few border areas. It may be more appropriate to say that Buddhism has not disappeared from India, but has formed part of the lifeblood of Indian outlook and culture. This is evident from the fact that the Buddha is venerated as an incarnation of the Supreme Godhead in its aspect as mercy and compassion, karuna. His philosophical and ethico-religious concepts are incorporated into all the great philosophies of spirituality. If Platonism can be said to be dead in Western culture and outlook, then only can we say that Buddhism is dead in India. This book gives a comprehensive account of the origin and evolution of Buddhism in India and outside, the philosophies of different schools of Buddhism, the pursuit of spirituality perfected in the Mahayana schools, leading ultimately to its assimilation with the Vedanta. 5 6 1. Buddhism-An Overview Buddhism is more than 2500 years old; but its ideas are still older. It arose in an atmosphere of great philosophical ferment. It was the atmosphere in which the ideas of the old sacrificial religion later expounded and systematized in the Mimaamsa, the Upanisadic ideas later expounded by Badarayana, and the ideas of independent thinkers not owning any allegiance to any part of the Veda, but relying on their own experience and logical ability, were jostling with one another. Even though logical, dialectical, and independent, their philosophies were all philosophies of life, according to the reality as understood by them. Except for the Chaarvaakas and perhaps a few others, all the philosophical sects at that time were more or less ascetic. Buddhism arose out of such independent sects. It originated, however, at a time when the religious and intellectual traditions of two great civilizations were in the midst of vigorous interchange and ferment, as is evident from the speculations of the Upanisads. It incorporated what it considered to be the best from all, both the orthodox and the heterodox. It became one of the world’s greatest religions, and contributed one of the highest of philosophies. The founder of Buddhism, Gautama (6th century BC) evoked the admiration of even the orthodox Indians by the gentleness and nobility of his character, and also by the clarity and simplicity of his teachings. He was accordingly absorbed into the Hindu pantheon. There is, however, no indication that the Buddha (the Awakened One) was specifically acquainted with any of the Upanisads that have come down to us. But there is ample indication that he was familiar with such speculations. The Buddha participated in a critical and creative movement to synthesize ancient, traditional worldviews, which vied for the collective heart of India in his time. By his time, the synthetic movement had become widespread and urgent. One is only to imagine the cultural impact of conquering or being conquered by an alien race, and then slowly integrating over the centuries to form a unitary new race and culture. In his age, several remarkable thinkers also began to attempt a coherent unity from the religious and intellectual heritages of two great peoples in the process of becoming one. The Buddha was the most influential individual to emerge from this period of transition in ancient India. Buddhism, as a religious teaching, claims to be valid independently of any special status of its founder, the Buddha. Even if it were to be discovered that the historical Buddha never existed, Buddhism, as a system of thought and spiritual thought, would nonetheless remain theoretically valid. The Buddhist scriptures state thus. ‘Whether or not Buddhas arise, constant is the status of truth, the law of truth, the relationship of cause and effect.’ Buddhist legend asserts that, in his twenty-ninth year, the gods themselves conspired to bring the Bodhisattva (Buddha to be) in contact with four great visions, which inspired him to embark on the quest for enlightenment. While being on a pleasure outing, prince Siddhartha encountered, for the first time in his life, the sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse, and finally a radiantly serene mendicant holy man. The first three visions made him preoccupy with the unavoidable sufferings of 7 mundane life. The fourth vision inspired in him the resolution to renounce material well being, and enter the austere path of spiritual enlightenment. Because of his innate spirituality, he had realized spontaneously, on the basis of these four experiences alone, that even such extravagant worldly pleasures as he had enjoyed were doomed to pass away due to the ravages of old age, disease and death, and that in all the world only the simple contemplative life of the mendicant seeker of truth held the key to release from the ravages of these sufferings. The Pali sutras record the Buddha himself indicating that contemplation of universal misery of old age, disease and death inspired his search for truth. ‘Legends of the early life of the historical Buddha also reveal tellingly the religious beliefs and values of an important segment of the Indian society in his day. Saviours were expected. They might be born to mortals. They were thought to perform miracles and consort with deities. Their task was to discover and teach the path that leads beyond the relentless suffering of this and future lives. The gods would only be well-wishers and helpers in this exalted search. The final salvation of human kind would be realized not through divine intervention, but through truth, discovered and taught by extraordinary human beings. These saviours would emerge from the ranks of the homeless, mendicant ascetics who walked the land in humble attire seeking only food, clothing and shelter to sustain their strenuous meditative and ascetic practices’, in the words of Noble Ross Reat. The religious beliefs and values of the Indian society have remained the same though these centuries to date. His philosophy, in its latest stages, looked so similar to the Vedanta that it was eventually assimilated to it. As such, Buddhism gradually lost justification for separate existence and disappeared from India, except for a few border areas. It may be more appropriate to say that Buddhism has not disappeared from India, but has formed part of the life-blood of Indian outlook and culture.

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