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AUTHOR von Puttkamer, Jesco, Ed.; McCullough, Thomas J., Ed. TITLE_ Space for Mankind's Benefit. INSTITUTION National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO NASA-SP-313 PUB DATE 72 NOTE 454p.; Proceedings of a space congress, Huntsville, Alabama, November 1971 AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing-- Office, Washington, D.C. 20402_(14.50)
EDRS PRICE MP-SO.65 HC-116.45 DESCRIPTOR *Aerospace Technology; *Conference Reports; Environmental Education; Foreign Relations; Science Education; *Science Materials; *Scientific Research; *Space Sciences
ABSTRACT Presented are the proceedings of the first _ international Congress on "Space for Mankind's Benefit" organized by the Huntsville Association of Technical Societies and held November ., 15-19, 1971, at Huntsville, Alabama. Following_ introductory statements, a total of 45 articles read in 10 sessions are incorporated. The session headings-ire: Man in Near-Earth Space--Concepts, Logistics, Operations; Fundamental Benefits, -of the Space Program; Benefits of Orbital Surveys and Space Technology to Environmental Protection; Earth Resources Observations Through Orbital Surveys; Benefits to Telecommunications, Navigation, and Information systems; Meaning of Space to the Natural Sciences; Space Manufacturing Benefits; Benefits to Future Power Generation and Energy Production; General Technology Utilization in the Public Sector; and Social Benefits and International Cooperation Through Space. Information on application of space technology to medicine, medical research, and health care is dealt with by 'the session "Benef its to Medicine, Medical Technology and Biotechnology." Also included are a list of participating societies and associations,a report on the forum discussion, and the names of session chairmen. (CC) FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY
NASA SP-313
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HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA 4' tit 0 November 15-49 ,1971
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS ANDSPACE ADMINISTRATION NASA SP-313
SPACE FOR MANKIND'S BENEFIT
The proceedings of a space congress held November 15-19, 1971, at Huntsville, Alabama sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Huntsville Association of Technical Societies
Prepared at _George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
5 Edited by jesco von Puttkamer and Thomas J. McCullough
Scientific and Technical Information Office 1972 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Irathington, D.C. a
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price S4.50- Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 72.600226 TABLE OF-CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION TO THE SPACE CONGRESS THEME Jesco von Puttkamer
SPACE ?OR MANKIND'S BENEFIT A SPACE CONGRESS FOR THE NONAEROSPACE PUBLIC Jesco von Puttkamer fir--
WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY 13 Wernher von Braun 13
Eberhard Rees 17
Edwin I. Donley 19
SESSION I. MAN IN NEAR-EARTH SPACE CONCEPTS, LOGISTICS, OPERATIONS 21
Unmanned Spacecraft for Research 23 Carl D. Graves
Skylab 41 __George V. Butler
The Potential Impact of the Space Shuttle on Space Benefits to Mankind 57 Ivan Rattinger
The Path to Glory Untold 7-7 Earl Hubbard
SESSION II. FUNDAMENTAL BENEFITS OF THE SPACE PROGRAM 81
Application of NASA Management. Approach to Solve Complex Pioblems on Earth 83 John S. Potate
Our Leadership in Science and Technology as Provided by the National Space Program 93 Winston E. Kock
Spiritual Impacts of the Space Program on the World 97 Marvin Esch,
Intrigue and Potential of Space Exploration 99 Hazel Losh
SESSION III.BENEFITS OF ORBITAL SURVEYS AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 103
Application of Remote Sensing to Solution of Ecological Problems- 105 Andrew Adelman
Applications of Remote Sensing to Stream Discharge Prediction 109' Fritz R. Krause and C. ByroiWinn ABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Possibilities of Observing Air Pollution from Orbital Altitudes 121 A. Barringer
SESSION IV, EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATIONS THROUGH ORBITAL SURVEYS 141
Use of Data from Space for Earth Resources Exploration and Management in Alabama 143 Phillip E. LaMoreaux and Harold It. Henry
A Data Acquisition System (DAS) for Marine and Ecological Research froth Aerospace Technology 149 Richard A. Johnson
Satellite Observations of Temporal Terrestrial Features 155 George Rabchevsky
Interdisciplinary Applications and Interpretations of Remotely Sensed Data 181 G. W. Petersen and G. J. McMurtry
Orbital Surveys and State Resource Management 187 _George Wukelic, T. L. Wells, and B. R. Brace
Riverbed Formation 199 Morris Skinner
A Little Beyond Tomorrow 211 Daniel J. Fink
Advancements in Medicine from Aerospace Research 215 F. Thomas Wooten
Domestic Applications for Aerospace Waste and Water Management Technologies 221 - Frank DiSanto and Rthert W. Murray
Breathing Metabolic Simulator 231 Roscoe G. Barlett, 'Jr. , C. M. Hendricks, and W. B. Morison
Medical Technology Advances from Space Research 237 Sam L. Pool
SESSION V. BENEFITS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION, AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS 245
Satellite Communication and Navigation for Mobile Users 247 Steven L. Bernstein
A New Device for Communication Systems 259 R. R. Beck
Communications Via Satellite Dividend of the Space Age 265 Gustave J. Rauschenbach
iv TABLE OF COIVTENTS (Continued)
,Page
Development and Applications of Color Television for Apollo XV and Beyond 279 Samuel Russell
SESSION VI. MEANING OF SPACE TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 285
Advances in High Energy Astronomy from Space v 287 Riccardo Giacconi
Benefits of Space Research to the Natural Sciences 303 John A. O'Keefe
The Outer Planets -= Fly-By Prospects 307 W. D. De Marcus
The Human Value of Scientific Investigations of the Origin and Evolution of the Solar System 313 J. L. Archer
SESSION VII. SPACE MANUFACTURING BENEFITS d 323 Status and Plans of NASA's Materials Science and Manufacturing in Space (MS/MS) Program 325 William 0. Armstrong and Jantesil. Bredt
Space EnvironmentA New Dimension in the Preparation of Unique Solids 333 Harry C. Gatos
Space Processing A Projection 337 Louis R. McCreight and R. N. Griffin
Extraterrestrial Imperative 341 Krafft A. Ehricke
SESSION VIII. BENEFITS TO FUTURE POWER GENERATION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION 353
Power and Energy for Posterity 355 Robert F. Barthelemy and Robert F. Cooper
Contributions from Space Technology to Central Power Generation 361 John B. Dicks, Jr.
Solar Energy, Its Conversion and Utilization 369 Erich A. Farber
SESSION DC. GENERAL TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR 389 Application of Space Benefits to Education 391 k Konrad K. Dannenberg and Frederick I. Ordway III
v TABLE OF,CONTENTS (Concluded)
Page
From Space Our Housing Hopes? 397 L. Albert Scipio II.
Benefits to be Derived from Meteorological Satellite Technology 423 Delbert D. Smith
Power Without Pollution 431 Peter E. Glaser
SESSION X. SOCIAL BENEFITS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION THROUGH SPACE 441
The Political and Legal Aspects of Space Applications 443 John Hanessian, Jr.
=, Space Exploration and World Peace 449 Charles Mercieca
Application of Communication Satellites to Educational Programs 453 Jai P. Singh
Space Benefits to Mankind as Seen from a French Point of View 457 Jean-Pierre M. Pujes
FORUM DISCUSSION SPACE PROGRAM BENEFITS AND THE PROBLEM OF TECHNOLOGY/USER LINKAGE 461
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 479 INTRODUCTION TO THE SPACE CONGRESS THEME
By Jesco von Puttkamer General Chairman
The papers published in this volume are the tivities, and aspirations which is becoming increas- proceedings of the first international Congress on ingly alarming to those who are convinced that it has "Space fort Mankind' s Benefit," organized by the a justifiable place in today' s complex society, has Huntsville Association of Technical Societies (HATS) something to offer, and is indeed one of our more and held November 15-19, 1971, at Huntsville, Ala- important obligations to the future. On the other bama. They are intended to provide accurate and hand, we,all know the difficulties of economically concise representation of space program benefits. justifying a government-financed technology devel- opment program. The individuals and organizations working through HATS have been supporting the Space Bene- Does the world owe the space program a living? fits ConLress because it is their belief that, in or- The evidence accumulated so far (-And reflected in der to fully evaluate and judge the space program the following pages) and the projections of realistic against its much publicized costs, Americans should applications of space in the future very definitely say be given more and better opportunities to avail it does.Future generations would justly condemn us theinielves of the facts of space technology benefits if we fail to follow through on the fantastic suc- and to understand that there is-considerably more cesses that we have achieved in space. The breath- utility to the space program than the excitement and taking photographs from space showing earth of the thrill of a manned flight.In a world of an ever in- size of a mere ping-pong ball have illustrated one creasing number of social and economic priorities great fact, namely, that our earth is really nothing competing for limited funds, it appears that rather but a large space vehicle.If we keep this analogy in than confronting the concerned citizen with rhetoric mind, then the relationship of clxice technology and statements and unsubstantiated claims about the need space tools to earth's ecology and "subsystems" for a space program an approach which would becomes more apparent. To actually engineer our do more damage than good it behooves us to actu- world to keep it from running down, to really servc- ally go in and dig out the facts, and then let them ice it, man has to be able to go beyond Wits bounda- stand for themselves. The purpose of the HATS ries, into space. Space Congress thus became one of assembling and disseminating a compendium of factual benefits of To help the public learn and understand more space technology on earth. about this fact, that is the basic purpose of the Space Congress. The need for this dialogueWith the public is very real and ever increasing.Public interest in The papers in the following are authored by ex- the American space program has been dwindling perts in their-respective areas of space technology rapidly in the past months since the successful lu- applications. They present a representative cross nar landing by Armstrong and Aldrin. In direct re- section of space benefits and are offered as a small lation to the decline in public support the space part of the evidencesupporting the contention of the program has entered a downhill trend in scope, ac- space program as an obligation to the future. SPACE FOR MANKIND'S BENEFIT A SPACE CONGRESS FOR THE NONAEROSPACE PUBLIC
Message from the Chairman
By Jesco von Puttkamer General Chairman
On behalf of the Huntsville A number of years ago, when the space program area technical organizations, first stretched its fledgling wings, many people in the Huntsville Association of America and throughout the world started to ask, Technical Societies (HATS) is "Why conquer space?' or "Why send men into extending you a very warm space?" The reasons given at that time were welcome to the first Interna- political and spiritual. With no evidence to show tional Congress on "Space for for its practical utility, it was an impossible job Mankind's Benefit" in hospitable indeed to convince people about its direct relevance Huntsville, Alabama. to their more immediate needs and pressing problems. As a consequence, many people viewed the space With this Congress, HATS program as an exclusive undertaking by a small, is attempting to depart from the traditional format of select segment of the population. professional technical meetings at which highly sophisticated papers are read in technical language to a specialist audience.Instead, topical presenta- Today, the space program has piled up evidence tions and discussions will be in popular language, to the contrary. People are still asking, "Why and the audience will be largely nontechnical men conquer space?", but for the first time it is now and women from outside the aerospace field, while possible to answer this question with down-to-earth not excluding the latter. However, although the reasons, substantiated by hard-hitting facts: Because Congress is directed toward the more general public, we are getting valuable scientific knowledge from the speakers are experts in their respective areas space about the earth, the sun, the universe, and .nan of space technology applications, as are indeed the himself, which we could not get in any other way. session chairmen. By combining expert speakers Because the space program is producing more use- with general audience and encouraging question-and- ful new technology per dollar invested than any other answer dialogue between them, we hope to achieve organized activity in America today. Because it has our overall Congress goal, namely, to help the proven to be an excellent hotbed for forcing new public learn and understand more about the benefits technology, which in turn raises our national pro- of the space program. ductivity and prosperity and increases our ability to solve pressing social problems of today's urban The theme of the Congress is intended to remind society. Because the space program is one of the us of one of the basic purposes of the U.S. space pro- few national programs which actually creates re- gram. The official National Aeronautics and Space" sources rather than uses them. Because space Act of July 29, 1958 (Public Law 85-568), stated, exploration is needed as inspiration for modern man. "The Congress hereby declares that it is the policy And because it furthers international cooperation and of the United States that activities inspace should favors global peace. be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind." While the goals of the space program Since the space program depends on public sup- include the advancement of human knowledge of the port, the future of an effective space program, and universe and the improvement of our ability to with it the future of our social,, technological and operate in the space environment, the utility of the spiritual development, is dependent upon the realiza- space program for practical purposes on earth is a tion by the general public that the space program has topic of increasing political and public concern. indeed a justifiable place in today's complex society. Thus, while space research is of cour9c_not primarilySupport of space exploration can only be expected directed toward immediate direct benefit to the pub- from a public and its congressional representatives lic, it is nonetheless important as a potential source that are aware of the practical returns accruing of practical dividends. from the national space investment.
3 It
The HATS Space Congress is a first attempt at The Congress "Space for Mankind's Benefit" providing an opportunity for the pu::Ale to learn is dedicated to Mankind at large and its hope for the about these facts.Its purpose is to draw togzther future the spare program. and present a cross-section -A tlic-many benefits the United States and mankind have received ?nd will receive from the space program.
4 PARTICIPATING SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS
'Alabama Society of Professional Engineers ("SPE)
'American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) --
*American Institute of Industrial Engineers (AIIE)
American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (AS:ME)
Society of Non-Destructive Testing (SNT)
American Society for Metals (ASM)
'Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
'American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics (AIAA)
'Instrument Society of America (ISA) --,...,
American Ordnance Association (A0A)
American Nuclear Society (ANSI
American Optical Society (AOS)
Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)
Society of Aerospace Material and Process Engineers (SAMPE)
'Society of American Value Engineers (SAVE)
American Society for duality Control (ASOC)
Society of Logistics Engineers (SOLE)
Air Force Association (AM)
Resents Officers Association (ROA)
Rocket City Astronomical Association (RCM)
'Huntsville General Electric Engineers Association (HGEEA)
'American Astronautical Society JAAS)
Madison County Medical Society
Society for Technical Communication (STC)
Chicago Technical Societies Council
American Society of Agricultural Engineers f, National Aerospace Education Council
Society of Women Engineers
Soil Conservation Society of America
The Health Sciences Comm uniation Association
'HATS Mamba. SPACE BENEFITS SESSIONS AND THEIR CHAIRMEN
Session I: Man in Near-Earth Space: Concepts, Logistics, Operations spin-offs. The emphasis in this session is on benefits to human problem solving, to the economy The purpose of this session and national prestige, to global peace and coopera- is to familiarize the participants tion, and to our understanding of the universe and of with the major space program ourselves. elements from which space applications on earth will de- The session is chaired by Joseph F. Clayton, rive; i.e., the session will the General NIanager of the Bendix Corporation's "set the-stage" for the Congress Aerospace Systems Division. Prior to accepting theme. Overview presentations that position, Mr. Clayton was Assistant General will highlight Skylab and its Manager and Program Director for the Apollo Lunar air experiments and applications, Surface Experiments Package (A LSEP) at Bendix the space station and its prac- until 1968, and prior to that the Director of Program tical contributions to life on earth, the Space Shuttle, Management. Holding an A.B. degree from Boston Research and Applications Modules, Earth Resources College (1943), an A.M. degree in Physics from Satellite programs, and others. Tufts University (19481, and an M.S. degreb in Applied Science from Harvard University t 19491, Chairman of the session is Dr. William R. Mr. Clayton joined Bendix in March 1949. He has Lucas, the Deputy Director, Technical, of the authored numerous papers on missile guidance and National Aeronautics and Space Administration extraterrestrial scientific exploration, and originated (NASA) Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) five patents in radar and radiation detection tech- in Huntsville, Alabama. A specialist in materials, niques. Dr. Lucas was formerly the Director of Program Development at MSFC and prior to that the Director of MSFC's Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering Session III: Benefits of Orbital Surveys and Laboratory. Dr. Lucas joined the rocket develop- Space Technology to Environmental Protection ment team in Huntsville in 1952. As a member of that team, he later directed the material aspects of The purpose of this ses- the successful nose cone development of the Army's sion is to explain the possibili- Jupiter missile. Dr. Lucas holds the NASA idedal ties of utilizing space-acquired for Exceptional Science Achievement (1964) ,the data for observing the earth's Hermann Oberth Award for outstanding individual 1 environment and identifying contributions to the fields of 'aeronautics and astronau- causes of degradation as they tics (1965) , the NASA Exceptional Service Medal for occur. Emphasis will be his contribution to the Apollo VIII circumlunar flight placed on current state-of-the- (1969), and again a NASA Exceptional Service Medal art technology with special for his contributions to the Apollo XI lunar landing attention to data acquisition mission. capabilities for such systems as Skylab and Earth Resources TechnologySatellite (ERTS). Session I I: Fundamental Benefits of the Space Program Chairman of the session is Theodore A. George, Manager of Advanced Studies Programs, Earth Session speakers of respon- Observations Programs Office, of NASA Headquar- sibility will discuss some of the ters.Before accepting that position, Mr. George more fundamental but often served as Assistant to the Commissioner, Water overlooked benefits of the space Quality Office, of the Environmental Protection I WO' program which will continue to Agency (EPA). Prior to that, he was Manager of have profound effects on this Earth Resources Flight Programs at the NASA Head- country and its people far quarters since 1967.Previously he held government exceeding those of the more engineering and technical positions, including "down-to-earth" practical Principal Engineer of Manned Missions Experiments in the NASA Manned Missions Program Office since - Session V: Benefits to Medicine, Medical 1964, Deputy Director of Nuclear Test Detection in DOD since 1960, and NIanager of the Discoverer Technology and Biotechnology Project at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Mr. George received B.S. degrees in This session will provide Mathematics and Aeronautical/Mechanical Engineer- information on applications of ing from George Washington University and Catholic space technology to medicine, University, and an M.A. E. in Aeronautical/Astro- medical research and health nautical Engineering from Catholic University. care. Examples will show how space technology has been in- Session IV: Earth Resources Observation strumental in establishing a flow of information, ideas, and Through Orbital Surveys technology between the physical and medical sciences, benefit- The purpose of this session ing areas such as clinical is to demonstrate space tech- screening and patient monitoring, intensive care nology applications to the explo- technology, life support and waste management ration and management of earth systems, and many more. resources. Examples of re- mote observations and their The session is chaired by Dr. Walton L. Jones, interpretation for inventories the Deputy NASA Director of Life Sciences at NASA and other practical utilizations Headquarters. Dr. Jones, a Fellow of the Aero- will be given in areas such as space Medical Association, was formerly Director agriculture and forestry, geog- of NASA's Human Factors Program in the Office raphy and mapping, geology of Advanced Research and Technology (DART) for and hydrology, and others. 6 years. Prior to that, he served in the U. S. Navy as Naval Medical Officer, Flight Surgeon (1944) , Tne chairman of the session, William A. and Staff Surgeon. In 1960, he was designated Space Radlinski, is Acting Director of the U.S. Geological Surgeon. Among Dr. Jones' numerous accomplish- Survey (USGS) in the U.S. Department of the Interior.ments while with the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics Before that, Mr. Radlinski has held various positions and BuWeapons and as Aeromed Requirements and in the Topographic Division of the USGS for the past Equipment Director in the Bureau of Medicine and 20 years, following his employment by the Army Map Surgery, are the initiation and development of the Service as a stereo operator. Mr. Radlinski is first high-temperature nylon (with Du Pont) f9r flight highly regarded in the fields of topography and clothing, the development of the Navy's full pressure photogrammetry. He has published several articles suit and its conversion for the Mercury Program, the on the subject and has served as associate editor of aeromedical direction of the F111B escape capsule the Manual of Photogrammetry, Third Edition. He development, and specialized research with the has been honored with a Distinguished Service Award, X-15 aircraft followed by spaceflight crew training. the Department of the Interior' s highest award, and Dr. Jones has published over 50 papers and presen- with two Presidential Citations for Meritorious Ser- tations and has been honored with numerous awards vice of the American Society of Photogrammetry. Mt. by the Aerospace Medical Association, the Associa- Radlinski in Antarctica has been named after him. tion of Military Surgeons, and other organizations.
8 Session. Vi: Benefits to Telecommunications, The chairman of the session, Dr. Ernst Navigation, and Information Systems Stuhlinger, has achieved international fame in pro- fessional circles for his pioneering work on electric propulsion systems for space- flight, and for his The purpose of this session contributions in the field of space sciences. He is is to present examples of appli- the Associate Director for Science of the NASA cation of space-derived technol- Marshall Space Flight Center at Huntsville, Alabama. ogy in the area r.:1 cortununica- Dr. Stuhlinger, who received his Ph.D. in Physics tions and navigation, as well as from the University of Tuebingen, Germany, in 1936, in other fields of information is a member of the former Peenemuende Rocket transfer. The use of communi- Development Center under Dr. Wernher von Braun. cation and navigation satellites As a member of the famed "von Braun team," he for civilian and commercial came to the U.S. in 1946 and became an American needs will be described, and citizen in 1955. After years of research on guided the benefits of the space environ- missiles at Fort Bliss, Texas, and work on high- ment and space technology to improved information altitude launchings of captured V-2's at White Sands transfer and higher accuracy in ship and air traffic Proving Grounds, N. Alex. , he began his work on control will be highlighted. electric propulsion in the early 1950's.Before be- coming Marshall's Associate Director for Science in Dr. Richard F. Filipowsky is chairman of the 1968, Dr. Stuhlinger was Director of Space Sciences session. He is presently Professor of Telecom- las)oratory of MSFC since its inception in 1960. He munications Technology at the College of Engineering has authored over 150 papers and articles and a book at the University of South Florida. Before joining on ion propulsion and is coeditor of two other books. that university in 1970, Dr. Filipowsky worked 10 He has been honored with numerous awards, among years for the IBM Corporation and, prior to that, for them iwo Hermann °berth Awards and the NASA Westinghouse Electric Corporation in Baltimore. Medal for Exceptional Scientific Achievement. Born and educated in Vienna, Austria, where he received his M.S. and Ph.D. of Technical Sciences, he was associated with Telefunkdn Co. in Germany Session: VIII: Space Manufacturing and Radio Marconi in Lisbon, Portugal. From 1950 Benefits to 1955, before coming to the U.S. , he was Professor of Electronics at the Madras Institute of Technology in South India. Dr. Filipowsky is author and coauthor The manufacture of certain of 4 books, and more than 30 papers, and is holder high-value products in space of over 32 patents. appears to offer one of the greatest potentials for the application of space technology. Studies in this new field sug- Session VII: Meaning of Space to the gest that biological materials Natural Sciences and electronic crystals are likely to warrant the costs and Space exploration and space be greatly improved by proc- technology has proven to be of essing under the near-zero- immeasurable benefit to the gravity conditions of space. Many other ideas are natural sciences. Recent prog- also being considered, and research on them should ress and breakthroughs in provide future products. The papers in this session sciences such as high-energy will provide an overview, an in-depth example, and astronomy, selenology, cosmol- a projection of the future for this field. ogy, cometology, planetology and planetary astronomy are directly The session chairman is Dr. Leo Steg, General attributable to man's extension of Manager of the Space Sciences Laboratory of General his senses through his space- Electric Company (GE) .Before joining GE in 1955, flight capabilities. Purpose of the session is to dis- Dr. Steg was Assistant Professor of Mechanics and cuss a few of the more intriguing aspects of these Materials at Cornell University and, prior to that, an developments. Instructor in Mechanical Engineering at_the University
9 of Missouri.Dr. Steg, who was born hi Vienna, where he served as Chief of the Space Systems Austria, holds a B. S. in Mechanical Engineering Branch, and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency;as from the College of the City of New York, ail M. S. Assistant to Director, Saturn Systems Office. Other in Mechanical Engineering from the University of former associations of Mr. Ordway include Republic Missouri, and a Ph.D. in Mechanics, Mathematics Aviation Co. and Reaction Motors, Inc.Mr. Ordway and Physics from Cornell University. He is the has studied at Harvard University and at the Uni- author of 20 papers. versities of Paris, Algiers, Barcelona, and Innsbruck, and at the Air University and the Indtistrial College of the Armed Forces.lie has published Session IX: Benefits to Future Power numerous papers and books and is editor of several Generation and Energy Production professional publications. )
The purpose of this session is to discuss cleaner power pro- Session XI: Social Benefits and . duction through space technol- International Cooperation Through Space ogy, fuel cell and thermionics technology applications, power The purpose of this session distribution and future power is to emphasize the impact of production in space. the space program on human society in general, by pre- Dr. John B. Dicks, Jr. ier , is -senting examples of its in- session chairman. At present, fluence on social, cultural, he is Professor of Physics at and economic development. the University of Tennessee Space Institute and Papers will treat subjects such President of J. B. Dicks and Associates. Dr. Dicks as the application of space obtained his Ph.D. in Physics from Vanderbilt science and technology to de- University in 1955. He has published 40papers, veloping countries, earth ap- largely in the field of magnetohydrodynamic power plications of space technology in other countries, and generation and energy conversion. Dr. Dicks is a status, prospects, and outlook of international co- member of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- operative space programs. neers (ASNIE) and various other professional soci- eties, and an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics (AIAA). -The chairmanship of the session is in the hands of Dr. Franco E. Fiorio, Scientific Counsellor of the Italian Embassy in Washington. Dr. Fiorio was born Session X: General Technology in Milan, Italy, and graduated in Mechanical Engi- neering at the Polytechnic of Milan in 1934. In 1937, Utilization in the Public Sector he received his Ph.D. in Aeroballistics at Turin Polytechnic. Dr. Fiorio served in the Italian Air This session will emphasize Force for 23 years, retiring in 1957 asa Colonel' and selected areas of public interest Head of Technical Services. From 1949 till 1955, and needs of society such as he worked as Technical Assistant to the Air Attache housing, transportation, power, in the Italian Embassy in Washington. Since 1959, edUcation, etc., and attempt to Dr. Fiorio is a member of the Italian Delegation to answer those needs by applying the United Nations General Assemblyand, since aerospace technology. 1958, the Italian delegate in the U.N. Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. He is also The session is chaired by Scientific Advisor of the Italian Permanent Mission Frederick I. Ordway III, a to the United Nations in New York and Chairman of Professor of Science and Tech- the Working Group on Remote Sensing of the Earth nology Applications and the Head of the Science and of the United Nations. A member of several American Technology Applications and Evaluation Section at the professional societies, Dr. Fiorio was a cofounder of University of Alabama in Huntsville, Research Ihe Allied Group for Aerospace Researchand Develop- Institute, since 1967. Prior to that time, Mr. Ordway ment (AGARD) of the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- was associated with the General Astronautics Research tion (NATO), Consul General of the Republic bf San Corporation, the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Marino in the U.S. from 1957 till 1968, the Head of
10 the Italian Delegation at the International Telecom- Conference of 1969. He has authored more than_200 munications Satellite Consortium (INTELsAT) papers on space research and implications and the Preparatory Conference and the Deputy Head of th:.s Italian version of the book "Effects of Nuclear delegation at the INTELSAT Plenipotentiary Weapons." WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY
By Dr. Wernher von Braun Deputy Associate Administrator-(Planning) National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D. C.
In May of this year, when it still cost 6 cents to Others feel we worship the god of technology at mail a letter, I was pleased to observe a new series the expense of compassion for our fellow men. They of stamps that was issued on the now popular subject affirm, with the deepest- sincerity, that we should of ecology. They were entitled: SAVE OUR SOIL; turn away from the "dehumanizing" pursuit of science SAVE OUR CITIES; SAVE OUR WATER; and SAVE and technology. OUR AIR. These questions arise from mankind's noblest All four stamps had in common one portion of emotions love, compassion, and concern for fellow their design: a view of earth from deep in space, men. Many persons feel strongly that the human That view is now familiar to people the world over needs and the problems of a troubled society must the view that caught everyone's imagination when all come ahead of the "spectacular" feats of landing men of us were able to share for the first time the sight on the moon. that greeted the eyes of Frank Borman and his Apollo They do not deny it was exciting to see astro- VIII crew when they made the first flight around the nauts walking on the moon for the first time, but now moon.. that it has been done, why do it any more? Think of all we could do with the money in feeding the hungry, It seems particularly appropriate that this-Photo- finding a cure for cancer, or even conquering the graph has I:ecome a widely recognized symbol of the common cold! deepening interest in protecting our fragile home planet so beautiful and yet so vulnerable, as viewed I think all persons of good will everywhere agree from space. that these are valuable, important, and indeed urgent goals to pursue. But the assumption that science, It would seem almost self-evident that the new- technology and space exploration are irrelevant seems found ability to observe the entire globe synoptically to me to be an incredibly myopic point of view. Far from space has given much of the impetus to the pres- from worshiping technology, we look upon it as a ent deep concern over ecological problems. tool to achieve human goals. And space exploration, which involves technology over the widest possible But the view from space, important as it is as a range of disciplines, can help alleviate some of the symbol and a rallying point, is actually far more than very problems critics hold to be most important to that. The new tools and techniques that space explo- society and the individual. ration has given us could hardly have arrived at.a more opportune time. Whereas a few years ago it Still, those of us whose lives are inseparably was only the Rachel. Carsons and a few other voices caught up with technology may have a tendency to crying in the wilderness, today the concerned persons take certain things for granted. We know of its number in the millions. capabilities and its benefits, and we assume that everyone everywhere shares in this knowledge. Un- And there are other concerns as well, also earth- fortunately, that just does not happen to be so. ly, but asked more often by persons who feel the space program is not, if I may use a current catch Therefore, I ask you to bear with me as I re- word, relevant. These are the people who often ask count some of the new tools of space technology that whether we are not spending too much on space and will begin to see u idespread use in the seventies. not enough on urgent problems at home. When so Although there will be many items with which this many are unemployed, they say, and when hunger, audience has more than passing familiarity, I men- sickness, urban decay, and other problems are cry- tion them because I believe it is extremely urgent ing out for solution, how can we spend all those bil- that the general public be given an opportunity to gain lions on space? a similar familiarity,
13 Many of our most urgent problems today are space that we require precise measurements of the global in nature.If we are to maintain earth as a energy poured ol:t by the sun into this environment livable dwelling place for mankind, we must learn 41 order to understand the mechanism of its dynamic to view it as a whole. We must understand that our reactions, we begin to appreciate the importance of existence depends on a delicate balance of nature, these instruments and of the human intellect that and that this balance includes not only all of man- devises them. kind but of all living things. We must know the intri- cate relationships and reactions between this planet The space program has taught us many things and a dynamic solar system, particularly the sun. about our environment, but serious gaps remain in To obtain this knowledge and understanding is one of our body of essential knowledge. We have no idea, the prime objectives of the National Aeronautics and for example, how stable our present climate is, or Space Administration (NASA) space program.It how much additional atmospheric and water pollution requires a sustained effort to develop the science and can be tplerated without altering it drastically. Such technology and the space vehicles to reveal what laiowledge comes to us in many ways . from sensors man's limited senses and capabilities cannot perceive in spacecraft orbiting the Earth, from space probes unaided.In this perspective, we can see that our investigating the atmospheres of Mars and Venus, vision has been broadened to encompass nothing less from observations and photographs made by astro- than the conservation of the whole of earth for all of nauts, and from analysis of extraterrestrial material mankind. brought back from lunar missions.
Our preliminary observations, made as early as We have learned that Mars and Venus have the manned Mercury orbits in 1962, and the earlier atmospheres and environments quite different from- Television and Infrared Observation Satellite (Tiros), Earth's and from each other.If we can gain an weather satellites, led to the concept of instrumented understanding of why they are so different, what spacecraft capable of locating and monitoring the processes caused them to evolve along different earth's resources, including not only its geology, lines, and what processes control the temperatures land areas, and seas, but its atmosphere as well. and compositions of their atmospheres, then we may The growth of the world's population with its attend- better understand and manage earth's atmosphere. ant increasing demands for food, potable water, shel- ter, transportation, and communications, means If all continues to go well, we expect to be that all nations must ultimately join in managing the learning a great deal about Mars during the next use and replenishment of our natural resources. 3 months from Mariner IX (launched May 30, 1971), An expanding population also poses its own pollution which went into orbit around the Red Planet and waste problems by overburdening the natural November 14, 1971. As it circles the planet, the ability of the ecological system to absorb them with- spacecraft will map 70 percent of Mars' surface, out upsetting its balance. and televise back to Earth a record of the planet's topography.Mariner IX is a very sophisticated In both instances, the space program offers spacecraft, and it will give us about 12 times more capabilities directly aiding in the solution of these planetary data than all previous Mariner missions problems by means of instrumented spacecraft that combined. can identify and monitor resources and pollution synoptically on a global basis. However, I must also mention that the Soviet Union is making even more extensive efforts in We cannot navigate our way through the sea of planetary exploration than we are: Two very large problems and obstacles to achieve mankind's broad Russian spacecraft are arriving at Mars very soon objectives without the aid of new instruments and after ours. Each of the two is nearly five times as tools and vehicles. We have learned yet another large as Mariner IX, which suggests that the Soviets lesson from space flight in both manned and unmanned may be planning a soft-landing of instruments on spacecraft: what we can see with our unaided eyes the surface.If they du so, they will be accomplish- is only about 1 percent of total reality.The other ing a feat that we will not be able to duplicate for 3 99 percent of the electromagnetic spectrum is invisi- more years. ble, and cannot be sensed.by human beings except by instruments designed for the purpose. When we re- This does not mean that we need to push the alize that our earth' s environment is so directly and panic button, but it is well to remind ourselves that vitally affected by radiations and particles from outer the Soviet Union is moving strongly ahead in space.
14 Last year, and so far this year, they have made NASA is making a strong effort to develop the space- three times as many successful launches as we have. craft and systems, the techniques and operational It is true they suffered a tragic setback with.the experience whereby space can be used in the service loss of three cosmonauts returning to earth from of mankind. A large part of the effort .is-shared by their Salyut orbiting laboratory. But the laboratory many countries and people throughout the world. itself was successful, and again, this was an en- deavor we will not be able to attempt until 1973: In each of these areas there is a potential for One final point on this subject is that, although improving the conditions of life. One of NASA's their gross national product is only about half as most exciting space technology applications is the large as ours, they are spending as much on space Earth-Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) .It research as we are. Thus, in relative terms, they promises to aid in food production and the efficient are making a space effort that is roughly twice ours, management of valuable resources.
That is one of the reasons it is so important that This satellite is designed to take inventory we get the maximum return from each space dollar. and monitor the condition of forests and crops, de- To do this, we are proposing a Space Shuttle, which tecting aisease and insect infestations, locate natural is essentially a two-stage launch vehicle with one or resources of fresh water and minerals, spot pollu- more stages recoverable and reusable. Part rocket tion of waterways and the air, supply data on ocean- and part airplane, it takes off vertically and lands ography and geography, even aid in urban planning like an airliner horizontally, under piloted con- among its many diverse tasks. trol. The upper stage will take up to orbit as much as 50 000 lb of payload for as little as $100 per The first satellite is due to be launched next pound less than one-tenth of the current figure. year, the second in 1973 for a period of testing sensors, techniques, and data interpretation before Having the Space Shuttle available will permit operational vehicles and systems can be built and us to do both manned and unmanned space missions turned over tc user agencies. For the following that today we cannot even consider.Scientific per- generation of satellites NASA will continue to experi- sonnel other than astronauts could be rotated to ment and develop the technology further. and from a Space Station with relative ease. All manner of supplies and equipment could accompany Intercontinental color television programs via them. satellite have become commonplace, but these are_ With unmanned automated satellites, the savings only the beginning of what will be done in coming offered by the Shuttle should be really remarkable. years. Even so, satellites have already greatly It now takes 6 to 8 years to develop a payload for reduced the cost of telephone and teletype services, flight.Then, if it does not go into proper orbit, .including those of competing undersea cables. or fails in any way to operate correctly, all that Techniques for spot broadcasting to selected sites, work and money go down the spout of perhaps such as isolated communities, are now being devel- I should say, up the spout. oped. We also envision conferences by participants sitting in their own offices in different cities, togeth- In a recent study, NASA examined 131 payload er with the images in color of other conferences. failures. Of these, 78 would have been eliminated The same would be possible for medical consultation in a shuttle type of launch. Furthermore, the other between doctors in separate countries. The possi- 53 could have been returned to earth, fixed, and bilities are nearly endless. The idea is to "move then placed back in orbit. These figures speak for electrons around instead of people." themselves. Ironically, the undeveloped countries without Thus, as you can see, the Space Shuttle is a key large investments in wires and cables stand to reap element in our space program of the future. the fullbenefits of advanced satellite communications before their more technologically sophisticated neigh- Meanwhile, there are matters of more immedi- bors. We and our more advanced fellow nations ate importance where space technology can be use- have heavy commitments in outdated communications fully applied. Three major areas include earth systems, such as the telephone. These tend toact phenomena observations, communications by satel- as a drag on attempts to replace them with more ad- lite, and meteorology.In each of these areas, vanced equipment.
15 India will be one of the first countries in which Again, present weather satellite service, like somc of these possibilities will be demonstrated: communications, is in its early stages. The goal There is an' understanding between NASA and.the is to perfect long-range forecasting of up to 2 week Indian Government to work with that country in or more. Currently we can track large storms and demonstrating nationwide coverage of educational give timely warning to prevent loss of lives and television via satellite.Starting about the calendar restrict property damage. Satellite tracking of the year 1973, we plan to make time available to the huge storm, Camille, saved hundreds, perhaps Indian people for about 4 to 6 hours a day using the thousands, of lives in the Gulf States in 1969. UHF channel on our Application Technology Satellite (ATS-F). I have omitted mention of space program "spin- off" and the economic effects of developing large At Madras, Bombay, Ahmadabad, Delhi, and research and development programs. These are not Calcutta, the Indian Government will install relative- inconsequential. Whole areas have been raised eco- ly large receiving stations to rebroadcast to receivers nomically and in their level of education by NASA's_ in metropolitan areas. But in outlying districts, programs. Those of you who are here know that which will be chosen all over the country, more Huntsville is a case in point. As an old Huntsville moderate-sized receivers will be used for distribu- resident myself, I seem to recall that this modern tion to viewing sets in the communities. and progressive city was once famed mostly as the watercress capital of the world.
Approximately 5000 receivers over the whole . Space research has advanced medical science country will be emplaced for this experiment, and by probing into various fields of physics, biochem- the Indian Government has estimated that it may istry, and others.' One of our scientists, for exam- eventually serve as many as 20 million people. ple, specializing in space radiation, devised and demonstrated a theory that helps explain the source The potential impact of educational television on of uncontrolled malignant growth and indicates this scale is obvious.It is equally obvious that the shortcuts to the development of chemical counter- same techniques could be applied to increase the measures against cancer. Thousands of medical and general educational levels of the other countries other developments useful to man can be cited. very rapidly particularly some of the new and Space research is especially valuable in this respect emerging nations around the world. because it must press forward on all frontiers of knowledge, and advances in one often bring advances Another familiar satellite service are the in other fields. meteorological cloud-cover scanners that have been In summary, then, this, nation must continue operating since 1960. Satellites and weather are responding to new challenges in the years ahead inherently global systems.It was in the spring of and not in simplistic terms of "either/or." We that year that NASA placed this revolutionary new must press forward both in the space program and tool in orbit to monitor the world's weather systems. here on earth. These are not mutually exclusive, Over the years since, the space agency has improved but mutually supporting enterprises. the technology and deyeloped more advanced weather satellite systems. Every nation in the world can Many benefits are now being realized, but we benefit from the U.S. meteorological service simply can expect far greater returns as increasingly so- by installing an automatic readout station and signal- phisticated'devices go into service. Data from ing the satellite overhead to transmit photographs space regarding our earth, its oceans, its resources, of the cloud cover. More than 50 countries are using and its agriculture will be obtained and applied in the system to view the daily weather patterns over the words of the Space Act of 1958, "for the benefit their territories and adjacent lands. of all mankind."
16 WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY (Continued)
By Dr. Eberhard Rees Director, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama
If this should happen to be your first visit to the "The recent moon shot marked another black Deep South, I believe you will return home with a page in the history of civilization.,Four billion fresh new concept of the characteristics of this dollars were shot into space on another fruitless region because of its progress in science, tech- wild goose chase. As famous as the latest moon nology, and industry. shot seems, while we squander those billions trying to find something of value on the moon, and then a You will find that traditional southern hospitality way to bring it back to earth, we sta rye' oceano- is never out of season. You will always receive a graphic research programs ... The space program_ warmhearted welcome here in winter or in summer. is relatively unproductive and unnecessary at this time. We must face reality and take care of human- Your hosts; the members of HATS, are to be ity's basic'needs before building monuments to commended for undertaking such an ambitious proj- esoteric technology .. " ect of bringing space down, to earth, and for bringing to all an account of its benefits.This serious This entire formidable undertaking must take undertaking gives evidence of their concern over its place beside a long register of corollary benefits. the rising tide of criticism in recent years directed Quite contrary to the unfounded premise of our mis- toward science, technology, and the space program. guided letterwriter, man has indeed profited directly and substantially from the lunar venture.This will,- There are, of course, those who carry the I think, become increasingly evident as the Congress impression that the sole purpose of the nation's presentations unfold, space program was to land men on the moon. Now that this has been achieved, these people favor I am happy that the members of HATS have severe, almost ruinous reduction of the space recognized the existence of misconceptions and budget. Apollo XI was indeed a significant mile-. misunderstandings about the benefits of space stone in the exploration, of space, because of the exploration, and are doing something about it.They capability it represented.But it was only one aspect have carved out a tremendous job for themselves. of this nation's broad program of peaceful explora- But they are not without resources.In fact, a tion of the universe for the benefit of mankind as is sizable facet of their task is one of selection from a mandated in the Space Act. vast array of items for display within the time avail- able.I seriously doubt whether such a weeklong Now, NASA has, I think, been conscientious in conference on the benefits -..)f space exploration could carrying out the charter requirement that its activi- have been held a few short years ago. We entered ties-be conducted openly, and that P:s many advances the Space Age on faith and on the promise of potential in science and technology be made available to all benefits.But today those envisioned benefits and potential users.It is surprising to me to discover practical applications of space technology have be- people who are not only uninformed, but who have come so much more visible and evident that it would misconceptions about the space program. Worse be virtually impossible todiscuss them within the than this, it is saduening that they make misrepre- time allotted. sentations about it to others. To convey an idea as to the magnitudes of which Here are a few sentences, for example, from a I speak the Marshall Center alone has contributed letter to the editor in the October issue of the official some 10 me innovations derived over a period of publication of a national young men's organization. 9 years and have not beenZestricted to just a few nar- It reads and these words are the letterwriter's row fields but rather have been quite broad in scope. not mine: Helpful contributions, for example, have been made
17 in the fields of aerodynamics, bioscience, chemis-- universities. This combination of government- try, communications, computers, electronics, science-industry talent has been 'duly credited with photography, holography, lasers, materials, and the achievements made in the exploration ofspace so on.Specific, well-documented accounts of thus far.I believe we can depend upon that same advances within these fields are available for those combination to present the proven benefits of space who may desire them. technolou in a thorough and convincing manner, not only during this week's conference,. but in the Now, I should point out here that the sizable days ahead. Because of their deep experience, you output mentioned flowed from but one center. The are assured of an interesting and informative other NASA centers, too, have contributed a substan- Congress, tial number of advances in technology to a growing- list. Let me say once more that we are most happy that you could be here, and I hope that each of you I note from the program that HATS has arranged will return home and assume an apostle's role in an impressive array of conference chairmen and conveying to others the information you receive at participants, representing NASA, industry, and this Congress.
18 WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY (Concluded)
By Major General Edwin I. Donley Commanding General U.S. Army Missile Command
After looking over the HATS program, I think Colwnbus talked of a lot of things but, unfortunately I was the sole uniformed member of the Defense for him, who listened heard only the word Establishment who had an opportunity to address "gold." AsAs it turned out, there was just not that much the Congress, which hopes to place on public record gold.By the time he made his second voyage to the the benefits to Mankind of the space resources and New World, he found he had a rebellion on his hands exploration.I testify not as a sinner but as a convert. because there was not enough gold to be found to Certainly, the Army's missile programs and indeed make everyone rich, and, from then on, it was all all of our aerodefense programs have been one of downhill. Columbus died a broken man but not the prime beneficiaries of the advanced technology before crowds had followed his sons through the that resulted from the impetus of the massive space streets chanting, "There go the sons of the admiral effort of the last decade. of the mosquitos; of he who discovered lands of vanity and illusions, of the grave and ruin of Spanish Because I believe that we need an on-going space gentlemen." But within 30 years following Columbus' program, I have a few personal comments to make, first voyage, history tells of a great reneual of and if they sound critical they are not meant to be. human spirit that was underway. Columbus, of I hope they are accepted in the spirit in which they course, by that time had been in his grave for many are offered.I certainly intend constructive comment. years.But I suggest that you might keep Columbus in mind as you read this publication. These are not easy times for the military or space programs or, indeed, for any government You may be-approaching these reports with the program or institution which depends upon public premise that "to know us is to love us" that, understanding and support to accomplish great and surely, once the public understands the things that wonderful deeds through the application of advanced the space program can do for them, then suddenly, technology. Unfortunately, great and wonderful there will be a clear public mandate to get all of the deeds of that kind involve expenditures of great and space program. Perhaps that is true, but I am not wonderful sums of money. Certainly, the theme so sure.In today' s climate, it is not so much a for the conference is appropriate, and the purpose matter of what could or can be done, or how much for holding the meeting is very commendable. Also, It would cost or even if it is cost-effective. The we can agree that the public does need more infor- overriding concern, it seems to me, Is simply one mation about the direct and potential benefits accru- of need. The question inot how do we go about ing from its space program. this, but rather, do we need to do this at all.In my judgment, that Is the attitude that shot down the I think the public is asking, "What is in it for SST. There simply were not enough people convinced us, and whet does space mean to us here on earth?" that they really needed an airplane that would make That is a simple pair of questions: But only a simple the trip in half the time that they ever expected to man would try to give a simple answer to those ques- make at all. tions, and perhaps they are not even fair, but they are being asked and they have always been asked. At a time when people can seriously ask, just You can almost see Ferdinand and Isabella and all as they are asking, "Do we really need an army?", those at the Spanish court listening as Columbus those of you concerned with our future space pro- described the wonders of his first great voyage. grams must keep your eyes firmly fixed on the real You can just about hear them saying, "What is in it mission; of what you really can do now and what you for us?" Now Columbus talked of gold and spices, alone can do, and certainly, you need to speak out new lands, and many other things. Columbus if clearly on the need to do it.You have learned to we can believe the accountswas a skillful pre- sail the new ocean. Now, give us a few short rea- senter, and it was only years later, when people got sons why you should make further voyages. tired of hearing him say, "I told you so," when many began to think he was a little bit tiresome. - I suppose Transcribed front tape SESSION I MAN IN NEAR-EARTH SPACE - CONCEPTS, LOGISTICS, OPERATIONS UNMANNED SPACECRAFT FOR RESEARCH
By Dr. Carl D. Graves Manager, Advanced Systems TRW Systems Group
Introduction used for a variety of purposes ranging from trans.. mission of telephone and television programs to the The remarkable achievements of the Apollo Lu- precise location of aircraft anti ships. On the other nar Exploration Program have tended to overshadow hand, the earth observation applications all involve unmanned automated satellite flights.It is not al- looking down at the earth with sensors onboard the ways realized that spacecraft operating in earth or- satellite. The sensor data are then transmitted to bit have already revolutionized global communica- earth where they are processed so as to obtain useful tion, maritime navigation and worldwide weather Information.In both cases the customers shape both forecasting. These satellites, the result of NASA's the character and goals of the applications indicated. Space Applications Program, arc now vital links in a global network providing worldwide services which Interestingly, the two application categories would not have yet been economically or technically besides having different objectives are character- feasible prior to the advent cot near-carth space ized in general by two different types of satellite or- operations. bits. As illustrated in Figure 1, the Comm/Nav satellites are in what we call earth synchronous or The Space Applications Program of NASA's de- geostationary orbits at an altitude of approximately fers in a fundamental way from its manned and sci- 22 000 miles above the equator. In this particular entific program. This difference is best character- orbit the satellite's period of rotation is identical to ized by the fact that the Space Applications Program or synchronous with the period of the earth's rota- has users or "customers." The users ccver an tion. Consequently, the same geographical part cif the enormous spectrwn of our society ranging from Fed- earth remains constantly in "view" of the satellite eral Government departments such as Interior, Com- antennas. By virtue of this unique geometric rela- merce, and Agriculture to individuals and groups. tionship to the earth, a satellite in synchronous equa- Both the private sector and public sector are repre- torial orbit has operational possibilities not easily sented, state and local governments as well as air- realized by other means. It has a constant line of lines and shipping companies. In the last decade we sight for communication to any point on the visible have barely begun to exploit the potential of space 43 percent of the earth's surface. The abilay to applications for our society. As you will hear in the connect a single point on the earth to myriads of later sessions of this conference, the next decade others that can be simply equipped, and are not nec- promises to be a rewarding one, and the returns essarily accessible by other means, has an unusual from our space investment will be substantial. spectrum of applications. The inherent advantages of a satellite system are important for most com- munication activities and some navigational demands. Space Applications On the other hand, the earth observation satellites generally have a requirement for observing the whole The two major parts of NASA's Space Applica- earth (including the polar regions) on a daily or tions Program are Communication and Navigation weekly basis.Furthermore, the sensors onboard the (Comm/Nav) satellites, and Earth Observations sat- spacecraft usually require a low altitude and a con- ellites. Table 1 lists the seven major applications stant angle of sunlight reflected off the earth into in each of these categories. The Comm/Nav appli- the sensors so.as to maximize their performance. cations are characterized by the transfer of informa- Consequently most earth observation missions re- tion from earth to satellite or satellite to earth to be quire a polar orbiting satellite so as to get repetitive
022/23 coverage of the whole earth and to maintain a con- 2. Government administrative systems stant sun angle. This type of orbit is called "sun synchronous." a.Social Security system b.Internal Revenue Service During the later sessions of this symposium you c.Motor vehicle bureaus will hear many presentations on these applications satellites.By way of introduction to these later ses- 3. Time-shared data-processing systems sions I would like to give you an overview of these application missions with particular attention paid to a. Remote computing how these satellites benefit you and some of the pros- b. Remote manipulation of text pects for the future. Perhaps as I review these missions you will discover for yourselves other ap- 4. Management information systems plications where data from these satellites would be of help to you or your profession or your community. a. Inventory control b.Production control
Comm /Nay Applications 5.Financial information systems
The first application on our Comm/Nay list 6. Consumer-data services (Table 1) are point-to-point communications satel- lites.These satellites provide transmission links 7. Remote typesetting for terrestrial communication systems. As illus- trated in Figure 2, these satellites provide communi- The above gives you a partial listing of the po- cation between ground stations in various countries tential applications of this type of communication (International Telecommunications Satellite Consor- satellites.Perhaps you can see others. tium [INTELSAT I, II, 111)) and will shortly provide communication between various cities within a coun- Another major communication satellite appli- try or between two adjoining countries. Figure 3 cation is the distribution and retrieval of informa- gives the projected growth of telephone voice channels tion.Potential users of this type of application in during the next decade: This growth in communica- the fields of education, health services, law en- tion needs is now economically satisfied by the use forcement and libraries have already been identi- of satellite systems and will result in reduced tele- fied. Figure 4 illustrates a medical and health in- phone bills for you and me. Furthermore, televi- formation network. Data from medical libraries, sion communication for specialized needs can be pro- schools, and hospitals could be readily available to vided by these satellites. Organizations with major a medical center remote from these facilities thus offices spread over a large country or over the globe bringing us better and cheaper health services. could use such circuits for many purposes including, Another example can be fount' in the field of educa- for example, management and engineering meetings, tion.Education in the U.S. is approaching a crisis television tours of major projects, introduction of where the key issues are cost and equality of educa- new products and services, and instruction of sales tional opportunity. In the past 10 years the cost of and maintenance personnel at field locations. Other education In the U.S. has risen by 160 percent to potential applications include the rapidly growing $70 billion. The student population has grown by field of point-to-point data transmission; Long- 129 percent to 59 million students. Labor costs for distance interconnection of computers and other data- education are greater than for any other major U.S. processing equipment is being considered for such economic sector, with over 60 percent of the total purposes as: expenditures going for the salaries of the instructors. Furthermore, equality of educational opportunities 1.Information-retrieval systems demands a much more unified standard of teaching and information. These factors point to the need of a. Travel reservations a unified national or regional educational system. b. Technical literature The possibility of implementing an educational com- c.Stock quotations munication-satellite system is an extremely promis- d. Medical information ing approach to solving the problem of linking large
24 numbers of widely separated schools, libraries, and are perishable. A data collection satellite can serve information centers. the purpose of complete, real-time, synoptic re- porting by transmitting such data to a national or a Another major application of communication regional processing center. Environment forecast- satellites is the direct broadcasting television. A ing services alone are expected, for example, by satellite system could offer services to areas not 1975 to encompass 4100 land stations, 885 marine presently covered by existing television networks, vessels and weather ships, 500 buoys, one or more could extend the number of programs offered (more satellites, and 4500 balloons. Approximately choice) ,, and could offer special programs of partic- 6000 platforms provide agriculture and seismic ular significance to various regions of the world. data and approximately 10 000 platforms are envi- Where wide-area coverage is needed for common sioned for marine oceanographic and hydrological program material, a satellite is much more econom- data. This large volume of data traffic makes the ical of spectrum space than is a terrestrial system. use of a satellite economical and provides for a far To cover the U.S., for example, with typical sta- faster, more efficient service to the users of these tions having only a 50-mile radius takes about 10 chan- data. nels to avoid interference between contiguous sta- tions. The satellite can accomplish the same task Figure 7 also illustrates the use of a satellite with only one channel. This is a frequently over- for air traffic control, collision control and navi- looked advantage of satellites, and one that is not gation. This also will be a very important use of trivial, with spectrum space so valuable (Fig. 5). satellites in the next decade.
The average number of channels available to a home receiver in the U.S. is only three. A satel- Earth Observation Applications lite could profitably add several to this, either nationally or sectionally. The NASA Earth Observation Program is de,. signed to improve methods of gathering data on our Conventional television stations have difficulty atmosphere and resources by remote sensing from running profitably if they are devoted to educational automatic, earth-orbiting satellites. This program and instructional programming in the broadcast will deliver direct benefits to most Americans by sense. By extending the coverage cheaply, and improved weather forecasting and by helping to sur- thereby expanding the audience to whom the program vey our limited natural resources, such as food, material is directed, asatellite system appears to water, fish, minerals, and oil, and by contributing be natural for the complex of programming called to their improved management. As a growing public television. Included within this elusively de- American population with greater expectations cf a fined class would be public-interest broadcasting, higher standard of living consumes more re- cultural and educational material, and even instruc- sources, occupies more living space, produces tion in the scholastic sense. Such a system is tech- more waste, and puts more pressure on an already nically possible in a variety of realizations. The fragile earth environment, it becomes more impor- obstacles are largely social and political. The ques- tant and finally crucial to manage the available re- tion as to who would originate and control program sources effectively. The earth resources satellites material is, therefore, a thorny point. are an essential tool, one of many in the national earth resources program whose objectives are to Figure 6 illustrates the use of educational broad- discover resources, improve the management of cast television to a country such as India with its others, conserve those we have, and help to apply vast population and lack of trained teachers. An ex- them for the public good. periment such as this will be tried with India, using NASA'd Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) to be The program is based upon several years of launched in the near future. Interagency cooperation. Many kinds of sensors for different users have been flown in aircraft over Figure 7 illustrates the use of satellites to relay known test sites and their observations checked with data from various collection stations or platforms to the known surface vegetation and features. For a central processing facility. This type of data relay several years, the Department of the Interior and the is particularly important where the data being taken Department of Agriculture have been preparing
25 requirements and testing applications. The Bureau reation.These lands also support about 7 million of Land Management, custodian of the Nation's head of livestock and nearly 3 million big-game public domain, is interested in improved surveys animals. Conservation of these resources helps of land use. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries support the $20 billion per year outdoor recreation is measuring ocean color to find fish. The Forest industry. Service wants better ways to survey forest infesta- tions. The Bureau of Reclamation needs compre- The data-gathering potential of remote sensing hensive water inventory data. from space will assist the Department of the Interior in administering these public lands and preserving Visual photographic interpretation techniques their ecology. Studies of changing features or con- are well established, although in photographs taken ditions such as grassland status and foraging pat- from aircraft the various species of flora tend to terns could be supported by synoptic observations blend together. Crops and trees usually cannot be from space. Environmental management can also identified when viewed remotely in the visible por- benefit from timely and reliable, satellite-derived tion of the spectrum. Tone and texture differences information on the distribution, health, and vigor of are revealed, however, when visual images are vegetation, and measurements of snow accumulation compared with images produced by sensors tuned to and glacier movement. other wavelengths. Such multispectral sensing can identify and distinguish various species and varie- The geologists' chief information tool is the ties of plant life.Similar multispectral techniques geological map which shows the distribution of rocks may be used to distinguish healthy crops and trees exposed at the earth's surface. Now, in addition to from diseased or infected ones. Diseased or aerial photography, geologists will have available stressed plants reflect or emit different electromag- the big, synoptic view offered by remote sensing. netic radiation than vigorous plants (Figs. 8 and 9). These systematic space pictures will offer geolo- gists a broad, integrating panorama from which When used together with visual imaging, data they can select observables of interest for eloseup from new sensors, especially infrared, are expect- looks by aircraft or ground parties. The advantage ed to assist in a wide variety of interpretive stud- offered by observations from space is that aircraft ies, including identification of crop and timber spe- or prospecting surveys can be directed to specific cies, analysis-of crop. vigor, estimation of crop areas of interest. production, and early detection of plant disease and stress over wide areas of farmland and forests. Known relationships exist between concentra- Remote sensing will simplify and make accurate the tions of mineral and fuel resources and particular prediction of seasonal changes, and the assembling geologic features. Petroleum and metallic mineral of statistical data on large-scale changes such as a deposits, for example, are frequently found near function of planting, fertilization, and irrigation structural features such as folds or faults.In a practices, and the gathering of inventory data. space photograph, part of an entire mountain range could consist of a series of folded rocks, and in the Imagery from earth resources satellites can be series of folds might lie an anticline or dome which used to construct land-use maps, make soil sur- could yield oil.Aerial photographs have been used veys, assess cropping practices and range condi- to identify such features, but pictures from orbital tions, and predict agricultural yields. Such crop altitudes have proven superior for viewing the larg- information will become important as food produc- er linear geologic features. A new fault system in tion is increased to feed growing populations. To- southern California was first discovered in space morrow's farm manager may be able to find out photographs. Geologic features and faults are even more about his operation from remote observations more obvious in radar images than in visual pic- than by walling through his fields. tures: Radar also penetrates clouds and haze, and can be used during nighttime (Figs. 10 and 11). Similarly, public land managers can benefit from satellite observations of the public domain. The conservation and utilization of water sup- Public lands and national parks.and forests com- plies is the responsibility of the Department of the In- prise 175 million acres in the U. S. and 289 million terior, of which the Survey is a part. No other re- acres in Alaska. These lands are a resource base source commands a comparable percentage-Of de- for the future. Today they are yielding income to partmental time, funds, and talents. Department the nation-from oil, gas, forest products, and rec- water management activities include the mapping of
26 _ water, studying its properties, predicting its behav- practices is a slow, laborious process of assembling ior, impounding it, diverting it, desalinating it, and thousands of observations, and scale maps available using it to create electricity, fish and wildlife habi- today are neither uniform nor timely.Fortunately, tats, and recreation areas.In addition, other agen- cartography is applying techniques developed in the cies such as the National Weather Service also space program which promise greater efficiencies. collect hydrological data. The process of assembling the thousands of aerial photographs into a mosaic of a large region is both Performance of these functions can be im- long and costly.About 1 million such photographs proved by the use of remote sensing. When earthre- would be required to make a photomosaic of an area sources satellites join this collection network, the size of the U.S.' From satellite altitudes, such large-scale, repetitive imagery of water systems a panorama of the U.S., would require only 400 pic- will supplement the point data already being taken. tures, could be assembled in a -ew weeks, and would In addition, the network of automatic sensors in cost only a fraction of the cost of aerial mosaics rivers and lakes will radio measurements to the (Figs. 14 and 15). satellites. The automatically repetitive feature alone is very valuable since hydrology is a data- Aerial photomosaics typically do not display dependent natural sbience, and its data are highly uniform shadow patterns and texture.The sunlight perishable. An operational system promises global, angle is always changing throughout the duration of synoptic, repetitive, and real-time coverage of the aircraft's flight.Placed in an appropriate sun- major aspects of the hydrologic cycle. synchronous orbit, a satellite is capable of produc- ing pictures of the earth under virtually constant A new order of water resource inventory will lighting conditions.In a sun-synchronous orbit, the be achievable. The available water in an entire satellite crosses the equator or any parallel of lati- river basin or lake system, for example, can be tude at the same time each pass. Since the orbit monitored repetitively.Repeated observations in the plane of the satellite always maintains the same, visual, infrared, and microwave regions of the spec- fixed angle with respect to rays of sunlight, the illu- trum can be made of snow, glaciers, and ice accu- mination of ground features is consistent. Shadows mulations and melting patterns.These changes can in each adjacent satellite swath always point in the be monitored during the seasons of the year over same direction. Images of large areas composed of areas too large to survey by conventional means. _ pictures taken during many passes will display the More accurate predictions°of runoff can be made. same constant illumination.Satellite pictures are These forecasts, in turn, will enable hydrologists to also geometrically superior to aircraft photographs better regulate the impounding and release of water of large areas because of the straight-down view. in reservoirs. Programs such as flood control, ir- The distortions caused by oblique camera angles are rigation, and power production, as well as water for eliminated. These features make possible automatic urban and industrial consumption, can thus be better processing and interpretation techniques that are dif- managed. Improving the basis for water manage- ficult or impossible to utilize working with aerial ment decisions will produce measurable economic observations. benefits (Figs. 12 and 13). More than 70 percent of the earth's surface is In addition to reporting water inventories, re- covered by water. These broad expanses of the mote sensing may help to reduce water losses. Un- oceans, coupled with their dynamic nature, have derground fresh water is being lost to the sea. Aer- made it impractical to undertake continuous broad- ial infrared detectors flown over the coast of Hawaii scale surveillance by conventional methods. Limited show 250 underground springs discharging fresh synoptic surveys have been conducted by Soviet, Jap- ground water into the ocean. anese, and U.S. oceanographic vessels working in patterns over large areas, but their best efforts are "'"'"`Cartographers are constantly searching for necessarily limited to selected data points rather better, quicker, and more accurate ways to make than the comprehensive coverage offered by satellite. maps. Of all the techniques at their disposal, aerial Most of the world's oceans are never seen by man, photography presently offers the best means of ob- while areas of special interest are klecked only in- taining small-scale maps of large areas. Neverthe- termittently by ships or aircraft.Yet the oceans are less, the U.S. Geological Survey reports that the the birthplace of the world's weather and must be complication of small-scale maps by current monitored completely and repetitively before global
27 weather forecasting can become a reality (Figs. of the waves. Radar observations could be conducte 16 and 17). on a 24-hour, all-weather basis since radar can pen trate clouds and storms, and does not depend upon Biological productivity of plankton and fish is sunlight.. By measuring sea state, locating ice perhaps the most important oceanic resource. In areas, and mapping favorable currents, remote sens the years ahead, this resource must be monitored, ing can help to reroute ships at sea to reduce time__ conserved, and harvested with judgment. The at sea and improve efficiencies and profits. oceans absorb surplus carbon dioxide in the atmos- phere via phytoplankton which converts it to oxygen. Since the environment is a major resource, it The overload of industrially emitted carbon dioxide should be treated and managed as the essential life- may already have saturated the ocean' s capacity for support resource which it is. More often, the envi- conversion. ronment has been relegated to the role of dump for the residues left over from conventional resource If enotgh of these planktonic resources are extraction and consumption operations. These resi- killed or their vigor impaired by spreading oil slicks dues pollute both water and air. or pollution films, world climate might be adversely affected. Our capacity for generiting such slicks is Water is polluted by oil, runoff from farmlands increasing.If the Torrey Canyon tanker had been sprayed with chemical fertilizers and pesticides, ef- filled with herbicides instead of oil, all life in the fluent wastes, algae blooms fed by oversupplies of North Sea would have been destroyed. nutrients in organic wastes dumped into the water, and by heat. Many forms of water pollution can be The temperature outlines of ocean currents monitored by satellite. The advantage offered by and upwelling can be traced with infrared sensing. satellite sensing is that large areas of water or many Since there is a correlation between ocean tempera- small rivers or lakes, such as Minnesota's 10 000, ture and the location of large schools of fish, this can be monitored quickly, repetitively, and automati- type of data may prove valuable to the fishing indus- cally. Water polluted by contact with polluted air, by try.Satellite infrared imagery of the Gulf Stream the introduction of chemical fertilizers and pesti- has already confirmed the possibility of detecting cides, and the byproducts of domestic and industrial differences in water temperature from space and of wastes will continue to pose set ious problems. relating the temperature distributions to current patterns. Thermal mapping of ocean currents and Lake Erie, for example, receives 2.5 million sea ice, information vital to the future development tons of silt, sewage, and industrial intents such as of resources in Alaska and Northern Canada, his pickling acids from the steel mills and phosphate already been demonstrated. Surface temperature based detergents each year. The biochemical oxygen measurements help to identify locations of highest demand of this overload has exhausted the supply of plankton concentration, the prime source of food for dissolved oxygen and the lake is now biologically fish, suggesting preferred locations of the fish dead. Other lakes are going the same way. Algae population. infestations which turn fresh water into green, sludgy soup, have occurred in such sewage basins as Subtle gradations in ocean color which corre- Lake Washington, Seattle, and Lake Tahoe, Nevada. late with ocean flora may also indicate areas of high Steam generating and nuclear power plants heat large food content where fish are more likely to be found. volumes of water.Frequently, different pollutants Ocean color gradation in coastal areas may be used are mixed together in one body of water. to produce updated hydrographic charts for use by navigators. Under the action of tides and currents, To effectively monitor water pollution, a vari- bottom contours are always changing faster than ety of hydrological characteristics must be meas- 'charts can record them. Depth contours in the ured: surface temperature gradients in lakes and mouth of the Colorado River have been prepared streams, sedimentation dynamics, precipitation, from color separations of space photography. lake and reservoir levels, and tonal colors (Fig. 18).Differences in water color may correlate with The sea state has been measured in experi- chemistry and vegetation such as plankton bloom and ments conducted from aircraft.Radar can illumi- algae, thereby contributing to pollution studies. Pol- nate the ocean's surface. The reflected energy pro- luted water may be warmer than adjacent unpolluted duces different images corresponding to the height water and may be detected by infrared scanners.
28 Patterns of water flow are visible in aerial and The effects ofweather on human activities are space photography. By revealing flow features in- so important that a national meteorological service visible from the ground, such pictures can be used is one of the first functional organizations established to map and compute large-scale mixing patterns in in every developing country. And because weather bodies of water. Such patterns establish the basis systems do not recognize national boundaries, there for tracking and controlling pollutants. is a high degree of international cooperation in me- teorological activities, even between nations which Air pollution consists of toxic gases introduced are otherwise less-than-friendly. into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, particles such as fly ash, volcanic or radioactive dust, and aero- It is the large-scale nature of weather phenom- sols used to disseminate pesticides.Distribution is ena which has made the satellite such an important more or less worldwide. These toxic gases attack tool for meteorologists.Earth-orbiting satellites the lungs and crops; pesticides attack reproduction. are able to observe weather systems, regularly, Combustion products from industrial processes and over oceans, deserts, the Arctic and other regions operation of aircraft and automotive engines intro- which are otherwise inaccessible to long-term human duce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, lead com- observations. Since man' s ability to predict weather pounds, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.Suffi- (wind, rain, etc. ) is based on how well the initial cient quantities of these gases can alter'the chemi- state of the atmosphere is known, it follows that the cal composition of localized atmospheres. Chemi- large-scale observations available only from satel- cal changes alter the path through which sunlight lites should enhance the length and quality of weather falls to the-surface and is reflected up to spaceborne forecasts. The close relationship between predic- sensors. The altered nature of the reflected sun.. tions and atmospheric observations is shown in Fig- light may be the signature of such concentrations. ure 19, which relates the increase in our predictive The shape of this altered signal may also indicate ability to the observational tools which made the pre- the degree of toxicity. dictions possible.Electronic computers are included to indicate that the meteorologist's ability to assimi- Although local sources such as industrial late and understand great numbers of observations plants and cities can probably be monitored ade- has been greatly increased at a very propitious time quately with ground detectors or aircraft, large re- in meteorological history. gional distributions and cross-country movements of polluted air may best be monitored by satellites. Since Napoleon' s scientists first discovers:' the What was a local problem until recently is fast be- relationship between atmospheric pressure and the coming a regional problem. Now that Los Angeles weather, meteorologists have sought better tools for smog is appearing over Arizona, perhaps Japanese measuring the characteristics of the atmosphere. pollution, notoriously heavy, may carry to our West The meteorological satellite has provided an unprec- Coast, or east-coast pollution may carry to Europe. endented ability to observe the parameters on which .Here again, the quick, repetitive, large-scale pic- accurate weather predictions can be based, and now tures from satellites can supplement data gathered there is a strong hope for a predictive ability for 14 by aircraft and ground detectors. days or longer. The advantages to the general public far exceed the cost of the satellites and their related One of the most important long-range environ- Systems. These satellites initially took pictures of mental tasks for remote sensing is to monitor the clouds over the globe, and are now measuring the composition of the upper atmosphere worldwide. world's temperature distribution (at the surface and This thin film functions as a'two-way value.It pro- through the atmosphere to a height of more than tects life on earth by filtering solar energy, allowing 100 000 ft), snow distribution and ice distribution plus only enough to enter to nourish life.This filin-also cloud-height patterns over the whole world.In addition passes heat radiated by the earth to space. Other- they have provided a tremendous ability tp relay wise, the surface would heat up.Life exists and weather information between observers and users of thrives because this global thermostat has been bal- weather information between distant locations. anced for centuries. Now, however, since the indus- trial age has been converting fossil fuels to carbon In a more specialized application, satellites dioxide, evidence is accumulating that the environ- are proving invaluable in monitoring severe storms, mental balance is being altered by the changed com- such as hurricanes. In the past, hurricanes often position of the upper atmosphere. appeared on the horizon with little warning.Later,
29 expensive aircraft reconnaissance was used to patrol make precise measurements of the hurricane's, areas of frequent hurricane occurrence, but often movement and intensity. these patrols failed to locate storms which later caused great damage. With the advent of satellite observations came a capability to observe the hurri- Hurricane Beulah, located in the Caribbean a cane belts of the tropics on a daily basis, and today the time shown in Figure 20, was tracked by satelli the meteorologist is routinely aware of hurricane on a daily basis until landfall at the Rio Grande Dell activities. on September 20, 1967. Although this storm spawn' over a hundred tornadoes and caused severe floodint An example of satellite observations of hurri- damage and loss of life were minimized because of t canes and tropical storms on September 14, 1967, is advance warning provided to inhabitants of the area. shown in Figure 20. This composite view of global weather was prepared from data gathered by the Environmental Science Services Administration Besides providing information for use in hurri- (ESSA), a weather satellite operated by the De- cane advisories for the general public, satellites are partment of Commerce. Six hurricanes and two helping meteorologists understand the dynamics of tropical storms can be identified and with this iden- these storms. There is now more confidence in tification available it becomes possible to alertsur- man's ability to eventually dissipate these storms face installations and aircraft operators in order to before they become dangerous. TABLE 1. EARTH-ORIENTED APPLICATIONS
Communication and Navigation Earth Observations Point to Point Communication Agriculture and Forestry Information Networking Geology and Mineral Resources Broadcasting Hydrology and Water Resources Data Relay Geography, Cartography and Air Traffic Control Cultural Resources Aircraft Collision Avoidance Oceanography and Marine Resources Marine and Air Navigation Environmental Quality Meteorology and Weather Prediction
COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION SATELLITE EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITE
EARTH SYNCHRONOUS SUN SYNCHRONOUS
22 000 MILE ALTITUDE 500 MILE ALTITUDE
SAME PORTION OF EARTH EARTH HAS OONSTANT SUN ALWAYS IN VIEW ANGLE WITH RESPECT TO SATELLITE VIEW
Figure 1.Earth-oriented application satellite.
30 240 TO 1200 3000 TO 9000 35,000 TO 285,000 CHANNELS CHANNELS CHANNELS
INTELSAT', II, III Ig V VI 7 1965-70 1971 1976 SATELLITE YEAR Figure 2.Point-to-point communication satellites.
VOICE CHANNELS (Or Half-Circuits) 40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
1165 111 611 70 72 74 74 79 SO
Figure 3.Projected growth of INTELSAT traffic.
.31 SATELLITE ...... ' 'DISTRIUTION ,4''at., ii . ;air:' ir =--z .- NETWORK MInlill DOCTORS OFFICE RURAL HOSPITAL
MAJOR HOSITAL CLINK (TEACHING) Figure 4. Conceptual medical and health information network.
REGIONS OR TV COUNTRIES STATION
Figure 5.Direct broadcast television.
32 .wt."72 ,
Figure 6.Educational broadcast television to India.
DATA RELAY SATELLITE
BALLOON
PROCESSING STATION
PLATFORMS 110UYS SHIPS
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL, COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND NAVIGATION
N. AMERICA EUROPE
Figure 7.Satel:ite systems for data relay and navigation.
33 411LCAda
'e4
. v$,r
Figure 8.False-color photograph of Salton Sea (Apollo IX, March 1969) showing healthy vegetation in the Imperial Valley farmlands as red objects.
Land use planning
Crop irrigation
Regional development
Crop yield
Grazing range . management
Figure 9. Apollo IX photograph of Salton Sea area used for construction of agricultural land-usemap.
34 Geology & Mineral , . :..
Figure 10. Apollo X photograph of Baja Peninsula area of California. I 'Pt
Geologic mapping
Geothermal & volcanic observation
Fault & playa location
Figure 11.Photo interpretation showing faults, lineaments, and playas.
35 Hydrology & Water
rIt' tr, iPv % r ' ..,,, ..'4 "4. 4$, .*.- i .
,...1. 11
..
...... -1
L.,441Pk--.1
Figure 12.ATS4IIphotograph of California Sierras showing clouds and snow. It- 4 1 4
Surface water mapping '
Watercourse location
Drainage patterns
Flood monitoring & prediction at
Figure 13. Map showing snow coverage, generated by ESSA from NASA photograph. GeograPhy, CartograPhY
& Cultural - `-
Figure 14. Apollo VII photograph of southern California showing smog plumes over the Los Angeles region.
am1111111ma..-2 Air pollution monitoring a
Urban development
Map updating
Figure 15. Multispectral photograph for pollution detection.
37 Oceanology & Marine
`tLK.114
Figure 16. Apollo IX photograph of West Florida keys in natural color.
Updated hydrographic charts
Location of shipping- hazards
Location of fish feeding areas
Monitoring of shoals and sandbanks
Figure 17.Interpretation of Figure 16 by NASA/Navoceano showing relative water depth to 10 fathoms in false color.
38 fitA.Mtler at... "' 1/4 - ---r im $
Figure 18. Thermal pollution monitoring.
Z
soo Ins I1,30 11,7S :00C
Figure 19.Progress in prediction of weather events.
4
Figure 20. ESSA V tracks eight major storms on September 14, 1967.
4140 SKYLAB
By George V. Butler Program Manager, Skylab Advanced Systems McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company
Introduction in much the same manner as on the Apollo program where they docked and undocked with the lunar In the next few days you are going to be over- landing vehicle. whelmed with statistics on the myriad of past,pres- ent, and future benefits that mankind can expect The Multiple Adapter (Fig. 3) provides as from operations outside the earth's atmosphere. its name implies the docking port for the Command These benefits are real and offer, in my opinion, and Service Module. In addition, ilhouses thecon- the only hope mankind has to perpetuate a habitable trol and display panels for the solar and earth re- earth environment. sources experiments, which I will discuss later.
The previous speaker described unmanned data- The windmill-like apparatus on top of the cluster gathering orbital systems and, I am sure, im- is one of the main experiments on Skylab. This tele- pressed you with the results to date and the poten- scope mount with its solar array panels is a solar tial yet to be exploited. observatory that will give solar physicists a look at the sun's activity free from the distortion caused by In my portion of this program I will describe the earth's atmosphere. Figure 4 shows a more how Skylab will operate, collecting data and using detailed view. While Skylab is photographing the sun .,man's indispensable capability to observe, evaluate, from space, scientists here on earth will use ground- make judgments, and adapt to changing situations: based telescopes to photograph the same areas of- the sun for comparison of data. I used the term exploitation a moment ago and want to emphasize that the space program is rapidly The Airlock Module (Fig. 5) is the "nerve being transformed from basic experiments and center" of the cluster. It serves as the Control and explorations to useful operational exploitation. A Distribution Center for all the electricity, the oxy- major factor in achieving the necessar7 knowledge gen and nitrogen that the astronauts breathe, and to solve mankind's problems will 1 -.444 addition of the equipment for two-way voice communications trained scientists, doctors, and engineers as future between the Skylab and the ground control stations. orbiting working astronauts. The Airlock Module is equipped with a window or hatch from which the astronauts can exit the space- Skylab will be our country's first step in pro- craft and walk along a ladder to load and retrieve viding a long-term manned orbital capability. film used in the solar telescope cameras.
The largest section of the Skylab cluster is the What Exactly Is Skylab? Orbital Workshop (Fig. 6) with space equivalent to a small three-bedroom house. This 10 000 ft3 two- Skylab is an experimental space station, de- story laboratory has been converted from the hydro- signed to provide a comfortable shirtsleeve environ- gen tank of the third stage of the Saturn V rocket. ment for a three-man crew for periods of up to 56 It will serve as the primary living quarters and ex- days in earth orbit.Figure 1 shows the Skylab . periment operations area. The old cramped quarters "Cluster" as it will appear circling the earth. I and physical constraints associated with Gemini, will give you a brief description of the various ele- Mercury, and Apollo will be a thing of the past. In- ments that make up the cluster. Total design life dividual rooms are provided for recreaticon,_eating, of the cluster is 8 months, encompassing three bathroom-lavatory facilities, and sleeping. A home- separate maimed visits. type toilet will be particularly appreciated by the astronauts and will remove what has been one of the Figure 2 shows the Command and Service Mod- most irritating aspects of space travel. A shower ule.It is the ferry vehicle or "taxi," if you will, that can be used in weightless space has been devel- that takes the crew to and from the workshop. The oped to be used onboard Skylab. A special interest astronauts will dock their spaceship to the Skylab to the ladies in the audience is the large amount of
4i closet space available for storing food, water, cloth- oxygen needed for the entire mission. On the follow- ing, trash bags, personal items, and various ex- ing day, after key systems have been turned on and periment equipment. The goal has been to create working, the first three-man crew will ride into a very pleasant environment with many of the com- space aboard an Apollo Command and Service Module forts of home. launched by the smaller Saturn IB vehicle. They will rendezvous with the Skylab cluster, transfer There are some aspects of living in space that inside, and complete activation of all the systems. are unique and quite unusual to any that we find here This first crew will spend 28 days in the workshop on earth. For instance, in the weightlessness of area conducting a wide range of medical, scientific, space, there is no up or down one may float and technical experiments. At the end of the mis- around freely so freely that: sion, the crew will return to the earth with an ocean landing and recovery, just like the Apollo lunar mis- The astronauts will have to use "holddowns" sions. Some 2 months later the three-man to stay in position while eating at the dining room crew will visit the workshop for a 56-day period. table, using the bathroom, and even while sleeping After their return, and about a month later, the (Fig. 7). third three-man crew will visit the Skylab for an additional 56-day period.In all there will be a total The normal commode found on the floor in of 140 manned days during the 8-month period. most bathrooms will be located, as shown in Figure 8, on the side of the wall in Skylab for better utiliza- tion of available space. What Is the Skylab for?
The bunks or sleeping restraints (Fig. 9) I have briefly told you what the Skylab is and have also been placed on the wall, with the astro- how we plan to place it into orbit. Now we get to nauts sleeping in a vertical position. These bag-type the real heart of the program what the Skylab is restraints merely keep the men from floating around for. while sleeping. Although the Skylab program has several ob- Food will come prepackaged and placed on jectives, they fall into two major categories. The trays which are plugged into electrical outlets on the first is centered around man's spaceflight capa- dining table for heating (Fig. 10). Menus will be bilities over extended periods of time, so we will very earthlike. study and carefully monitor the astronauts. This will involve an assessment of man's operational The trash and waste material will be collected capabilities as well as extensive biomedical experi- anci placed into a large tank below the first floor by ments to determine the effect of long-term space means of a special trap door located in the middle of activities on the human body (Fig. 15). The second the floor, as shown in Figure 11. major category is to conduct scientific experiments in which we will monitor and study the sun, the The shower mentioned earlier is shown in earth, and celestial space. Figure 12.It works on a suction principle drawing water over the body and into a tank. In all,-there are more than 50 experiments on- board to accomplish the many and various objec- The main work area is located on the second tives, with about one-third of them devoted to study- floor above the astronaut's living compartment ing the biological effects of prolonged weightlessness (Fig. 13). To get to it, the weightless astronauts on man. The astronauts will exercise regularly on simply will float upstairs, using a fireman's pole a stationary bicycle as their physiological changes for a guide rail. are carefully monitored. A reclining chair will whirl them around to determine their sensitivity to motion sickness. Urine samples will be collected When Will Skylab Be Put in Orbit? and frozen daily for later analysis on earth to de- termine possible mineral losses from the bones. A The Skylab is scheduled to be launched into a klevice will be used to check out the cardiovascular 270-mile orbit above the earth in 1973. A program system with measurements of the heart rate, tem- mission profile is shown in Figure 14. The Skylab perature, and blood pressure being taken. will be launched unmanned on a two-stage Saturn V rocket the same as used on the Apollo Program. The important experiments for producing near- The spacecraft will contain all the food, water, and term benefits for man here on earth are the earth
42 resources experiments (Fig. 16). Skylab has a of future power systems. The astronauts will be number of sensors that are designed to record able to select targets of scientific interest and detailed information about our earth not just from actually point the telescopes. They will control a scientific standpoint, but from a very practical and monitor the experiment operations in acquiring standpoint. These sensors, for example, were the data, including retrieval of the film (Fig. 19). chosen to detect specific information on types of soil and vegetation, crop vigor, and surface water There are a number of other interesting experi- conditions. From these data, inventories can be ments on Skylab: made of our natural and cultural resources. Skylab will collect and return more of this information A small experimental space "manufacturing" than any other space program to date, adding great- facility is provided where the astronauts will do ly to the data expected from the unmanned Earth some casting and welding of dissimilar metals (Fig. Resources Satellite (ERTS-A) to be launched by 20). The absence of gravity and the high vacuum of NASA in 1972. space may provide a boon to certain manufacturing processes. Also, some technical or engineering NASA recently put out an announcement to sev- tests will be made on various protective coatings, eral thousand potential users of the data that will effects of contamination on parts of the Skylab from be collected by Skylab. There were 701 proposals its own discharges, and space repair techniques. received from scientists, engineers, city planners, etc. They wanted information to solve practical, Small semiconductor crystals used today in everyday problems such as city-growth planning, or electronics will be carried aloft (Fig. 21) to see if estimating the 'snowfall during a winter season over they grow better in space.If we can grow large the Rocky Mountains. The National Geological Sur- crystals without built-in thermal or mechanical vey Water Resources Division says that if they can stresses, we will be able to build more reliable tell the amount of snow 1 percent better than they electronic equipment. This could result in better are now able to which is by tramping through color television sets for you and me. the woods and pounding a rod in the snow and saying, "it's six feet deep" If they can do this from Skylab We are also looking at the possibility of 1 percent better, then the information is worth $10 developing methods for producing vaccines for the million a year to them in managing water and elec- medical community as one of the things that can be trical power operations. This is just one of many done more effectively in the zero gravity of space interesting and useful things that will be done with than we can do here on earth. Skylab (Fig. 17). A general objective of our Government's As you might expect, in the 701 responses there space program is to provide a platform for greater were a few that turned out to be a little silly. One international cooperation and we do have, on Skylab, man, for example, requested a census of all of the a French experiment containing an ultraviolet cam- black pepper in the world. He had a theory that era that will scan the heavens for new scientific black pepper was the source of all evil.Since he information on the stars (Fig. 22). A second Sky- was from California, as I am, I have been intending lab, if authorized, would be expected to have great- to look him up to get a few more details on his er participation by many more foreign countries. theory since I always thought it was women and booze. Special interest to the younger generation is the plan NASA has set up to stimulate interest in What may turn out to have the greatest long-term science and technology by directly involving high benefits on Skylab are the solar experiments. Eight school students in space research (Fig. 23).Infor- major solar instruments will constantly measure the mation on Skylab has been sent to high schools sun in the extreme ultraviolet and X-ray portions of throughout the country. A selection and awards proc- the electromagnetic spectrum and will record data ess has been devised to reduce. the total potential as to the sun's activities (Fig. 18). We study the proposals to the final six which will actually be sun because it is the main source of energy that we flown on Skylab (Fig. 24). Certain specifications have on earth, and we know very little about it.It (Fig. 25) have been established regarding size, is a complex thermonuclear reactor that we can weight, and astronaut time requirements, as well observe and treat as a laboratory to unlock the real as criteria that will assure that the student's experi- secrets of nuclear 'processes: so that those proc- ment is compatible with Skylab and will not affect esses can be applied here on earth for development the launch schedule. Money has been authorized
43 to complete the selection process and to finance the A last closing thought about costs: our Federal development and integration of the six selected ex- Government is now spending 42 cents out of every periments into the Skylab spacecraft. tax dollar on human resources and about 1 cent for t Space Program I am confident that by the end of This concludes the basic overview of Skylab. this conference you will be as positive as I am that I might emphasize that while Skylab is experimental the taxpayer is getting more than his money's worth in nature, it is expected to lead to operational sys- from the 1 cent spent on space programs such as tems that will provide a better understanding of the Skylab. distribution and abundance of earth resources, the solar processes which will affect terrestrial weather and climate, and control of our environment. We Will There Be a Second Skylab? can all expect to benefit from improved long-term management of the crucial earth resources required to keep the environment here on earth viable for This depends on many things timing, cost, mankind now and in the future. solid requirements for data, and the capability of our astronauts to perform meaningful tasks over What Will Skylab Cost? extended periods of time.If past experience is any guide, we can be sure that information gained from Even though Skylab will cost about $ 2.5 billion, Skylab-A-Willproduce a deluge of requests for addi- it will be spent over a 7-year period. Comparisons tional information and new experiments. are dangerous and can be misleading, but I might compare this to a recent announcement in the agri- You will be interested to know that the present cultural area that the U.S. is prepared to spend Skylab program does contain a complete backup set $2.0 billion in 1972 alone to reduce the output of hardware. This backup Skylab will be shipped to of livestock feed grain. I would submit that the the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and readied thousands of jobs created by the-Skylab program for final acceptance and launch while Skylab-A is over a 7-year period, plus the environmental and performing its mission. other direct research benefits we will obtain from its operations, make a very positive argument for the Yes, there could be a second Skylab using the dollars expended. Placed in perspective the $2.5 backup hardware and which would produce at least billion does not seem so large. Even Snoopy bene- as much meaningful information as Skylab-A and fits (Fig. 26). for roughly 25 percent of the cost of the first Skylab.
Figure 1.Skylab cluster.
44
Figure 6. Orbital workshop.
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Figure 10. Dining area.
48
Figure 13. Main work area.
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Figure 14.Program mission profile.
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Figure 16. Skylab - Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP).
51 NOW THAT wE'VE CNEcAcfrprwor. /SNOW LEVEL AT ASPEN, LET'S 1, "4E7 A 91A/NI covvrAT MIAMI FriCht) %. %No..
Figure 17. One of Skylab's many uses.
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52 Figure 19. Film retrieval.
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Figure 20. Materials processing in space facility (Skylab experiment M512).
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Figure 21. Materials processing inspace - single crystals growth task (Skylab experiment M512).
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54 -71 PROGRAM OBJECTIVE
STIMULATE INTEREST I N SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY BY DIRECTLY I NVOLV I NG
STUDENTS IN SPACE RESEARCH Figure 23. Program objectives.
f L2A;CIACIVA 23.1,1972
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Figure 24. Skylab student program sequence of major events.
(Approved by Administrator)
SIX EXPERIMENTS
TOTAL LAUNCH STOWAGE SPACE 1 CUBIC FOOT
TOTAL WEIGHT 35 CBS
TOTAL CREW TIME 1-112 MAN-HOURS PER WEEK
CRITERIA FOR EXPERIMENT EQUIPMENT ESTABLISHED
COMPATIBILITY
PROGRAM IMPACT
COST ESTABLISHED
SELECTION PHASE - 65K
DEVELOPMENT & INTEGRATION -200K Figure 25. Major features.
55 elCh'a C.VGLc17i AVA: r0 4,417 ) felt wATEA?,
e", e Figure 26. One of Skylab's benefits. THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE ON SPACE BENEFITS TO MANKIND By Ivan Rattinger Department Program Manager, Space Shuttle Division Convair Aerospace Division General Dynamics Corporation ,...., Introduction 1.Escape, which includes the lunar and plane- tary areas; that area beyond the influence of the The Space Age may be divided into three general earth' s gravitational field. decades: 2.Synchronous is that altittide_4-which a satel- The sixties, during which the initial steps of lite will remain above a fixed poinfbn the earth. space exploration were undertaken. 3.Near-earth is a region below the inner Van The seventies, when it can be anticipated that Allen belt ( 500 n. mi.).This area is generally the successful explorations of the preceding further limited to about 80 to 270 n. mi., the former decade will be developed into practical appli- established by premature orbit decay, the latter by cations. excessive performance requirements. The eighties, when developed capabilities will Typical payload types and their relative status be put to extensive use. are also shown for each space area. The benefits to mankind are beginning to appear Near-earth missions are directly supported by in ever-increasing amounts (Fig. 1): the Shuttle.Operational areas for both the Space Shuttle and Tug are noted on the accompanying chart. During the sixties, these benefits generally Synchronous and escape missions require both a took the form of space technology applied to Shuttle and a Tug: the former to place the Tug and uses on earth; e.g. , materials, electronic payload in near-earth orbit, the latter to transfer components, computers. the payload to the final orbit. During the current decade, these benefits will Space Mission Characteristics. Figure 3 indi- increase to include systems operating from cates the weight of payloads placed in near-earth space; e.g. , weather prediction, communican ( 80 to 270 n. mi.) orbit and into synchronous and tions. ,...... 1...... { escape orbits. For the latter payloads, an appropri- During the next decade, these benefits will ate stage (Tug) is required for transfer from near- further increase because of new applications earth orbit to the final payload destination. Typical (e.g., earth resources and navigation) and weights for this stage are also shown. When stage the ability to conduct more space operations weight is added to that of the payload, an equivalent (for a fixed budget) through the reduced costs weight to near-earth orbit can be determined. These of both transportation and payloads arising results are noted in the last graph and form th- from development of the Space Shuttle. basis for the Space Shuttle payload requirements. The difference in Shuttle performance required for This discussion will concentrate on Shuttle- the two missions is accommodated by the variation induced benefits. in the launch azimuth required to support each mis- sion. Synchronous and escape missions are general- Near-Earth Space. Space can be conveniently ly launched in an easterly direction and are thereby divided into three areas (Fig. 2): aided by the earth' s rotation. 57 Thus, a Shuttle with the ability to launch40 000 - in the orbiter, the orbiter is mated lb payloads, in support of near-earth with the booster, missions, and and the mated system is made 65 000-lb payloads, in support of operationally ready synchronous/escape and transported to the launcharea for a new missions, will have the capabilityto capture the fore- mission. cast average of 30 near-earth and 20 synchronous/ escape missions per year. This sequence of events is describedin more detail in the following pages, starting Current United States Space Launch with. servicing Systems the vehicle in the Maintenance and Refurbishment Inventory. The current U.S. inventoryof space (M&R) facility. launch systems accommodatesa wide range of pay- load weights to near-earth orbit,increasing ( Fig. 4, from left to right) from about 300 lb Space Shuttle Vehicles in M &R Facility.The for the Scout to booster and orbiter are shown in Figure 7 during about 250 000 lb for the Saturn V.With the continu- ing reduction in the number of payloads maintenance operations within the M&R facility, launched which provides a protected environment for each year, maintaining thisextensive inventory is perform.. becoming increasingly inefficient. ing turnaround maintenance, premating, anderection tasks. M&R includes the area for matingand erect- ing the vehicles. Scheduled (time- Future Space Launch System Inventory. or event- Devel- oriented) maintenance will be minimized,and opment of the Space Shuttle inaccordance with the ca- airline-type condition monitoring techniqueswill be pabilities previously described wouldallow the U.S. space launch system inventory to consist maximized to provide the rapid, reliable turnaround of only the cycle required by the Space Shuttleprogram. Scout vehicle and the Shuttle (Fig. 5).This inventory retains the capabilities of the current space launch Erection, Checkout, and Preflight Handling system fleet and, in addition, affordsthe following desirable characteristics: Sequence. Upon completion of turnaroundmainte- nance activities in the M& R area, the booster and orbiter are ready for mating activities and subse- Economic for both low and high launch rates quent prelaunch activities. These activitiesaccount New modes of operation, for approximately 70 percent of the groundturn.. resulting in the around elapsed time. Of this period, erecting, potential for significant payload costreduc- tions mating, transporting, and connection to the launch pad require approximately 80 percent of time. A high degree of standardization, Establishment of a minimum time interval ofthe leading to vehicle on the launch pad is governed by: reduced costs for payloadintegration, flight operations, and personnel support. Rescue contingencies Mission Profile Accomplishment of the high rate of operation- al launches with existing facilities. Significant elements of the Space Shuttle mission The vehicle and support equipment design (plus profile are ground operations, launch,and staging of the the two Shuttle vehicles (Fig. 6). planned sequence of operations) will contributeto the achievement of a minimum on-stand time forthe vehicle. After staging, the first stage (booster)returns to the launch area, while the secondstage (orbiter) attains the prescribed insertion orbit aftera series Vehicle Erection and Mating in theHigh Bay. of orbital maneuvers. The orbiterthen delivers and/ Erection and mating operationsare accomplished in or retrieves its payload, enters the atmosphere, the existing high-bay area of the VerticalAssembly Building: acquires the landing site, and completesthe approach and landing. Safing operations are comp' ted The booster is hoisted first, and installedon on each stage the mobile launcher with the upper surface of at the landing area, preparatory to theturnaround cycle ground operations. the booster facing away from the launcher After payload installation umbilical tow : 58 The orbiter is then hoisted and placed on the Mated Shuttle Vehicle During Boost.Loads in- upper surface of the booster. duced during mated flight will be reduced through the use of a load-relief flight control program. Under This orientation and sequence of operations will allow , normal conditions, flight crew tasks are of a moni- booster erection in advance of the orbiter and provide toring nature during this phase of flight.The mated better clearance for the mating operation. These Shuttle vehicle follows a preprogrammed flight path. aspects promote flexible scheduling and rapid mating Safe abort and landing are.possible, if required, operations. during this phase of the flight. Vehicle Transport to Launch Pad. The Space Shut- Space Shuttle at Staging.The booster and the tle is mated on the mobile launcher, and moved to the orbiter are shown in Figure 9 at staging, with the launch pad on the existing crawler-transporter. The orbiter continuing on its mission and the booster crawler-transporter engages the mobile launcher in preparing to descend. The separation sequence is the Vertical Assembly Building, moves the launcher initiated by appropriate sensors monitoring booster to the launch-pad, and then disengages from the propellact levels. To separate the vehicles, com- launcher. The transport task will require approxi- bined booster and orbiter thrust is employed through mately 10 hours. a mechanical leverage system. This transportation method was selected after The orbiter will continuet_under thrust, to its studying various other horizontal and vertical tech- defhled orbit, while the booster will initiate a turning niques. The selected method allows use of existing descent for return to the launch base ( Fig. 10).The equipment that will support the turnaround require- booster will enter the atmosphere in an entry mode ments and significantly reduce program cost. that will attain a maximum of 4 g for a short time. iN,Illue Terminal Countdown. As currently planned, the This concept of separation was selected after terminal countdown is a brief evaluation of the active a Study of several methods, because it provides ex- functional paths required for the mission. The prime cellent separation characteristics at normal staging, control will be onboard, with ground personnel pro- as well as rapid separation any time during mated viding expertise as may be required. A minimum flight. number of monitor consoles and positions will be used.These measures reflect a marked contrast to Booster During Cruiseback to Launch Site. the large numbers of support personnel and long Following separation from the orbiter and atmos- countdown times required for present manned launch pheric entry, the booster uses its airbreathing vehicles. engines to cruise back to the launch site at an alti- tude of approximately 10 000 ft ( Fig. 11) .Federal Board Personnel.It will be possible to enjoy Aviation Administration (FAA) contact and control great freedom of movement in the "shirtsleeve" en- are anticipated for the flyback operation.Takeoff vironment of the passenger/crew compartment.In and cruise capability also enables the booster to this environment, bulky spacesuit equipment, with make normal cross-country ferry flights. its complex connections, is eliminated, Because the crew is not encumbered by this equipment, a rapid boarding (or deboarding) process is possible Booster at Landing. The booster will return to with simplified closeup tasks. the runway at the launch site approximately 2 hours af- ter launch (Fig. 12) .Landing is similar to that of Mated Shuttle Vehicle at Liftoff.The Shuttle a conventional jet aircraft.After landing rollout, vehicle, with main engines ignited, is shown at about the booster will taxi to the safing area.Selection the time of liftoff from the pad in Figure 8.After of the launch site as the primary return site for the liftoff, the vehicle will rise vertically to a point ap- booster permits sharing facilities. proximately 100 ft above the launcher umbilical tower. At this point, first the roll then pitch programs will Should an alternative landing site be required be initiated to achieve the desired trajectory. The because of an abort or to maximize performance guidance system will be an autonomous onboard capability, any conventional 10 000-ft runway, with system. standard landing aids, will serve as a landing site. 59 Booster in the Safing Area.After taxi fromthe The ability to provide service to payloads and/ runway arca, the booster will be made safe for sub- or personnel on orbit extends the previously noted sequent operations (Fig. 13). Any residual main capability to the space environment ( Fig. 19). engine, power system, or attitude control propulsion Space rescue is one such extended capability; anoth- system propellimts and resulting evaporated gases er is economical Space Shuttle Station logistic will be drained and purged to an inert level so that resupply. turnaround maintenance can be accomplished in a nonrestricted, nonexplosive environment in the main- System reusability (Fig. 20) affords both low tenance building. recurring transportation costs and the ability to amortize Shuttle development costs within the opera- Orbiter Unloading Payload at Space Station. tional life of the program. Additional capabilities During this mission phase, the orbiter is the active include: element in transferring the payload. Orbit maneu- vering is provided by the orbiter maneuvering system. The orbiter cargo-handling and stabilization control Development of earth-oriented equipment -will be easily accomplished. After the Space Station/ through sortie mode flights orbiter combination is configured and stabilized, cooperative procedures will be implemented for Reduction in losses due to abort or satellite cargo transfer activities (Fig. 14). failure Orbiter During Entry. Orbiter entry (Fig. 15) On-orbit scientist participation. will be accomplished at a velocity significantly higher r-i than that of the booster, thereby requiring a ther- mal protection system that will survive extreme en- try heating. Entry will normally be accomplished Cost Effectiveness in the vicinity of the landing site which, for nominal conditions, will be the launch site. Reducing the Cost of Space Operations.The The orbiter thermal protection system is designed Space Shuttle has a design goal of reducing by an to provide the capability for 1100 n. mi. of aero- order of magnitude the cost of transporting payloads, dynamic crossrange. both manned and unmanned, to low earth orbit. Even greater reductions are possible in placing satellites Orbiter at Landing.Landing characteristics of into synchronous and other high-energy orbits. the orbiter are comparable to current high- These goals can be achieved with the Shuttle vehicle currently defined (Fig. 21). performance aircraft (Fig. 16).Unlike the booster, the orbiter is cal able of landing either with or with- out airbreathing engines.Consequently, use of air- Additional savings are also possible because of breathing engines will be dictated by mission require- the manner in which the Shuttle operates. The intact ments that, in turn, will depend upon payload weight, abort capability (separate and safe recovery of both landing site, ferry requirements, etc. orbiter and booster after malfunction), for example, provided by the Shuttle will further reduce the cost of payload losses because of launch vehicle failures Upon completion of the landing phase, the orbiter undergoes a safing procedure similar to that conduct- will no longer be experienced. Also, the ability to ed upon the booster vehicle. return payloads should reduce "infant mortality" losses to essentially the cost of a second Shuttle launch. Payload design may take further advantage Capabilities of this ability to allow periodic refurbishment or upgrading of failed or obsolescent payloads. Apportionment of stage sizes to the two-stage launch vehicles (Fig. 17) permits satisfaction of a The value of diagnostic study of prematurely variety of missions in the most cost-effective manner. failed space payloads should not only preventrecur- rence of such failured, but should afford the payload The ability to transport or retrieve a variety of designer a better understanding of operational mar- orbital payloads affords the flexibility to support all gins of safety.Finally, the ability to guarantee anticipated space applications with the same basic placement of time-critical payloads has a significant launch vehicle (Fig. 18). but difficult to quantify value. 60 The benign environment of the Shuttle cargo bay reference of the Space Shuttle, there need be no de- (e.g., low g-loads, an absence of shock loads induced pendent commitment to develop any of these other by pyrotechnics, and the ability to continuously systems; however, their development could be a support the payload along its length) will result in natural follow-on to the basic .Shuttle program. Ac- substantial reductions in the cost of payload design, cordingly, it is at the discretion of the President and development, qualification, and production. Such Congress when and if these activities are initiated. features, coupled with relaxed payload weight and But the ability to incorporate them into an orderly volume restrictions (for all but the most demanding development is available so long as the Shuttle vehi- payloads), should make it possible to design pay- cle is present.' loads in a more economic manner. The ability to perform experiments in space in Impact Upon Technological Superiority an economic manner is yet another Shuttle-derived benefit.To date, many desirable-experiments have Current Space Program.Principal features of been defined, but their implementation has been im- the current space program (Fig. 25) are, briefly: peded by the high cost of transporting the payload to orbit, the cost of man-rating the. launch vehicle for 1. A reduction in funding from the peak achieved manned payloads, or the cost of fabricating the pay-. in the late sixties load itself.In each area, the Shuttle offers signifi- cant benefits.It requires no additional man-rating, 2. An accelerating-reduction in employment since the orbiter element of the Shuttle may be used featuring: as the experiment base for periods up to 30 days. Thus, the need to develop a specific payload vehicle a. Declining numbers of scientists/engi- can, in many cases, be restricted to the development neers employed of experiment-peculiar instrumentation.Indeed, be- cause of the Shuttle environment and the availability, b.Those who leave do not wi2its to return if desired, of supporting technicians on orbit, many space experiments may be conducted with laboratory- c.Rapid "aging" of engineers and scientists quality equipment rather than the more costly space employed in the aerospace industry qualified equipment. Space Shuttle: Fundamental to Future Space d.Declining numbers of engineers and Development Activities - I.As currently conceived, scientists enrolled in universities the Shuttle is the keystone to future space develop- ment activities.In addition to the payload implica- e.Disenchantment of young people with tions previously noted, the Space Station (Fig. 22)., technology and aerospace. Space Tug (Fig. 23), and Research & Applications Modules (RAM) (Fig. 24) defend upon the Shuttle for 3.Reduction in the annual launch rate and transport to orbit, support while in orbit, and, when pounds of payload placed in orbit from the peak appropriate, return to earth. The ability to incorpo- achieved in the late sixties rate these programs, in an orderly development, de- pends on the Space Shuttle. 4.Essentially, completion of technological ad- vances arising from the current space program. In view of the sequential dependency of the other (Note, this does not mean completion of such advanb- advanced space program elements, the Shuttle is, in es to new products and/or the "reduction to prac- effect, the only viable early program start.Indeed, tice" of such advances.) much of current space program planning is predicated upon early development of the Space Shuttle; e.g., Without a reversal of these trends, the U.S. future Space Stations are based on extended orbital may be compromising its ability to meet future stay times for both technical and economic reasons, and such stay times are practical only with economic national goals. logistic resupply. National Goals. A persuasive argument can be Space Shuttle: Fundamental to Future Space made that an early Space Shuttle contract go-ahead Development Activities - II.From the frame of is a reasonable and prudent step that would contribute significantly to attainment of those national goals a.Education consistent with their abilities that almost everyone considers to be fundamental to a healthy and vigorous national posture. b.Gainful employment As a democratic and dynamic society, we in the c.Security from poverty U.S. have many and changing national goals. Al- though there is wide disagreement as to relative pri- d.High-quality medical care orities among the various national goals, almost everyone will agree that three are very high on any e.Recreational and cultural opportunities. rational priority list ( Fig. 26): 2.Reduction in crime 1.Maintenance of National Security Our na- tional security forces must have two basic character- 3.Control of environmental pollution istics: 4.Relief from the congestion and frustrations a.Quality essentially equal to, or superior that plague both our urban communities and our to, the forces being countered. urban commuters (Fig. 26). b.Timely deployment consistent with the attainment of substantial operational capability by Expanding technological capability does not, in the forces being countered. (Too little [in quality' itself, ensure that these critical problems will be or too late [ in deployment) is not acceptable. Main- resolved. These problems can be resolved only by tenance of national security is contingent upon the a combination of a national commitment to resolve ability [not necessarily the act) to deploy quickly them, coupled with the technological innovations quality weapon systems which, in turn, requires required to resolve them, which can flow only from maintenance of a superior technological capability.) an expanding technological capability. 2. Improvement of Economic Vitalitkc In a Requirement for Technological Superiority. highly industrialized society, such as ours, the cre- It seems plain that nourishment of our technological ation of new job opportunities is heavily dependent on base to ensure an expanding technological capability the application of the fruits of a continuously expand.. is essential to the achievement of such high-priority ing technological base to develop new products. Ex- national goals as national security, improved eco- panding technological capability is thus a prerequi- nomic vitality, and enhancement of our quality of site to the creation of the job opportunities that are life ( Fig. 27).It follows, therefore, that commit- essential to maintaining and improving economic ment of resources to programs that focus around the security.If the nation is to improve its economic sustenance and enrichment of our technological base vitality, it must maintain a favorable balance of trade is not, as some argue, "Counter-productive to the in the face of increasing competition from nations with new ranking of national priorities," but rather is rapidly expanding industrial. and technological capa- mandatory if the desired national goals are to be bilities.Over the long term, this can be achieved attained. Thus, the maintenance of technological only if technological superiority is maintained. superiority should have high national priority, re- gardless of the current reevaluation of the rankings 3. Enhancement of the "Quality of Life." of natural goals. Technological superiority is a vita! prerequisite to the attainment of almost alt-4 Enhancement of the "Quality of Life." If we are national goals. secure, and it our economy operates efficiently, the diversity of technological innovations that flow from Elements of Technical Superiority.Technical maintenance of technological superiority will regular- superiority is achievable through the complex and ly continue to enhance our quality of life.In advanc- interrelated working of four categories of activities ing the quality of life, our nation must cope with many ( Fig. 27) : problems, among them: lt,Rroviding opportunities for all citizens to 1.Conducting exploratory research in the inter- obtain: est of advancing technical superiority 62 2.Developing and "reducing to practice" state- This combination of essentially a zero inflow of-the-art technology and a disproportionately high outflow of young engi- neers and scientists has resulted in the unfavorable 3. Improving and extending present technical- trend that the average age of engineers and scien- skills tists employed in the aerospace industry is increas- ing by more than 1 year per calendar year. 4. Sharpening and refurbishing applied techni- cal tools. The lack of opportunity, coupled with the disen- chantment of young people with technology and. in The end products of the beneficial coordination of particular, with the aerospace industry, has resulted these activities are the hardware, processess, tools, in another unfavorable trend reduction in science and skills that comprise "Technical Superiority." and engineering and enrollment in our colleges and universities, even as total enrollment continues to Maintenance of Technological Superiority. Main- increase. Enrollment of full-time students in engi- taining technological superiority depends upon the neering schools, for instance, decreased by 9500 continuing health of five distinct but related areas during 1969 and 1970, and master's degree candidates (Fig. 28): have decreased by 18 percent since 1968.All signs indicate that the production of scientists and engi- 1.Basic research across a broad front neers in the Soviet Union is continuing to increase. 2.Applied research in selected areas A large proportion of scientists and engineers who have left the aerospace field has been irrevers- 3. "New blood" in the form of young scientists ibly lost.It has been our experience that the major- and engineers ity of such engineers will not consider rehire (even if offered large salary increases), because they seek 4.Major, technically challenging development more certain futures in stable fields that are free of programs of 'national scope political'reevaluation. There is a sense of anxiety about working in a career area that is strongly im- 5.Multidisciplinary management/scientific/ pacted by public whim or by a new-found popular dis- engineering/production teams that integrate and mo- favor with technology. tivate government, university, and industrial organi- zations. Aerospace industry engineering and scientific employment has declined from a peak of 223 000 in 1963, to a current level of 175 000, and the slope Justifications for the first two areas will not be is still depressingly steep downward. The projec- repeated here, since they are familiar and not direct- tions indicate that this trend will continue, although, ly related to a case for Space Shuttle. The latter at a slower rate, even if new national programs are three items are relevant and will be treated in some initiated in the immediate future. detail in the follOwing pages. The human resources that should be available Availability of Engineers and Scientists for to future integrated and multidisciplinary develop- Future "Cutting Edge" Development Programs.One ment teams are in jeopardy due to the five factors of the five elements essential to maintaining techno- discussed briefly above (Fig. /9): logical superiority is the ability to continually attract "new blood" young scientists and engineers to 1,Declining number of engineers and scientists the development programs that form the "cutting employed in the aerospace industry edge." In the current environment, both opportuni- ties for the attractions for young scientists and engi- 2.Surprisingly strong determination of those neers to join active advanced development teams have who have left, never to return vanished. As teams undergo forced reductions, a disproportionately high percentage of young engineers 3.Rapid "aging" of engineers and scientists and scientists are among those laid off. employed in the aerospace industry 63 4. Declining enrollment of science and engineer- resources have been applied in a major program to- ing students ward the end of obtaining a new, better,or less expensive product. But important byproducts of 5. Discnchnatment of young people with technol- these efforts have been: ogy particularly with the aerospace industry. 1.Stimulation of new concepts As a result, the nation may lack the human re- sources required to maintain our technological level 2. Advances made in technology the state of in the seventies, and may find itself irreparably be- the art hind the power curve in the decade of the eighties. Implementation of a single major program develop- 3.Translation of scientific information into ment will not, by itself, correct this bleak situation, engineering and technical skills but inauguration of the Shuttle will be a step in the right direction. 4.Sharpening and refurbishing operating tools, skills, and processes ( Fig. 31). Major Programs as the "Cutting Edge" of Tech- nological Advancement. New programs that serve as the foci that forge the "cutting edge" are now urgently Major "Ci, :ling Edge" Programs. In our gener- required to replace the Intercontinental Ballistic Mis- ation, the U.S. has made a dramatic advance in its technological capability. The momentum of this sile (ICBM) and the Apollo programs. It will not be advance has depended upon the "cutting edge" pro- as easy to rally congressional and public support for vided by major national programs that focused ad- new programs in the current environment. The direct vanced management, scientific, engineering, and goals of a program, such as Space Shuttle, will not be production talents on achieving specific capabilities as apparent or considered as critical as were those of at specified times ( Fig. 32). the ICBM or Apollo. The indirect benefits serving as the "cutting edge," which are equally important. In World War II, for example, high-performance indeed, critical to the maintenance of national tech- aircraft, radar, the atomic bomb, and other specific nological capability are not generally appreciated weapon systems served as the foci and provided the or well understood by the American public.Although catalyst for a surge in technological capabilities. the difficulties in advocating such programs are today These programs were readily supported by Congress more severe, the critical necessity for such "cutting and the American public, not because they advanced edge" programs that permit the momentum of tech- technological capabilities, but because they were nological advance to continue is no less real. considered essential to prosecuting the war effort It is essential that Congress and the public be af- and, therefore, essential to national survival. forded a better understanding of three aspects of technology (Fig. 30): In the cold war period, the hydrogen bomb, ICBM, and nuclear submarine programs served as 1. The role of technology as the progenitor of similar foci and forged the "cutting edge" of continu- major programs ing growth in technological capability. These pro- grams were also readily supported by Congress and 2. The long lead times required to reach the the American people. Again, not because they technical "payoff" forged the cutting edge, but because they were con- sidered essential to national defense. 3. The difficulties involved in distributing the resources required to balance the technical effort. Later, the response to Sputnik, culminating in the Apollo program, increased our awareness of the Integrating Influence of "Cutting Edge" Programs. need to sharpen the "cutting edge" and ensured the Characteristically, our nation has had a high degree momentum that maintained our technological superi- of success in bringing together the knowledge (gath- ority.This effort was also readily supported by the ered from basic research and applied research) and Congress and the American public as a result of the the people (scientific, engineering, and technical shock of Sputnik and the call of President Kennedy to personnel organized in multidisciplinary teams) td. a great adventure: "to be the first people to walk on improve our technical and economic capability; these the moon." 64 Thus, during our generation, major cutting-edge tremendous economic potential; e.g. , high- programs have found support but this massive temperature materials, lightweight structures, support has her., forthcoming for reasons other than automatic checkout for zomplcx systems, and hyper- the assurance of national technological leadership. sonic aerodynamics. Required Program Features. The required pro- In addition, operational capabilities of the devel- gram features enumerated in Figure 33 serve as a oped system will:( I)greatly increase our flexi- checklist to test the suitability of candidate programs. bility to perform space operations, (2)increase Briefly, these features arc: our opportunities to apply space systems to the direct benefit of mah, and (3) greatly improve the 1.Technology advance to support "technical economics of space operations. superiority" through the interrelated working of the four noted activities In summary, the Space Shuttle program is ready to enter the development phase, will result in opera- 2.Capability of a near-term program start tional capabilities of great direct benefit to the na- tion, and, more important, can serve as the "cutting 3.Maintenance of and, perhaps, modest increase edge" of expanding technological capability. With- in engineering work force out a near-term start of a major program, such as the Space Shuttle, the "cutting edge" that was keen 4.- Ability to achieve a reasonable rate of return during the Apollo development program will continue through implementation of a major program that can to grow dull, and soon, with a deceleration of tech- serve as the "cutting edge" that permits the momen- nological advance, the Nation will lose its technologi- tum of technological advance to continue cal superiority. 5.Ability, if desired, to expand to ether pro- grams in a controlled and predefinable manner Impact Upon National Economics 6.Ability, if desired, to stretch program devel- Comparative Impact of Three Environment opmes.. in an efficient manner to conform to currently Programs. A Space Shuttle program will generate unforeseen funding limitations a higher level of indirect purchases (and therefore total purchases) than would an equivalent outlay for 7.Ability to include international participation in consumer spending, and a significantly higher level an orderly and mutually satisfactory manner. of indirect purchases than would the same dollar outlay for a residential housing construction pro- Required Results of New "Cutting Edge" Programs. gram (Fig. 36). The total direct purchases attribut- "Cutting edge" programs must be of a magnitude able to each of the three programs were ggregated ( in terms of resources committed), urgency, and into eight industry groups. Two significant points level of technical difficulty that the Nation will recog- arc conveyed by these data: nize the critical contribution that the program will make and will be steadfast in giving the program its 1. The impact of the Space Shuttle will pervade support. The salient requirements of such a pro- the total economy into each industry group. gram are noted in Figure 34. 2. The Space Shuttle is the only alternative Space Shuttle: Impact on National Technical considered that will stimulate the aerospace industry, Superiority. Space Shuttle can and should serve as where there, currently, is a very hlgh level of un- the keystone of our future national space program. employment among highly skilled workers, scientists, This belief As based on Shuttle's ability to serve as and engineers. the keystone for future space development activities. Thus, of the three programs compared, the The Space Shuttle program is well suited to re- greatest impact, from the standpoint of total produc- place Apollo as the sharp "cutting edge" required tion, would result from the Shuttle program. to maintain national technological superiority.It will serve as a focus of and catalyst for advanced It is interesting to note that high-technology in- technology efforts in a variety of fields that have dustries are the areas primarily affected by the 65 Shuttle program, whereas relatively low-technology 3. The U.S. balance-of-trade picture would be industries are primarily impacted by the otherpro- improved. Space Shuttle would require fewerim- grams. From this, one can discern that solutions ports than would a residential housing construction to the high unemployment problem found among program or increased consumer spending of com- highly trained engineers, scientists, and skilled parable size. Also, based upon the historicalratio* technicians would most likely be found in the Shuttle of exports to total domest:e production, theSpace program. Shuttle program would induce more totalexports than the other programs examined. Moreimportant The Space Shuttle program would also tend to the Shuttle will simulate those high-technologyin- favorably impact the U.S. balance-of-trade problem, dustries that have been the most -ignificantsource since the program would require fewer imports than of U.S. exports in recent years. would be required for residential housingconstruc- tion or consumer spending.Perhaps of equal signifi- cance is the fact that since the Shuttle program would Conclusion stimulate high technology industries, it would ipso facto provide a greater stimulus to high-technology The Space Shuttle program, as currently defined. exports. This is of vital importance since the U. S. will: depends on high-technology export to maintain a Satisfy national space transportation favorable balance of trade.It is also important to note that, based on each industry' s ratio of exports requirements at reduced cccts to total 1970 production, the Shuttle programwt 'd induce three times more total exports than the other Permit additional savings to be made to two programs. payload development and operation costs which, in turn, will. National Economic Benefits of Space Shuttle Program. In r. umma-y, the Space Shuttleprogram Provide requisite "cutting edge" program for would have a favorable impactupon the U.S. economy maintaining technical superiority in the following ways (Fig. 37): Favorably impact national economy through 1. The approximately $ 9.5 billion costto the increased employment. Production and bal- U. S. Government would stimulate about $ 20 billion ance of trade of domestic production. Expand practical space applications forman- 2. Many jobs would be created:more than kind's benefit 400 000 man-years in the aerospace industry andmore than 280 000 man-years innonaerospace industries. and The current unemployment problem in theaerospace industry would be partially alleviated. Support national goals. DK". Cr PICA.,4 of avDtC Seel la fltIertC sort/ OlIli,(1/1 Sr .CI UIWIr 1,4r tl qt VAC( "Ill( raD.Kl. it fSN11,..., 4CSIt MILIto fr tOr* COSI C. W41 COPS rrCbD3llU CMAIIONI) COSI W SCt ItffSPCIrfriOnf IS U.S 10 0 U... BENEFITS. Pow Figure 1. Benefits from the Space Shuttle. 66 PLANETS u2 AsTTLION IATLOTA TVs B. DE.ELCIATVNT LUNAR - :X.000 N.SAI, hALOLIC COS tiSIC!!..4 SLA%ETATY ExPLOSADCN ).92,314.TAI. svt,otact.o.is I D (ATOM. (PH 6 uTILITY IV, S..-)N.Asi, .CNC.ttssistuxCATIONS SLR (MANCE VAN AWN BM pa Pf SO,ACES mETEOBOLOGY ..,../EXCESSIVE PEsiODAANCE RECT. NEATN 'AMY FAUN SKYCAP SPACE MAT SPACE STATION \N AVTGATION PO N.TAI. M ET EORCHOGY PRFATAT USE EARTH RESOURCES ORBIT DECAY Figure 2. Space regions and operations for the Space Shuttle and Space Tug. 104CAS1 AVERAGE 20 30 kaSSIOrIS YEAS (1300100C) NEAR EARTH ORBIT 40,030 SYNCHRONOUS & ESCAPE 31:030 PAYLOAD MIGHT 10.000 TRANSFER (LB.) STAGE WEIGHT &000 (11.) O 14.0)0 VELOCITY ABOVE NEAT EMIT 00511 (ETS) 26.000 65.000 40.000 EOUIVATE NT WEIGHT 10 NEAR EARTH OEM? ((B.) NEASEATTH SYNCHRONOUS TAISDONS & ESCAPE MISSIONS Figure 3. Weight of payloads at various orbits. A SCALE (IT.) 200 - I II rTi ATLAS, ASIA,' TITAN 151 SATURN SATURN SCOWTAT-DELTA NOS SONG SAW TAT TITANWAN (IMPROVED) AWN& DAGENA C. IMP. DELTAACANA 0 CISAI ALA AGENS SIC HID IS V PAYLOAD sl.000 WEIGHT TO 3.000 A.000 3,000 8.030 &COO 12, 000 1.000 21.00032.000 130.40) NEAT-1MM DRAT (11.) tNCTIC AuOST PSI P 13 TVA) Figure 4.Current U.S. inventory of space launch systems. 300 703 SCALE (H.) 100 0 SCOUT SI'ACE SHUTTLE Figure 5.Comparison of the Scout andSpace Shuttle. 111.4/7 EARTH ORBIT MISSIONS '11 ORBIT INSERTION FLYBACK/CRUISE MISSION OPERATIONS STAGING lANDING SATING re cv Figure G.Mission profile. AL. Figure 7. Booster and orbiter in MR facil:'y. Figure 8. The Shuttle vehicle at liftoff. 68 Figure 9.Booster and orbiter at separation stage. _ , ..-;:ii"-"*"."`"` - Figure 10. Completed separation of booster and orbiter. Figure 11. Booster during cruiseback to launch site. Figure 12. Booster at landing. 69 -,,, 'A"^" r. rrr. rr-1 Figure 13. Booster in safingarea. Figure 14. Orbiter unloadingpayload at Space Station. '-- Figure 15. Orbiter during entry. Figure 16. Orbiter at landing. r 2r. AIL--43a11111.1111111111K...` (UNMANNED SATELLITE) (CARGO) -"; Figure 17. Two-stage launch vehicle. Figure 18.Transports to or retrieves from orbit. 70 k_ Figure 19.Services payloads and/or men on orbit. Figure 20.Reusable. TRANSPORTATION DOLLARS SAVED ORDER OF MAGNITUDE REDUCTION LOW EARTH ORBIT REDUCING COST OF EVEN GREATER.REDUCTION SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT SPACE OPERATIONS MANNED OR UNMANNED S SAVINGS out TO SPACE S SAVINGS GUS TO SPACE S SAVINGS OR TO PIDTTLE °PRATING NODE S.oTrtt coca SAY IMPIRIAIINTS IN SPACE LIGRADiNG & *60(i.- -+} n13FT tfrunifeo+INT t Of PAyLOADS Alt, 7:1111 erf CC:7. 11116m.41111111w...... -0 eN e[COvtlY OF (+MO PAYLOADS ECONOMY Of PAYLOAD Of SIGN ft v w LAI Pt Ov t D PAYLOAD PLACINNT TIMING IKNIGN traVitC.Lvf NT 1,06 COST TO TRANSPOlT IvntIMINT -MAN-IA;(0 LAUNCH VP .' CU NO PAYLOAD LOWS 0551 TO (Ow G-LOADS 30-DAY TIME SPAN LAUVOif ARV( WINCE Or LOCI: (MeV Or 0000 PAYLOAD (AVOIDS LIU OF lAIOAATOLYOLIALITY (01.R. StSPOR -.NsANTAtOtTALCY ( comocuctS P(OLIPf S Of3LS, RR Elmira- INTACT AtOIT CAPAiluf e ((RAID s.(10.1( & vOL. t(Cvit[rAINTS PlCullAA INSktwAINTATION --- Figure 21. Cost reduction of space operations. Figure 22. Space Station. Figure23. Space Tug. 71 Figure 24.Research and Applications Modules (RAM). NEED A MECHANISM. FUNDING A DOWN TO RETA IN ADVANCED EMPLOYMENT DOWN THIS ABILITY TO \ TECHNOLOGY IMPACTS MEET CAPABILITY LAUNCH RATE DOWN OUR NATIONAL \ AS A GOALS NATIONAL' TECHNOLOGY "COMPLETE" RESOURCE Figure 25. Impact upon technological superiority. I. MORE JOBS 1. OP'ORTUNITY FOR ALL CITIZENS 2. FAVORABLE BALANCE OF TRADE EducatiOn 3. HIGHER PRODIKITIVITY Employment 4. BETTER METHODS, Security From Poverty TECHNIOUES S. TOOLS Medical Recreationol/Cultural 2. REDUCTION IN CRIME 3. CONTROL OF POLLUTION 4. RELIEF FROM THE BUREAUCRATIZATION OF LIFE MAINTENANCE OF NATIONAL SECURITY I. QUALITY ESSENTIALLY EQUAL TO, 2. TIMELY DEPLOYMENT CONSISTENT WITH OR SUPERIOR TO, THE FORCES ATTAINMENT OF THE OPERATIONAL BEING COUNTERED CAPABILITY OF THE FORCES BEING COUNTERED Figure 26.National goals. 72 A // \\ / \ / _,.,\ EXPLORATORY RESEARCH CONDUCTED /,. '-2\ .; -5-IP\ IN INTEREST OF ADVANCING TECHNICAL /.sr 2A SUPERIORITY /_ Ves ,$ DEVELOPMENT & "REDUCTION TO PRACTICE" /43 TECHNICAL cA OF STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENT & EXTENSION OF ,: PRESENT TECHNICAL SKILLS ,,::. -_- ,4z- SHARPENING & REFURBISHMENT ,. , OF APPLIED TECHNICAL TOOLS . ,/ , ,.. MAINTENANCE OF NATIONAL SECURITY I Figure 27.Requirements and elements of technological superiority. OBASIC RESEARCH ACROSS A BROAD FRONT APPLIED RESEARCH IN SELECTED AREAS THAT APPEAR TO HAVE OPROMISING POTENTIAL "NEW BLOOD" IN THE FORM OF A-CONTINUING SUPPLY OF OYOUNG SCIENTIST AND ENGINEERS MULTIDISCIPLINARY MANAGEMENT/SCIENTIFIC/ENGINEERING/ PRODUCTION OTEAMS THAT INTEGRATE GOVERNMENT, UNIVERSITY,AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOTIVATE THEM TO ACHIEVE A COMMON GOAL MAJOR AND TECHNICALLY CHALLENGING DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS OOF NATIONAL SCOPE Figure 28.Maintenance of technological superiority. 250 EMPLOYED AEROSPACE 225 ENGINEERS 200 175 SUMMARY IMPACT 150 DECLINING NUMBER OF SCIENTISTS/ ENGINEERS EMPLOYED 1 I I 1968 1971 THOSE WHO LEAVE DO NOT WISH TO RETURN RAPID "AGING" OF SCIENTISTS & ENGINEERS NOW WORKING IN AEROSPACE DECLINE IN ENROLLMENT OF ENGINEERS & SCIENTISTS IN UNIVERSITIES DISENCHANTMENT OF YOUNG PEOPLE a WITH TECHNOLOGY & AEROSPACE Figure 29.Current trends in availability of scientists and engineers:- 73 ROLE OF TOOL TECHNOLOGY SHARPENING TECHNOLOGICAL 1 EXPLOTING LEAD TIMES PRO RNA `. (MAJOR) EXTENSION OF PRESENT SKILLS *POINT OF PAYOFF APPLIED RESEARCH \ EXPLORING .....,,,\__ USTAINING BASIC/1.1.114 RESEARCH YEARS 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 YEARS 103 ( DISTRIBUTION OFI 80- LUCHNICAL EFFORT I 60- 40 20- : 0 BASIC APPLIED 'EXTENSION TOOL RESEARCH RESEA .11.1 OF SKILLS SHARPENING Figure 30.Three aspects of technology serving as the "cutting edge. " I BASIC RESEARCH I OBTA I N NEW BETTER & LESS EXPENSIVE PRODUCTS I APPLIED RESEARCH I MAJOR "CUTTING NEED TO IMPROVE` EDGE" TECHNICAL & ECONOMIC PROGRAM CAPABILITY IMULTI DISC I PLINARY TEA11411 INEW SCI. /TECH. BLOOD I STIMULATE NEW CONCEPTS ADVANCE STATE OF NE ART TRANSLATE SCIENCE INTO ENGINEERING SKILLS SHARPEN OPERATING TOOLS Figure 31.Integrating influence of "Cutting Edge" programs. WORLD WAR II I COLD WAR] AIRCRAFT HYDROGEN BOMB RADAR ICBM ATOMIC BOMB NUCLEAR SUBMARINE SPUTNIK 1960's APOLLO 1970's Figure 32. Major "Cutting Edge" programs. 74 REASONABLE TECHNOLOGY ADVANCE RATE OF RETURN ABILITY "CURRENT" TO EXPAND (NEAR TERM) (IF DESIRED) MAINTENANCE t. ABILITY OF 4 TO STRETCH ENGINEERING (IF DESIRED) WORK FORCE INTERNATIONAL IN SCOPE Figure33.Requiied programs features. A MAJOR NEW PROGRAM MUST / PRODUCE AN END PRODUCT THAT YIELDS DIRECT BENEFITS TO NATION / PROVIDE A TECHNOLOGICAL INTEGRATING INFLUENCE / SLOW DOWNWARD TREND IN NUMBERS OF EMPLOYED ENGINEERS & SCIENTISTS / ATTRACT & RETURN YOUNG ENGINEERS & SCIENTISTS .41 / SLOW OR REVERSETHE RAPID "AGING" OF AEROSPACE TECHNICAL TEAMS / SLOW SHARP DOWN-TREND IN ENROLLMENT IN SCIENCE & ENGINEERING SCHOOLS / MAINTAIN MULTIDISCIPLINARY GOVERNMENT & INDUSTRY TEAMS Figure 34.Required results of new "Cutting Edge" program. -TECHNICAL w SUPERIORITY SPACE SHUTTLE IS THE KEYSTONE OF FUTURE SPACE PROGRAMS REDUCING THE COST OF SPACE OPERATIONS - MANNED OR UNMANNED SPACE SHUTTLE: BASIC TO FUTURE SPACE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES Figure 35.Space Shuttle as keystone to future space operations. 75 WILL STIMULATE ABOUT 20 BILLION OF DOMESTIC PRODUCTION WILL PROVIDE OVER 400, 000 MANYEARS OF EMPLOYMENT IN AEROSPACE INDUSTRY WILL ALSO PROVIDE MORE THAN 280,000 MANYEARS OF NONAEROSPACE EMPLOYMENT REQUIRED TO SUPPORT PROGRAM WILL HELP U.S. BALANCE OF TRADE BY STIMULATING OUR HIGH TECHNOLOGY EXPORT INDUSTRIES WILL REQUIRE FEWER IMPORTS THAN WOULD A RESIDENTIAL HOUSING CONSTRUCTION PROGRAM OR AN INCREASE IN CONSUMER SPENDING OF COMPARABLE SIZE Figure 36.Comparative impact of three environment programs. CONSUMER SPACE RESIDENTIAL SPENDING SHUTTLE CONSTRUCTION TOTAL PRODUCTION* 519,100 (520.000) S 16,500 PER CENT AEROSPACE 0% 62% 0% MAJOR INDUSTRIES RETAIL TRADE AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION AFFECTED REAL ESTATE_ MISSILES & SPACE LUMBER WHOLESALE TRADE COMMUNICATIONS CEMENT/GYPSUM BALANCE OF TRADE REQUIRED IMPORTS* $435 OD 5430 INDUCED EXPORTS e LOW HIGH LOW 1970 DOLLARS IN MILLIONS TOTAL PURCHASES GENERATED coltsyhmsatagm RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION 20 INO AEROSPACE I NO AEROSPACE Is DIRECT 15 PURCHASES DIRECT PURCHASES se lO 8510 INDIRECT .. - CD 5 INDIRECT 0 1980 1980 Figure 37.National economic benefits of the Space Shuttle programs. 76 THE PATH TO GLORY UNTOLD By Earl Hubbard Space Philosopher Lakeville, Connecticut I would like to speak to you about freedom. conception, for the debris of this ecstasy fertilizes the recumbent figure of a hydrogen cloud whichcan Freedom means the right to choose. To stretch for trillions of miles long andmay be tril- choose, you must have some sense of direction. lions of miles wide. You must know where you are going. To have a sense of direction, you must have some sense of As we watch, we see, condensed out of this meaning. To have 'a sense of meaning, you must hydrogen cloud, cottony balls of gas which then have some sense of purpose. further condense into a sun with orbiting planets. Mankind today has no sense of purpose. Man- One of these planets, the one we call earth, kind today has no sense of meaning. Mankind today appears to be covered with water.If we were to has no sense of direction. Mankind today is not -follow a beam of light from the sun into the depths free but is a prisoner of his own despair. of this primeval sea, we might see quakingat the end of this point of light, provided we hada micro- The challenge we face is how to emancipate scope, something that looks like an amoeba. Then mankind, and to do this we must discover a sense if we could compress eons of time into seconds,we of purpose.If we can do this, we can then under- would see this amoeba-like cell divide and subdivide. stand the meaning of our age, and through this It might appear to join other cells to make larger understanding we can then discover asense of bodies that swim. direction, and in so doing, make mankind free to choose. We would see one of these bodies crawl fromthe water onto land, and walk, and run, and climb, and fly. To do this, we need a new concept of genesis. Today there is revealed in the theater of mankind's We would see land masses heave up and buckle awareness a new concept of the genesis of mankind into ridges of mountain ranges. We wouldsee large as revealed by science: This genesis begins with glacial ice masses sculpt valleys and lake bedsout a super nova. of the surface of tlie earth. A super nova is a large star exploding. Prior Then we would discern a form of energy we to this explosion, and after it has consumed most would recognize, identify with, and callman. of the hydrogen and most of the helium of which it is composed, it collapses toward its center.It Remember, all that has occurred has occurred is in this collapse that there is createda crucible, with the same basic building blocks ofenergy. The and within this crucible there is evolved 1 percent building blocks have not changed, but the forms of the elements that comprise the materialuniverse. which are built with these building blocks have changed and have changed constantly. So far as we know, the terial universe is comprised of 90 percent by ,en, 9 percent This final form of energy on this earth,man, is helium, and all the other elements makeup 1 per- the first form to speak. We do not understandits cent. This 1 percent is created in the crucible of first words, but they appear in elegant drawingson a collapsing star. the walls of caves. The first wordswe do under- stand are in the writing of cuneiform and hieroglyph- There is, then, the explosion which radiates ics, and what they say, they say clearly. Theysay out into the universe in all the colors of the rainbow. we seek God, meaning, and purpose. In this majestic moment there is heraldeda new event.' The universe is, in effect, told thatsome- Within the brief span that we call history, this thing new and something that is needed iscoming. form of energy pursues this search, and inthe proc- We are aware we are witnessinga cosmic ess develops all that we call culture. 77 The effect is synthesis, for it takeall the other Mankind may, therefore, have a sense of pur- forms of energy of which this earth is comprised, , _pose, for he is part of this ever-evolving purpose. such as iron, coal, water, wood, and synthesizes He can understand the meaning of his age as being them into steel, homes, and books. __birth. Up until now, we have seen this highly motivated To have a sense of direction, mankind must form of energy build this culture. We have heard understand the difference between a prenatal exist- it speak, but still we do not understand the meaning; ence and a postnatal existence. This difference can what is the purpose? Finally at one point, if we be best described in one wordconception. watch very closely, we might see something leave the earth and land °tithe moon. At that point, the A baby in the womb cannot conceive, but once meaning is clear, for the meaning is birth and the born, it gains this capacity, not only to conceive purpose of all that has occurred on this earth is sexually, but culturally. clear. The purpose has been to build a body capable of birth. Mankind, today, is between prenatal history and postnatal history, and before him, there is the We recognize that within this brief span of his- Moon and Mars, two planets which await his capac- tory we have watched man synthesize all other ity for conception, the conception of new worlds. forms of earthly energy into a body capable' f birth, and that this synthesis occurred through the search In accepting this capacity for conception, man- for God, purpose, and meaning. The effect of this kind will be accepting a range of choices inconceiv- searplithas been that a cultural body, mankind, has able in the womb, inconceivable in prenatal history. been built and has now outgrown this earth. Mankind, in accepting his birth, will be accepting a freedom of choice beyond anything he has ever All mankind's problems are growth problems. dreamed of or imagined. Pollution is a growth problem. If freedom means the right to choose, then accepting his own birth will be accepting a new Population is a growth problem. freedom of choice the awe-inspiring freedom to conceive. War is a growth problem. Can there be a choice between accepting or Drug addiction is a growth problem. rejecting our own birth? No. To reject our own birth is to reject freedom of choice, this cosmos The problem is mankind has outgrown this as a purposeful universe, the meaning of the pres- earth. The meaning is mankind is being born. Man- ent as being birth, the meaning of the past as being kind is not sick. Mankind is being born. the building of a body capable of birth, claiming mankind has no sense of direction, and claiming man- The effect is that mankind is no longer needed kind is not needed in the universe. To rejectour on this earth, any more than a baby is needed in the own birth is to accept death. And the process of this womb at birth. Mankind must now know that the acceptance on this earth would be dictatorship, meaning of the present is birth, that the meaning devolution, and death. of the past was to build a body capable of birth. He must be aware that there is a sequence that preceded WHY? his birth, a nonrepetitive sequence of unique events that stretch from a super nova fertilizing a hydrogen In our ree; studies of ecology we have dis- cloud, to Armstrong's foot on the moon. Each event covered that to have clean water we have to clean differs from those that flank it 2 id each event is a up not only Lake Erie and the Mississippi, but also synthesis orthose that precede iv. We see no repe- the Thames, the Seine, the Volga, the Yangtse, the tition no circular sequence. What we do see is a seas around Japan, parts of the Mediterranean, consistent purpose made manifest in a sequence of indeed, parts of most of the bodies of water on this constant change. earth, because all bodies of water on this earth are 78 part of one body of water. Therefore, to pollute sense of meaning, no sense of purpose, andno part is, in effect, to pollute all. To have clean need for man. water on this earth, we must have some form of total control. In accepting our own birth, thereverse is true. In 'accepting our own birth, there is thefreedom to The same holds truc for clean air and popula- build new worlds. There is the needfor man to tion control. We must have some form of total build them. There is the acceptance of control. the meaning of our age as birth, the sense of being part ofa larger, ever-evolving purpose. The issue is not whether there will be some forms of total control, the issue is whether these To conceive of new worlds on the Moon and forms of control will be voluntarily accepted by the Mars, we will need all and the best thatpeople have peoples of this earth or whether they will have to be to give. imposed. This issue is dependent on whatyou have to exchange for voluntary self-restraint.If you Cybernation and automationcan do any repeti- have a future to offer mankind,you can expect a tive task, no matter how complex. Most industries voluntary acceptance of self-restraint.If you do not on this earth arc consumer industries and mainte- have a future to offer mankind, you cannot expect nance industries, and all these industriesare repet- voluntary acceptance. Therefore, to have total itive.All these industries willone day be cyber- control in a world without a future, you must impose nated and automated. Thismeans there is now a these controls, and the method would be that ofa declining need for man to do repetitive tasks. dictatorship.It might begin as something like Plato's Republic, but it would quickly degenerate In a world without a future, this would be but into a Stalinesque form of tyranny, for the objective one of many manifestations of a declining need for would be devolution.- man. But for a world that is building new worlds, it is the emancipation of man to do thistask. The objective in a world without a future would Machines can do what has been done, buton this be to maintain a dying species ona dying planet, earth only man can do what hasnever been done. which would mean mankind would have to devolve. The mcaniag of cybernation and automationis No police force or armed services could hope the emancipation of mankind toassume the task of to control a world population successfully. The conceiving of new worlds on the Moon and Mars. method of control would have to be more insidious. This is comparable to'our own bodies. Tranquilizers and chemicals for sterilization would be placed in the water system, and pacification Our own bodies are cybernated and automated programs would be carried by the communication so that we do not have to say, "Eyes focus,ears system. listen, or heart beat." This is done forus by cyber- nation and automation. The-effect is thatour aware- In a world without a future, the enemy is hope. ness is emancipated. We can look out and concern o destroy hope, we would have to rewrite our ourselves with other tasks. histories, for the thread that runs through all history is the thread of hope. This effect is now apparent for the body ofman- kind, for the maintenance tasks, essentialfor this The effect of this devolution would be the meta- body to turn its attention to the conception ofnew morphoSis of man Into a vegetable, and the ultimate worlds, is now being takenover by cybernation and goal would be death. automation. In a world without a future, we would have a In accepting our own birth, in acceptingour death-oriented society, for death would mark the capacity to conceive of new worlds, we are accepting threshold to the future.All hope would lie beyond the need for man. No other challenge on this earth death. can make that claim. In a world without a future, there would be no If you go to the people of this earth andjjayiwe freedom, there would be no sense of direction, no need you for pollution and population control;you 79 I ,§4 must remember that they are the pollutants and the In this passage of birth, we require the faith population. There arc too many of them for this that we arc needed. In seeking birth, we seek sm.': earth to sustain. manifestation that will affirm this faith. Our faith must be that it is there waiting for us. This must If you go to the people of this earth and say we be the faith of all babies. need you for war control, you have to remember that in a world without a future, war would be the Looking back from Armstrong's foot ,on the moon only dignified way of life and death for a proud peo- to the super nova that fertilized the hydrogen cloud, ple that would rather die fighting than die as a we see that all that was clone, was needed, and all vegetable. that was needed was done. And you cannot go to the people of this earth Could Armstrong have gone to the ma n without and say we nccd you for drug control, for in a world the super nova; the hydrogen cloud; that first amoeba- without a future you do not nccd people. like cell; that life that crawled from the sea, then walked, ran, climbed, and flew; those glacial masses Not to be needed is painful. Not to be needed that sculpted many of the valleys and lake beds of this for anything, for a capacity to procreate, to work, earth; those land masses that heaved and buckled into and to create, is unbearable, and drugs might ridges of mountain ranges; that early manifestation assuage some of that pain. of energy we identify with and call "man;" those cave drawings, cuneiform, and hieroglyphics? But in a world without a future, what difference does it make? Ina world without a future, what Looking back, our faith in a purposeful universe difference does'anything make? It does not.For should be affirmed in witnessing that all that was in a world without a future, life is meaningless. done was needed, and all that was needed was done. This is not only the greatest age in the history With birth, we will enter anew community, a of mankind, it is the greatest age in the history of galactic community. Like all babies, we can expect this earth.It is the culmination of a cosmic con- to be needed and to be loved by some part of this ception.It is the birth of something that is new community. That is enough.For now we must and needed into the universe. rededicate ourselves to the search for freedom, and those that seek freedom, seek God, purpose, and We arc that something, and we are mankind. meaning. We are being born. We are between two worlds, between a prenatal and a postnatal existence, and Let us continue this search on this path of between this earth and new worlds. glory untold. 80 ro 1 SESSION II FUNDAMENTAL BENEFITS OF THE SPACE PROGRAM . APPLICATION OF NASA MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO SOLVE COMPLEX PROBLEMS ON EARTH By John S. Potate Director, Apollo Program Budget and Control Ccfice of Manned Space Flight National Aeronautics and Space Administration The subject of management has probably been quality systems, and others primarily concerned written abcut as much as any other subject in the with obtaining a quality product in the configuration English language. One can obtain a host of books in necessary to meet program objectives. any library on the subject.I think the reason for this is that management techniques must be applied I have listed in Figure 1 four key elements it to the particular job at hand anu, therefore, there the management approach taken for program plan- are many different approaches depending on the na- ning and control in Apollo.First, you must develop ture of the job and the management structure of an a good program or project plan. The level of detail _organiza 'ton.Many fine management techniques must provide good understanding of the job to be hay. been developed in this country and NASA did not done. Variousiechniques have been used to break set out to invent new ones for Apo lie, but rathe: they down the job - familiar names, -such as work break- adapted the techniques to fit the particular needs of down structures, are commonly used on most proj- Apollo. ects. The important thing is to develop this struc- ture so that there is a clear understandinr the job The subject of my talk is "Application of NASA from the worker-i-q) through top management. The Management Approach to Solve Complex Problems elements of the plan must allow efficient monitoring on Earth." Solving complex problems of any :iature o. schedules and cost progress. This is a difficult requires two major items. First, a commitment by task to achieve since there are many scheduling responsible authorities is needed to solve the prob- techniques and cost accrual systems. .Once you have lem and a date for reaching that goal. Second, developed a detailed plan for a large program or organization of the team and definition of the plan are project, it is so voluminuous that management can- required for achieving the goal. Of course, in not review all activities in the time-available. Apollo we had a national commitment that President Therefore, the detail plan must be summarized in Kennedy established in May 1961 that this nation would levels so that problem areas can be readily identi- land a man on the moon and return him safely to fied and management attention can focus directly on earth in the decade of the sixties, NASA then pro- the problem areas and not be hindered by constant ceeded to organize a government, industry, and uni- and voluminuous status reviews on tasks that are versity team which, at its peak, involved 400 000 proceeding smoothly. --_ people, hundreds of-universities, and 20 000 special industrial companies. The second key element I have chosen is titled "manage by-exception." This means simply that I would like to discuss with you in a short time management must apply the greatest attention to what I consider the key elements of the management those areas of highest criticality identified by the approach that NASA used for the Apollo program. scheduling and cost systems.I think this is the key I will concern myself with the management approach element in our management approach because, fora in the program planning and control area which is large system, the most difficult task is to use the the heart of any program management system. Time management talent in the most effective manner. will not permit me to discuss the management ap- proach for other systems which are used in Apollo The third element is titled "establishing a in managing the pure technical aspects of the pro- competitive attitude among organizations." This can grams, ouch as engineering specification systems, be done in many ways. One of the most effective configuration management systems, reliability and methods we have used is to list critical problem 93 areas and display them in an area visible to all, with had to come together at Kennedy.First, I think it the organization and individual manager responsible is in order for me to go through, briefly, the major for the problem. facilities involved in Launch Complex 39 ant discuss briefly the mobile concept so that you understand The fourth element is titled "audit systems on a the complex task which confronted NASA. frequent basis." It almost goes without saying that the output of a system is certainly no bette: than the In previous missile programs_, the conventional input. Management, down to the lowest level of su- method of launch preparation was to conduct assem- pervision, must constantly audit the *..anagement bly, checkout, and launch operations from a fixed procedures and techniques to assure that the job is site, that is the launch foal One of the major draw- being carried out in accordance with these proce- backs to the fixed-site concept is that the pad is oc- dures and teelmiiues. For example, a person in an cupied for long periods of time while space vehicles organization can, with all good intentions, perform are assembled and checked out for launch. The mo- a task different from the established procedures be- bile concept allows you to check out the space vehi- cause he feels: "Well, that change really would not cle in a building under better controlled conditions affect anything, and this certainly is a better way to and then move the entire vehicle with its accompany- do the job." He does not recognize that the proce- ing launch stand to the pad for final checkout and dures have been developed and reviewed by levels of launch. This alloweyou to plan more closely spaced management as the best way to do the job. Certainly launches, which gave NASA a much more flexible the employee should identify to management those launch system to meet the challenges of Apollo and areas where feels the procedure could be im- future programs. proved. Another example would be status informa- tion. Your system reports a piece of equipment is The Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) which is installed, so yeu schedule the next item of work and used to assemble and check out the Saturn V space find that the status was erroneous- in summary, vehiclesis the heart of Launch Complex 39 (Fig. 2) what'um saying; is that management mistakes can This building consists of a high-bay area and a low- be ma..4 based on bad Information from a system. bay area and is approximately 525 ft high and 700 ft Therefore, it is mcst important to audit your sys- long. When the three Saturn V booster stages ar- tems on a frequent basis to prevent problems before rive at Launch Complex 39, the second and third they occur. Another note here walkthroughs and stages undergo checkout in the low-bay area, then general site reviews by top management are a tre-_ are erected on the first stage in the high-bay area. mendousboost to worker morale. Adjacent to the VAB is the Launch Control Cen- Now, I would like to illustrate this management ter ( LCC)( Fig. 3). The LCC houses the electronic approach to program planning and control by review- brains that control the checkout of the space vehicle ing with you the Saturn V site activation of Launch (there are over 500 consoles and displays in the LCC). Complex 39 located at Cape Kennedy, Florida, which The total checkout and launch of the Saturn V vehi- is used to launch the Apollo/Saturn V vehicles.I cles is controlled from this center. have chosen this site activation task to illustrate the management-approach but I could have well chosen Perhaps the most unusual facility in the launch many other complex Apollo tasks that all had to be complex is the mobile launchef-or LUT which weighs accomplished on time and within cost to support the in excess of 12 million pounds (Fig. 4). This facil- success of Apollo, such as the development of the ity provides the launch stand and the equipment for Saturn V launch vehicle, development of the space- support of the preflight checkout and servicing of the craft Command and Service Module and Lunar Module special facilities. This entire structure, along with (CSM and LM), and the many experiments and other the erected space vehicle, is transported from the equipthent that support the launch vehicle and space- VAB to the launch pad with the crawler transporter. craft systems. I also chose the site activation task because of my personal involvement, and this ele- The transporter weighs nearly 6 million pounds ment of the Apollo proginm had by far the greatest and is capable of supporting over 12 million pounds number of external interfaces.All of the hardware ( Fig. 5). 84 The launch pad shown is roughly octagonal and shown on the chart indicate the traceability between covers an area of about 0.5 square mile (Fig. 6). the Level B and Level C networks. Adjacent facilities store. propellants and gases for servicing the Saturn V vehicle. The particular event 1 amber of the Level B and Level C networks were identical. One activity on The 402-ft mobile service structure (Fig. 7) the Level B network represented up to 20 activities permits 360-deg access to the space vehicle while it on the C network. This technique of summa- is ,at the pad...The mobile service structure is rization and unique traceability was a unique adapta- transported to the pad for mating with the space ve- tion by NASA of several management techniques. hicle. The mobile service structure stays in posi- The PERT system allowed managementio identify tion at the launch pad until approximately 15 hours be- the most critical problems by analyzing the output of fore launch when it is removed and placed back in its the Level B network. The output consisted of a com- erection area. puter calculation and listing of all activity paths that were behind schedule in the order of criticality. Figure 8 shows the total complex with the space vehicle in configuration for launch. Figure 12 depicts a summary output of the Level B network. As you can see, the activity paths are Figure 9 depicts the organizational relationships listed in order of criticality. Once the problems for the site activation effort. To provide centralized were identified through the Level B network, man- management of the site activation cffort, a site acti- agement then went_ to the Level C network which vation control center was organized and located in contained the detail activities that were causing the the LCC in an unused firing room. problem. A review of the detail activities would re- sult in a workaround method or resequencing the Figure 10 is a pictorial view of the control cen- activities to eliminate the problem area. ter which consists of four functional areas. Number I is the Site Activation Board meeting area which al- One of the important systems supporting the. so displays the master management information. PERT-system was the equipment record systcm Areas 2 and 3 house the detaiLplans and personnel ( Fig. 13). This system provided rapid status of the from contractors ( 13 aerospace, 10-15 crafts) and delivery of over 123 000 items of cables and equip- three NASA Centers KSC, IISFC, and ;MSC. The ment. The delivery status was then fed into the fourth area is an audiovisual support area. Let me PERT system which determined if the delivery date summarize the scope of the site activation effort. would meet its required date.If not, steps were Over 63 000items of equipment had to be installed taken to improve the delivery status or resequence and checked out. In addition,--over60 000 individual the project plan to accept a later delivery. cables, connecting the various facilities within the launch complex, had to be installed and checked out. Figure 14 ties in with my earlier statement con- All of this had to be done in a very finite sequence. cerning establishing a competitive attitude among organizations. We used a master problem display in NASA selected the PERT system as the primary the control co.nter. This display listed the 10 most planning technique. PERT, which stands for Pro- critical problems in site activation and identified the gram Evaluation and Review Technique, had been responsible contractor and manager. This type of used by the Navy on the Polaris program. It also display was most effective. There was a tremen- had been used on other programs. NASA modified dous competition among contractors and organiza- this system to,its specific needs. Figure 11 outlines tions to keep off the problem board. the PERT system used for Launch Complex 39. The PERT system is simply a logic diagram outlining all I would like to close my presentation with the tasks to be done in their proper sequence. As I following thoughts. Large complex problems can be mentioned earlier, one of the major management solved with a good systems approach,- which I feel tasks is to summarize the detail plan into levels. the Apollo program has demonstrated. The systems We choose three levels of summarization. The de- approach simply means you make all elements and tail plan consisted of 40 000 separate activities, disciplines belong to a total system which must func- which were summarized into approximately 7500 tion as a team to achieve a common goal. Unfortu- activities, and then further summarizedinto a Inas- nately, many government-industry-university ele- ter level of approximately 150 events. The numeers ments and disciplines have not had to operate in this 85 environment in their past work. I feel it ispara- I did not mention thus far: that is that anysuccess- mount that we change this if we hope to solve other ful management approach must have, above all, complex problems in the future. There isone point good people. There is no substitute. DEVELOP A GOOD, PROGRAM OR PROJECT PLAN LEVEL OF DETAIL MUST PROVIDE GOOD UNDERSTANDING Or JOB TOBE DONE ELEMENTS OF PLAN MUST BE CHOSEN TO ALM EFFECTIVE MONITORINGOF SCHEDULE A:..0 COST PROGRESS DETAILED PLANS FOR.EACH ORGANIZATION OR TASK MUST BE SUMMARIZED INTOSUMMARY - PLANS SO THAT TOP MANAGEMENT ATTENTION CAN BE FOCUSED-DIRECTLY ONPROBLEM AREAS AND IS NOT HINDERED BY CONSTANT AND VOLUMINOUSSTATUS REVIEWS OF TASKS THAT ARE PROCEEDING SMOOTHLY MANAGE BY EXCEPTION SCHEDULE AND COST SYSTEM MUST; IDENTIFY PROBLEM AREASIN ORDER OF CRITICALITY MANAGEMENT MUST APPLY GREATEST ATTENTION TO AREAS OFHIGHEST CRITICALITY ESTABLISH COMPETITIVE ATTITUDE AMONG ORGANIZATIONS IDENTIFY CRITICAL PROBLEM AREAS TO ORGANIZATIONSAND INDIVIDUAL MANAGERS AUDIT SYSTEMS ON FREQUENT BASIS OUTPUT OF SYSTEM NO BETTER THAN INPUT Figure 1. Management approach. t S. ti Figure 2. Vehicle Assembly Building. 86 .1-111111 Fighre 3. Launch Control Center. ,, - aft '1:..ct 41111111X"11WW"1 r.r's *Xs . 7 .N.e.....,.., ziak. . T..-iii-ambe-... f N. %imams.. 0 A*. - I ":".- ...11 Filar .00.10.11 Figure 4. Mobile Lattacher of LUT. 87 15; r Figure 5.Transporter. *411111M...--- ;-,! 4A1111.1* ..1111110-- 1111r_ Ne;ci`e. 1 moIMINIEL 411111,_ Figure 6.Launch pad. 88 Figure 7.Mobile service structure. ft....24 . I Figure 8.Total launch complex. 89 NASA HEADQUARTERS I KSC r MSC MAVACER APOLLO I PPCOR= OFFICE I .. ISITE. ACTIVATVIN .0* MSFC MSC I OR3 REPS. ORG.KSCREPS. ] IORO REPS. I CONTRACTOR I CONTRACTOR I CONTRACTOR' REPS REPS. REPS. Figure 9.Site activation organizational relationships. Figure 10. Program Control Center. WA_ A 1 REWORK , 150 EVENTS C146 LOW 31 FLOW-2, FLOW 3 12 NETWORKS 74E0 'ACTIVITIES FLOW I LOW 2 o0 eo 0? FLOW 3 LE'121. cr 00 . 11116611.7:1= i..23.:4;Tai;12% 221-0010. 100.8.40: 21.00 MMINAPIPION: MIRMOIPIN Figure 11. PERT systems. ft 'MD 1404 SCUDDLE ILDLESTONE DATE t taatttai FERT EXFECTED DATE 1.14 ntuey nvu* Figure 12.Critical path summary LC-39 site activation. PROVIDES AN AUTHORITATIVE SOURCE FOR IDENTIFICATION AND STATUS OF 60,000ITEMS OF GSE AND STATUS C:7:SCu /.1:2 CG:r7.7..GTO%S *--°`--- 1 LINSILLLATION LATEITEM A".0 ESEMLLY --MANP,S2142Nr 1;T.:I.; AND A;Liti.,-,1, spc:Js GOV. .,ACTOZ 1""'`'' 4 DATA SIP WPM RETORT EXCEPTION REPORT DELWZ.:YSTu (MOST CRMCAL ItFM gY C7.11 -,* " C rI 17< J Figure 13.Equipment_ Record System. 91 . SCHEDULE POSITION PROBLEM CONTRACTOR MANAGER ISLACKI . 4----- i. 1 2 . . 3 . 4 . . 5 . . 6 - . . 7 ., . .8 ,____ .9 , . 10 , . .. . 6. - Figute'14. Master problem display. AV OUR LEADERSHIP IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AS PROVIDED BY THE NATIONAL SPACE PROGRAM By Dr. Winston E. Kock Chief Scientist, The Bendix Corporation Science and technology have made outstanding efforts, far. greater long -tithe benefits have always contributions to the dynamic success of the U.S. re-,ulted than when Federal money is simply used as a world leader. Our strength in developing as an economic lever, as in various forms of products derived from our science research, Federal did, in the use of Federal moneys for high- much of which is traceable directly Di new require- ways, ctc., programs which all nations are ments called for in the space program, has given undertaking. us a position of prestige and influence throughout the world. Let us first view some generalizations The history of science and technology has and then some specific examples of how the space shown that there are many examples where new program has helped to provide this leadership. technologies triggered vast areas of accomplish- First, the space effort has showed how large teams ment in their wake extending over periods of time of scientists and engineers of varied disciplines measured in decades. The Space Administration could work together. Next, it has called for unheard- has been fully aware of science byproducts in its of reliabilities in the component parts and systems. research and development activities and has been Through our success in achieving these reliabilities, active in disseminating developments resulting our country has led others in applying that same from its scientific and technological programs. reliability to our civilian technological needs. The All significant scientific and technical papers and space program has also demanded minimum weight reports relevant to aeronautics and astronautics and size, and in developing the present-day mini: are identified. They include documents derived and microcomponents used in the space effifie from NASA and its contractors, other branches of were able to lead in designing, for our civilian the Federal Goverzunent, and the aerospace activi- technologies, more compact electronics, for com- ties of 40 foreign countries. The documents are puters and many other technological devices. Next, microfilmed and indexed on tapes in data storage through our space exploration, by satellites, by devices for quick access by interested users. deep spate probes, and on the moon itself, this country has led in acquiring a better understanding Probably the most important byproduct of the of our environment .und other aspects of our world. space program is the new knowledge gained in Finally, because o. our ability-to develop the flarge science. Historians tell us that there is an inter- rockets and boos4-:;rs needed for the space program, play among social needs, science, and technology. we can now uise very heavy objects to,orbits Each is necessary for progress in a technological 22 000 miles above the earth, and thus be able to society. Most scientists are agreed that advances watch on television, worldwide events as they occur, in pure science are rapidly reflected in technological transmitted over our communications satellites. revolutions. Just as without the telescope, the As the U.S. National Academy of Sciences President, science of-modern astronomy would have been impos- Philip Handlar, recently asked: "What can be a sible, so without the rocket we could not now be mote powerful instrument in the search for a lasting pursuing science by sending instruments and men peace than live satellite television communications into the space environment. around the globe?" New concepts and laws of science are much Let us now examine some specific instances of less predictable than are the applications which how science advances and new technologies, created result from them. New observations made during_ as a result of space research, have been able to space exploration can trigger chains of events perform a valuable role outside of the space pro- extending well beyond our lifetimes and leading_to gram. We shall discuss here only creative results. unpredictably new scientific tools and concepts. We all know that there is always a short -term Dr. Frederick Seitz, President ofthe Rockefeller coupling between the spending of Federal money and University in New York, stated: "VVhea future gen- the nation's economy. But when the Federal funds erations of mankind contemplate scientific knowledge can be made to find their way into truly creative made possible by the space program, they may well 93 79 Wonder what manner of men the doubters' were." engineering management to specify what is wanted Space technology increases the likelihood of obscrv-. clearly and completely and to get it right the first ing new phenomena heretofore unobserved. Man time. The unusual successes in many space pro- can now take his scientific instruments and living grams indicate that we are achieving higher levels organisms to places in the solar system and to new of ability to develop, produce, and operate complex environments %%item he was previously forbidden. systems. Thcrc is a growing belief that the methods of systems analysis, systems engineering, and pro- One of the oldest problems challenging scien- gram management developed in the space program tists is the structure of the universe; the distribu- will have important application to social problems. tion of the elements, the evolution of the stars, the Transportation, water management, medical serv- formation of the sun and planets, and the origin of ices, ecology, and housing are areas where these the earth.All the information we had about the methods should prove beneficial. has been sug- universe prior to 1957 came to us in the form of gested that the gains in techniques for producing waves radiate' from the surfaces of stars that systenis of ever-increasing reliability willeven- reached our telescopes and spectrographs after tually be worth many more times the cost of the passing through the earth's atmosphere. Unfor- 'space program. tunately most of this 'star radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere and a remarkably small fraction Our-space program has also been able to sat- reaches our instruments. Now, for the first time, isfy many of the needs of our society. Let me con- we have the means of putting our instruments beyond clude, therefore, with a discussion of one outstand- this atmospheric curtain to record the full sweep ing example of how society the world over has ben- of radiation. efited, and will continue to benefit in the decades to come, fro;-,, a technological science development A major stimulus to science and technology is which is directly tied to space vehicles. produced by the extr "me environment of outer space combined with the requirements for low weight, At satellite is uniquely qualified, by its line- small size, and exceptional reliability. We had of-sight feature, to be equivalent to a radio relay this combination of requirements in aircrafts in the tower many thousands of miles high.It fulfills, past but they did not approach the severity of the therefore, the biggest difficulty of wideband micro- requirements for space vehicles. Obtaining the wave communications. Because of the earth's cur- needed realiability in such complex systems poses vature, these signals are now relayed every 30 or an extremely large departure from past viewpoints 40 miles, a requirement which limited transmission and practices. Engineers used to be satisfied with to developed land areas such as those of the U.S. modest reliabilities; the*space program has devel- The several order-of-magnitude increment in oped attitudes among engineers so that much higher rehsower height is, without question, one of reliabilities, approaching 100 percent, are possible. the most significaneadvances in global communica- tion technology. Accordingly, one of the greatest The space program has also furnished a new impacts of our space programisiound in the field stimulus to imagination and creativity among engi- of communications. This is a consequence of our neers. This has come about perhaps because of ability to place satellites in the one-revolution-per- the complexity of d',3 problems to be solved and the day orbits called stationary orbits. Be-Cause the 'Tack of past experience. Designers faced witha earth also rotates on its axis once every day, such set of entirely new constraints and no experience on satellites appear stationary with respect to :..e which to draw were able to exercise their creativity earth. Communications satellites are now "parked" in ways that were heretofore impossible. in stationary orbits over both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, where they act as relays, receiving and The space program, and particularly the Apollo sending television signals or hundreds of telephone program, represents a uniquely different problem conversations.It appears that such satellite links of management of large technological systeL. s.In are much more economical than the earlier under- the past, there have been some massive engineering sea cable links, which further could not transmit developments, but in the space program there are television. Improvements in communications only a few items of each kind constructed, their are extremely important because in the U.S. complexity is greater, and the reliability which is communicationis a big business, a really big required exceeds that of the past. For this reason business. Our long distance telephone calls alone it has been necessary to develop a system of total-almost $5 billion a year. At this $5 billion 94 80 . per-year rate, if we could, for example, make twice The Indian Government studied the cost and as many calls at the same cost, we would be saving significance_oLestifilIiiiiiii a powerful national mass $5 billion a year, more than the space program is communication television system using a synchro- now costing us. Our overseas calls (not including nous satellite to link rural communities and distant Mexico and Canada) total almost a quarter of a centers of population.For further study, they in- billion dollars, and-satellites now parked over the stalled community television receivers in 80 villages Atlantic and Pacific are already relaying a large around Delhi.In this system many small villages fractiod off ese calls. will receive the signal directly from ATS-F. In densely populated areas, sets will receive a signal Now the economics for satellites for telephoning from local stations which rebroadcast the signal are rather startling. The wholesale charge to tele- they receive from the spacecraft. phone companies of a transoccan voice channel via satellite is only 10 cents per minute.So, our tele- phone costs are destined to come down. Further- more, satellites are providing us with something heretofore unavailable live television coverage But we should not judge the value of our space of many worldwide events. Communications within research from the practical results alone, extensive nations are also due to benefit soon.In late 0, as they may be. There may often be hidden values COMSAT proposed a $114 million domestic of far greater importance. As success breeds U.S. communications satellite system to be leased success, excellence breeds exeelleneC, and the to the American Telephone r id Telegraph Company great demands for qualit and extellenee which the for a reported $29.5 mill = year. Its capacity space program places on its equipment, its planning, of 10 800 voice circuits results in this lerse charge, and its functioning, these provide a magnet for for full usage, being equivalent to approximately attracting talented scientists and engineers to the one-half cent a minute for a cross-country, long program. The key to future advances in technology distance call. and to an advancing prosperity for our society will continue to be an emphasis on the search for new On September 18, 1969, the Indian Department knowledge. Many critics of the space program of Atomic Energy and NASA signed a Memorandum have been saying that the funds spent .car space of Understanding to conduct a joint instructional would be better spent right here on earth. You television experiment using the Applications Tech- probably know Wernher von Braun's story of the nology Satellite (ATS-F). This experiment will pro- little old lady, sitting on her porch in her rocking vide Use technology to overcome India's lack of chair. When asked if she was ever going to ride broadoand telecommunication links throughout the an airplane, she responded, '''o siree, Pm just country and disseminate instruction and information going to stay right here pn earth and watch televi- to rural, remote areas, where 80 percent of her sion, like-the go-T.R1 Lord intended." Well, now she population lives. can watch worldwide television! lip a SPIRITUAL IMPACTS OF THE SPACE PROGRAM ON THE WORLD By Honorable Marvin Esch O. S. House of itepresentatives Committee on Science and Astronautics Discussions of the space program and its bene- cause-and-effect relationship; however, I ant con- fits tend to concentrate on specific technological vinced that there is some connection. The hope advances, on weather reporting systems, earth %%filch inspired the space program and was inspired resources surveys, use of miniaturization, and so by that progratnhas given us a new hope here on on. Those advancements are important indeed, car planet, earth. but this paper is about less concrete, but no leis important contributions that the space program has . Equally significant has been the phenomenon made to the human spirit, and to the ability of man that as man reached toward the stars, he suddenly to live in the world and with his fellow man. gave a new perspective of himself and the world he lives in.In the words of Dr. Wernher von Braun, Since 1945, and dm devastation of Hiroshima, Apollo furthermore has altered the concepts we had man's hope has detr :gyrated; man has lacked faith of ourselves, of our earth, and of man's capabilities in his ability to cow, )1 the. forces of this horrible to guide events, if only slightly, to a new future, on weapon. He has lacked faith in his ability to con- a scale never thought possible before. The signifi- trol his future and, indeed, to survive. There has cance of these concepts is that they are not nearly been a desperate feeling that we somehow are ca- merely national in scope; they embrace all humanity. reening toward disaster and that there is nothing As such, they tend to knit together man's mind and else that we can do about it. We have all looked on aspirations toward common goals for then benefit of hopelessly as riots have spread throughout our all; not just to the advantage of some. cities, as important-political figures have been assassinated, as the war in Vietnam takes the lives The view from another planet, the moon, of our young men despite our public protest, and brought hope to us that earth is the abode of all as our cities have become more crowded, and men, that it is unique in the solar system, and even less livable. that we depend for existence on its slender resources of air, water, minerals, and plant life. To see Then suddenly and recently came the dramatic earth as a complete and closed ecological system, words, crackling through space, that people have in the black of space, was an emotional shock which landed on the moon. Nearly all the world was shook us free of long-established purely parochial stunned by this dramatic announcement as we sud- concerns. We suddenly realized how fragile and denly realized that, in the midst of all our difficul- tenuous is our hold on life; not culy human life but ties, man had conquered a problem so complex that all life. For all we Lwow, as of this moment, earth it was inconceivable to the individual. We realized, is the only habitat of living things in the universe, by devoting sufficient resources and talent, difficult no matter how we may speculate the chances that problems could be solved, and it gave us hope; hope are we are not alone and life exists elsewhere. that we could accomplish other seemingly impossible tasks here on earth. As Astronaut Collins said, as As I recall, Astronaut Biil Anders of Apollo VIII, he addressed the joint session of our Congress, fol- in the midst of the first cireumlunar voyage, talked lowing the first walk on the moon, "We cannot about his home planet as a small blue-green ball, launch our planetary probes from a springboara of about the size of a Christmas tree ornament. Of poverty and discrimination or unrest." Through course, Colorval Women made a similar comment that statement and through statements like that, we before a joint session of Congress, during his official came to realize that the same kind of intensive wblcome home after Apollo XV, when he commented national effort might solve these problems. on the oneness of the earth that we do not see from the ground; deep in space there are no visible bound- Is it not interesting that since the first moon aries nor can any differences be seen in race or reli- walk, much of the discontentment and unrest has gion or political beliefs. His point was that he and died down, and we are now not faced with summers his fellow astronauts were a team of three, living in of riots in our major cities? There is no obvious the spacecraft, - Endeavor; a situation very similar 97 to the billions of people living and working on the its environmental control system. Perhapsthis spacecraft, earth.His point was, just as our as- frank and brutal assessment wasan outgrowth of tronauts were required to work together to -;urvive, those comments by our astronauts.Afore impor- we, here on earth, arc faced with a similar strug- tant, and a vital contribution of their activity, will gle.I must say that I wish we earth-bound repre- be to establish a technical base by whichwe can sentatives were approaching our task with thesame miter into this era of a man-dominated closed-loop training, skill, knowledge, and cooperation ofour environmental system with confidence in human spaceborne counterparts. survival. My point is that the goals of man'sspace- flight, and for that matter, Apollo XV,were not Let us just take stock, for a moment, of that directed toward idealistic or emotional objectives. spaceship, earth. Projections of the world popula- Indeed, the goals of man's spaceflightare firmly tion, growth, food and water supplies, power gen- tied to a critical national and world objective:our eration requirements, environmental pollutiontrends, quality of life on this earth and survival itself. and usage of the earth's resources, landand sea, indi-With that vision and with that confidence, cate that within the next 100 years which the we will reach a space program has given us, mankind indeedcan point where-the immediate survival ofour planet will survive. depend upon the careful and completemanagement 4,f 2 98 INTRIGUE AND POTENTIAL OF SPACE EXPLORATION By Dr. Hazel Losh Professor Emeritus of Astronomy The University of Michigan Since astronomy is the oldest of the sciences, Ptolemy had written the "Almagest" in A.D. 150; it stands to reason that this science has the greatest since it was the textbook- that Columbus used in potential for advancement through space exploration. the University of Pavia, he was taught that the earth was a sphere. Little did Pythagoras or From the dawn of intelligence, people have looked Columbus know that we would have astronauts looked up at the heavens and have wondered and photographing the moon and earth as roundas a wondered and wondered and I say that was the be- spheret You never know with these discoveries, ginning of space exploration. At first they worshiped what is going to happen 1 or 2000 years later. the sun, the heavens, especially the sun and the moon, for they realized that they depended upon the The ancients tried to measure as best as they sun for light and heat by day, and upon the moon for knew how. They did not have very much equipment, light at night. You will find in the fourth chapter of but did have the gnomon, a vertical stick. They Deuteronomy, the 19th verse, "And lest thy lift up measured the lengths of the shadows and were able to thine eyes into heaven and when thy seek the sun determine the winter solstice when the shadow was and the moon and the stars, even all the rest of the long, and the summer solstice when the shadow was heaven should be driven to worship them and serve short and the sun was highest in the sky. Halfway them." between the solstices we have Thales in the sixth century B.C., trying to measure the apparent diam- Also, we have the development of astrology. eter of the sun. He did not have a good timing de- Of course, we have no use for astrology it is vice, but he had set up a ratio between the time when pure fortune-telling. But it did serve a purpose in the the western edge of the sun touched the western development of astronomy. The ancient people saw horizon and completely disappeared, and the time that when certaia objects were in the heavens, cer- it took the sun to cross the sky; he got 1/720 of a tain planets, things happened here on the earth as circle. This was not bad; we still have a half degree a sort of echo of the heavens, as they thought. To- today. day, we know that this is connected with seasons' and positions, and does not have any direct influence The ancients made measurements just as good as the ancients thought. as they could with the knowledge and equipment they had. Philolaus and other Pythagoreans, in the Astronomy was then used for practical purposes, fifth century B.C., were very much interested in time, calendar, and navigation. But all through the the moon; they thought there were lunar inhabitants, ages people have asked, "What does it all mean? who were more intelligent, 15 times stronger, and 15 Where are we in the universe? What is the position Limes more beautiful than people here on earth. of man in this universe?" Copernicus was bole. enough, in 1543, to take At first the ancients thought the earth was at the earth out of the center and call it a planet like the center of everything. Man was supreme; earth the other planets revolving around the sun. He was was at the center and stationary. They had various followed by Galileo, who brought about big advances ideas about the shape of the earth: i.e., flat, or in astronomy when, in 1609 and 1610, he started his saucer-shaped (because it had to have a rim or peo- telescopic observations. The story goes that the ple would fall off), drum-shaped or log-shaped, but telescope had come in for military purposes and Pythagoras, in the sixth century B.C., believed in that Galileo succeeied in obtaining a telescope and the sphericity of the earth. Notv, I am sure, when turned it to the moon.It is somewhat questionable I studied history and geography I thought that whether or not Galileo was the first person who did Columbus was the first person who thought the this, but he mostcertainly is credited with it. He earth was round. However, Pythagoras, 2000 year's saw the craters em the moon, those holes, but many before, had the idea of a spherical earth. In fact, people would not look through his instrument. They 99 said, he put things in the tube: they said, if those Briefly, that is the history of astronomybefore holes are there they had to be filled witha crystal space astronomy came in. More specifically. radio substance: because of its appearance themoon had astronomy came into use. The beginning to be smooth. of that period was around 1931, I think, whenKarl G. Jans y was working with radio in the BellTelephone Galileo also turned the telescope to the Milky Laboratories. He had background static and could Way and saw that it was made up of stars.He did not account for it.; there were bursts of static every not realize what a bearing that fact wouldhave on 24 hours, to be exact, every 23 hours 56 minutes, the structure of the galaxy later. Healso looked at and he realized he was getting these radio frequencies the sun where he saw sunspots. ,Ile discoveredthe from space, because that was the rotation of the earth four satellites of Jupiter. He was not ableto make Radio astronomy expanded in that we could reach out the `rings of Saturn but he thought therewas farther and farther into space.It was not until 1950 something there and referred to them as "ears." that radio astronomy really advanced;in fact, the fifties became a great period for radioastronomy A contemporary of Galileowas Kepler, who and for the beginning of space stated his laws of planetary motion. astronomy. We be- Also, Sir gan to launch some balloons.I believe Schwarzschild Isaac Newton, in 1687 in the "Principia,"stated his sent up a balloon, in the latter part of_1950, law of gravitation. How little did to about Kepler and Galileo, 80 000 ft, to photograph thesun. The photography, in the 17th century, realize whatuse would at that height, was great above the made of that law in our space exploration atmosphere. through About that time, there was alsoa balloon sent up celestial mechanics. As celestial mechanicsdevel- to study the spectrum of Venus, and oped, we are coming up to the last a little water century. At this vapor was detected in 1959, on Venus, with that point in time, photography is developing.The moon balloon. was photographed in 1840, the first staron July 17, 1850, and then we have spectroscopy.Spectroscopy proved to be very important to astronomy When Sputnik went up in 1957, a wholenew era 100 years opened up in astronomy; the entire ago, but it is just as important today. In picture of astron- space omy changed.I say that at that time a real change astronomy, we send up spectrographsto analyze, was observed in the picture of the astronomer. and to find out what elementsare there. I used to Before that time, you pictured tell my students that they could change an astronomer as an their little old bearded man with his chartsand his photographs, verse "Twinkle, twinkle, little star" to "Twinkle, looking through a telescope, in twinkle, little star, need I wonder a hemispherical what you are?' dome, wondering what he would find, and With my spectroscope I can as you see helium and hydrogen. stood there as a spectator,you would` think, "Well, Up to that time you could look throughthe telescope wonder what he will see out there?'and that sort of and photograph objects, butyou could not find out picture. What have we now, indeed? Westill have what they were made of; it tookthe spectrograph to the hemispherical dome, analyze that light. we have a Space Science Building and maybe a radio telescopenearby, but the astronomer today is pictured We come on up into our century, as a young astro- and, of course, naut, sitting on a tube, ready to fly offto the stars; as the telescopes got bigger, we found thatthe at- so there is a great difference in the thoughts mosphere was troublesome. about "Bad seeing," we call the profession of the astronomer ofthese days. it is astronomy whenwe are talking about this. The bigger the telescopewas, the worse the "see- Tile first place they thought of visitingwas the ing," because the motion of theatmosphere was mag- moon, since it was the closest object. At last, the nified. So we have our bigtelescopes, such as those at Mt. Palomar and Mt. Wilson, moon began to come into its own. In the earlydays up on mountaintops toof the beginning of telescopes,people were inter- get as far as possible above theatmosphere. It was found that for the spectrograph also, ested In the moon, but when the bigtelescopes came the atmosphere in, the moon and planetswere beneath the dignity of was very troublesome, because therewas only a very small portion of that spectrum that -them. The big telescopes all had to be turnedto showed up: galaxies, to objects that were difficultto aft through about 3900 to 7000 A. Allthat ultraviolet and in- frared could not be seen. small telescopes. For a long timenobody paid any attention to the moon, sa space astronomymost certainly has brought the moon backinto its position. 100 There-was also that old dream about reaching them through television. Then, of course, their the moon; you felt that you would never attain that. coming back, and that splashdown right on the sec- Now we know that is perfectly possible. However, ond, "There they come!" The fact that people could the a: ronomer most certainly has set a great foun- look out and see those astronauts coming home has dation for the astronauts to go to the moon. Actual- been a great contribution getting more people more ly, a great deal was known about the moon before.the interested in astronomy and particularly in the moon. astronauts went there. We knew the distance, we knew something about the dust on the surface, we I do not believe there is today quite as much op- 'mew something about the topograph , an -d'We knew position to spending the money.It used to be that the the great range in temperature from about boiling taxpayer thought the money was put on the rocket and when the sun was shining on the moon, to close to was actually sent up to the moon, that the money was absolute zero when it was dark. We knew that there up there someplace and we would never get it back. waso air on the moon and did not believe that there If you point out how many people are involved, and the was much water, although they think nowthey have great technology that is used today preparing for found evidence of some water. The astronomers had these trips then I do not think the opposition is quite mapped the moon. In 1878, for example, there was as much. a map showing '.32 000 craters. The planets, of course, are always alluring. Thus, the astronauts knew where to go and There is something about those spheres that attracts where to land, but there was one great discovery the attention because there is the possibility that there astronauts made.I believe, the first was Russia' s might be life on them, especially on .Mars and Venus. Lunik HI, in 1959, which orbited the moon and photo- Mars, of course, has always been known as the graphed the back side.That, most certainly, was a Newspaper Planet.' Years ago, when people learned great contribution to astronomy; this was new knowl- that I was studying astronomy, or that I was an as- edge about the moon. Who would have dreamed, when tronomer, they always asked, "What about life on I started astronomy 50 years ago, I would ever see Mars?" That was always the first question, never any pictures of the back side of the moon: Since the about life anywhere else just what about life on moon rotates and revolves about the earthwith the Mars. I think that dates back to 1877, when there same period, we always see the same face, and just was one of the favorable oppositions.Every 2 years, never would have thought that we would see the back Mars lines up with the Earth and the Sun; this is of the moon. In the meantime, it has been photo- callectan opposition. There was one in tne summer graphed many times by astronauts, and the craters of 1971, but some of those oppositions are better than on the back of it have been named. Up to the time others. If you get the perihelion of Mars, that is, the Russians first photographed the, back of the moon, when it is closest to the Sun, nearer the time that you 41 percent of it had never been observed. The 59 have the aphelion of the Earth, we get the very clos- percent known to astronomers was because the rota- est approach. The one in the summer of 1971 was tion was not uniform. Since the revolution followed a very close one. In 1877, there was onealso, and Kepler's second law, we are permitted a look around as a consequence there were great preparationsin the edges, plus the fact that its axis is tilted a little, those days for the study of Mars' canali.Schiapa- which permits looking over the poles; when it rises relli, in Italy, observed the canali; he meant to say we can see a little over the west edge, and when it channels (in Italian, canali means channels). The sets, a little over the east edge. So, a total of 59 word was taken to mean artificial waterways and, percent of the moon had been observed. therefore, there must be smart Martians who were able to make an elaborate irrigation system.You, Of Course, we know the moon is a great place see, Mars has two polar caps, and for a long time for a rock collector. We have got all those rocks they were believed to be ice and snow; now, they are that came back, but at present it is hard to say what thought to be carbon dioxide, but the proponents of will be determined from the study of those rock.-; the canal theory would say, when the polar cap is about the age of the moon, the evolution of the solar turned toward the Sun in summer it would diminish system, the evolution of the moon, and of the earth. e anti then the canals become stronger. Duringwinter, I think, one of the big things this trip to the moon has when the polar cap would get larger, the canals were done is that astronomy is not so far removed from not so prominent, and, theFefore, people interpreted people anymore just the fact that people actually the canals as a very elaborate irrigation system for saw the astronauts, they felt they were upthere with the planet. To have such an elaborate irrigation 101 system, there had to be intelligent Martians. That, anywhere it would be on Venus. But the radio tele- of course, attracted attention. scope, the radio astronomers, and also some spacecraft agree fairly well that thetemperature on 'Then there was the excitement about the Mars Venus is 800 to 900° F.If that is the case, then the satellites. The two satellites of Marswere di.. cov- Venusians cannot be like the Earthlings. We could ered, in 1877, by an American astronomer, Asapli not stand a temperature as high as that. Hall, Sr., of the Naval Observatory. Thattelescope had just been completed.You could almost interpret What about the sun? There are so many prob- those two satellites as artificial satellites sentup by lems about the sun for which we need ground-based Martians because of the timing of their revolutions. astronomy, balloons and orbiting solar observato- Mars rotates in 24 hours 37 minutes 22.58 seconds; ries, plus everything-you can think of. Thesun does the markings are very prominent, and it has been not rotate as a solid, for example.It rotates faster timed so many times. One of the satellites revolves at the equator than at higher latitudes: There isa around Mars in 7 hours 40 minutes, that is, itgoes sunspot cycle, storms on the sun that havea cycle around three times while Mars rotatesonce al- of an average 11 yeari, and havevery far-reaching el most like an artifical satellite., The otherone goes fects here on the earth. So the study of thesun with around in 30 hours 18 minutes, which is justa little both ground-based and spacecraft observatoriesis over a Martian day just like we observe our arti- very important. ficial satellites today. This caused people tospecu- late that they might have been artificial satellites As we go on out to greater distances, it is im- sent up by Martians. A third satellite has now been possible to think that we will ever have a manned discovered, which has a period of about 12 hours, spacecraft or an unmanned spacecraft outto any of right in between those other two. The canalson the stars, but we, most certainly,can have these Mars and these two satellites, of course, have orbital observatories.I think there are plans now attracted a great deal of attention; thus, people for a big telescope in 1978, of 120 in. which will have always been very interested in Mars, about show stars 100 times plainer than hereon earth. whether or not there might be people living there. Now, that will change our knowledge in astronomy! It is estimated that with a 200-in. telescopeon earth Ground-based astronomy has detected carbon we could see 2 billion light-years out in space; with dioxide in the spectrum and some trace ofoxygen this new telescope, if it ever gets finished,our range and water vapor. Mariner IV photographed Mars would be 20 billion light-years, and then all these from 6000 miles (that is as close as itcame to the quasars would not be such a mystery. The quasars planet). The photographs revealedcraters just like were first discovered by radio telescope and then, those on the moon. I do not think that ticsever been a quasar was picked up as an optical speck by suspected before, that Mars has craters similarto ground-based telescope.Also, the spectral study the Moon. The craters probably happen to lineup, showed the great red shift, the velocity ofregres- and it is these lines that people have interpretedas sion, that the great galaxies show. canals. The history of the human race is a continuous Venus, of course, is another planet that is close struggle from darkness toward light.It serves us, by the Earth. In fact, Venus comes closer to Earth therefore, no purpose to discuss theuse of knowl- than Mars. Venus, when it is the closest, is about edge. Man wants to know and when he ceases to do 26 million miles distant; Mars is about 35 million so, he is no longer man. In man' s brief history, the miles. When Venus is closest the dark part is turned challenge of cosmic space stands unparalleled. toward the Earth, therefore, up to the time ofspace Space exploration is here whether the people like it astronomy, you never heard much about Venus be- or not, we just cannot get away from it. We have cause you could not see it.When Mars is closest, just got to keep on.I want to conclude with this the illuminated part is turned toward the Earth. statement: It does not make any difference whether Venus, of course, is an °bp:et of study, especially we are talking about the astronomer who had the its atmosphere. Carbon dioxide has been discov- gnomon the vertical stick or the astronomer who ered, as well as hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chlo- will work with the big 120-in, telescope that orbits ride, and others. Fof years I taught thatVenus the earth.If he is a true astronomer he loves the was most like Earti , and that if there was any life stars too much to be fearful of the night. Transcribed from tape. 102 SESSION BENEFITS OF ORBITAL SURVEYS AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY TO ENV I RONMENTAL PROTECTION APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING-TO SOLUTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS By Andrew Adelman Manager, Advanced Studies IBM Corporation-Federal Systems Division General Productive in the conventional sense, the $100 000 `should be spent in more furnaces or in improving the efficiency of the process. When a region of the world is still virgin, such . as the U.S. was 400 years ago, people are few, the land is vast, and the resources are large. We enter In addition,-,a growing network of management an era known as the era of exploration free of eco- superstructure will unavoidably increase buildup logical problems. As time goes on, population Net results of inspections, studies, permits, re- grows, but resources remain constant. We find strictions and data gathering will be the production that the human groups attempt to exploit the resources of the same number of automobiles, kilowatt-hours, of the region, agriculture resources, mining, - or pairs of shoes, and will require more expendi- rivers, etc., to the maximum. This we call the ture of time, effort, and capital, than was required era of exploitation, which began for the U.S. in the during the earlier Era of Exploitation. early 19th century. As these resources are increas- ingly exploited, and as the population continues to As a consequence, the economic standard of grow, we begin to notice a phenomenon of coupling living will be reduced. Whether such reduction will between human activities, well known in physical be manifested through increased prices, more tax- systems. One can consider a human enterprise ation, or inflation, is immaterial. The fundamental as occupying a certain span of resources,- such as point is that more effort will have to be expended water, land, air, and exploiting these resources to produce the same quantity of goods as in the past. to a certain degree of intensity. The problem arises The overall net effect is to reduce the measured when there is overlap between the various resources' GNP to the lesser real GNP. Yet, if careful manage- span-intensity domains.It is the areas of overlap ment of the coupling problem were not to be under- which causes the ecological problem. taken soon, a- rather catastrophic reduction in GNP may well occur. Experience shows that the effects of coupling between diverse human endeavors are by and large The era of ecology, which affects the developed deleterious. Is this necessarily so, or is it caused nations first, may well place a natural brake upon by our ignorance of the underlying mechanisms? their real expansion; whereas the developing nations, Can the technology which has caused the problem also as yet free from such a brake, can continue to grow show the way to the cure? The answer is, very along the policies of the Era of Exploitation and, probably, yes. Theoretical and applied research thus, catch up more rapidly with the developed and measurement systems of all typess are already nations until such time as continued exploitation being focused upon the problem. Among these, the eventually will also lead them into the era of ecology. techniques of remote sensing of the environment This reverse lag may well become a powerful force promise significant contributions.- for closing the economic gap between developed and developing nations. The significant economic consequences appear to be that increasing portions of the gross national The overall problem of environmental ecologi-, product (GNP) will be devoted to evading the ill cal management consists of three phases: (1) the effects of coupling. Unfortunately, these particular establishment of the goalsnamely, the determina- portions of GNP are nonproductive. A $100 000 SO2 tion of how much to reduce the impact on the environ- filter in an electric coal-burning plant produces ment, and at what-bin-den to the different interested nothing in return except cleaner air. To be parties; (2) determination of who shares the costs not only the obvious economic costs, but also the the coefficient of utilization of rainwater is only costs in terms of limitation of other human costs; about7.5percent. and (a) the solution of the technical problem. Extrapolating tam growth of water demands to We have a good grip upon the technical prob- the year 2050 and multiplying by the earth' lem and arc making progress toward reasonable s esti- mated population approximately 6 to7billion solutions of equitable cost sharing. We still have one computes a totaLdejnand.If this were matched problems in properly, establishing the planning goals, to the total availabilitr6f precipitationwater, and because in large part to the lack of a theory of col- a global- efficienCy of utilization of 4 percent in A.D. lective human wants. One could, however,specu- 2000 was assumed, it is easy to determine thatwe . late that the efforts of the next few decadesmay will not have enough-water. The available well usher in an era of deep insight into collective water will have to be recirculated on the averageevery 2000 desires. hopefully, such social self-knowledgecan hours; in highly developed regions, approximately bring major, worldwide changes for the better., every500hours. It is clear now that there are two fundamental There is a lot of work going on to findsources differences between the discovery and exploitation of water. Of the world' s water, 97 percent issaline. of natural resources, and their ecologicalmanage- Of the remaining 3 percent water, approximately ment. In the former, economic return is thepara- 95percent is locked in ice, mostly in polarcaps. mount criterion.In the later, economic payoffs The best price today at which large quantities of vie with other, less tangible criteria asmeasures water can be desalinated practically is-approximately of success. Sometimes economic returnsare of $1 per 1000 gal. The price at whicha city is will- lesser priority than, for example, aesthetic moti- ing to buy is perhaps half of this. The price for vations. In the former, the discovery and location agricultural water is5cents per 1000 gal, and the of resources is of paramount importance. In the price for industrial water ranges from 10 to 20 cents. latter, we are much more concerned withresource The question of desalinization is avery interesting exploitation and conservation dynamics asa func- one.It is difficult to predict when practical instal- tion of time. lations will become economical. Studies to determine the econ, s of trans- Hydrological Models- Objectives porting Arctic ice via supertankers found that the' transportation rates are too high; it cannot,as yet, Water resources represent a major environ-be done economically. Since much of the remaining mental problem. The current consumption of 0.15percent of the world' s stored water is located water is 6 tons per capita per day in the U.S.; less, deep below the' surface, the_cost of drilling and of but still quite high, elsewhere. The reason whywe the electricity to pump is still beyond the price need so much water in industrial countries is that levels mentioned before. Therefore, at the moment, industrial products need many tons of water per.ton and until a technological breakthrough is effected,. of product.This would still not be too bad if the in- we are confined to utilizing only the rainwater, also dustries were to limit themselves to use of thewater known as surface fresh water, which is about 0.1000 and return it clean. When they pollute it, the addi- of 1 percent of the total water availableon earth. tional quantity of water required as a solvent in- Al' least for the near future, the question is what creases the tons of water_ required anywhere from can be done to utilize it more efficiently? 7to perhaps 20 times. The problem boils down to watershedmanage- Ilow much water is available? Because ofeco- ment. The watershed is a system in which the in- nomic reasons, only the water that falls from the put (rainfall) is stochastic, but the output require- sky by precipitation, which ison the average of850 ments are deterministic. The watershed has to mm per year, is available. If one multiplies850mm provide consumers with power, basedupon certain times the total dry area of the earth(125million schedules. Municipalities with water, also against square kilometers), one gets so many cubic meters schedules, have to supply irrigation water, andper- of water. Of that, an average of0.75evaporates haps even recreation water. The consumption before it is utilized, so that the theoretical efficiency schedules are relatively fixed, but the input is is approximately25percent although not all of that stochastic. The problem is how to match the two? 25percent is used.i As a gross figure for the U.S., 106 To do this, the Environmental Science Services is the ideal response of the watershedsystem to a Administration (ESSA) is helping to solve this prob- runoff-of-,1 in., assumed constantover the whole lem by the development of a model to predict how watershed-Area. Once this Unit Hydrograph is avail- much water will be available in a watershed as a able, then by well-known mathematicaltechniques, function of rainfall. This model is considered the one can multiply this, by convolution, by the actual best available in practice.Let us see briefly how time and duration of rainfall and obtain the flow-time it works, and what improvements can be added via output. This assumes; of course, that the water- remote sensing. -shed' s parameters arc linear and invariant. The ESSA model does three itings. First it These are collected by three Ixtsic types of tools. tries to correlate how much rain falls with how much The river gage measures the height of the river. water will flow out of the watershed that is the The more simple ones are just sticks with numbers utilization coefficient, which is roughly 25 percent painted upon them, which-a-field worker reads on the average but which varies with season and periodically. At least in the U.S. and Europe, region. The second tlAmit tries to predict is the field workers are fairly expensive: $2.00 to $3.50 time behavior of the flow.If all the rater falls very an hour, plus 8 cents per mile for their car, plus sup- 'rapidly, there will be a high crest and, therefore, plies. Thus the manual method is becoming rather floods.If it comes slowly then we have a smoother expensive to use. curve and no floods. The flow time behavior is called a hydrograph. The third thing the model does In addition, one world like to make this measure- is to combine the first two parts in the channel flow ment frequently, at lea st once a day or more often to give the overall prediction. ESSA has built 11 during river activity periods. The trend is, there- modifications of this basic model, which run on IBM fore, to install automatic stations. Manyuse analog 1130 computers for 11 watersheds. reporting, in which they write continuouslyon a strip of paper. The field worker now can come The first piece of the model, "correlation be- every 10 days or so, tear the paper chart off, and tween rainfall and runoff," is based upon four inputs. bring it back to the central data-collection facility The first input is the quantity of rain thatcomes for analysis. These towers vary from about8 ft down at any given time. The duration of the rainfall to 15 ft in height; some can even be higher. The is the second input. The third one is the season of cost of such an instrumentation unit can beas large the year. The assumption i3 that history will rough- as $30 000. Several are needed in a river, depend- ly repeat itself (not always true, of course). The ing upon its length, uniformity and other character- , fourth input is related to the humidity; i.e., dry *istics. soil absorbs water faster and therefore yields less runoff from a given rain, whereas wet soil tendsto The second tool is the rain gage. The manual become impermeable and, therefore, a given amount version costs about $300. The field workers have of rain yields more runoff.It is fr.t. possible 'to the problem of reading, as was discussed before. actually go into the field and measure how wet it is; The trend is to automate the gages by attaching it takes too many people and too much money. The them to telephone linesor providing them with radio model computcs something called the Antecedent transmitters. Precipitation Index which is based upon the rainfall of the preceding several weeks. With this Index, The third tool measures the speed of the water. the model roughly calculates the soil humidity. To compute the flow, one has to measure the area of the channel, or river, find the average velocity, The gathering of these data requires costly in- and multiply the two. Because it is a channel flow, strumentation., As of a few years ago, ESSA had the speed is not The same throughout all sections; at an agreement, whereby for $3 a season, farmers the bottom it is low, it grows as we near the surface, would phone in some of this information. This gives then it slows down at the surface. The speed is meas- an idea of what are the real-world constraints upon ured at different points at various sections of the the system. river. The measurements are then correlated and an overage speed is calculated. Otcourse, if the The second piece of the model is the construc- rivet changes, this has to be done all over again. tion of the time-flow curve, the hydrograph. After The cost, labor, and time consumption which these painstaking, laborious, and lengthy measurements, instruments entail call for improved systems of one constructs the so-called-UnitHydrograph, which data collection. 107. How do we accomplish this? First, the ESSA a large number of cases we can tell the type from model assumes the watershed to be substantially a observations not necessarily photographic o'oserva "black box." It does not care what is inside the box. tons, but observations of the radiant spectrum If one understands what is inside the "black box," infrared, for example. The second thing is the very one can get better insight and better predictions. important phenomenon of evapotranspiration, which i Second, much laboratory work has been performed simply the sweating of the plants. This again is a In hydrology. Many empirical and theoretical results function of the area coverage and of the type of plant. arc available. The problem is to extrapolate results We can also measure this from remote sensing. The from laboratory to the field. The reason is: econom. third is infiltratioo.Every soil has different charac- ics.It is too costly to send large amounts of people teristics of water abt:orption. In parking lots, al- into the great outdoors to gather data and to install most all the water will run off, but in sandy soil little permanent, remote measuring instrumentation. water will run off.Experimental methods arc being studied to measure the type of soil by remote sensing. Remote sensing appears to hold the potential for We can also measure its vegetation cover, which has a major step forward in cost performance. From been shown by Holtan and others to be connected to imagery, for example, we can divide the watershed the absorptiorg coefficient, because certain plants into areas of homogeneity. For parking lots which grow better or grow only in certain kinds of soil. have runoff coefficients of 0.9-0.95, practically all The coefficients are not 100 percent accurate, but the rain runs off.Forests can have runoff coeffi- they are already much better than having no infor- cients very close to zero. One could, therefore, label mation it all. an area which is all forest as type one; an area which is all parking lot as type two, and so forth.For each such homogeneous area one can create a kind of Additional parameters (such as soil type, basin microtraxiel whose coefficients are already fairly area, stream slope, land cover, etc.) whose knowl- well known from laboratory tests, then tie them all edge, for a particular watershed, could still further together and come up with a prediction which can be improve its model. An of these parameters are far more refined than the simple "black box" model eminently amenable to aerial remote sensing. They used today. are, by the way, difficult, if not impossible, to gather from maps because many of the significant Three things, for example, which are ignored features are edited out. in the present models are easily recognizable in even the poorest aerial pictures. The first one is The point of applying 2mote sensing techniques the phenomenon of interception. When rain falls, to the determination of the hydrologic regime of anywhere from 0.10-0.2 in. remains attached to the watersheds is twofold: the improvement in predic- plants, depending on the type of plant. Now 0.2 in. tive accuracy of already instrumeatvd and modeled over a 100-by-100-mile watershed which is a very watersheds and the determination of the hydrologic tiny one amounts to 2 weeks' flow of the Potomac. regimes of as yet unknown watersheds, with poten- What we have to do is to recognize how much area is tially significant reductions in time, labor, and cost covered by forest and the type of forest.If we can- over present methods. Such a determination is an not tell the type of forest from the picture, we can essential prerequisite for the planning of flood con- at least send people there to obtain samples that trol and water resource utilization works within the will enable a relative determination of the type. In watershed. 108 APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING TO STREAM DISCHARGE PREDICTION By Dr. Fritz it. Krause Aero- Astrodynamics Laboratory NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama and C. Byron Winn ' Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Associate Director of the University Computer Center Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Abstract introduction A P 'sibility study has been initiated on the use Remote mirth observations from aircraft are of remote earth observations for augmenting stream being utilized to study the feasibility of applying discharge prediction for the design and/or operation (inure space payloads to stream discharge predic- of moor reservoir systems, pumping systems and tions. Such predictions would help in breaking the indrAtion systems. The near-term objectivesare cycles between floods and drought; by distributing the intvrpulation of spariely instrumented precipi- water more uniformly throughout theyear. The tation surveillance networks and the direct measure- more uniform distribution will pr ..:serve fertile ment of water loss by evaporation. The first steps lands and improve the production of food and fiber. of the study covered a survey of existing reservoir The associated management of agricultural and systems, stream discharge prediction methods, forest resources follows directly from thewater .gage networks and the development of a self-adaptive resources management. variation of the Kentucky Watershed model, SNOPSET, that includes snowmelt. As a result of these studies, Damaging floods in the Mississippi and Tennes- a special three channel scanner is being built for a see River basins were frequent before the develop- small aircraft, which should provide snow, tempera- ment of water resource management systems by ture and water vapor maps for the spatial and tem- the Corps of Engineers and the Tennessee Valley poral interpolation of stream gages. The reservoir Authority. Similar systems are now needed for system of the Western Division of the Bureau of other major river systems in underdevelopedcoun- Reclamation was chosen for future demonstration of tries. The Department of Civil Engineering at how such remote observations might augment stream discharge estimates. Colorado State University has workedon such devel- opment prOjects for several years with thegovern.. meats of East Pakistan, West Pakistan, India, Thailand, and Venezuela. Acknowledgments The following paper describes the first steps This paper would not have been possible without of a feasibility demonstration project. The . long- the cooperation of the Office of AtmosphericWater range objective of this project is to integrate sta- 1 Resources of the Bureau of Reclamation and of . tistical methods for machine interpretation of earth Western Scientific Services and without a willingness observations with hydrological simulation models on the part of personnel of these organizations to for predicting the stream discharge oflarge drainage exchange direct and remote observationson a no- basins for the design and operation of majorreser- cost, no-interference basis. The aircraftscanner voir systems, pumping systems, and irrigation was built by Bendix under the direction of Joe Zim- systems. merman from Marshall' a Astrionics Laboratory. The short-term objective is to utilize multi- Aircraft surveys and the color photo mosaic ofthe spectral observations of the Colorado River basin Wolf Creek Drainage Basin were provided by that will be obtained with MSFC instrumentedair- Dr. J. E. Ruff, Colorado State University. craft for the following two applications: 109 1. The interpolation of sparsely instrumented A successful hydrological simulation model precipitation surveillance networks with remote should provide a reasonable agreement between the surveys stream discharge that is predicted from the precipi- tation readings and the actual discharge readings of 2. The direct measurement of the water loss the stream gages. Such success has been achieved by evaporation. only for small and well instrumented drainage basins The runoff prediction of larger watersheds is diffi- cult for two basic reasons. The first is the inade- Hydrological Models quate coverage of larger watersheds with precipita- tion gageS. A successful simulation model requires Throughnt the history of science the develop- a precipitation surveillance network which covers ment of improx ed measurement techniques has various infiltration conditions (interflow), slopes, stimulated the improvement of theoretical models and vegetation covers. The second reason is the of our physical environment. That is the situation uncertainty in the accurate prediction of evapotran- with respect to remote sensing at this time. One spiration losses from indirect measurements. very important area in which improved measure- ment techniques is stimulating the development of Hydrological simulation models are needed to new models is that of water resources. Modern improve the operation of existing water resource water resources management is based on hydrologi- management systems in large drainage basins and to cal simulation models. These fall into two categories:design future reservoirs, irrigation systems, and the first is statistical hydrology while the second cloud seeding operations for the more even distribu- consists of parametric hydrological simulation models.tion of water throughout the year. The need to im- Statistical hydrological models may be used where prove the prediction of stream discharge for existing many years of records are available but may not be systems in the U.S. may be illustrated for the inte- readily extended to regions where historical records grated water supply and utilization system of the are not available. W(.4tern Division System of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, which operates 22 reservoirs, 16 Parametric simulation models may be used in power plants, and 3 pumping stations (Fig. 2). Be- regions where recorded streamflow data are not cause of an inadequate precipitation network, in an available and may be used to assess the effects of isolated region, the predictions of the Sweet Water changes in watersheds as well as to extend records- River discharge, which originates in the Wind River in regions where streamflow or precipitation records Range, were off by 800 percent in 1969. This pre- are inadequate. diction would have led to extensive flood damage in . Casper, Wyoming, ifthe reservoirs above Casper Stanford University has developed one para- had been filled close to capacity early in the snow- metric model which is sufficiently general for appli- men season. cations to a great many different regions 111. This model is illustrated in Figure 1.It miy be described In mountainous regions, such as Colorado and as a set of transfer functions which relate precipita- Wyoming, the primary input for streamflow is winter tion gage readings to stream gage readings. The precipitation and snowmelt. The detailed processes precipitation gage readings are usually supplied from which produce streamflow from snowmelt are not a measurement network within a drainage boundary. well understood at this time [21. However, many The standard format of the Bureau of Reclamation past investigations [3 through 10] have indicated calls for hourly or daily readings of precipitation. that every watershed has characteristic relationships These readings refer to the height of water or snow between snowpack depletion and streamflow runoff. depth. During or shortly after rainfall or snowfall, Relatively simple relationships can be derived and in- the precipitation readings will give the direct input corporated into a model that may be used to synthe- of available water. Measurements of evaporation size streamflow in any given basin. from pans filled with water are used to indirectly estimate the water loss from wet soils and snow and The Stanford Watershed Model (II has been used by transpiration from plants. This loss is inferred for this purpose, but it is necessary to obtain the by accounting for the of the measured evap- parameters through a trial-and-error adjustment oration due to soil materials, surface slopes and- procedure. This is not satisfactorysince such a sub- vegetation cover. In most drainage basins such actual jective approach makes extrapolation to undeveloped evaporation losses exceed the stream discharge. regions difficult. The model parameters obtained in 110 this manner will be different dependingupon the in- southern test region that is shown inFigures 3 and dividual investigator and his understandingof the 4. This network is designed for testingthe runoff various phases of the hydrologicalsequence. This and environmental effect of cloud-seeding problem can be corrected by the use of operations. a self- It also provides the ideal startingarea for the expan- calibrating model which adjusts the parameters sion ofSNOPSETfrom well to less well instrumented based upon a quantitative figure of merit. regions. Within this newly instrumentedarea also exist some old gages (see Fig. 3).The large ratio A self-calibratinemodel called OPSET (Opti- of planned versuf existinggages clearly illustrates mal Set of Parameters) (111 has been developed the large instrumentation requirementthat would from an extension [121 of the Stanford Watershed exist if parametric models Model. However, this extension does were to replace the not allow for present statistical discharge predictionmodels. snowmen [131, which is the primaryinput for streamflow runoff in the mountainous regionsof interest. Another attempt at developiig The Skywater test site consists ofa number of a self- small drainage basins. One of these, calibrating watershed modelwas made at the Univer- the Wolf Creek Drainage Basin, was chosenas the initial sity of London in 1970 [141. Thiswas also based on starting point for the test ofSNOPSET. the Stanford Watershed Model anda numerical optimi- This basin is shown in Figure 4. It variesin elevation from zation technique developed by Rosenbrock [151.The about 8700 ft to slightly more than Rosenbrock technique was applied to the Kentucky 12 000 ft.It receives approximately 600 in. of precipitationannu- Watershed Model by Colorado State Universityin- ally, covers approximately 14.5 vestigators but it was found to be entirely too square miles, and con- is approximately 80 percent forested; suming of computer time (Control Data Corporation It has steep 6400 computer) and consequently slopes facing generally southeast andnorthwest. It a gradient proce- is generally snow-covered from mid-October dure was developed and incorporated into theKen- to mid, June and has past records of streamgage and pre- tucky Watershed Model. This self- calibrating model cipitation and temperature. includes snowmelt and has been designatedas SNOPSET.The first results of this modelare given here (pp. 112-113) and provide the basis Many instrumentation problems exist. suchas for the freezing of ink and storm damage. To avoid approach toward utilization of remote observations. such loss in input continuity, someone must regularly service and maintain all gages. This isa severe operations problem in the high mountain The Existing Surveillance Network areas that hold most of the snowpack. Toillustrate, from all existing old gages shown in Figure 3, onlythe single The feasibility of discharge prediction inun- location near the summit of Wolf Creek Passwas developed regions might be demonstrated byexpand- kept operating continuously enough tosupport stream- ing self-calibrating hydrological models fromwell flow prediction. Clearly, the cost ofdeveloping and to less well instrumented watersheds. Thereservoir maintaining an adequate precipitation network for system of the Bureau of Reclamation providessuch parametric stream discharge prediction in themain an opportunity as shown in Figure 2. Most of the precipitation area of Figure 2 would be high. We region hrs only very few precipitation andstream- hope that this cold might be reduced byaugmenting flow gages, which have, however, beenrecorded a much smaller number of gages with remote obser- for many decades. These few gages support the vations, present use of statistical hydrological modelsfor the operational discharge forecast.However, the Bureau has now a pilot program of increasingthe Discharge Prediction Without winter snowpack (Project-Skywater) by cloudseeding Remote Observations by at least 30 percent. U initiated, suchchange of precipitation patterns might decrease the validity of the present statistical forecast, and parametric The Wolf Creek Drainage Basin has onlya single location where the continuity of old precipitation models of the SNOPSET type might thus beconsidered. readings is sufficient for parametric models.How- ever, the use of only one precipitation rage is usually A new precipitation and streamflow gage net- not sufficient to adjust the model parameters fora work is presently being installed by WesternScien- tific Instruments from Ft. Collins, Colorado, representation of the drainage basin at hat d. The in the adjustment of SNOPSET was nonetheless ttempted 111 by augmenting precipitation with temperature records Aircraft Instrumentation for (daily maximum and minimum). Augmentation of Precipitation Measurements Figure 5 indicates the results from the first guess at the hydrological parameters in the model Our first demonstration on the interpolation of using the 1968-1969 water year as a test case. The precipitation gage readings with remote observation correlation between recorded and synthesized mean will be restricted to the snowpack in high mountain daily streamflows is quite poor.Figure 6 shows the areas. The area extent of snow can easily be detect same results after 19 self-calibrating iterations of ed from space and the depletion of the snow cover SNOPSET. The correlation in this case is very good appears to be directly related to runoff characteris- (0.94). The associated choice of model parameters tics (3 through 101. Even the low resolution of the was then verified by applying the unchanged model to meteorological satellites gave adequate estimates of the 1969-1970 water year. the yearly precipitation input in the Sierra Nevadas. Monthly inputs to smaller drainage areas can hope- The results are shown in Figure 7.It is appar- fully be derived from repetitive surveys that provide ent that the "plant transfer function" has been ade- higher resoultion images, such as the Earth Resourc quately determined by application of SNOPSET. Technology Satellite (EATS -A). Additional significai information for discharge prediction can hopefully be derived from incremental changes of the melt line. The good correlation between computer and pre- The boundary of melting snow should be accessible dicted stream discharge indicates that the use of from the C contour of a thermal map. parametric models might offer opportunities for re- ducing the density of streamflow gages. However, Any application of space observations to stream Figure 7 does not imply any forecast ability since discharge prediction would lose most of its value if model input and output overlap in time. the precipitation estimate does not include rain be- sides snow. Unfortunately, the interpolation of rain- The predictive ability of SNOPSET was tested by fall gages is much more difficult than the above ex- extrapolating the streamflow beyond the time of the trapolation of snowfall measurements since soil precipitation and temperature inputs. The results moisture is much more difficult to detect. are shown in Figure 8. The abscissa shows the fore- cast period; i.e., the period between the computed Temperature anomalies and greening of dry vege- discharge and the last precipitation measurement. tation have been proposed as qualitative and indirect The ordinate shows the quality of the prediction in indicators of rainfall. However, then indicators may terms of a standard deviation between the daily aver- have many other causes besides recent rain and are ages of predicted and measured streamflow. This thus probably not feasible for the interpolation of deviation is approximately 3 times the residual devi- rainfall gages. We propose instead to use a map of ation that remained after adjusting the'SNOPSET the vertically integrated water vapor mass. Incre- parameters as shown in Figure 7. Apparently, the mental changes of such a map should provide infor- model provides a good prediction over a forecast mation on the water loss by evaporation and transpi- period of approximately 6 months. This is adequate ration, which is also indicated by the decrease of the for covering the period of snowmelt. During these precipitation level in the rain gages. Repetitive sur- forecasts, the predicted and measured streamflows veys of the water vapor mass distribution should thus correlate within approximately 75 percent. For a allow interpolation of rain gages shortly after precipi- forecast in excess of 6 months, the deviation between tation inputs when these levels decline.Hopefully, measurement and forecast increases more and more. this interpolation will also hold for the immediately We believe that the above results warrant to base a preceding period of rainfall that was indicated by continuation of our present demonstration project and rising gage levels. suitable updated versions of SNOPSET, that would take remote observation in addition to readings from The CSU aircraft with a special scanner to pro- a few precipitation and temperature gages. vide maps of snow cover, temperature, and vertically 112 integrated water vapor mass (Fig. 9) is being in- from plants. The balance is provided by humidity strumented by MSFC. This scanner has three chan- in converted air masses. As long as this convection nels, two for reflected sunlight (0.83 to 0.871im and circulates the air within the large drainage area of 0.91 to 0.95)1m), and one for thermal emission (8 to interest, one might expect that its effect would can- 12 sin). The restriction to only three channels was cel out in the integration across this area (17). necessary to conserve weight and funds so that a However, a significant influx of atmospheric mois- small aircraft may be used for surveying hourly and ture into the drainage area might present interpre- daily variations of precipitation as required by the tation problems. In such an event; statistical cor- direct surveillance network. relation concepts are conceivable which might re- trieve the evapotranspiration component by a digital The bandpass of the first reflectance channel is correlation of water-vapor and temperature maps. chosen so that atmospheric propagation effects of water vapor are minimized. This channel will be used to provide the snow maps. A normalizing fac- Conclusion tor is measured directly per scan line by viewing the above sky screen. By using this additional ref- The successful statistical prediction of stream erence pulse, channel 1 can be used to correct for discharge from historical records of a few gages im- extraneous illumination factors such as partial cloud plies that the spatial interpolation of precipitation cover. gages does not need high local accuracy for obtaining acceptable overall precipitation inputs. Remote ob- The thermal channel is viewing a sky screen servations might thus have a chance for spatial inter- once per scan mirror revolution to obtain a signal polation of a few gages over large regions, as shown that is related to the ambient temperature of the in Figure 2. The above successful forecast over 6 aircraft housing.In addition, the thermal channel months also implies that the temporal interpolation will record the emission of an adjustable and stabi- between suctte.ssive overflightS does not need a great lized blackbody calibration source. These two ad- local accuracy. Temporal interpolation errors are ditional calibration pulses are then used to convert obviously acceptable within the deviations of daily the thermal signal into a radiometric temperature averages that are indicated by the statistical hydro- that should provide a good approximation of the sur- logical models in present use. A 9-day interval be- face temperature. tween remote observation's of half the drainage area is within the capability of existing unmanned satel- The bandpass of the second reflectance channel lites (ERTS) and might suffice for the temporal coincides with the absorption band of water vapor at .interpolation. 0.93u. This channel l-should thus be used to map the transmission loss that is provided by the atmospheric A special aircraft scanner is being built and water vapor. tested which should provide maps on the aerial ex- tent of snow, on surface temperature and on the ver- This transmission must then be interpreted in tically integrated water vapor mass for the spatial terms of integrated water vapor mass (precipitable and temporal interpolation of a few precipitation centimeters). Background for such spectroscopic gages. Such demonstrations should be conducted in interpretation is available from a 15-year informal large drainage areas where statistical hydrological and international cooperation on the propagation models are being used. The errors of the local in- characteristics of the water vapor molecule. The terpolation can be spot checked in small subregions, results of this are_summarized by the where the existing gage network LaSufficient to sup- Wave Propagation Laboratories of the National port the adjustment of the SNOPSET parameters for Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) local streamfiow estimates without remote observa- 1161. Their Slant-Path computer codes have been tions. The errors of the local space and time inter- made available to MSFC as part of a previous joint field test program. polation would thus be established by-reducing the number of gage inputs while simultaneously using The, proposed water-vapor map would account for remote observations. The errors of the overall the total water-vapor mass between the ground and precipitation inputs and evapotranspiration losses the scanner; whereas, the hydrological applications would a )sequently be established by estimating the refer only to the portion that is related to the evapo- propagation and self-cancellation of the local inter- ration from the underlying soil and the transpiration polation errors in the space and time integrals that 113 establiih the overall precipitatibn inputs to the 5. Garstka, W. U. , Love, L. D. , Goodell, B. C. , drainage area. The feasibility of using space obser- and Bertle, F. A.: Factors Affecting Snowmelt vations for precipitation estimates becomes apparent and Stream Flow. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation by comparing the estimated overall errors with the and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest tolerances that were established when using the Service, 1958. statistical forecast method.If feasible; the user& space observations would then provide for adjusting 6. Gary, Howard L. and Coltharp, George B.: the statistical methods for changes in the drainage Snow Accumulation and Disappearance by As- area by cloud-seeding operations, new river chat --- pect and Vegetation Type in the Santa Fe Basin, nels, new reservoirs, etc. Equally, if not more New Mexico. U.S. Forest Service, Res. Note important, the use of space observations might pro- RM-93, 1967. vide stream discharge forecasts in undeveloped regions, where several decades of precipitation and discharge records do not yet exist. 7. Gross, D.D.: Forecasting Mountain Water Sup- ply by Photographing Snowfall. Eng. News- Evaporation losses usually exceed the water Record, 119, 1937, pp. 310-311. flowing in the tributaries and their accurate knowl- edge is thus necessary if one wants to predict dis- 8. Leaf, Charles F.: Aerial Extent of Snow Cover charge by subtracting precipitation and evaporation. in Relation to Stream Flow in Central Colorado. Most parametric hydrological models estimate evap- Int. Hydrology Symposium, Ft. Collins, Colo., oration losses with empirical factors which account Proc. I, 1967, pp. 157-164. for various soils, vegetation covers, slopes, etc., in the drainage basin. Many of these factors might 9. Leaf, Charles F.: Aerial Photographs for Op- not be needed if the evaporation loss can be estimat- erational Stream Flow Forecasting in the Colorado ed from the water vapor mass. The survey of at- Rockies. Proc. 37, Western Snow Conference, mospheric water vapor distribution is thus not only Salt Lake City, Utah, 1969, pp. 19-28. needed for estimating overall rainfall, but may also assist in developing parametric stream discharge prediction models in sparsely instrumented drainage 10. Miller, D. H.: Snow Cover Depletion and Runoff. areas. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, North Pacific Division, Snow Invest. Res. Note 16, 1953. References 11.James, L. Douglas: An Evaluation of Relation- ships between Stream Flow Patterns and Water- 1.Parshall, R. L.: Correlation of Stream Flow shed Characteristics through the Use of OPSET, and Snow Cover in Colorado. American Geo- a Self-Calibrating Version of Stanford Water- physical Union, Transcript 22, Part 1, 1941, shed Model. Water Resources Institute, Lex- pp. 153-159. ington, Ky., Research Report no. 36, 1970. 2.Crawford, Norman H. and Linsley, R. K.: Digital Simulation in Hydrology: Stanford Water- 12.Liou, Earnest Yuan-Shang: OPSET Program .shed Model IV.Stanford, Calif., Department for Computerized Selection of Watershed Param- of Civil Engineering, Stanford University, July eter Values for the StanfOrd_Watershed Model. 1966. Research Report no. 34, 1970. 3.Leaf, Charles F.: Aerial Snow Cover and Dis- 13. Ibbitt, IL P.: Systematic Parameter Fitting for position of Snowmelt Runoff in Central Colorado. Conceptual Models of Catchment Hyd. , Faculty U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- of Engineering in the University of London, vice Research Paper RM-66, March 1971. Ph. D. Thesis, January 1970. 4. Brown, H. E. and Dunford, E. G.: Stream Flow in Relation to Extent of Snow Cover in Central 14. Rosenbrock, H.: An Automatic Method for Colorado. U.S. Forest Service, Rocky -Moun- Finding the Greatest or Least Value of a Func- tain Forest and Range Experiment Station, tion. The Computer Journal, vol. III, 1960, Station Paper 24, 1956. pp. 175-184. 114 15. Kahan, Archie M.: Weather Modification Poten-r-471 Rasmussen, J.L. : Atmospheric Water Balance tial for Water Supply in the Colorado River of the Upper Colorado River Basin. Atmt.3- Basin. For presentation at the Second National pherie Science Paper 121, Department Atm. Conference on Weather Modification, American Science, Colo. State Univ. , 1968. Meteorological Society, Santa Barbara, Calif., April 8, 1970. 16.Benedict, S. B. and Calfee, R. F.: Line Param- eters for the 1.9 and 6.3p Water Vapor Bands. ESSA Professional Paper no. 2, June 1967. ENERGY SOURCE PRECIPITATION I I wiTERCEPTION SURFACE RUNOFF EVAPORATION GAGE GO INTERFLow GROUNDWATER TAILE IUYIIYCSTAYION RESERVOIR IRRIGATION FLOOD CONTROL 'ATER CONSUMPTION "NATER SUPPLY GROUNO MATER RECNARGE TRANSPORTATION NTOROELECTRIC POwER Figure 1.Hydrological applications in Colorado and Tennessee Valley. Figure 2. Reservoir operations by Bureau of Reclamation. 115 g ; ... ***a {, 4". o oPION ....II woe ... 4. Figure 3.Precipitation surveillance network in the Colorado River Basin. liVA0111A01 Gk WA* MIX oso.m.oefoos YOICKM1AUON GAGE WON* P1110.01A01001 6000 wommoloostans vooloome 1100A01111CMITATION 011011 woo coo oeutoce11001401101' amexmooKAU 110014 Figure 4. NASA /MSFC regional application of Colorado State University aircraftsurveys, December 1970. 116 300 INITIAL aer...... WOLF CREEK STREAM GAGE OUTPUT MODEL STREAM N DISCHARGE (ft3/sec) ORIGINAL GUESS ON SNOPSET PARAMETERS USING SINGLEPRECIPITATION 200 - AND TEMPERATURE GAGE 100 - 0 1968 DEC FEB APS: JUN AUG OCT DEC 1969 Figure 5.Calibration of hydrological model parameter for Wolf Creek Drainage_Basin. 300- leWOLF CREEK STREAM GAGE - OUTPUT FROM DIRECT PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE INPUTS I I MODEL OUTPUT I CORRELATES 94 V. 1 I 1A I ip. is RECORDED t ' I . t soy, PREDICT&4,,, 0 i' t--rr i 1 i 1 I 1968 FEB APR _JUNE AUG OCT DEC 1969 Figure 6. Records used for establishing hydrological model of Wolf Creek Drainage Baain. 117 300- WOLF CREEK STREAM GAGE FROM DIRECT PRECIPITATION TEMPERATURE INPUTS L. 200- LA.1 CD CC x Ci 100 a MODEL - OUTPUT CORRELATES 84 % CC rl 1 0 \Jti%AI 1 1 I r-rgv- 1969FE8 APR JUN AUG OCT DEC 1970 1111,,Figure 7.Verification of hydrological model through 1969-1970stream discharge prediction. 69/70 DEVIATION BETWEEN THEFORECAST AND THE DAILY DISCHARGE MEASUREAVERAGED OVER THE YEAR (cubic feet /sec) 50 FORECAST 40 CORRELATES 74 /. WITH GAGE READINGS 30 0 ESTIMATE OF FORECAST DEVIATION 0 - ACTUAL FORECAST DEVIATION 20 LEVEL OF DEVIATION BETWEEN THE DAILY AVERAGE OF OPTIMUM MODEL AND OF GAGE "'' ."7". (68/69 SEASON) 10 2 ..K. 6 8 12 DATE OF LAST'K t4 FORECASTPERIOD(months) MEASURE Figure. 8. Streamflow prediction with self-calibrating extensionat Kentucky Watershed Model. 118 WM SCANNER SUN ANS, SKY 1s 1 Y T reeci EVAP TEMP CONVECTION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION SNOW OR WET SOILAT TEMPERATURE T Figure.9. Precipitation estimates from change of water vapor and temperature maps., POSSIBILITIES OF OBSERVING AIR POLLUTION FROM ORBITAL ALTITUDES By Dr. A. Barringer President, Barringer Research Corporation Ontario, Canada Abstre. tonnages of atmospheric pollutants, results from man's r.ctivities, has placed increased emphasison Itesearcn carried out over a number of years the need for continuous monitoring of airbornecon- has indicated the feasibility of monitoring global taminants on a regional and global scale. air polltition from orbiting satellites. Data on the worldwide buildup of pollution levels on a regional The enormous expansion in the use of fossil scale is at present very meager. It has been fuels by the industrialized nations of the world has established that carbon dioxide is graduallyaccu- not only created serious problems of air quality mulating in the atmosphere and the long termpos- around the centers of population, but the impact of sible climatic effects are some cause forconcern. mass transport of toxic contaminants to hitherto Far less is known about the buildup of othergases unspoiled regions of the world is becoming in- and of aerosols-, and satellites could providea most creasingly apparent. For example, in Scandinavia useful platform for studying trends and providing it is claimed that sulfur dioxide from Great Britain warnings of any general deterioration of the atmos- is contributing to the steadily increasing acidity of pheric environment. lakes in that region and to the decrease in lichen growth on the mountains of Norway. With the advent Optical methods show considerable promise of of remote sensing measurements from satellitesor measuring the burdens of pollution, both gaseous aircraft, it will be possible for the first time to and particulates. Important pollution gases, suchas establish the amount of mass transfer of sulfur sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, dioxide across the North Sea and eliminate conjecture and ozone, as well as same hydrocarbonvapors, on this point. appear amenable to optical remote sensing. Satel- lite platforms for carrying out this work wouldnot Satellite and aircraft monitoring of atmospheric compete with ground monitoring stations but rather contaminants using remote sensors adds a new supplement them with a different type of data which dimension to existing metnods of pollution measure- could be integrated with groiuxi level measurements ment. Downward-looking satellite systems will pro- to provide an all-embracing picture of pollution vide a measure of the total burden of specificcon- buildup, mass migration, and dissipation. taminants in the earth's atmosphere and will permit considerable extension and extrapolation of ground- based data. Whereas the satellite monitor willpro- Acknowledgments vide global maps of pollutant: distribution, it cannot alone provide absolute concentrations. On the other The author acknowledges the support received hand, it is simply not feasible to cover the whole from many agencies contributive to the development earth with a comprehensive network of ground sta- of correlation spectroscopy and interferometry tions. Therefore, satellite monitoring will be including NASA, MS, MSFC, HQ, EPA, DEUR, complementary to and not competitive with ground DRB, NRC Ottawa, USAF and U.S. Army, and monitoring methods. finally NASA-LRC and General Electric for the COPE interferometer. In addition to enabling the scientist to study the circulation patterns of large air masses in the global atmosphere, the satellite sensor will aid in the in- Introduction vestigation of interacting effects of pollution, the effective lifetimes of specific gaseous species in A growing awareness of the earth's finite the atmosphere, and the long term effects of a capability to divest itself of the increasingly large sustained buildup of polluting materials. 121 Carbon monoxide, for example, is being added atmosphere and to the atmosphere ata rate which would cause the covers the spectral regionbetween global background to almost 3000 A in the ultravioletand about 4 gm in the double every 2 years if infrared. The other is neat we take into account the variousremoval mechanisms thermal radiation emitted or sinks now known to exist. from the earth as a blackbodyat 300*K which lies Since this is not in the region between about happening ard, in fact, theavailable data, albeit 4 and.15 gm. Sulfur very meagee, show no dioxideexhiWts strongabsorption spectra in the apparent increase in the 3000 to 3200A mean global concentration in thelast 20 years, it is region, and nitrogen dioxideshows clear that carbon monoxide almost continuous butvery irregular absorption is being removed from features from the ultraviolet the atmosphere byone or more mechanisms notyet to the visible region. fully understood. The infrared regionsare particularly rich in absorp tion and emission spectra,and in fact, virtually all The global mapping of gaseous pollutants of interestreport in the I to 15 carbon monoxide froma region. The physics of gn. satellite offers the intriguingpossibility of being aiAe the measurements of to correlate the distribution atmospheric gases is of carbon monoxideover relatively straightforwardin the global surface, with the cases of thosespecies which absorb in the geographical features and violet, visible, or ultra- circulating air muses,in such a way as to delineate near infrared but increasesin the carbon monoxidesink anomalies. complexity for thosegases which exhibit absorption It may also be in the thermal regions possible to investigate possiblemodes of carbon of the infrared.In the latter case the temperature of the monoxide dissipation in theupper atmosphere by gas being measured be- orienting the satellitesensor to observe the earth's comes critical, and when highaltitude measure- limb using the directradiation of the sun. ments arbeing made,the effects ofpressure also have to be taken intoconsideration. Also, in both the near and thermal There is also seriousconcern that the slow but infrared the region isso relatively steady buildup heavily populated with of carbon dioxide (0.66ppm gas spectra, many of which per month) could havea long term warming effect tend to overlap, that theachievement of adequate on the earth's climate. sensor sensitivity with goodinterference rejection is Projections of this so-called a problem of some magnitude. greenhouse effectare complicated by theincreasing burden of particulateor aerosol pollution, which In the ultraviolet and could conceivably producean effect in the opposite visible regions the inter- ference problem is much sense; i.e., a cooling trend in the global climate. less severe; however,the spectral signatures ofnear-surface gasesare significantly weakened by A relatively recentdevelopment, posing possible atmospheric absorption threats to the globalecology, is the advent and backscatter. Theresulting signal is of the troublezome in the particularly supersonic aircraft andlarge rocket engines ultraviolet. Those effectsare which shown diagrammatically are capable of dumpinglarge tonnages ofspent in Figure 2. pollutants and watervapor in the upper atmosphere, where the photochemical It is possible tomeasure concentrations ofa activity is very high andthe gas by noting the absorption meteorological conditionsof dispersionare entirely le' obtained at one wave- different from thoseprevailing in the troposphere. 'm corresponding toa strong absorption band in thv ab..s, and comparingit with the absorptionat an With satellite remote adjacent wavelength wherethe gas does not absorb. sensing equipment of This simple technique, appropriate design it shouldbe possible to monitor however, tends to be subject the behavior of these to interferences becauseof the fact that absorption high altitude pollutantsmore bands are seldom effectively than fromaircraft or ground-based unique, and it is generallyimpos- observations. sible to pick a pair ofwavelengths which will not suffer from somedifferential absorption because the presence of of gases other than the one beingsought. Monitoring From OrbitalAltitudes An effective methodof combating this inter-. ference problem is to Remote sensing of atmosphericmaterial requires correlate a substantialportion a source of radiant of the absorptionspectrum of the gas being energy, and for nadir-looking ured against rstored mess-. sensors, two forms of solarradiation may bere- replica or mask of thespec- ceived (Fig. 1). One trum. The termneorrelationapectroscopy" has is reflected solarradiation coined to describe this been which bounces off thesurface of the earthor its technIqtle.'"A significant number of prototypeinstruments have been 122 constructed employing this principle. Over the past would be above most of the ozonosphere, which is 5 years, various configurations the correlation the upper atmospheric layer of ozone which acts as spectrometer have been extensively evaluated.In a powerful absorber of ultraviolet light. When using September 1962 a high altitude balloon experiment the balloon platform the signals of the polluting gases was performed to test the feasibility of monitoring are impressed upon the reflected light from the atmospheric sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide earth's; surface, the light having made two passes from above the ozonosphere. through the air layer. Therefore, apart from its normal alternation, the signal is diluted by atmos- While correlation spectroscopy is convenient pheric scattering. to apply in the ultraviolet, visible, and near- infrared portions of the spectrum, it becomes For the balloon flight, two correlation spectrom- more convenient to use interferometrie methods in eters were flown, one measuring SO2 in the ultra- the middle and far infrared. Detectors are far less violet region; the other measuring NO2 in the blue sensitive in this region and there is a much greater visible. These two gases had two critical problems requirement for large light throughput in the detec- in common, Fraunhoter line interference in the tion device. This condition is satisfied by an inter- solar spectrum and dilution of their spectral signa- ferometer, and by scanning the path difference in tures because of atmospheric absorption and the interferometer, an interferogram can be gen- scattering. Sulfur dioxide measurements had the erated-tibielimay be converted into a spectrum by added disadvantage, caused by the strong absorption means of a Fourier transform operation in a com- of the ultraviolet radiation by the ozonosphere and puter. In the correlation interferometer, however, the greater scattering of the shorter wavelengths the gas correlation is carried out directly in the compared to tha; which takes place in the visible interferometer against a stored replica of the region where the NO2 was measured. Mathematical interferogrant of the gas being detected. The models had been developed and computer programs intermediate Fourier transform step is omitted, hid been generated to model the instrument's per- thereby greatly simplifying the approach. This is formance to a variety of outside interferences and possible because of the fact that the Fourier trans- to calculate the optimum mask designs for balloon form of a gas spectrum is as unique as is the spec- spectrometers. trum itself. Thus, it was that early in September 1969 when two spectrometers were flown over Chicago at Remote Sensing in the Ultraviolet 114 000 ft. Their field of view was approximately and Visible 1 deg by I deg which resulted in ground resolution patch of 0.5 square mile. Because of polarization Aremote sensing correlation spectrometer for effects, the entire gondola was stabilized to prevent S02, NO2, and 12 was developed and extensively azimuthal rotation and thereby keep constant sun evaluated in various airborne measurement pro- angle. This was achieved through the use of a solar grams. The results orthese tests were so en- tracker device. couraging that a high altitude balloon experiment was conceived as a means of testing the feasibility Also incorporated was a flip mirror to alter the of monitoring SO2 and NO2 concentrations in the viewing direction of the spectrometer from a ground lower atmosphere from satellite altitudes; i.e.. vertical to a 24 deg angle away from the solar side from above the ozonosphere. so that two tracks of data were generated for SO2 and NO2, respectively. The chart records generated Thus, a high altitude balloon project was 'during the flight were returned to Toronto for sponsored jointly by the NASA Manned Spacecraft digitization, and the data were then reduced by a Center (MSC) and the Canadian Department of computer and plotted in various map presentations. Energy Mines and Resources. Chicago was selected Intermittent cloud coverage beneath the float path of as the ideal site because of its large population, the balloon caused voids in the data. Simultaneous heavy industrial activity, excellent ground-monitoring with the balloon flight, we obtained vertical profiles network; and its proximity to Lake Michigan as a from the correlation spectrometer mounted in a large background area: The prime aim of this station wagon which traversed the same float path as experiment was to see how large the SO2 and NO2 the balloon as far as was possible. Also the noontime signals would be when viewed from high altitude, values of SO2 were obtained from the automatic city- normally 114 000 ft. -At this altitude the balloon wide air monitoring network in Chicago which 123 measured ground level concentrations. All of these demonstrating that solar reflected radiation, modal. data were assessed, reduced, and plotted on a by target gas signatures impressed at the earth's digitized map of the Chicago area. surface, can be obtained at satellite altitudes. Also it should be added, the characteristics of the signals Figure 3 shows the computerized plot of the obtained at the balloon were identical to those theo- SO2 spectrometer output signals. The spectrom- retically produced by mathematical modeling. eter's output readings arc shown plotted as dis- crete values on a baseline, which is the ground tract of the sensor's field of view when the flip Remote Sensing With Ground Chopper mirror was in the 24 deg position. The circular but fortuitous float path of the balloon was the As indicated earlier, whereas attenuation and result of unstable wind vectors at float altitude, scattering are most severe in the short wavelength which is characteristic &upper level winds in late regions of the spectrum, other problems become summer. The measurements are shown as discrete paramount in the infrared.In the latter case these values rather than as a continuous analog signal include the, thermal structure of the atmosphere, because of the continuous grating scan system temperature and emissivity of the target gases, and employed in the sensor. temperature and emissivity of the earth's surface. The concept of the ground chopper was formulated Figure 4 shows similar data obtained when the to combat these problems. This concept Is based v,.e.wing direction was vertically downward. The on the assumption that the atmosphere is a homo- NO2 data and the 24 deg case are shown in Figure 5 geneous scatterer or at least only a slowly changing and in Figure 6 for the ground vertical case. scatterer, thus a spatial scan through the atmos- phere should give, at the most, only a slowly varying Note that in Figeres 3 and 6 that, apart from signal because of scattered radiation. Conversely, voids in the data resulting from calibration intervals ground reflectivity changes within the instantaneous aril intermittent doud cover as previously men- field of view of an instrument will cause a rapid tioned, there is very substantial agreement between modulation of that radiation which has passed the balloon data and the concentrated sources of completely through the atmosphere down to the pollution in the Chicago metropolitan area. ground and back to the sensor. A frequency filtering separation can then be performed to separate the low Figure 1 shows the manually plotted three- frequency ground reflection components. Further- dimensional profile of the station wagon data. The more, a frequency analysis of the data gives infor- primary objective of the station wagon traverse was mation about the spatial terrain characteristics to obtain, as closely as possible, time and space which cause changes in the incident power, and the coincident measurements of vertical burden SO2 amplitude frequency spectrum may be written as a along the balloon ground track.Because of that Fourier transform of the time-varying current in the unexpected departure of the balloon from the planned detector. east-to-west trajectory, comparative measurements were possible only at the intersection of the station Based upon the successful completion of mathe- wagon and the balloon ground track near the Chicago matical modeling and system stddleli; an instrument monitoring station no. 23 (Fig. 7). The upward design was developed and an instrument constructed. looking measurement was some 29 times larger than The ground chopper instrument comprised a two- the downward-looking balloon measurement, indicat- channel radiometer. One channel was sit to monitor ing a dilution factor of 29 111. strongly scattered spectral energy in the wavelength region of 3100 A, awhile the other channel was set to The value is some 2 to 3 times smaller than monitor the 4400 A component where the scattering theoretical estimates but in view of the uncertainties is much less severe. The 3100 A region corresponds involved, it is quite encouraging and represents an to the SO2 absorption spectrum, while the 4400 A interesting first attempt at dilution measurements corresponds to that of NO2 absorption. The radiom- through the global atmosphere. eter was equipped with a telescope and means of de- creasing the field of view which thereby decreased The results obtained during the balloon flight the ground coverage resolution. The instrument was prove conclusively the viability of the correlation equipped with electronics to process the outputs of technique to monitor SO, in the ultraviolet spectral the phototube detectors, and provide automatic gain region and NO2 in the blue visible by clearly control to these tubes. 124 The ground chopper instrument that was con-' It will be appreciated that the method is, in a structed is shown in Figure 8, which shows the sense, inefficient in that it discards a considerable optical arrangement of the instrument. The wave- proportion of the light reflected from the ground. lengths were selected by interference filters which However, it has the advantage of automatically were located at the face of the photomultiplier eliminating the atmospheric scattered component, tubes to reduce scattered light contaminations. The which cannot be adequately eliminated by mathe- instrument was flown at Yellowknife, Northwest matical modeling techniques. Territory. Our results show that even for this compara- Although the method is most applicable in the tively clean northern atmosphere the amount of ultraviolet for sulfur dioxide monitoring, it is also -scattered light received at approximately 1.5 km feasible to use it for nitrogen dioxide monitoring in altitude was about 2 to 3 times greater than the blue pc.rdon of, the visible spectrum. Terrain the directly reflected component in the 3100 A reflectance curves are still relatively flat in this region; the amount of scattering received at 4400 A area, making the errors caused by spectral gradi- was, of course, significantly less.- The amount of ents small. ground chopping was found to be as high as,25 per- cent at an altitude of 150 m above the terrain Therefore, the ground chopping technique surface when the field of view was reduced to a few feet on the ground. When the field of view was appears to offer an opportunity for measuring the increased to approximately 20 ft on the ground, total burden of gas between an aircraft or spacecraft approximately 8 percent modulation was obtained. and the ground without interference caused by Frequency analysis of the ground chopper signal scattering effects in the atmosphere. was performed and showed that, over the city'of 'Yellowknife, the overall chopped signal amplitude tended to increase while the higher frequency con- Remote Sensing in the Infrared stant decreased.It can be assumed that this is because of the nature of the terrain in Yellowknife, Whereas atmospheric scattering and attenuation and that this situation would probably change for are of major importance in the ultraviolet and _ other locations (Figs. 9 through 11). The ground visible; at increasing wavelengths the ability to chopper experiment has indicated that while pro- penetrate haze and smoke improves markedly. Over viding adequate high resolution employed in the certain wavelength bands in the infrared, however, foreoptics of the downward-looking telescope, a fie natural atmospheric constituents water vapor, significant portion of the signal reflected from the CO2, and ozone absorb heavily, creating, to all ground surface is modulated by spatial changes in intents and purposes, opaque regions of the spectrum the ground albedo.Since it is a fact that the (Fig. 12). Between 1 and 15 pm, roughly 50 percent reflectance spectra of terrain materials are of the spectrum is unusable for satellite monitoring relatively flat in the ultraviolet, it is possible to purposes. In the remaining regions, i.e., the assume that the modulated components of light at atmospheric windows, these materials absorb only two closely adjacent wavelengths in the ultraviolet weakly, and it is the task of the sensor design to will be of identical intensity, providing that there select an atmosphericwindow in which the target are no gases present in the atmosphere which gas has sufficiently intense spectral signature for differentially absorb these two wavelengths. monitoring from orbital altitudes. The most useful Conversely, the differential intensity of the ac atmospheric windows are, approximately: components of two closely adjacent ultraviolet wave- lengths, which have been reflected from the ground 0.95 - 1.1 Pm and modulated by fluctuations in ground albedo, can 1.2 - 1.350m be used to measure the presence of an atmospheric gas which has a differential absorption at the two 1.5- 1.8 Pm wavelengths. This is a simplified example which 2.0 - 2.5 Pm illustrates the aim of the ground chopper technique. In practide, the two adjacent wmelengths employed 3.3 - 4.1 Pm are sets of wavelengths which correspond to the sets 4.5 - 5.0 Pm used in the correlation techniques which have been described. 8.0 - 13.0 Pm Absorption spectra of several of the most important where P is the blackbody function, we find that th atmospheric pollutants are shown in Figure 13. terms which describe thermal emission from the earth and the gas are negligible at 2.3 Pm, while LI Figures 14 and 15 show, in somewhat higher reflected sunshine term is unimportant at 4.6Pm. resolution, spectra of six hydrocarbons which Thus, the radiation received, at 2.3Pm depends together represent almost 60 percent of the total mainly on the amount of gas present and onlyvery hydrocarbon emissions of the automobile. Also slightly on atmospheric temperature, though the ethylene, propylene, and 1,3 butadiene (Fig. 14) temperature dependence of a, while at 4.6 Pm the constitute 46 percent of the photochemical reactivity radiation depends strongly on both the atmospheric of auto exhaust I 21. A comparison of thesecom- and surface temperatures. Indeed, if e= 1 and ponents with the relatively nonreactive methane, the temperatures of the lowest layer of theatmos- acetylene, and ethane suggests a potential for phere and of the surface are the same, then the selective remote sensing of these gaseouscompo- contribution to 1(4.6) from that layer is independet nents in polluted atmospheres, which constitute of a and the gas in this layer is "invisible" at this the principal smog-forming potential of photo- wavelength.If c < 1 (as is usual) and the earth chemical smogs over urban areas. radiance varies from point to point, then observa- tions at 4.6 Pm are possible only if the temperature In high resolution, many of the gases of interest distributions are blown well enough to solve (1)or exhibit fine spectral detail, which is unique to that if the ground chopping- technique is used. molecular species. A good example of this is the firs( overtone of CO which is shown in Figures 12 The 2.3 Pm region is free of thermal problems and 13 at 2.3 Pm in low resolution and in Figure 16 but shows strong interferences from other in high resolution. gases, mainly methane and water vapor,as shown on Figure 18, adapted from the Connes Planetary Atlas This type of fine detail may be employed to 131. However, even though most of the CO lines separate a gas from strong interferents, as is being are not easily distinguished on a conventional spec- done for CO in the Barringer correlation inter- trum, such as in Figure 18, they still help to deter- ferometer used in the NASA/General Electric mine the number of photons received at thesewave- Carbon Monoxide Pollution Experiment (COPE) lengths and, thus, can be measured if the effects of program mentioned earlier. the interferents can be accounted for. Thiscan be _date by the Barringer correlation interferometer The choosing of a spectral region for the COPE which is being used on the COPE program.. experiment also illustrates two types of problems which occur in the infrared region. The interferometer (described inmore detail in the following section) forms the Fourier cosine The two strongest bands for the CO infrared transform of the received radiation. Since this isa spectrum are the 1-0 fundamental at 4.6 Pm and the linear operation, the transform (interferogram) 2=0 harmonic at 2.3 Pm. The 4.6 band, which is contains the same information about the absorbing about 100 times stronger, is in the thermal region gases as does the spectrum but is displayed along a and is relatively clear of interferents, while the time rather than a frequency axis. Thus, justas weaker overtone is overlapped by interferents but the spectrum is a combination of distinctive lines, is in what may be called the transmission region. the interferogram is made up of distinctive signa- That is, when we consider the radiative transfer tures for each gas present (Fig. 19).The correla- equation for the satellite observing geometry of tion technique depends on the fact that each point in Figure 17; namely, the interferogram depends, in its own uniqueway, on the amounts of absorbers present. Thus, if the number of points M at which the interferogram J is measured equals or exceeds the numbern ab- sorbers present, it is possible to solve M equations for the n unknown amounts of gas present. This 21 Zs implies that it is possible to find a set of M numbers t(r) -{1,, exp - i.. ds" . fItrmb f .. Ils" de f p it 0 S' it (a correlation of. weighting function, W) such that 2 Y. Z z ' ext. - f . dx" - tdexp ,.fdef 0 exp - fr.dx" de Zs Zs x. J W-= 0 126 if no CO is present and discrete wavelengths, and finallya series of equispaced spectral lines.' J W = (amount of CO) Era Recent progress in correlation interferometry has resulted in the development ofthe COPE field A breadboard model of the correlationinter- widened scanning Michelson correlationinterferom- feioineter, built under the COPEprogram, has eter for General Electric's NASA-LRC COPEpro- demonstrated the measurement of less than0.02 gram. Figure 16 shows the first overtone absorp- atm-cm CO in the presence of atmosphericamounts tion spectrum of CO in the 2.3 Arn region, and of C114 and H2O. This would correspondto a change Figure 21 shows its interferogram whileFigure 22 of 10 percent in the amount of CO ina round trip shows a block diagram of the general signalproc- vertical path through an unpolluted atmosphere. essing involved. The interferogram centeredon the delay region characteristic of COis scanned by The interferogram also contains informationon the oscillating refractor plate. The interferogram the amounts of methane and waterpresent; these is heterodyned down to remove the highfrequency can be obtained from the same measurement by interferogram carrier by mixing witha reference using a different correlation function, W. signal. The heterodyned signal is sampledand A to D converted for final processing withina mini- . This has also been done with the COPE bread- computer. At this final stage correlation functions board, where applications ofa suitable function W are applied to reduce the effects of spectral inter- to the data where methane was an interferentin the ferences which, of course, showup as interferogram CO measurement, yielded measurementsof methane interferences in the delay domain of the interferom- with better than 10 percentaccuracy. eter. The process of correlationcan best be visualized as the application of fixed amplitude digits cross-multiplied with theinterferometer's Correlation I nterferometry output interferogram to normalize its outputto represent zero CO gas output whenno CO is present Correlation interferometry, like correlation within the field of view, regardless ofany interfering spectrometry, is based upon cross-correlation of gases. incoming signal against a stored.replica. Inthis instance we work with interferograms which are the Theoretical modeling and atmospheric radiative Fourier transforms of the input spectra [4, 5). A transfer studies enable the weightingfunctions to be basic Michelson correlation interferometeris shown calculated for various model atmospheres. in Figure 20. The beamsplitter B provides Subse- ampli- quently, the instrument can have itsin-program tude division of the input spectra fromF which weights continually updated through actual suffers reflections from mirrors Mt and M2 field to measurements to ensure no-gas output forno-gas recombine at the detector D.Here C is the input. In our particular COPE breadboard model, compensator plate added by Michelson to balance the interferogram is A to D converted and the two optical arms. By suitable the selection of weights held within the minicomputeras digital num- position of movable mirror M2,the two beams bers applied to the digitized interferogram. can be caused to recombine at D in-phase and hence a minima occurs at B .If the compensator The advantages afforded by interferometers plate is now oscillated about its centralposition, result from their large throughput, the spectral a cyclic delay is introduced into theone arm, multiplex advantage, compact yet flexibledesign thereby unbalancing the interferometerto generate possibilities, and ready means for incorporationof the well-known interferogram. Figure20 shows the interferogram resulting from correlative techniques for electronic processing, a single wave- the latter obviating one of the major length input.Figure 19 depicts the forms of various disadvantages of Fourier transform spectrometers, namely,that interferograms resulting from several spectral of transforming the Fourier output back inputs, namely, a single discrete to its wavelength, two original spectral form for analyticalinterpretation. 127 4 The COPE breadboard has the following salient been most encouraging, there is obviously con- features. siderable work to be done before a viable satellite air pollution monitoring system becomes a reality. Aperture Interferometer6.6 cm diameter Severe problems remain to be solved, particularly in the thermal infrared, but the technology is movie Telescope 22.0 cm diameter ahead rapidly, and there appears to be no insur- mountable obstacle to the global mapping of most Spectral Pass Bands 4240 -4340 cm-1 and atmospheric pollutants from orbital altitudes. 2000-2200 cm-I Delay Scan Range 2.5 to 4.0 mm References No. of Sample Points 0 to 64 1. Barringer Research Ltd.: Absorption Spectrometer Balloon Flight and Iodine Sample Length I to 63 fringes Investigation.Final Report to NASA MSC Houston Texas Contract No. NAS9-9492, Scan Rate I Hz August 1970. No. of Scans I to 500 2.Stern, A. C.: Air Pollution. Academic Press, Accumulated Second Edition, vol. 3, 1968. NEP 1.6 x 10-11 W/Hz1/2 3.Connes, J. , et al.: Atlas des spectres infrarouges de Venns, Mars, Jupiter, et al. Noise Equivalent Amount0.004 atm-cm Saturne.Ed. du CNRS, Paris, 1969. of CO (3 percent albedo and 7 = I sec) 4.Barringer, A. R. and McNeill, J. D.: Advances in Correlation Techniques Applied to Spectroscopy. National Analysis Instrumentation Conclusion Division of ISA Sympopia, New Orleans, La., May 1969. 4.. Problems of monitoring global air pollution ' from space platforms have been reviewed and 5.Dick, R. and Levy, G.: Correlation Inter- .experimental results presented of progress in the ferometry. 1970 Aspen International Conference application of correlation techniques from the ultra- on Fourier Spectroscopy, AFCRL 71-0019, violet to the infrared. While results to date have January 1971. 128 '0 100 WAVELENGTH (0) Figure 1.ContribUtions of the sun and earth to earth radiance OUTGOING FLUX. GAS SIGNAL DILUTION POLAR RADIANCE MOLECULAR SCATTERING SURFACE ATTENUATION Figure 2. Attenuation and dilution in the ultraviolet . 129 Ve..0 smart).* Sft1,01 10.1 MI Owtrfas.111.011 1.1.111MO *Vor BALLOON FLIGnt NO2 PROFILE CHICAGO AREA Sept 341994) wawawaftMOW Mlgl VELOCITT mom MILES PP11-1.1 Figure 3. Computerized plot of the SO2 spectrometer output signals. 4 Maeroma* 110.11IN nves imnvie NM* tmaalo 014 MICIIIMM CITY NEVOID JULY 1170 O w l BALLOON FLIGHT 502 PROFILE CHICAGO AREA, Sept 3419E13 H /11/sell CV01101. MIK.* MIND VELOCITT awn NILES Figure 4. Vertical viewing direction. 130 4 1111111111111 SlarIVIN 11101101/11 CITY IMMO NW 070 osomum sow owls NUM FLIGHT 502 MILE CHICAGO AKA. SEPT.& 1969 MOWS MOM 1100010001 umlir 10 N WWI ttLXIIT MILD PPIHI 11101_ Figure 5. NO2 data for 24 deg case. 00010100,.. SWOP 0 001000 t 5100101/1 CUT Ile Mire. O 5~ 11epills* WILIAM FLIGHT NO2 HICIFILE 011003 WA, S0p131d 613 a Atom ow^ Mee IMMO, Wmmoms 11111$ sum ppol-m Figure 6. NO2 data for ground vertical case. 131 00122000VIED SO2 VERTICAL TRAVERSE 0 2 au% (Stationwagon) a... 2.7 K.N. 7 - *swa CHICAGO AREA, Sept 3rd 1969 41'1" manLascns Figure 7. SO2 vertical traverse. Figure 8. Ground chopper optics. 4400A .1 i toy 1 a\) 1 tomwmAksAMAltkiril Figure 9. Ground chopped signal over Yellowknife (left) and natural terraic (right). .1,, 4. ....0...... v., .1.., ...... _ -...... N....No. Vs=25km ...... a...... ---- ammo ...... - ....-- -- ,s10km -- .11... Expected values for no sootier * --- Terrain elevation al I 2 PRESSURE I-EIGHT (Km) Figure 10. 3100 A moduhttion versus height. 133 ...... r. Vs:25km S...... yst!Okm .... 4.:.-specledvcs'oes for no sooner i 0 i I -.--Tercin elevotim 2 PRESSURE WIGHT ( Figure 11. 3100 A modulationversus height. 100 , ...----14 Mw .00. ..091T77\-"T .... 00 .....4 woos= s000 locotoo moo!too S.o Wel s Figure 12. Comparison of the near-infraredsolar spectrum with laboratory spectra of various atmosphericgases. I 1. Handbook of Geophysics antiSpace Environments. Air ForceCambridge Research Laboratories. 134 Figure 19. Absorption spectra for important atmospheric pollutants.2 ----2*-iti-..-Fet'12- -114114--*se. * , M-1 9404, tM114121 113 1 tt f - " r "24: Ltzl -,1-47 ; j 11.1144.4444 ase41.11044. 4444 4.241 Figure 14. Spectra of three hypocarbons.3 2. Catalog of Infrared Spectra for Qualitative Analyabi of Gases. Ber,kman Reprint R193. 3. Infrared Spectra of Clues and Vapors. Vol. II, Grating Spectra by D. S. Earley and B. H. Blake, The Dow Chemical Company. 135 It 111011( 123 ... . h t ? Iis_ , IF . " I 7.t / *11000.11. . I 01" 00: .._ . a ..... ,...... '. : .= ,, ..-.1:2 :7:-.i.:L--:J...... ".'''"-.:-:_t-. ft .0 . ,. ; - ,..4., ii..-.,;ImPtinbit y. 4 Am.=.Z ...... %I:4 -... - ..!...4. MOO ''...... , z...... r.etr-Letl v.,. - ...... e.-7-,..zi1- 5(1.10W.,sb . ,,,_ ,.... ,.... .1. ... .;..;-.._:...... --: r -:-,,-;1--..--_,t- :-,-... .:.....,..._,...... , t , . .... - - - a %%WWI .40.0=0°. t0.11. 1.1 : .00000* 00 Mg e. ..4...... 1-... I ,...-=.1...... : ,=;.,...::: - .....:-.'4. :..,...ii,:.....r.,...... 1.,.., ..-.... ,....--,...... r. ..:.: --.....7. , -=-;"'i:i.. s. 464...... ri t4 -4 I IS Z4 . -----,4ri__. tts ..... t ." ..'-:-,-r . ...Di ..:. r-...... nr,.. .. :...-v.t-mrt-... ,...... -,...,... Ill , ,r.--: ..-}:.7.---.4.::zi..:4;,..- -r."4....,_..4__.t '"----r:...... _:..-.7.- , z:,--._...-- 7-4:----.7*'---.-:7 :=t-- -. =.--.=4"47.'...-: '..7; ---4-...... -=..-z'.---=-...-- Figure 15. Spectra of three hypocarbons.4 WAVE NUMIIEN.CM 404320 4300 4260 4260 4240 4220 4200 4110 4160 4 2.35p CO 24 20 23220 23400 23500 23760 23940 2412. WAVELENGTH. A Figure 16. The 2-0 bend of CO recorded with a 15 000 lines per inch grating with 20-cm pressure and 60-cm path (spectral slit about 0.15 cm4). 4. Ibid. 136 S 0 I WV fttMIX Masora of irooaphice at Sigma of S VIWiet30, Auloophant at Maw rabooddar Dxrgy newtof aVosphara at S eatoorbing Mcrae: of atval:Ouit S.,e &elating bylaw Maw Sunshine Pafleetoi Itarthabioo ?ratted atsni 10000 Figure 17. Geometry for mapping conditions. ,14 T 0.0401maimmimomitmrn. Figure 18. Solar spectrum showing 2-0 band of CO (SA is the solar spectrum; the marks show the CO line positions). 137 Figure 19. Fourier transforms. SPECTRUM INTINFISOGRAM A A SttAT'Nui A. "AAAII[AINA"...... -. go Figure 20. Correlation Michelson interferometer. 138 41p ZERO PATH 1/2 mm .00434 PATH DIFFERENCE Figure 21. Interferogram. SOURCE RADIATION REF OPTICAL HEAD INTERFEROMETER (SCANS DELAY) REF SIG PREPROCESS WUW HETERODYNE (SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR) SAMPLE + DIGITIZED MEASURE NOVA Figure 22. Interferometer system block diagram. inkio .. SESSION IV EARTH RESOURCES OBSERVATIONS THROUGH ORBITAL SURVEYS USE OF DATA FROM SPACE FOR EARTH RESOURCES EXPLORATION AND MANAGEMENT IN ALABAMA By Phillip E. LaMoreaux State Geologist, Oil, and Gas Supervisor Alabama State Oil and Gas Board and Dr. Harold R. Henry Professor, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering University of Alabama Introduction To give some idea of the breadth of possible users, categories, and uses in Alabama, the follow- The University of Alabama, the Geological Sur- ing results of this user study are given below. vey of Alabama, and the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center are involved in an interagency, inter- Professionals who said they could use the data disciplinary effort to use remotely sensed, multi- beneficially included urban planners, regional plan- spectral observations to yield improved and timely ners, foresters, geologists, ecologists, hydrolo- assessment of earth resources and environmental gists, agronomists, biologists, physicists, astrono- quality in Alabama. It is the goal of this effort to mers, chemists, agriculturists, civil engineers, interpret these data and provide them in a format chemical engineers, agricultural engineers, mining which is meaningful to and readily usable by agen- engineers, geographers, limnologists, entomolo- cies, industries, and individuals who are potential gists, architects, archeologists, demographers, users throughout the State. lawyers, and university faculty members. In order to assess the full range of potential Possible categories of use were estimated to users of these data in Alabama, a study was con- include land use, cartography, hydrology, geology, ducted by the University and the Geological Survey transportation, ecology, forestry', fisheries, min- in 1971. During this 'udy the several hundred po- eralogy, meteorology, morphology, agriculture, tential users, con' ny project personnel, were oceanography, archeology, topographical mapping, informed of the remote sensing applications which demography, planning, and wildlife studies. can make use of observations from NASA's Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) and associ- Detailed uses which were included as potentiali- ated aircraft flights.These contacts were made by ties are flood control, soil studies, resource inven- telephone calls, letters, personal conferences, and tory, surface water studies, mineral exploration, two symposia (one in Tuscaloosa and one in Mobile). ground water studies, water temperature studies, The potential users were informed as to the possible growth trends, surveying and mapping, air quality applications of remote sensing from space in the management, water quality management, disaster areas of land use, resource inventory, environmen- detection, damage evaluation, sediment transport, tal control and others. Only afew of thepeople con- traffic studies, erosion control, irrigation, zoning, tacted were already familiar with some aspects of crop conditions, recreation, management, urban and remote sensing while the majority had no prior regional planning, and pesticide studies. knowledge concerning this tool and its areas of ap- plicability.In spite of this, the responses were The enthusiastic response from potential users; enthusiastic and indicated that there would be a as described above, indicated that the planning of large amount of use of remotely sensed data after varied statewide applications of remote sensing ori- some degree of interpretation had been ented toward a broad base of grassroots users accomplished. would be a timely and beneficial effort in Alabama. 143 Therefore, The University of Alabama, the Geolog- 5.Determining areas of anomalies of low flow ical Survey of Alabama, and the Marshall Space in streams Flight Center (MSFC) joined efforts to utilize this tool in statewide applications. 6.Determining areas of possible pollution through malfunction of salt water lines in oilfields Objectives 7.Determining changes in thermal patterns of reservoir and streams The objectives of this effort are: 8.Defining surface drainage and runoff patterns 1.To determine the applicability of remotely sensed data from ERTS for inventory and manage- 9.Determining changes in sediment load in ment of the natural resources and for the improve- reservoirs ment of the quality of the environment in Alabama. 10.Locating lineaments, fault trends, domal 2.To apply photographic-interpretation tech- structures, and other geological features. niques and statistical data management techniques to remotely sensed, multispectral observations and Several additional aspects of the proposed proj- ground truth measurements of pertinent resource ect will be of particular interest.to those engaged characteristics and environmental parameters to in traditional environmental engineering activities. yield improved and timely assessment of the State For the sake of classification, they can be described of Alabama resources and environmental quality in as falling into one of the following problem- an appropriately condensed format, which is mean- application areas. ingful to and readily usable by individuals in the - various cooperating user agencies throughout the 1.Potamology State of Alabama. . 2.Lacustral Systems 3. A long-range objective is to develop an ef- fective procedure for processing and interpreting .3.Estuarine and Marine Systems the remotely sensed data so that information in forms most suitable for ultimate users can be ex- 4.Predictive and Evaluative Hydrology tracted and communicated to them.It is anticipated that the ultimate users will be public policy techni- 5. Atmospheric Pollution. cians and decisionmakers, as well as private industries. The water quality management studies related particularly to the rivers will be to determine the impact upon practical water resource management Discussion of Objectives which can be effected by diurnal reporting of such parameters as stage, discharge, temperature, dis- On the basis of the evaluation of the Apollo IX solved oxygen concentration, specific conductivity, photographs it is anticipated that ERTS imagery pH, turbidity, and wind velocity by the strategically could aid in the following areas related to water located Data Collection System (DCS) platforms. resources: Significant lacustral studies are made possible 1.Determining areas of ground water move- by-the existence of relatively large navigation and ment hydroelectric impoundments on the rivers in the study area. The multispectral data for the impound- 2.Determining areas of ground water dis- ment areas will be evaluated for use in the prepara- charge tion of isoplethic maps of depth, as well as for areal delineation. The data will also be assessed for 3.Determining areas of ground water re- their utility in monitoring remotely detectable types charge of extraneous materials, including turbidity and pol- lutants.It may be possible to detect, identify, 4.Determining areas of future sinkhole devel- and continue to observe benthic colonies of interest opment in the impoundments. The thermal infrared (IR) 144 data may also furnish leading indications of known The conceptual approach to theuse of remote and expected thermal lacustral processoccurrences sensing data in social and economic planning ,important for effective water resource management. centers around communications and distribution.This em- phasis complements other aspects of thiseffort which Mobile Bay and adjacent portions of the Gulf of are concerned with collecting, organizing, andre- Mexico will be the site of estuarine and marine stud- porting in useful form hydrologic, geologic,oceano- _ ies similar to the lacustral studies described above. graphic, and other environmental and earth In addition to their use for the determinations of resources data.Research described above resulted inan accu- depth, shoreline, and current mapping,-the ERTS rate identification of potential users anduser cate- dat.pwill be used to monitor projected oildrilling gories. One major problem, however, will be in the activity in Mobile Bay for the occurrence of possible transmission of data from analyst to the enduser. oil spills. Their utility for- monitoring other pol- There is an immediate need to translate the items lutional sources already existent there is anticipated. of data output into a form usable by stateagencies The effect of this repetitive data ofgreater areal and law makers. The technical literature is virtual- extent than any ever before available upon the ef- ly meaningless to public policy technicians and fective management of these waterresources will decisionmakers. be assessed. Only recently has the need for better manage- In the areas of predictive and evaluative hydrol- ment of the State's resources been recognized. ogy, it is intended to relate spectral data to param- Former policies, in regard to resource development, eters obtained from ground-based instruments to have been limited to discovery and advertisement of provide better means of predicting dischargerates the assets which provide jobs and wealth;now, great- of the rivers. Also, similar data will be usedto er emphasis As placed upon technical analysis of the evaluate the accuracy of areal flood extentsso problem of economic growth and development and predicted. the need for appropriate legislative controlover re- sources, land use, and other aspects of an orderly The improvement of prediction of stream dis- development process. The State's primary planning charge rates will be sought first by extrapolation office, the Alabama Development Office (ADO), and of sparsely instrumented precipitation surveillance its regional counterparts in the State's multicounty networks by use of the remotely sensed data. All development district are just beginning to become resolution elements that look essentially thesame operational. to a photographic or electronic sensor will be grouped by MSFCIs unsupervised classification algorithms. The primary need within these planning units, With such a classification it is anticipated thata beyond the considerable accomplishment of recogniz- few precipitation readings can then be extrapolated ing the need for organization in the first place, is throughout a large area by identifying all otherreso- for useful and current data relevant in managerial lution elements which look spectroscopically similar decisions. High on this -list of data required is in- to the element sampled by the ground-truth reading. formation on land use and water quality and quantity. A major electric utility having hydroelectricfacili- Analysis of existing data is admittedly amenable to ties in the study areas has indicated intense interest the understanding and forecasting necessary fores- in the use of such improved predictive and evaluative tablishing a policy on environmental quality, but methods. data useful in the day-to-day implementation of a policy is still a major operational bottleneck in Within the duration of the proposed study, exist- sound regulation. The possibility that ERTS-acquired ing State and Federal laws will begin to take effect data could eliminate this bottleneck will be for the abatement of significant air pollution prob- investigated. lems within the study area.It is planned to use the ERTS data, insofar as it is possible, to indicate the Planning agencies have a clear responsibility to magnitude of improvement which those abatement document the extent and causes of environmental efforts produce. Birmingham and Mobileare the damages over extensive areas and place industrial two major urban areas which will be studied inre- expansion damage in proper prospective. Data from gards to air pollution, but there are other signifi- ERTS coitlil'probably be effective in such documenta- cant isolated pollution sources as well. tion. Moreover, managerial data generated, 145 analyzed, or distributed by planning agencies is not It is intended that each of the 10 DCS platforms limited in usefulness to the public sector. These be instrumented with eight sensors chosen to meas- agencies could provide a useful outlet for dissemi- ure appropriate parameters which may be included nation of-information from ERTS and other sources in, but not necessarily limited to, the following list: to private industries, which would support and en- precipitation, air temperature, soil temperature, hance their operations. These usages of ERTS data humidity, soil moisture, river water level and dis- will require the closing of-the communication gap charge, ground water level, turbidity, salinity, pH, between the scientific and the resource manager or dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, wind veloc- public policymaker who will use the information di- ity, current direction and velocity, wave height, gested from the remotely sensed data. and tidal depth. Parameters to be measured at each of the 10 strategically located platforms will be Since the long-range objective of the project is chosen to give the most meaningful information at to develop an effective procedure for processing the particular location. The parameters for a par- and interpreting the remotely sensed data and dis- ticular platform may change during the investigation. seminating meaningful information to users (Fig. 1), the fact that information will be distributed to appropriate users from several intermediate stages Multistage Sampling Techniques of processing and interpretation is emphasized. Feedback from the users (Fig. 1) will-be very im- Multistage sampling utilizing satellite data, portant in refining the interpretation and processing multispectral photography from aircraft flights, and--; in order to obtain the most useful form of the output. ground truth data, with emphasis on the data obtained from the DCS platforms, will be performed over Figure 2 is a diagram of data and information specific problem areas within the State.These are flows which emphasizes the disciplines which will (1)a corridor from Tuscaloosa to Birmingham and be brought to bear in interpretation and evaluation (2)a corridor from Mobile Bay to the confluence of at the University of Alabama and the Geological Sur- the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. Each of these vey of Alabama. This diagram shows that explicit corridors is approximately 60 miles long. The widths evaluation and management of information flows of the corridors will be variable depending upon the will be performed on all information output to users. number of lines of flight that can be scheduled at The indicated feedback will serve to allow an itera- each sampling time.It is anticipated that a minimum tive approach to the' preparation of the optimum for- of three and a maximum of six flights over each area mats for the output information. will be necessary for application of the multistage sampling techniques. The dates of flights will be scheduled to detect seasonal variations in vegetation Description of System for Collecting and pollution, and the number of lines of flight in Ground Truth each corridor will be determined according to the availability of equipment and the sampling require- The investigation will extend throughout the ments. The time of day of the flights will be sched- entire State of Alabama, which is encompassed by uled so that the aircraft data will provide an optimum the latitude and longitude values as shown in Figure supplement to the-satellite data. 3. Ground truth by conventional means and by DCS platforms will be collected throughout the State dur- The choice of the Tuscaloosa-Birmingham area ing the investigation.Field data in support of these and the Mobile Bay area for tgraforilication of multi- studies will be obtained primarily by direct field stage sampling techniques stems from two main investigations and from existing data_sources. reasons, namely: Ten DCS platforms, fully instrumented with ap- 1.They both are principal growth areas in which propriate sensors, are being planned for this inves- environmental problems are increasing rapidly. tigation. Their locations are indicated on Figure 3. Three of the platforms will be on buoys in Mobile 2. The first area is in the central part of the Bay and in addition to contributing to this proposed Warrior-Tombigbee drainage basin (outlined in Fig- study, will also contribute to the additional compre- ure 3), which constitutes a complete hydrologic and hensive study of Mobile Bay, which is being planned geologic unit convenient for study. The second area by the Marine Science Institute of the University of is at the mouth of this river system, and all influents Alabama. into the system must pass through this area. 146 It should be noted also that theultimate use of ly obtained spectral data in land the data from all levels will be to furnish use, planning, in informa- inventorying and managing naturalresources in tion to planners, regulatory agencies,and private Alabama, and in improving the environmentalquality enterprise for the conservation,development, and control in the State. use of the resources of Alabama. The10 DCS plat-, forms will be used to determine whetherthe auto- mated collection of ground-baseddata from selected It is also anticipated that the participationand sites can be combined with aircraft andsatellite data close liaison among the University of Alabama,the so that timely interventions (which otherwise might Geological Survey of Alabama, theGeorge C. Mar- be impossible) may be accomplishedto conserve shall Space Flight Center, and the Alabama Devel- resources and improve environmentalquality. opment Office will be effective in developinga meth..., od and procedure for translating theremotely sensed data into information whichcan be effectively used Expected Results of Investigation by governmental agencies andindustry by integrating it into the decisionmakingprocesses for environ- It is anticipated that the results of this investi- mental control, resourcemanagement, and land use. gation will determine the feasibilityof using remote- ARV 4 MSS IMIV 4 MSS Prints GSFC/NDIT Digital Tapes Visual Comparisons 1 Digital Tape Conversion with Ground Truth to HSFC MSFC University of Alabama Fotmats; and Interpretation (STAN 4 Optional Preprocessing by .S. of A. 1108) and U. of A. Boundary Mapping Existing Algorithms Enhancement Programs Teehniquea Unsupervised Classification of Comparison with Strip Maps Unsupervised Classification Maps Interpretation in Terms of LAd Use and Environmental Quality Proposed USERS Development State Agencies Local Agencies Federal Agencies Private Enterprise ij Industries Figure 1.Block diagram of data flow. 147 GODDARD SPACE CENTERII )1, MSFC DATA MANAGEMENT AND INTERPRETATION GEOLOGY MARINE SC ENCE (I IYDROLOGY) (ENVIRONMENTAL) F. ENVIRONMENTAL (IIYDROLOGY) INFORMATION FLOWS, EVALUATIONAND MANAGEMENT LAUSERS LAND USE 1 1 INVENTORY 114 1 AND SURVEY LAND USE PLANNINGj J Figure 2. Diagram of data flow emphasizing disciplines, information flow evaluation, and feedback from users. 34 01 35* OS f 1. V11444 1..10411,,,,,i'n., At441 1:441:17711 I LL- .av..clos 5 C,e4 CIC; 4 Ry ;ie./ PcS Refforms 1.; Figure 3.Location of test area (the entire State of Alabama). 148 A DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (DAS) FOR MARINE AND ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH FROM AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY By Richard A. Johnson Manager, MSU-MTF Research Center Mississippi StateUniversity Abstract caused by pollutants in fresh water, estuaries, and the marine environment; detection of contami- This paper represents the efforts of researchers nants in aquatic and terrestrial ecological systems; at Mississippi State Universitylo utilize space-age and related phenomena. Airborne remote sensing has technology in the development of a self-contaiited, opened up almost unlimited horizons for the collec- portable data acquisition system for use in marine tion of resource data from aircraft and satellite plat- and ecological research. The compact, lightweight forms; however, at this stage of development the data acquisition system is capable of recording 14 methods require sufficient amounts of accurate variables in its present configuration and is suitable ground -truth measurements to substantiate the over- for use in either a boat, pickup truck,or light air- all base line. craft. This system will provide the acquisition of reliable data on the structure of the environment and This paper presents the results of efforts by the effect of man-made and natural activitieson the researchers at Mississippi State University to utilize observed phenomenon. Utilizing both self-contained space-age technology in the development of a self- analog recording and a telemetry transmitter contained data acquisition system for use in marine, for real-time digital readout and recording, thepro- ecological, and environmental research. The system totype system has undergone extensive testing at the was originally developed at the NASA /MTF with.the Mississippi Test Facility (MTF). Currently under- aid of personnel provided by the MTF contractor, the going component performance upgrading, the proto- General Electric Company. The basic systemwas type system has been utilized in several environ- developed with off-shelf components and excess mental science investigations associated with air aerospace assemblies and was initially designed pollution investigations and weather modification. to be mounted in a light, single-engine aircraft to It is currently being used on the Eco-System Researchprovide economical operation for small investigations Project for marine data acquisition. in atmospheric diffusion and weather modification. In addition, the data acquisition'and data processing facilities of the NASA/MTF were utilized to themax- Acknowledgment imum in providing real-time processing and graphical and tabular presentations of the experimental data. The author gratefully acknowledges the contri- butions of Dr. Lewis R. Brown, Dr. Richard E. The data acquisition system is capable of han- Forbes, Dr. Michael R. Smith, G. S. Pabst, and dling 18 independent measurements in itspresent con- M. L. Jones to the development of this prototype figuration; however, onboard recording capability system and the preparation of this paper. This work exists for only 14. The experimental data may be was actAmplished under NASA Grant NGL 25-001-028, telemetered directly to the data handling center at NGL 25-001-032 and NGL 25-001-040. the NASA/MTF or may be recorded onboard as the individual situation requires. Most of the equipment utilized in the development of the data acquisition Introduction was performing service in another capacity prior to its utilization in the present system. The recent emphasis on environmental science research in the U.S. has provided substantial impetus to research programs in the general System Development area of marine ecologies. Researchers are develop- inepumerotts prediction methods foruse in the con- Criteria. The development of the original Air- trol of air pollutionrprediction-iirecologitil alterationsborne Data Acquisition System (ADAS) resulted from 149 a direct requirement for experimental data to sup- in the water and calibration and ground checkcom- port results predicted by a computerized numerical pleted within 1 hour. The overall dimension of the simulation program. In addition, it was desired to electronics package is 25 by 27 in. and 14 in. high. use the data acquisition and data processing facilities The total weight of the DAS, including all equipment at MTF and at the same time provide a system which and sensors, is slightly less than 250 lb. The dc could operate independently of these facilities in the batteries are mounted in spillproof canisters. data acquisition phase of an investigation. These considerations led to the development of an ADAS with both onboard recording and telemetry capabilities. Operational Mode In addition, it was desired to develop a self-contained system which did not depend upon the aircraft power Airborne Operations. Flight operations were and flight systems. This feature provides for a more conducted during 1970 at the NASA/MTF to test the flexible system in that It can be installed in an air- operation of the DAS and the quality of telemetry data craft with either 12Lvo lt or 24-volt electricalsys- received and processed by the MTF Data Handling tems and also it is earler to satisfy Federal Center (DHC). Numerous data runs were made at Aviation Regulations governing the installation of various times to flight check, calibrate and estab- the ADAS in an aircraft. lish operating characteristics_ of the individual meas- Hardware Description. Development of component., urements. Extensive data collection was performed hardware was initially divided into three maincate- on rocket exhaust plumes during the static firings of gories: (1) equipment available directly usableor the Saturn V first- and second-stage booster rockets requiring only minor modifications, (2) equipment at MTF. lr rf.- and posttest calibrations were run from outside procurements, (3) equipment requiring between the a.rcraft and the DHC to establish relia- major modifications and/or new design. In order to bility and ac.uracy of data acquired during static- satisfy the requirements delineated in the discussion firing measurements. on criteria, the main emphasis was on utilizing com- ponents which could be interfaced together with a Prior to sat airborne mission, the ADAS is bench minimum amount of design and fabrication require- checked and calibrated in the laboratory, and the ments. The telemetry equipment obtainedwas an calibrations and operational characteristics are excess, Saturn V, third-stage rocket unit. Thu checked dter installation of the ADAS in the aircraft. seven-channel analog recorder,power supplies, sig- In most cases, it takes approximately 1 hour to nal conditioners, resistance bridges, and the various warm up and ground check the unit. sensing devices were procured separately. All inter- face equipment, antenna hardware,sensor and Marine Operations. From June 1971 wail the transducer mounts, remote control and monitor panel, present, utilization of this system has been devoted and the overall system configurationwas designed to ecological and marine investigations. While this especially for this application and fabricated at MTF. system can be utilized in a boat, truck, and aircraft, the initial phase has involved itsuse (mounted in a General Description of the in the Eco-Sykt :m Research Project area at Data Acquisition System , within the function of Mississippi State Univer- ty' s Environmental Science Laboratory at MTF. This laboratory is part of the MSU Research Center The assembled DAS is set up for a bench checkout and.is-dedicated to the solution of pollution problems in Figure 1. In the upper foreground is the telemetry in the Central Gulf South area. The Eco-System Re- transmitter unit and mixer amplifier (1) ; in the lower search Project is a series of ponds and artificial foreground is the medium gain signal conditioneram- streams wherein simulated ecological-systems can plifiers (2); and in the rear is the analog seven-track be studied.In these ponds, special sensor packages recorder (3) ; the left panel mounts resistance bridges will continually measure selected parameters, which and calibration, control, and interface patching (4); are transferred to the instrumentation van via cables the special power supplies are floor mounted to the and connected to the data acquisition system forana- rear of this assembly (5); shown in the foreground is log recording or telemetry transmission to the DHC. the remote power and control switches and the signal monitor display (6) mounted within close proximity to the operator, enabling the entire unit to becon-. Processing of Acquired Data trolled in the cab of the boat, truck, or aircraft. The complete DAS is capable of being installed by twomen Utilization Of the MTF/DHC for processing of the in an 18-ft boat or pickup truck, with sensors mounted acquired data has proved to be significantly advantageous 150 both from the standpoint of accuracy of the results The DAS was designed originally to acquire data and the speed of data reduction. For missions con- related to the growth and dissipation of rocket ex- ducted within about 10 statute miles of the NASA/ haust plumes, which are gene' Ittx1 during the static MTF, the acquired data are usually tcicmetered to firing of the S-IC and S-II rocket engines. The ex- the MTF/DIIC for real-time processing and the ana- haust cloud, or plume, generated during the static log recorder is used as a backup system. When firing has many characteristics which resemble a missions are conducted farther away, they require natural cloud. Considerable interest has been ex- the use of the analog recorder as the prime means hibited toward the possibility of using this isolated of data acquisition, the analog tapes can be proc- cloud as a well-defined model for weather modifica- essed at either the MTF/DIIC or other equivalent tion research. These interests are directed at both facilities. the modification precipitation and electrostatic dis- charge in natural clouds and thunderstorms. In addi- The MTF /DHC has the capability to receive, con- tion, the exhaust cloud could cause an air pollution dition, and record the cilia front an FM telemetry problem in the event that toxic additives are used in system using an analog' receiving station and a Sci- the propellants. It was desired to determine the entific Data SDS-930 digital computer system, or diffusion characteristics of the exhaust plume of to replay a prerecorded tape through a wideband various rocket engines under various meteorological recorder and into the computer. conditions. The digital data are corrected using calibration The investigations on the effect of various mete- tapes and other established methodology resulting orological conditions on the structure of natural in a digital Engineering Units tape ready for storage clouds were conducted in approximately the same and later retrieval or to be stripped out as hard manner as for the rocket exhaust_elouds. The pri- copy data. mary difference in the nature of the operations-was that the natural cloud missions often cxtencied over 3- to 5-hour periods and over geographical locations Application to the DAS to Environmental up to 100-600 miles apart. In these cases 'it was Science Investigations desirable to recalibrate for each particular cloud probe, which would typically require 5-10 pene- The DAS has been used to obtain data in several trationE. The handling of such voltuniouscalibra- environmental science investigations. Included in- tions would be very difficult if manually recovered, these Investigations have been probings of the ex- but is expeditiously processed by computer and haust plume generated during the static firing of significantly increases the reliability of the output. rocket engines, delineation of the structure of natural clouds under various meteorological condi- Research concerning the prediction of ecological tions, quantitative contamination of aquatic and alterations caused by pollutants in fresh water, es- Lrrestrial ecological systems in support of studies tuaries and the marine environment and by the con- directed toward predicting the ecological alterations tamination of aquatic and terrestrial ecological caused by pollutants in fresh water, estuaries, and systems is greatly facilitated by accurate and timely the marine environment. date. collection in the field through the use of Field Monitoring Systems (Fig. 3) utilizing the DAS. This . The accepted data gathering procedure, prior to would allow collection of data from field locations the introduction of this system to marine and eco- for subsequent use in simulating field conditions logical research, is best illustrated by Figure 2. in the laboratory and pilot plant ecological systems. Manual measurements require at least one individual, In addition, the immediate review and analysis of sometimes two, for each parameter measured, if data acquired from the local environment would they are to be performed simultaneously. Compro- be available for use by local, State, and Federal mises must be worked out as the amount of person- planning functions for application to existing environ- nel required to make 6-12 discrete measurements, mental problems. at the same time, would be unrealistic for most proj- ects conducted in the field. The application then of Conclusion this system to the problem of recording ecological data allows all parameters to be recorded simulta- The DAS discussed herein represents a unique neously and utilizes only two individuals to operate application of aerospace technology and excess hard- the system. ware to problems in the environmental sciences. 151 The development of the DAS has provided an econom- at the same time minimizing overall project cost, ical means of obtaining ecological, marine, and provides continuing benefits from the aerospace meteorological data using this portable system in a program long after the need of the original applica- boat, truck, or aircraft. tion has expired. Any enhancement to the trans- ference of environmental science research into use- The utilization of the data processing facilities able application toward solving the pollution and the at the NASA/MTF, in conjunction with the airborne ecological problems facing the South Gulf area in data acquisition missions, has provided a real-time particular, and the U.S. in general, will be an im- data processing capability which is extremely valu- mediate benefit to us all. able for basic research investigations and programs which involve the evaluation and development of sensors and sampling techniques. References The availability and accessibility of Government 1. Phase Coherent Frequency Synthesizer Techni- excess equipment, with the unique innovations of cal Manual. NRL Contract N-00014-69-C-0117, application engineering and aerospace technology, 1970. provide the low-budget researcher a level of capa- bility never before attained. Since most university.. 2. Report of Department of Transportation Air sponsored research is through Str.te or Federal Traffic Control Advisory Committee. Alexan- handing, this gain in capability and knowledge, and der Report, 1969. 1 4 r- 6 Figure 1. Marine Data Acquisition System (DAS). 152 Figure 2. Former data gathering procedure (manual method). wot., RiV DATA SERVICE. Ak A sti WRIT* CMA&T CMALT StiMuLATtom 1-042. Nis fliff0mCV Cotif (OWN,a REMOTE* 7/P4 DOCColimtast IEtas! coerfersoN A bTA. ItLet vta s0Poit4100. A siATEA 241a. sctn CAAIT AID 041Puti0 rvivive MEM CbtAtT TAP4 ANT. RE more ,11110.1.1 sima. 4 IOW Ccorra ....=0 llosviClk% \J1 UNS3e5 vC 'KONA .4. SUM SILM1.01IS Curb. AMP NoTe * r4 PACraCstwk&olk tlimitvATIO JOoltDA,4 REMOTESTATION ftem Itturftsvome4owlytOfN0414m. kvEa atto41040 vow To10406 ii.vsks rot Figure 3. Field Monitoring Systems. 153/54 SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS OF TEMPORAL TERRESTRIAL FEATURES By George P.abehevsky Allied Research Associates, Inc. Abstract photography is not repetitive and is z..onfined only to the lower latitudes. On the other hand, the In the 11 years since the launch of the first orbit- experimental, meteorological, polar-orbiting ing meteorological Television and Infrared Observa- satellite (Nimbus) and the improved TIROS opera- tion Satellite (TIROS U on April 1, 1960, over 1 tional meteorological satellite (ITCS) permit two million pictures of the earth have Ix.,31 recorded by observations of any point on the earth every 24 hours. 25 weather satellites. During the 10 manned orbital once during the daytime and once during the night- flights of the Gemini program, the astronauts took time. An even more fr vent daily coverage is over 2400 seventy nun color photographs; coverage provided by the Applications Technology Satellite obtained frow Apollo VI, VU, and IX missions com- (ATS) seles, placed in geosynchronous2 stationary prises a total of 2150 pictures. This coverage, at orbit 22 300 miles above the equator. Every 20 min various times, scales, and geographic locations, has a picture is taken of diurnal conditions over the given us a unique look at the dynamic features of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean regions. Their applica- earth on a daily, weekly, seasonal, and yearly basis. tion to nonmeteorological studies, however, is not This report will review some of these observations yet fully explored. and their utility to the various earth science disciplines. Application of satellite data to earth resources and environmental studies depends largely on the Acknowledgments resolution3 ef the photographs and imagery.Only data from the Nimbus satellite seeies is adequate The author gratefully acknowledges the help of for this purrest, besides the Gemini and Apollo Mr. John E. Sissala in the preparation of ibis photography. Nimbus satellites with ground resolu- paper, which is based largely on his talk entitled, tions from 0.5 to 7.5 n. mi. at the subpoint have "The Utilization of the Various Time Scales of given us a new perspective to view our continually Meteorological Satellite Observations to Monitor canning atmospheric and terrestrial environment. Terrestrial Changes," presented at the First Western Space Congress, sponsored by the Vanden- 1.Photography - The production of a permanent berg Scientific and Technical Societies Council, or ephemeral image of a subject on a medium held on October 27-29, 1970, at Santa Maria, which is directly exposed to electromagnetic California. radiation emitted or reflected from the subject, Or transmitted through the subject, and is The manuscript was also reviewed and useful affected by the radiation in direct proportion comments made by the following individuals, whose to the emission, reflection, or transmission cooperation is also gratefully acknowledged: characteristics of the subject. Mr. Don Ku low, U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Program; Mr. Morris Deutsch, U.S. Geological 2.Geosynchronous - Same as earth synchronous. Survey, EROS Progra n; and Dr. Paul McClain, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3.Resolution - The minimum distance between two (NOAA), National Environmental Satellite Center. adjacent features, or the minimum size of a feature, which can be detected by a photographic or an imaging system. For photography, this Introduction distance is usually expressed in line puirs per millimeter recorded on a particular film under The photographic comrage of the earth's sur- specified conditions; as displayed by radar, in face obtained from the Gemini and Apollo missions lines per millimeter. If expressed in size of ranges in resolution from 30 to 200 ft. Unlike the objects rr distances on the ground, the distance meteorological satellite coverage, however, the is termed "ground resolution." 155 When two or more satellites are in orbit simul- Over cloud-free_octan regions, surface tempera- taneously, the capability to view each point on the tures have been measured with an accuracy of earth increases. This capability has not been used ir K6 [1,2,31. The Nimbus and ITOS satellites extensively yet, although it offers attractive advan- have the capability to sense the ocean surface tages for some applications. Many features would temperature every 12 hours. not exhibit any change even if viewed from the same angle each day, because the parameters being sensed Current Boundaries. Nimbus radiometers have do not change significantly Liming short time scales. sensed thermal boundaries of major ocean currents Movements along geologic faults or polar ice shelf (Fig. 1). Changes in these boundary positions boundary changes are an example of this situation. have been observed on a daily and weekly basis. Thus, while changes of some features may be ob- Boundary changes along the north wall of the Gulf served daily or more often, it is at times necessary Stream have been computed for a 2-month period to make longer temporal comparisons of imagery to using those data [41. Since currents could be determine the significance and amount of change. utilized or avoided to save shipping time, ship Table 1 summarizes some of the temporal terres- routing will depend on accurate knowledge of the trial features and the time scales of observations location, extent, and velocity of currents. It has required for their detection. . also been suggested that spaccborne oceanographers might be able to see current shears due to modifi- The Earth Resources Technology Satellite cations of wave characteristics, waves from islands, (ERTS) is planned for launch by NASA for March undersea topography, color due to contaminants, or of 1972. The expected 18-day repeat coverage from some other factors (51. ERTS will enable us to map dynamic terrestrial features (coastal processes, erosion, floods, vege- Ocean Upwelling. Some areas of upwelling have tation bloom) and classify events and landforms been studied in detail. Changes in their thermal (geologic hazards, drainage networks, lakes) on a patterns have been correlated with concentrations regional scale for the first time. The presently of fishing and phytoplankton activities (61. A 3-day available satellite data are meanwhile generating interval upwelling pattern change of the Somalian background studies-for future more detailed and local coast is illustrated in Figure 2. Yearly views of applications of the ERTS photographs and imagery.4 this area indicate the recurrence of this thermal pattern during the same season, suggesting that the commencement of upwelling can be monitored with Oceanography satellite data [71. Sea surface temperature observations are pro- Analyzed at hourly intervals just west of the ceeding actively using satellite radiometers.5 Galapagos Islands, ATS III pictures have suggested the presence of upwelling within the sunglint pat- terns [8,91. Similar anomalous patterns in areas of sunglint are usually observed daily by the Nimbus 4.Imagery - The pictorial representation of a sub- and ITOS satellites (Fig. 3). ject produced by electromagnetic radiation emit- ted or reflected from a subject, or transmitted The deep blue water along the upper west and through the subject, and detected by a reversible- east coasts of Taiwan (Fig. 4) are areas of up- state physical or chemical transducer whose out- welling, potential sources of new fishing grounds. put is capable of providing an image. Timely observation of such drastic temperature changes is imperative for proper management and conservation of ocean resources. 5.Radiemeter- A radiation-measuring instru- I ment having substantially equal response to a Sea State. Unusualdarkpatches observed relatively wide band of wavelengths in the infra- within the sunglint patterns on Nimbus and other red region. Radiometers measure the difference satellite photographs seem to be also due to areas between the' source radiation incident on the---- radiometer detector and a radiant energy refer- 6.K - identifies Kelvin thermometric scale; 0' K ence level. is absolute zero, -273.13C or -459.4F. 156 .54 of calm water in the midst of rougher sea surfaces In general, new, thin ice cannot be detected unless (Fig. 3). Hourly reflectance changes of these dark covered by snow, Ice concentrations from 1 to 0.3 spots have also been observed on the ATS imagery. are often evaluated as ice free because oflimitations It has been suggested that these dark spots may be of satellite system resolutions. There is usually correlated with areas of calm water and upwelling good agreement with ice charts of ice amount be- (8,91. tween 4and 0.7 and excellent agreement of ice amounts grea'er than 0.7. Changes of concentration The complex nature of the ocean surface is re- from one of these classes to another have been reli- vealed in Figure 5, as seen by the crew of Apollo ably determined. 7 on October. 15, 1968, from 100 miles in space. -The water around the islands of Socotra and the Brothers The British Arctic Survey (BAS) has been receiv- are caught in the sun' s reflection, revealing a com- ing regular ESSA satellite photo coverage of the plex surface phenomenon impossible to view by ordi- Antarctic Peninsula area since 1967. These pictures nary means. Situated just off the east African coast have proven to be of real benefit to observe the dis7 and north of one of the strongest upwelling areas in tribution of pack ice to facilitate the passage of the the world, the islands form a deflective barrier to the Survey's ships to Antarctic stations. The ships' ice northeastward movement of the cold, upwelled reports are continually used with the satellite pic- water. The vortices, slicks, swells, and other lines tures to develop confidence in the ice amounts derived which are visible reveal current direction, internal from satellite data. waves, and regions of convergence and divergence. Repetitive observations of such features are invalua- Off-Shore Leads. The formation of polar off- ble in oceanographic research. shore leads has also been observed on satellite photo- graphs (Fig. 7). An interesting phenomenon is the Polar Pack Ice Boundaries. Pack ice boundaries annual development of leads at specific locations at have been established for both polar seas using satel- approximately the same time of year. Nimbus I, II, lite imagery( 10,11,121. Month-to-month and year- and III in late August 1964, 1966, and 1969 observed to-year changes in the Antarctic pack ice boundaries a lead development off the east coast of the Antarctic north of the Weddell Sea have been determined from Peninsula in the Weddell Sea (181. Similar observa- Nimbus II and III pictorial imagery (Fig. 6)113,141. tions have been made in the Arctic. Arctic ice and water temperature boundaries These features can be used as corridors by ship save been determined using satellite data 1151. traffic to reach remote scientific stations. The Discrimination of older ice from newer ice near the seasonal behavior of such leads could be easily ice and water boundary is also possible, as is detec- monitored through repetitive satellite observations. tion of weekly and - monthly thermal changes in these The frequency of such observations would increase boundary position:. Current technology cannot during the spring and fall seasons (daily observation) provide a continuous or integrated measure of ice and decrease during the rest of the year (monthly cover. Present estimates are based almost entirely observations). on point-samples, often obtained with considerable difficulty under adverse conditions. Better informa- Iceberg and Ice Floe Tracking. Large tabular tion is needed on the total quantity of water stored as icebergs have been observed and their movement snow and ice in a given area, and repetitive sampling followed in Antarctica (Figs. 8 and 9), white large from satellites may provide such information. ice floes have been tracked off the east coast of Green- land (191. The first tabular iceberg to ever be viewed Ice Concentrations. Polar (and temperate climate)from space was seen by Nimbus 1 in 1964 at the junc- ice concentrations can be extracted from satellite tion at the Filchner Ice Shelf and the Antarctic Penin- data 111,15,16,171. Daily and weekly changes at sula [201. Nimbus III views of this area in 1969 re- specific locations have been observed and corroboratedvealed that this 70-n. -mi.-long iceberg had moved with conventionally gathered visible and infrared data. into the ice pack, leaving an indentation in the coast- 7.Infrared - Pertaining to or designating the por- detected by their thermal and photographic effects. tion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wave- Their wavelengths are lonrer than those of visible lengths just beyond the red end of the visible light and shorter than those of radio waves, light spectrum, such as radiation emitted by a hot rays whose wavelength is greater than 700 tun body. Invisible to the eye, infrared rays are 157 line identical to the iceberg' s shape. TheEnviron- Inland Lake Temperatures. The seasonalpro- mental Sceince Services Administration (ESSA)satel- gression of the average surface temperature of Lakc lite observations of this area during theintervening Michigan has been obtained using the Nimbus High years would probably establish the time of separation Resolution Infrared Radiometer (HRIR) data [251. and possibly the rate of movement of this feature Figure 14 shows Lake Michigan temperature pat- through the Weddell Sea. terns during 1966 from Nimbus II 1111111. Although Nimbus surveyed the Lake Michiganarea nightly, Two giant :cebergs were observed by the ESSA-111 satellite during the 1967-68 Antaretie-summer. observation of the entire lake was limitedon many They occasions by cloud cover and by sunlight interfer- were moving westward along the coastin the Weddell Sea. Movement and size of these icebergs ence [261. Such observational constraints will were.) be present also in the anticipated ERTS data. compared with reports from Antarctic stiilions.It is suggested that one or both of these icebergsmay be derived from that which calved from theAmery Reservoir Accumulation. Water accumulation Ice Shelf in late 1963 121). behind major dams has been repeatedly observed by meteorological satellites. Change_ in tone and pattern related to water accumulation behind the Hydrologic Applicatiotis Aswan Darn has been observed by Nimbus I, II, and III satellites between 1964 and 1969. Snow Boundaries. Useful snow information has been extracted from satellite data. Daily and weekly When the Gemini N photograph was taken in changes of the snowline in the upper Missouri-Missis- June 1965 (Fig. 15), the Aswan High Dam was beginning to fill, as is evident in the tributary sippi River Valley were mapped from satellitedata can- with very good agreement with the ir,rourA derived yons with water in them. In Figure 16, Lake Nasser, the name for the immense body of water snowline (221. Figure 10 is an example ofa snow- backed up by the Aswan Darn, dominates the for&- fall boundary change along the eastern partof the U.S. ground of this view of Egypt photographed by Apollo LX astronauts in March of 1969. Nimbus satellite Weekly changes in the U.S.snow boundaries systems have recorded images of the Lake Nasser haire been automatically determinedfrom ESSA and area since September 1964. The increase in lake size can be seen between the 1964 conditions (Fig. the Advanced Vidicon (television) CameraSystem (AVCS) imagery through theuse of a computer which 17A) and 1969 (Fig. 17D) [271. stores all reflectance values, for each data point, in digital form. Upon command,An array of the Repetitive observations of similar reservoir fill- lowest reflectance for each data point is displayed ups would be more frequent during the initial phases as a Composite Minimum Brightness (CAM) chart and would decline to monthly and yearly monitoring after their completion. [10). 'Snow and ice boundariesare readily apparent, as the transient cloud patterns are eliminated by this procedure. ,Flooding and Drought. The Nimbus and ITOS television and infrared imaging sensors have the capacity to monitor surface moisture and extent of Weekly snow-coverage changes monitoredby meteorological satellites in river basins in the water bodies. The effects of a spring flood of the _southern Sierras of California have correlated. Ouachita River on ground water migrations and within vegetation blooms have been detected by Nimbus 3 ±5 percent of aerial snow survey measurements1231. Figure 11 is an Apollo IX view of the HRIR sensors (Fig. 18). The Apollo IXnear - southern Sierras. infrared image of the area (Fig. 19), taken March Similar photographs from the forthcomingERTS 9, system will greatly enhance the mapping of biweekly' 1969, shows this area at the height of the flood and monthly scales. when about 165 mil were inundated. From the analy- sis of the digitized Nimbus III HRIR grid-printreflec- Monthly and annual changes ofsnow coverage in tance maps8 114,181, it was concluded that this flood had more effect on the intensively cultivated the Himalaya and Hindu Kush Mountains havebeen area along the Mississippi River, with a lesser observed but, as yet, no quantitative evaluationof these changes has been made (Figure 12) [241. effect on the more forested highlands in thewestern Similarly, the three Nimbus IV Image Dissector half of the map. Weekly and monthly observations revealed the lingering effects of this flood Camera (TV) System (IDCS) pictures,' takenover on the a period of 1 month (Fig. 13), show a rapid decrease 8. Grid-print maps Computer-produced maps of in snow cover on the peninsula of Kamchatka. temperature or reflectance values. 158 ground water migrations, water table oscillations, snow, obscured the boundary; whereas late spring and vegetation responses to the above-mentioned observations had too little snow. The optimum ob- conditions, several months after the flood. servation period existed for only 2 months. Drought conditions have also been observed by the The aid of repetitive observations of snow cover Nimbus III HRIR daytime satellite sensors in the in geologic mapping is illustrated in Figure 23. lower Mississippi Valley. Where severe drought Through the analysis of a fresh snow pattern, conditions affected this area during the summer of photographed by the Nimbus I TV camera, a fault 1969, a general increase in terrain reflectance is in the East Sayan Mountains of the U.S.S.R. was observed (Fig. 20). The moisture decrease, from detected. The fact that a few weeks earlier or May 22 to August 9, resulting from a decrease in later this pattern would have been obscured by a rainfall, affected the vegetal cover (wilted vegeta- lack of snow or too much of it reveals how unusual tion, poor crop yield) and soil texture; the radiom- and unexpected the benefits may be from the analy- eter, in turn, integrated those changes as higher sis of satellite repetitive observation photographs. reflectances.Similarly, a reversal to a lower rela- tive reflectance by September 12 was a response to Volcanic Activity. Cases of effusive volcanic moisture added to the ground from increased rainfall activity have been recorded by orbital infrared sys- [13, 14, 18] . tems, Kilauea and Etna by the Nimbus I satellite and Surtsey by the Nimbus 2 satellite. Surtsey is Vegetation Boundaries. In Figure 21 the reflec- the best documented and appeared as a minute spot tance changes observed in the three Nimbus III HRIR on more than eight separate orbits of the Nimbus daytime images of Western Africa correlate roughly IIRIR between August 20 and October 30, 1966 with the broad vegetation zones of the tropical forest, (Fig. 24). Calculations indicate that only about Savanna-Forest, and Savanna Grasslands that belt 3 percent el Surtsey' s total thermal energy left the the West African Continent south of the Sahara Desert. earth' s atmosphere as radiant energy [32LNever- These regional vegetation boundaries correspond to theless, the repeated detection of Surtsey demon- changes in soil moisture, as a response to seasonal strates that radiation from effusive volcanic events meteorological conditions [13,14]. Mapping of such of similar magnitude can be detected and monitored dynamic fcatures will be greatly enhanced by the from earth orbit with appropriate systems and availability of repeat' atellite coverage, since the repetitive looks over an area. vegetation boundaries fluctuate latitudinally from season to season. This figure illustrates once In another instance, a plume resulting from more that conventional vegetation boundary maps the eruption of the Beerenberg Volcano on Jan Mayen are inadequate for the depiction of similar temporal Island was observed by the Nimbus IV IDCS camera events. and daytime IIRIR system, beginning on September 21, 1970 (Fig. 25). This observation demonstrates Geographic and Geologic -Applications once more the significance of frequent repetitive satellite observations in improving our understanding of natural processes of the earth and atmosphere Map Revisions. Geographic maps of polar areas.[33]. have been updated using the Nimbus satellite imagery [28] .Ice front locations in Antarctica have been The Nimbus 1V satellite relayed the temperature revised [29]. Mount Siple was repositioned 2 deg of steam emitted from the snowcapped Mount Rainier west, and a mountain group in the Kohler Range was volcano in Washington [34] .This is the first time eliminated as it had been positioned differently by that volcanic activity information had been trans- two different expeditions (Fig. 22). Nimbus I and 11 mitted on a daily basis by a satellite.In the future, imagery has supplemented-conventional data in the pictorial information may-accompany data from preparation of maps of portiOns of Tibet and China similar Interrogation, Recording and Location Sys- [30] . tems (IRLS). Differential reflectance effects of snow occasion- ally highlight previously nondiscernible ground fea- Playa Changes. Western U.S. playas have been tures. Repetitive satellite observations are.able to examined from space and evaluated as potential air- take advantage of this fact. A new vegetation boundary craft landing sites. Changes in surface moisture-- was suggested in Canada because the seasonal effects conditions would affect their availability as landing of snow highlighted the boundary between areas of less sites. Repetitive observations correlated with than 30 percent and more than 30 percent woodland ground measurements could establish a basis for cover [31]. Midwinter observations, with too much satellite determinationof the daily activity of these 159 playas as landing sites. Research along these lines Ship Plumes. Ship condensation trails have bees has shown the value of satellite pictures although observed on satellite imagery and documented with improved resolutions are required for more detailed ground observations [361. These features, where information. and when they exist, can be charted. The present civilian utility of this information is not very great, Figure 26 is a Nimbus I AVCS photograph although this does have implications for monitoring taken over northwestern Nevada. It shows a variety of contrail persistence from the future supersonic of playa surface conditions, ranging from hard, dry air transports in relation to atmospheric pollution. crusts (locations 2, 3, 6, 7, 16 and 19) to soft, dry, friable surfaces (locations 5, 8, 19, 14 and 15). The long, thin, anomalous cloud bands in the Neal [351 concludes that the utility of Nimbus images Nimbus III IDCS pictures, in Figure 32, are most in playa studies is limited, but they nevertheless probably ship plumes or "trails." Daily and weekly contain usable information when used in conjunction observations of these features from space would with higher resolution photography, such as that greatly enhance the inventorying of oceanic transport from the Gemini mission (Fig. 27). Consequently, activities and ship-traffic routing. Ship plumes repetitive high-resolution imagery from the ERTS have also been photographed by Gemini and Apollo will allow continuous monitoring of playa surfaces astronauts, and recorded by ITOS and ATS systems. on an 18-day basis, at least when the cloud cover is absent. Forest and Brush Fires. Smoke from large fires in Alaska has been observed on ESSA satellite Delta Sedimentation. Delta sedimentation plumes imagery [37j. Figure 33, from the Nimbus 1V IDCS, have been observed on Nimbus 1 imagery at the shows smoke plumes from major brush fires in mouth of the Colorado River in the Gulf of California southern California. Figure 34 shows similar and at the mouth of the Tigris Euphrates Rivers in fires over the mouth of the Zambezi River at Mozam- the Persian Gulf (Fig. 28). ATS III has observed bique, East Africa, photographed by Apollo VII astro this feature off the mouth of the Amazon River nauts. (Fig. 29). Numerous examples of coastal and in- land lake deltaic sedimentation have also been photo- Even though forest fires have been photographed graphed by the Gemini and Apollo (Fig. 30) astro- from space, pregent poor resolution of the meteoro- nauts. Sedimentation is an extremely dynamic proc- logical satellite sensors and nonrepetitive observa- ess and, in order to be monitored effectively, tions by the Gemini and Apollo astronauts preclude should be observed on a weekly and, at times,even operational monitoring of the effects of such fires on a daily basis. Presently available daily coverage on resources economics and atmospheric pollution. from meteorological satellites is too poor for such purposes. The ERTS program will improve the situation somewhat; however, more than biweekly Conclusion coverage is necessary for the monitoring of such temporal terrestrial events, as sedimentation,crop The list of temporal terrestrial features pre- maturation, or volcanic eruptions. sented in this, paper and summarized in Table 1, as observed from space, is not exhaustive. The need for repetitive observations of dynamic features is, Miscellaneous Observations however, self-evident if we ever hope to fully under- stand the changes affecting our broad-scale, repeti- Duststorms. Sahara Desert duststorms havetive views of the earth from future apace missions, been observed daily on Nimbus satellite imagery such as ERTS, for example, will be especially use- (Fig. 31). No intensive investigationhas yet been ful for a wide variety of regional inventory and plan- performed to determine the frequency at whicifthese ning programs. Such inventories may then be used phenomena should be observed, or the quantitative to identify areas of change so that acquisition of more information that could be obtained from the Nimbus precise information by aircraft or ground methods imagery. The ATSmphotographed a similar dust- could be planned. storm a year earlier (1969) over thesame region, monitored on an hourly basis. To date, however, eolian processes of erosion, deposition, and associ- References ated landforms have not been studied with the aidof 1. Warnecke, G., McMillin, M., and Allison, 'Nimbus or ATS data. L. J.: Ocean Current and Sea Surface Temper- 160 ature Observations from Meteorological Satel- Environmental Satellite Center, Washington, lites. Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, D. C., 1969. Md., NASA TN-D-5142, 1969. 11. Nelson, t . P., Roberts, S. N., and Roberts, 2. Smith, W. L., Rao, P. K., Korner, R., and Curtis, N. R.: The Determination of.Sea- T. D.: Sea Ice Reconnaissance by Satellite Surface Temperature from Satellite High Imagery. Final Report, _NASA Contract No. Resolution Infrared Window Radiation Meas- N-62306-68-C-0261, Institute of Arctic Environ- urements. Monthly Weather Review, vol. mental Engineering, University of Alaska, 98, no. 8, 1970, pp. 604-611. College, Alaska, NASA Contract No. N- 62306- 68 -C -0261, 1970. 3.Warnecke, G., Allison, L. J., McMillin, L. M., and Szekelda, C.: Remote Sensing 12. Swithinbank, C.: Satellite Photographs of the of Ocean Currents and Sea Surface Tempera- Antarctic Peninsula Area. The Polar Record, ture Changes Derived From the Nimbus 2 vol. 5, no. 94, 1970, pp. 19-24. Satellite. Your Physical Oceanography, vol. 1, no. 1, 1971, pp. 45-60. 13.Rabchevsky, G. A.: Nimbus Satellite Views Hydrologic Conditions. Proceedings of the 4.Greaves, J. R., Willand, J. H., and Chang, First Western Space Congress, Part 2, D. T.: Observations of Sea Surface Tempera- Vandenberg Scientific and Technical Societies ture Patterns and Their Synoptic Changes Council, Santa Maria, Calif., 1970. through Optimal Processing of Nimbus II Data. NASA Final Report, Allied Research 14. Rabchevsky, G.: Hydrologic Conditions Viewed Associates, Inc., Contract No. NASW-1651, by the Nimbus Meteorological Satellites. 1968. International Remote Sensing Workshop (IRSW), Proceedings, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 5.Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute: Ocean- Mich., vol. 2, 1971. ography From Space. WHOI, Ref. no. 65-10, 1965. 15.Gibbs, M. E.: The Utilization of Meteorological Satellite Data in Antarctica. U.S. Naval Sup- 6.Szekielda, K. H.: The Effect of Cyclonic port Force-Antarctica, Washington, D. C., and Anticyclonic Water Movements on the 1968. Distribution of Organic Matter. Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., NASA 16. Barnes, J. S., Chang, D. T., and Willand, X-622-70-40, 1970. J. H.: Use of Satellite High Resolution Infra- red Imagery to Map Arctic Sea Ice. NASA "7.LaViolette, P. E., and Seim, S. E.: Satel- Contract No. N-62306-68-C-0276, Allied lites Capable of Oceanographic' Data Acquisi- Research Associates, Inc., 1969. tion - A Review. U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office Technical Rep Ort 215, Washington, 17. Barnes, J. S., Chang,. D. T., and Willand, D. C., 1969. J. N.: Improved Techniques for Mapping Sea Ice from Satellite Infrared Data. NOAA Con- 8.Howley, C. J., Greaves, J. R., and Spiegel, tract No. E-67-70(N), Allied Research Asso- S. L.: Sung lint Patterns: Unusual Dark ciates, Inc., 1970. Patches. Science, vol. 165, 1969, pp. 1360- 1362. 18.Sissala, J. E., and Rabchevsky, G. A.: Terrestrial Changes Monitored by the Nimbus .9.McClain, E. P., and Strong, A. E.: On Meteorological Satellites presented at the First Anomalous Dark Patches in Satellite c"-Tiewed Western Space Congress, Vandenberg Scientific Sung lint Areas. Monthly Weather Review, and Technical Societies Council, Santa Maria, vol. 97, no. 12, 1969, pp. 875-884. Calif., 1970. 10. McClain, E. P., and Baker, D. R.: Experi- 19.Sissala, J. E.: Observations of an Antarctic mental Large-Scale Snow and Ice Mapping with Ocean Tabular Iceberg from the Nimbus II Composite Minimum Brightness Charts. satellite. Nature, vol. 224, no. 5226, 1969, Technical Memorandum NESCTM-12, National pp. 1285-1287. 161 20. Popham, R., and Samuelson, R. E.: Polar Space Applications, Goddard Space Flight Exploration with Nimbus. Observationsfrom Center, Greenbelt, Md., NASA SP-137,196E the Nimbus I MeteorologicalSatellite, NASA SP-89, 1965. 29.Waugh, D. V.: Nimbus SatellitePhotography Used in Revising 1:5 000 000 Map of 21. Swithinbank;C:: Giant Iceberg in the Antarctic Weddell American Geographical Society, New York, Sea, 1967-68. The Polar Record,Vol. 14, no. 91, 1969, pp. 477-478. N. Y. , Letter of August 6, 1970. 30. Norin, E.: Nimbus I and U AVCS 22. Barnes, J. C., and Bowley, J.: Snow Used to Cover Identify Points Between Latitude32 deg and Distribution as Mapped from SatellitePhoto- 36 deg N and 72 deg and 90 deg raphy, Final Report. Allied E. Institute Research of Mineralogy and Geology,University of Associates, Inc., Contract No. Cnb-11269, Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden,Letter of August 1966: 24, 1970. 23. Barnes, J. C., and Bowley, J.: TheUse of 31. Aldrich, S. A., Aldrich, F. T., and Rudd, R. Environmental Satellite Data for Mapping The Employment of Weather SatelliteImagery Annual Snow-Extent Decrease inthe Western in an Effort to Identify and Locatethe Forest- United States, Final Report. AlliedResearch Tundra Ecotone in Canada. U.S.Department _,Associates, Inc., NASA ContractNo. E-252- of the Interior, Geological Survey,Interagency 69(N), 1970. Report NASA-169, Contract W-12589,1969. 24. Salomonson, V. V.: Nimbus 3 and 4 Obser- 32. Williams, R.'S., and Friedman,J.: Satellite vations of Snow Cover and Other Hydrological Observations of Effusive Voleinism.Journal Features in the Western Himalayas.Proceed- of the British InterplanetarySociety, vol. 23, ings, International Remote SensingWorkshop 1970, pp. 441-450. (IRSW), University of Michigan,Ann Arbor, Mich., vol. 2, 1971. 33. Merritt, E. S.: Commentson Nimbus 4 Observation's of Mt. BeerenbergVolcanic 25.Sabatini, R. R., and Sissala, J.E.: Project Eruption. Jan Mayen Island, J. ofRemote NERO Nimbus Earth Resources Observations, Sensing, 'vol. 2, no. 2, Sept. 20, 1970. Allied Research Associates, Inc., NASA 34. Technical Report No. 7, Contract No.NAS5- Forrester, F.: Satellite Relays Temperature 10343, 1968. of Mt. Rainier. U.S. GeologicalSurvey News Release, Oct. 20, 1970. 26. Sabatini, R. R.: The Feasibility ofUsing 35. Nimbus HRIR and THIR Measurements for Neal, J. T.: Satellite Monitoring of Lakebed Surfaces in Playa Surface Morphology: Obtaining Surface Temperature of Lake Mis- Michigan. Paper presented at the Great cellaneous Investigations. Air ForceCambridge Lakes Conf. Meeting, Toronto, Canada, Research Laboratories, USAF, AFCRL-68- April 1971. 0133, 1968. 36. 27. Bowley, C. J.: Commentson Atmospheric Ackerman, H. J., and Rabchevsky,G. A.: Requirements for the Genesis of Anomalous Applications of Nimbus Satellite Imagery to Cloud Lines. Journal of theAtmospheric the Monitoring of Man-Made Lakes.Paper Sciences, vol. 24, pp. 596-597. presented at the Symposium on Man-Made Lakes, Knoxville, Tenn., May 3-7, 1971. 37. Parameter, F. C.: Picture of the Month Alaskan Forest Fires. ESSA, 28.Chief Topographic Engineer: Department of Cartographic Commerce, Wash. ; Monthly Weather Review, and Geologic Uses of Nimbus I AVCS Data. vol. 97, no. 9, 1969. 162 TABLE 1. FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATIONS PRESENTLY POSSIBLE AND NECESSARY FOR THE DETECTION OF TEMPORAL TERRESTRIAL FEATURES. ALL THESE CHANGES HAVE BEEN OBSERVED ON ORBITING SPACE IMAGERY, AND MANY HAVE BEEN REPEATEDLY MONITORED BY THE METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITES. Table I.Frequency of observations presently possible and necessary fur the detection of temporal terrestrial features.All these changes have been observed on orbiting space imagery, and many base been repeatedly monitored by the meteorological satellites, TEMPORAL 'OBSERVATION TIME SCALES and REOUIREMENTS TERRESTRIAL FEATURES Tyne* <12hr 12hr DailyWeeklyMonthly Yearly Oceanogrophy Sea Surface Temneratures P,CS X X X x Current Thermal Boundaries D.CS X X X X Unwelling nets X X X X Sea State ' 'ICS X X X X Sedimentation D,CS x X X Water Depth r X X Pack Ice Boundaries P,CS X X X X Pack Ice Concentrations P,CS X X Formation of Leads °,CS X Iceberg and Floe Migration P.CS X Nydrology_and Agriculture Snowfall Boundaries CS X X x x New Snow Areas CS X X X' Snow Depth PS X X Inland take Temmeratures ',CS X X X , X Reservoir Development DS X X x Flooding CS X X Drought CS X X Lake Freeze and Melt CS X Ground Water Migration C X X Vegetation Bloom C X X Cron Inventories CS x x Geology and Geography . Regional Geologic Nanning P X Volcanic Activity P,CS X X X X X Erosion and Deposition D,CS X X X -Play. Changes D,CS X x ' Delta Sedimentation P,CS X X Urban Growth P X Updating Thematic Maps n X Miscellaneous Fire and Smoke Detection P.CS X X Dust Storms CS X Shin Smoke Trails C X Water and Air Pollution P,CS X X Meteorological Conditions C X X X C Continuous Periodic CS. Continuous for seasonal or special events PS. Periodic for seasonal or snecial events 163 NIMBUS III NIMBUS I-11 4 FEBRUARY 1970 22 FEBRUARY 1970 I TOS I NIMBUS I I I 22 FEBRUARY 1970 26 FEBRUARY 1970 Figure 1. Gulf Stream thermal boundary. These HRIR pictures show the sharp thermal boundary along the north wall of the Gulf Stream. Changes in boundary shape and positionare evident. Black picture tones identify the warmest areas. White tones identify the coldest. These pictures were recorded at Goddard Space Flight-Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, on an inexpensive ground station (commercially available for about $5000) especially designed for the direct reception weather satellite pictures. 164 Figure 2.Upwelling changes near the Sarno lia coast between July 3 and 6, 1966. These two maps show the changing thermal pattern as recorded by the Nimbus II HEIR at the beginning of upwelling near the Samolia coast. The development of the clockwise circulation pattern was correlated with the bloom of phytoplankton. Figure 3. Sunlight pattern with adjacent anomalous dark spots. This is the central portion of a Nimbus IV IDCS picture taken off the southeast coast of Saudi Arabia on April 15, 1970. The two white x' s mark the dark spots which are believed to be areas of calm water and possible upwelling. Southeast Iran is in the upper right corner.(All Nimbus pictures in this report were furnished by the NASA Nimbus Project, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.)- 165 Figure 4. A Gemini X view ofocean Figure 5. The sun blazed on Socotra Island surface conditions south of Taiwan (NASA photo). and the Indian Ocean for this photo.Left of the sunglint, between the big island and smallerones called the Brothers, a slicklike eddy is darklyoutlined. Note the fine, white horizontal line belowSocotra. Waves rolling over an undersea shelf10 miles offshore may have produced it 18) (NASAphoto). 111 44111' 4111:1111 In. 601 i'lo` 7.), I M IIII s Ns to $IM WIMPS II--...... MI MOMS II s 01 MI 014114 III /04 511101100 III IL. N 4 to 71111/ 11141 ilP 31 . e ON /01 M 1 NI IS M 1 M1 00 10410 II...... --.. MAI MSaimsDe MI UM WW1 Iii 011/10 11005010 Figure 6. Monthly and yearly fluctuations in Antartic pack ice boundaries derived from Nimbus satellite data. 166 1- 1'1 21 AUGUST 27 AUGUST 29 AUGUST 2 SEPTEMBER 20 AUGUST 4 SEPTEMBER 410 TM ones of Mateo' MIMS smote *Wes monied dung August and Seirienton 190 inoMets tae develsonsent of an off shore We Or; tee wet cast of The Antsictic fletwisule The erestend winds and the Winning SWIM, *MOW WO Iltediot* Mn WM of lege WC Meet of the 20 to 30 mile width wee PeOlited in* PR GM Well from 27 Ausust to 2 SetWeinber. The deck we bound my can be obsefued to the ninth of the penin- sula in newel of the naps. Such ice fonnetion on be useful to shot Winne MOW WIR111#1. NSW* ONVIS 9 AUGUST Figure 7.Development of an offshore lead in Antarctica. y,1 r. bow , 1*, It way to mit 17 Ms 2c1SUGUSI Figure 8.Repetitive observations of a tabular Figure 9. Observed track, from May 18 to August iceberg in the Antarctic Ocean. Nimbus 11pictures. 30, 1966, of the tabular iceberg viewed in Figure 8. 167 NOSS III MCI NW *1 MT WI I MIN/N mast III 1111110 MOW IKS IMIIT DIII I NIIIINTIIII UM ONO MU III% EAMON WINS 111111 SIM MI Figure 10. Three-day change in snow pattern. A January 7, 1970, snowstorm dumped new snow in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and other eastern areas which had previous snow on the ground. f- * 7 ,i 3, . 71, % 0 *.g.e*.. - 46' -.*1 a*, Figure 11. Apollo IX photograph (March 1969) showing mountain snow cover in southern Sierras region, U.S. The ground resolutibi in this photograph is of the order of that proposed for future Earth Resources Satellites Systems (NASA photo). 168 ar 2$ APRIL ' taMY . klgure 12. Monthly changes in snow cover in the Hindu Kush and Himalaya Mountains. This temporal sequence of Nimbus III IDCS pictures suggests the utility of a satellite platform to monitor seasonal changes in snow cover. The time and amount of snowmelt is an important input for no, 1 and irrigation planning. a. IFF7 ,`f gaga M. Mew .0lise baps 11 IS itjalleas Miler saw ma In Ohm IOW Ilsomeholls (1). hods (A). Mop (1114 old Who is salute AO ask esssell polsissle (1100 *Or (MOM., vslloolsorss M.. 41sweasil P/Sraft'll 01,01 /OOP 0.60111/21110 II. SIMI* num Ayr snip" ~ism sod sasuldwal O. ems war liss maim' . 11111121186 ==1 osolisloas Figure 13. Snowmelt surveillance, Kamchatka, U.S.S.R., Nimbus N IDCS. 169 IN qtr.*ft arterSt . tr.r. 4r. 1 1 4::erarot I ZNZa.thl 2111211Pil= 2..1 MMUS 2 NM THAMMATURE MAPS OF SAKE MICHIGAN .... Figure 14. Nimbus II HRIR temperature maps of Lake Michigan derivedfrom digitized data. Figure 15. Gemini IV photograph of the Aswan High Figure 16. Lake Nasser, a long, immense Dam during the initial stages of its filling. The body of water backed up by the Aswan Dam, dam is at the top. Part of the area in the center is dominates the foreground of this view of Egypt. now flooded by the reservoir (NASA photo). The Red Sea is on the horizon (NASA photo). 170 Construction 4 Years Underway 2 Years before Completion Nimbus I 16 Sep 64 Nimbusit 11 Jun 66 fir' Ilegioneingof LakeMaw Dant artorlyear Madan 26Mee69 Nimbus IN ClierSZIP"."69 C Figure 17.Growth of the Aswan High Dam monitored by Nimbus satellitecameras. 12% S11 311 33s 311 33% -c u. -23.s 33, 31% 12 UMW% 11* REFLECTANCE VALUES I2-31;1 1:. Figure 181 Nimbus III daytime HRIR temporal sequence of reflectance values derived fromcomputer- produced grid print maps. The area is along the Ouachita. River at the Louisiana-Arkansas border. "------thanges in reflectance values and pattern along the Ouachita correlatewith lingering effects of an early spring flood. Some of the other patterns correlate with soil and vegetationpatterns. 171 Figure 19. Apollo IX photograph of the lower Mississippi Valley taken on Marc 9, 1969. The flooded Ouachita River is in the upper left-hand portion of the picture. The highly cultivated flood plains of the Mississippi River occupy the right-hand portion of the photograph (NASA photo). 0.47 - 0.27 MEI 0.29 22 May fa June , 9 Aug. IL Sept. Horizontal bars represent rainfall averages in Inches for the week prior to image acquisition. Mar 22 rainfall of 0.5 to 2 in. on May 18;2=1 rainfall 0.2 to 1.2 in. in Louisiana and Mississippi on June 2. Light and scattered rainfall elsewhere Awe May 22; Ausasst 9 ....almost no rainfall she July 25; September 12 generally heavy rainfa I t12 September. So rainfall from September 9 12. ARNA,SAS MISSISSIPPI I. Harries. I. CI. r5.4Me 2. Green. Fee r7 2, Univeroity 1,Walrett 5.41. J.744.elo 4, ntse-19,-Dam I.Yoe., City S. Little Rock 5, Carden cite ..,1.enstoeitie t' rIurrow Pam 7. VciStre , El Ilm44., R.Collin. 5'. dn.. 5. Merithsa IS.Witgins KEVTUCKY I.Pa.1.4 Figure 20. The varying tonal-changes in the Mississippi River Valley illustrated here correspond to solar reflectance recorded by the Nimbus 111 radiometer (daytime IIRIR) in the 0.7 to 1.3 pm band.---' 172 1111111Kezammr...0. Figure 21. Temporal sequence of NimbusIII (day) photofacsimile prints showing June 16 - advancing wet season for western Africa. tropical West Africa; clouds are moving inlandfrom the Gulf of Guinea. July 13- clouds move inland to approximately 15 deg N latitude; Niger River delta; frontal storms storm gyre over over Jos Plateau and northern Nigeria (aboveKomadiya- fube and Sokota River Basins).November 18- dry season for tropical West Africa. Dust and haze of the harmattan to altitudes of 8000-12 000 ft over the Niger River Basinand nothern Nigeria. Figure 22. Antarctic map revisions derived from a Nimbus IV picture, recordedon September 9, 1964. al Figure 23. Nimbus I view of the SayanMountains and vicinity, U.S.S.R. 173 Figure 24. Nimbus II HRIR photofacsimile of Surtsey Volcano observedon September 8, 1966, off the southwestern coast of Iceland. The volcanic eruption shows up as a warm (high)spike on two of the four consecutive analog tracesacross the Surtsey area. s- te: * ICELANt5'4'1%*- (ICE RUBS VISIBLE) Figure 25. Ash Plume from Beerenberg Volcano. This new eruption of theBeerenberg Volcano on Jan Mayen Island was first observedon the night of September 20, 1970. By noon on September_21,_ _ when this Nimbus N IDCS picturewas taken, the ash plume (within the rectangulararea) wended more than 200 ml to the southeast. 174 Figure 26. Nimbus I AVCS image, Northwestern Nevada, September 17,1964. Good contrast separation between lake beds (white and light gray),alluvium (intermediate gray),forested mountains (dark gray), and lakes (black)is apparent. , :50/ <4,4 Figure 27. Gemini V photograph (late August 1965) of Southern Iran, Tashi: andBakhtigam Salt Lakes are clearly delineated (NASA photo), 175 Land Area - 0 50 100 St. Miles Figure 28. Nimbus I AVCS photograph of the Persian Gulf and theTigris-Euphrates River Delta. Sedimentation plumes, submerged channels, and otherfeatures are identified. Figure 29. The ATS III view of the Southern Hemisphere.Every 20 min a photograph is taken by the ATS camera, and when the Brazilian coast is cloud free,sedimentation by the Amazon River may be observed on an hourly basis (NASA photo). 176 Figure 30. An Apollo IX view of the Colorado River' s entrance to the Gulf of California. This is a black and white rendition of a color infrared picture of its delta and sediment plumes ( NASA photo). 33 AIMS APRIL NW AFRICA 20 APIK 1SANR Figure 31. Nimbus IV IDCS monitor's 1970 Sahara dust storm. 177 0. 9 November 1989 to November1969 t I 2. II November 1989 12 November 1989 Figure 32. Nintbus III IDCS observations of ship plumes. The long, thin,anomalous cloud bands are probably ship plumes. 178 Figure 33.33.Southern California brush fire smoke plumes.'This central portion of a Nimbus IV satellite IDCS picture taken on September 27, 1970, recordedsmoke plumes from five of the major brush fires in Southern California. Plume locationsare:1.San Diego 140 000 acres burning (1 plume); 2.Los Angeles 105 000 acres burned (3 plumes); 3.Sequoia National Forest 5000 acres burning (1 plume). ( For reference: the Great Salt Lake is inupper right and Salton Sea is just above 1.) Figure 34. The mouth of the Zambezi River at Mozambique,East Africa.' lie light arrowlike streaks over the land are smoke and the hues off the shoreare produced by-sediment (NASA photo). 17910 INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONSAND INTERPRETATIONS OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA By G. W. Petersen and G. J. McMurtry Pennsylvania State University Abstract be subdivided so that only portions ofthe electro- magnetic spectrum are recorded on film.Energy Energy coming to the earth from the sun is.re- reflected in only the blue portion of the electromag- fleeted, scattered, or absorbed, and then radiated netic spectrum, for example, may be recorded in the form of electromagnetic waves by objects on photographically by filtering out the otherwave- the earth. The wavelength of reflectedor radiated lengths. Through the use of special infrared films, energy is dependent upon the physical and chemical electromagnetic radiation reflected at wavelengths properties of the object. Modern instruments are longer than those discernible by the eyecan also be capable of sensing and measuring thisenergy with- recorded photographically. out being in physical contact with the object. Re- mote sensing can be accomplished from both air- 2. Multiband Cameras. These camerasper- craft and spacecraft, with each having distinct ad- mit the taking of more than one photograph simul- vantages. An interdisciplinary group at Pennsylvania taneously, each. with a different combination of State University is investigating the use of remote lens and filter.This allows simultaneous exposures sensing for the inventory of natural resources and of exactly the same area, with eachexposure repre- land use, determination of pollution sources and senting the energy reflected in various portions of damage, and analysis of geologic structure and ter- the visible- and near- infrared segment of the elec- rain. The geographical area of primary interest is tromagnetic spectrum. the Susquehanna River Basin. 3. Optical Mechanical Scanner. Scanners collect and electronically record energy reflected Introduction to Remote Sensing and radiated at wavelengths that fall within the range of 0.4 to 20.0 Pm. Since only that portion from All energy coming to the earth is produced by 0.4 to 0.7 Pm is in the visible spectrum, information the sun. This energy is either reflected, scattered, can be obtained by scanners that is not discernible or absorbed, and then radiated as electromagnetic by the human eye. An example is the determination waves by objects on the earth. Because these objects of water temperature differencesnear discharges differ in their physical and chemical properties, the from nuclear power plants, a task whichcan be wavelength of energy they radiate or reflectmay done very accurately using optical mechanical vary from very short, such as X-rays, to very long, scanners. such as radio waves. Modern instrumentsare capa- ble of sensing and measuring energy reflectedor 4. Radar. Radar systems are active devices; emitted at various wavelengths of the electromagnetic that is, they transmit their own energy and collect spectrum. An example is the camera with color film the portion of this energy that is reflected from the that senses energy reflected only in the visiblepor- illuminated terrain. This is in contrast to the tior the electromagnetic spectrum. These devices other remote sensing devices that do not supply acq, information about objects that are not in their own energy source, but measure only reflected physical contact with these data gathering devices. or emitted energy and are called passive systems. The technology involved with these types ofdata Radar operates at longer wavelengths thanany of gathering or imaging devices is thus called remote the devices previously described and hasan all- sensing [1, 21. The most common types of air- weather, day- and -night capability. Radarialii7Thas borne remote sensing instruments are as follows: the ability to penetrate-vegetation and to sehse the terrain beneath. 1. Conventional Aerial Camera. Cameras photographically record the radiation reflected in Remote sensing is presently being performed by the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. aircraft and by spacecraft, each having distinct ad- By using various filters, the visible spectrumcan vantages. Airplanes have the advantage of being 181 able to perform specific sensing tasks over selected wider variety of remotely sensed data with better areas and to obtain greater resolution from air- resolution. However, the amount of area covered craft altitudes. However, an airplane cannot match by Skylab will be much less than that of ERTS. the overall synoptic coverage or the stable, vibra- tion-free platform of a satellite. The initial cost of orbiting a satellite would be much higher than Organization and Management initiating an aircraft mission. However, if large surface areas are to be sensed or if repetitive In 1970, an interdisciplinary group was estab- coverage is required, the cost differentials are re- lished at Pennsylvania State University with the duced and, in some instances, the satellite sensing capability of participating in projects involving the may be the most economical. use of remotely sensed data of earth resources. This interdisciplinary group is called the Office for Remote Sensing of Earth Resources (Fig. 1) and is ERTS and Skylab composed of personnel from the following disciplines agronoreryrair pollution, civil engineering, clime- In 1972, NASA will launch the first Earth Re------jojogy, economics, forestry, geology, geophysics, sources Technology Satellite (ERTS) that will mon.= hydrology, meteorology, plant physiology, pattern itor the earth's resources on a global scale. The recognition, regional planning, and soils. The first launch, ERTS-A, will put a 1800-lb vehicle into Office for Remote Sensing of Earth Resources a circular, near-polar orbit about 500 miles above (ORSER) was formed as a division of, and with the earth. The earth will be revolving beneath it, financial support from, the Space Science and and by the time ERTS returns to the same spot on Engineering Laboratory, which is a part of Pennsyl- its ncxt track, the earth will have revolved 1800 vania State University's Intercollege Program (Fig. 1 miles to the west. In 18 days it will have covered the world and begin making its second pass. This abil.ty to monitor changes on the earth's surface The Space Science and Engineering Laboratory that occur over time will be a valuable feature of (SSEL) was established on September 1, 1965, by satellite sensing. the act of the Board of Trustees of Pennsylvania State University. Administered by the Office of the Vice-President for Research for the university, it ERTS will have a three-camera television sys- functions as a subunit of the Institute for Science tem to provide imagery which can be converted to and Engineering. A major purpose of the SSEL is photos in three spectral bands blue-green, red, and near-infrared. The camera operating in the to give focus to _research and graduate study in the blue-green portion of the spectrum will provide space sciences and space-related sciences and maximum penetration of water; the camera in the engineering, to provide support services of a tech- red portion will be useful for crop identification nical and administrative nature to programs operated and delineation of soils; and the camera in the near- in existing_departments, and to administer funds for infrared portion will show maximum discrimiration the support of new programs developed within de- between land and water. Each of these photos will partments or on an interdepartmental basis. Major cover approximately 10 000 square miles. financial support for the laboratory has come from the NASA Office of University Affairs through the Sustaining University Program. ERTS-A and ERTS-B, which will be launched approximately 1 year after ERTS-A, also have multi- The reason ORSER was established by SSEL spectral scanners to measure energy radiated from was to encourage interdisciplinary research activi- the earth. ERTS-A will only be capable of meas- ties involving remote sensing. To insure that this uring reflected energy, whereas ERTS-B will be group functions in an interdisciplinary nature, a able to measure both reflected and thermal energy. problems-oriented approach has been taken so that each problem or task is directly represented Skylab will be another type of space platform in the organizational structure. This will allow for monitoring earth resources. This will differ associates from various disciplines to work to- from ERTS, in that men will be placed into orbit and gether toward a common goal rather than have each they will be collecting most of the data. Skylab or discipline devoted to a specific project. Earth Resources Experiment Package, as it is sometimes termed, will contain more sophisticated The organization of ORSER is indicated in remote sensing devices than ERTS, resulting in a Figure 2. An associate professor of soils and an 182 associate professor of electrical engineering serve sensed-data. Such information is called 'ground as codirectors. Each task has a principalinvesti- truth." Pennsylvania State University currently gator or coinvestigators and they jointlymake up possesses a unique collection of ground-truth diti the Coordinating Committee along with the codirec- for Pennsylvania. This will bean invaluable aid in tors. This Coordinating Committeeoversees the establishing references and interpreting research efforts of ORSER and data ob- encourages and coor- tained from spacecraft and othersources. dinates future research endeavors.This committee will also meet frequently with the Advisory Com- The primary objective of the interdisciplinary mittee for consultation, advice, andreports of prog- group at Penn State is to determine the usefulness ress. The Advisory Committee includes thedeans of remote sensing techniques for the of interested colleges or their inventory of appointed-represent- natural resources and landuse, the determination of atives. There is also direct communicationbetween pollution sources and damages, and the CoOrdinating Committee and the analysis of potential users of geologic structure and terrain. Thearea selected the research results. Examples ofthese potential users are: for this study was a large river basin. 1. Soili.lonservation Service The Susquehanna River Basinas an Area of Application 2. Northeast Watershed Research Center Since spacecraft remote sensing is most useful 3. Susquehanna River Basin Commission for coverage of large landareas. Pennsylvania 4. U. S. Forest Service State University has selected theSusquehanna River Basin for application of remotely sensed datafrom ERTS and Skylab. The reasons for 5. Ten Regional Clearinpouses in choosing the Pennsylvania basin include the facts that it (1)contains a wide variety of soils, vegetation, water bodies, 6. Pennsylvania State Planning Board and geo- logical structures; (2) is locatedin geographical proximity to Penn State; (3) hasconsiderable 7. Pennsylvania Department ofEnvironmental Resources ground-truth data already available,including an excellent Susquehanna River Study ofJune 1970 by the Susquehanna River Basin Study S. Pennsylvania Department of Coordinating Transportation Committee; and (4) is of interest to variousagencies of the Federal and to the States of Penn- 9. Regional Planning Commissions sylvania, New York, and Maryland. 10. County Planning Commissions The Susquehanna River Basin is the largest, undeveloped watershtd in the Northeastern 11. Local Planning Commissions. United States. The present population of the basinis 3.5 million and is expected to increaseto 9 million in the next 50 years. The Susquehanna Application and Interpretation supplies 85 per- cent of the fresh water that flows into theChesapeake Bay above the mouth of the PotomacRiver and, thus, In applications of remote sensing techniques, the ecological balance in the bay could be consideration must be given to seriously many factors, in- affected by upstream developmenton the Susquehanna. cluding amount, type, and qualityof information to be collected, types of sensors available,and the In addition,, the basin is located directly type of platform (airplane or spacecraft) between and its the Chesapeake Bay and Lake Erie and,thus, forms characteristics (altitude, speed, etc.).In the a geographical tie between these two bodies which collection of remotely sensed data,various compro- are both of great ecological interest today. It will mises must be made, and in many cases, airplanes be necessary to insure theproper utilization of the and spacecraft may be used simultaneouslyto collect data. basin because we, as a nation, are committedto the restoration and maintenance ofa healthy and viable natural environment. It will bethe intent of Supporting information collected by othermeans ORSER to determine and demonstrate the is essential when evaluating and role re- interpreting remotely mote sensing might play in the regionalresource 183 management of the Susquehanna River Basin. This d.Evaluation of pole recreation sites will hopefully involve direct participation by the Office for Remote Sensing of Earth Resources with e. Survey the initiation and progression of the new Susquehanna River Basin Commission, insect and plant disease epidemics recently established by the enactment of Public Law 91-575 (Susquehanna River Basin Compact) . f.Collection and updating of data for multi- purpose land use management Portions of the basin arc undergoing extensive and rapid urbanization and in other areas, strip- g. Development of natural resource inventory mining operations are increasing. Powerplants, systems.- which have a dynamic influence on the ecology of the river basin, arc present on the Susquehanna and 2. Geology aort Hydrology. The geologically more are proposed. The upper reaches of the Sus- oriented tasks involve correlation and analysis of quehanna are almost completely forested and should natural features associated with terrain analysis, offer study areas for phenological phenomena, rec- as well as the effects df man-related ventures, such reation,and forestry.Extensive snowfields also as mining operations and pollution spoils. Analysis exist in these areas and they have considerable im- of the orientation, distribution, shape, and type of pact on the hydrokw of the Susquehanna. These the surface trace of geologic structures would are considered examples of some of the areas where follow the procedure of characterization, correlation spacecraft data should be applicable. to known geologic features, and application and uti- lization. From an inventory of known minr.-11 and ground water deposits, their relationahip co /Inca- ments and fracture traces would be developed as a Interpretation of Spacecraft Data tool for arca selection in mineral exploration and in ground water planning and utilization. Specific tasks A number of different tasks can be pursued be- for investigation are: cause of the amount and variety of data to be col- lected by ERTS and Skylab, and because of the di- a. Characterization and analysis of geologic versity of interests and backgrounds available in structures and terrain a university such as Penn State. The specific objectives of the work planned by ORSER in Penn- b. Inventory of mineral resources and mines sylvania and the Susquehanna River Basin are grouped into one of four areas of investigation as follows: c.Detection of ground water sources from drainage, lineaments, and fracture patterns I.Inventory of Natural Resources and Land Use. The use of spacecraft data for purposes of in- d. Determination of watershed runoff. ventory and survey of relatively large areas must be considered to have very great potential. The in- 3.Pollution. The Susquehanna Basin is an ventory of natural resources and land use offers area of contrasts with the upper reaches heavily great promise, not only to investigators in the vari- forested and in an almost untouched condition, while ous disciplines, but to planners and policymakers the lower reaches are fairly w41 urbanized. This at all levels of the public sector. In the specific contrast in land use, along with extensive coal- tasks listed below there is need for both detailid mining operations, offers a unique area for pollution analysis by the individual investigators and for com- studies.It is the intent in this area of investigation munication among investigators regarding their to determine the role remote sensing might have in goals, analyses, and results. The specific tasks the detection of various types of pollutants, such considered under this area of investigation are: as thermal pollution, acid mine drainage, and nu.. trient and chemical pollutants; the detection of the a. Identification and characterization of soil effects pollutants have on the environment; and the parameters monitoring of pollutant types along with their environ- mental impacts. This area of investigation will in- b. Location, inventory, and monitoring of volve the following tasks: strip-mining operationicand pollution spoils a. Monitoring the environmental effects of c. Survey and inventory of forest resources power generating plants 184 b.Detection of sources of acid mine drainage, -tettion of acid mine drainage and both of these tasks monitoring seasonal discharges and deterinination are related to the task of inventorying mineral re- of mixing patterns in other waters sources and mines. The tasks, involving forestry inventory, plant diseases and insects, air pollution c.Detection of air pollution damage damage, and environmental effects of power generat- ing plants, can be expected to involve much inter- d.Definition and characterization of water change of infoi .cation.In most tasks, the data proc- quality problems in a large river. essing and pattern recognition applications are ex- pected to be similar. When investigating a large 4.Data Processing. The tasks in the area of river basin it is not feasible to cover all possible data processing are of importance not only in their problems within each area and, therefore, selected own right but also because of their usefulness to all objectives or tasks, for which ORSER has a specific other investigators. The tasks are primarily ofan talent and capability, have been chosen.It is felt automatic or man-machine interactive nature, al- that these selected tasks do, however, represent though visual photo-interpretive techniquesarc ex- major problems in the Susquehanna River Basin pected to be used extensively by many investigaVors. and can serve-as the basis for a major unified inter- In addition to establishing format, specifications, disciplinary attack on problems using remotely programs, and procedures for all users of the auto- sensed data. matic data processing facilities, pattern recognition techniques and programs are being developed and The anticipated results, in general, will be made available to all investigators. A joint=--` important for making resource management and university-industry task is planned in which a man- land-use policy decisions with the basin.In addi- machine interactive system will be used for analysis tion, certain results offer quick return possibilities, of imagery. such as evaluation of structural lineaments for use hsa tool in interpreting ieological structures, in- ventorying of strip-mining and land use changes, Conclusion and detection and monitoring- of pollutants. Univer- sity training in remote sensing at both the under- Th general objectives of this interdisciplinary graduate and graduate level will be performed. The effort in remote sensing include the application'of effectiveness of not only interdisciplinary blit joint remote sensing methods to various specific tasks, university-industry research will be evaluated. the development of interpretation techniques, and the application of rJmote sensing in regional'resource management. The approach to be taken is interdis- References ciplinary in nature, with individual investigators not only:concentrating on tasks for whic: "hey are specif- 1.Remote Sensing with Speeal Reference to__ ically trained but also working closely with others Agriculture and Forestry. National Academy having similar or related interests. Tasks within of Sciences, Washington, D. C., 1970. reach area of investigation will certainly be coordinated with each other, and in many cases, with tasks in 2.Ecological Surveys from Space. National another area. Investigators of the task on the inven- Aeron,t, ..ies and Space Administration (NASA), torying of strip-mining operations,-for example, will Washington, D. C., 1970. be working closely with personnel involved in the de- 185 Vice President for R Intercollege Research Programs and Facilities Institute for Science and Engineering -Ordnance 1LaMaterials Institute for Center Pennsylvania Research Research Research on Space Science and for air Transportation Laboratory boratory Land and Water Engileering Laboratory EartronatAL....trafficSafety Studies Center Ionosphere Research Laboratory --IMultidisciplinary Space Related Research Office for- Remote Sensing of Earth Resources Figure 1. Organizational chart of Pennsylvania State University's Interco liege Program. CO- DIRECTORS: George J. xemurtry Gary W. Pe ADVISORY COORDINATING POTEXTIAL_ COMMITTEE CORHITTEE USERS Data Handling and Management Data Insect Mineral Natural 1 Processin Soil and Resources and Forest Resource Hydrology Acid Nine Air Resources Resoa.'cc Plant and Pollution Patters. Disease Inventory -Runoff Drainage Systems Mineral Damage ecocnitio Detect! on Exptorattoa fffl/ whine Geologic Environ- Aided Hydro- Atmospheric Strip Land Use Structures mental Effects Imagery Recreation and Geo ogy- Mater Mines Management Effects and Analysis Terrain Ha er Quality Resources of Poser Climatic Analysis Plants Mapping Figure 2.Organizational chart of the Office for Remote Sensing of Earth Resources (ORSER). 186 ORBITAL: SURVEYSAND STATE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT By George Wukelic Senior Physicist Aerospace Mechanics Division Battelle Columbus Laboratories Columbus, Ohio and T. L_ . Wells and B. R. Brace State of Ohio * Department of Development Abstract orbital surveys provide to data management and The citizens_ of the individual states should Irene- analysis specialists, and their potentialfor revolu- tionizing resource-management decisionmaking fit substantially, both immediately and in thefuture, practices. froni-thereulti of earth surveys- from mannedand au'vmated spacecraft. This paper describeshow a t---state-,-such-as Ohio; with highly diversified industry, State government personnel, represented inour agriculture, and geography, proposes-touse orbital discussion by the state planner, are faced witha moun- tain of increasing resource and environmental survey data and related space capabilities tomanage issues, its resources, attack increasing-environmental problems, and needs (Fig. 2). lie sometimesviews prob- the same data collection opportunity negatively lems, and plan future developments. Certainand in anticipated short- and long-range tienefitUarede- that he fears further saturation of his alreadylargely scribed. The State Government of Ohioforesees unused and often misused data base. His challenge is to accurately assess the user potential inherent opportunities, challenges, and potential benefitsin orbital surveys not only for governmentmanagement in satellite earth surveys in order to insure that responsibility but also for its constituencyby pro- their ultimate potential for supportinga practical, viding alternative Lpproaches to resourceand resource /environmental- management system can be environmental problems heretofore unavatlable. achieved. You, the taxpaying public (Fig.-3), on the Introduction other hand, most likely view this new cry of "satel- lite surveys for citizens" as another NASA propaganda campaign to turn around declining space budgets and, The purpose of the forum is to acquaintyou, the thus, as an opportunity to increase rather than sta- nonaerospace public, with the benefits expected to bilize the- existing tax burden. Your challenge is result from satel drECarth-resource surveys. one This of trying to understand how anything as complexas discussion will be limitecho the resource-management mtdtiipectral photography, infrared spectrometry, implications of such surqys, and more restrictedly, and microwave radiometry can possibly relate to as they are currently viewed in the State of Ohio. your lifistyle. Reminiscent of several past experi- Actually, the opportunities, challenges, andpotential ences, you tend to view the potential here as another benefits inherent in using automated and manned example of more big-space "talk" but little new down- spacecraft for resource-management activitiescan to-earth benefits.I hope to alter this view somewhat. be looked at in several ways, dependingon one's point of view, That is, whether you area space scientist Although viewpoints differ, the objectives, design (like myself ), a state planner (likemy coauthors) features, data collection, and relay capabilities of or an interested citizen (like yourself). both the automated Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS ) and manned Skylabt spacecraft The space scientist's view ofresource manage- ment using orbital surveys is, ofcourse, one of ut-- 1. Skylab when referred to.in this paler is always most enthusiasm (Fig. 1). Hesees the tremendous in connection with the Earth Resources Experi- opportunity to expand data acquisition, the challenge ment Pacicage_.(EREp). 187 1(J systems were presented in previous sessionsof this Although the initial plan is to investigate use Congress and will not be repeated here. As I said oriented applications in all the disciplines involve earlier, I plan to limit my discussion to orbital sur- in orbitalurveys, the main thrustof the Ohio El- vey data utilization and, more specifically, to how we Skylab program is focused on ascertaining the lel, hope to use this emerging space capability for vane of these space-programs to problems, issuc resource-management interests in Ohio. 'A ecordibg,Iy, and needs in the more critical Ohio resource and -most of this discussion is not what we have done, but. environmental-management areas of: rather what we plan to do and what practical benefits we anticipate. 1.Environmental quality, 2. Land use, and Resource-Management Problems and Plans in Ohio 3. Agriculture and forestry. Ohio is one of the most heavily populated states Secondary interests to the geological, hydro- in the nation, has a highly diversified ;ndustry and logical, and meteorological utility of orbital surre agriculture, and possesses a variety of geographic primarily as they impact on broader interdiscipli- features. Also, Ohio, like all progressive and devel- nary interests involving Ohio's Lake Eric and Appa- oping states, has a serious resource-and environ- lachia development responsibilities. mental management problem which grows more serious-daily. A map of the geographical areas selected as initial Ohio study-sites andare4 of interest for Following the national trend, Ohioans are becom- ERTS and Skylab data is shown in Figure 5. Collec- ing more concerned about reckless environment and tively, these represent agricultural, forestry, natural resource-habits and are placing more pressure recreational, wetland, wildlife, urban, glaciated, on state government officials and legislators to change nonglaciated, 'topographically rugged, topographi- this policy. Accordingly, new tools such as automat-: cally flat, river basin, lake, and transportation --ed and manned spacecraft with their sophisticated features-_11 is also planned to collect correlative imagery and relay capabilities must be incorporated, surface -truth data (aircraft and ground) for the as appropriate, into resource and environment five principal study sites, as required to meet dis- management problem solving. cipline analysis objectives involving primarily photo-- grammetric comparisons of multispectral photo- graphs. The relation of the proposed study sites to Ohio ERTS and Skylab Plans diseiplineptser interests is shown in Figure 6. In response to the most timely NASA/ERTS and In order to test the state value of satellite relay Skylab opportunities, the State of Ohio, in concert capabilities, a data collection platform is to be with the Battelle Columbus Laboratories (BCL), stalled in the Columbus vicinity. This platform propoies to undertake a comprehensive, multidisci- will be nubile and will be designed to collect a multi- plinary assessment of the state-level util..y of these disciplinary set. of data. This effort will be in addi: experimental orbital survey programs. The joint tion to the ongoing Environmental Protection Agency's program is somewhat unique in that it enlists the water-quality monitoring program in southern Ohio expertise of an unusual but necessary combination of and the 20-station platform relay network planned technical, economic, and state-planning and program for Lake Erie studies by the NASA facility in Cleve- management specialists. The objectives of the pro- land. posed program range from one of establishing an experimental Ohio ERTS/Skylab data utilization facility to the developing of a methodology for evaluating the Anticipated Benefits impact of these satellites on resource-management goals in Ohio. The broad interface that exists among Technical Benefits. From this broad multidis- the various units of Ohio State Government., ERTS ciplinary involvement in NASA/ERTS and Skylab and Skylab data, and potential app: ication/user areas programs, We hope to identify specific satellite data has been determined (Fig. 4). The specifics of and data relay functions that can be incorporated into this figure are not important here. It is included Ohio resource-management activities.. Specifically, only to illustrate the c.-ctensive utilization potential the extent that decisionmaking and policy implemen- for satellite surveysat the state level. tation within the various units of state government 188 are unaffected, disoriented, or enhanced by these to other aspects of state goventment which indirect- uiitial orbital survey experiments will be determined. ly affect resource-management activities in Ohio. Currently we are optimistic and are anticipatingex- These can be grouped according to the expected time plicit benefits to occur in each of the principal disci- frame of occurrence ( Fig. 15).Short-term bene- pline areas of interest. In agriculture (Fig. 7), for fits, for example, are those associated withex- example, we hope initially to capitalize. on the capa- perimental orbital surveys; whereas long-term bene- bility of satellite surveys to provide repetitivegross fits are more characteristic of down-the-road, crop inventories and eventually to attempt_cropstress operatiOnal possibilities. and disease monitoring studies. Expensive soil mois- ture survey requirements existing may be fulfilled in part by satellite relay techniques, too. We foresee that some immediate benefits will Utilization occur simply by our active participation in the orbit- of orbital surveys for gross inventory and disease al survey programs. In terms of information, for and pollution assessment functions of Ohio's timber resources (Fig. 8) also appears possible. example, the need to obtain correlative aircraft- Forest and ground-truth data will automatically expand-the fire damage assessment is considered a good state- state's resources and environmental data base level applications candidate, but routineuse for regardless of the value of the orbital survey data. forest fire detection will have to pwait_operational satellite development.. Also, data-handling experiences will be of immediate interest to a plan currently under considerationto establish a new budgeting-and planning unit in the Our hopes for Ian-crtis-e applicability of orbital survey data arc among the highest (Fig. 9). They office of the governor. Another immediate benefit range from plans to update the states land=use sur- of major state interest relates_to eanded inter= _ vey of-1960 (which is seen in the backgroundi-eom- agency communications. The ERTS and Skylab pro- grams, as planned, require extensive interagency pleted in 1967) using ERTS and Skylab datato coordination and dialogue which will provide recip- support experimental preparation of base maps, topo- ro*cal insights into other agencies*activities, prob- graphic maps, photoniosaics, and otherspecial= purpose maps for demographic, urban development, lems, priorities, and products. This could help and transportation interests. fight bureaucracy from within and force agenciesto function more effectively to survive. Also, today's Another major and currently critical benefit students desire more relevant subjec.s. Remote sensing; resource and environmental management; category that we hope to exploit initially is that of and space teclmology, as applied to people-oriented environmental quality. We have explicit plansto test needs (such as orbita, surveys); represent satellite imagery and data relay techniques-considered new and applicable to air quality controlsi, which relevant educational opportvz.:',.;,.s.In this connec- are to be tion, Ohio State UniVersity recently announced implementegin Ohio in the next-4:w years (Fig. 10). plans-to introduce new courses on the application The use,of the imagery data, andmore important, satellite remote relay opportunities hi water of remote sensing technology, which will interface quality nicely with the planned Ohio ERTS and Skylab involve- management are even more enthusiastically beingcon- ments. sidered (Fig. 11), as are plans for applying orbital survey capabilities to controversial strip-mining reclamation efforts in Ohio4Fig.12). Most signif t short-term lienefits are con- *- sidered possible in the categories of legislation and The anticipateduse of orbital surveys for Ohio's state government reorganizatirn. The OhioLegis- geological, hydrological, and oceanographic- interest's lature is considering numerous naturalresources and environment bills, the development, implemen- ( Lake Erie being considered Ohio's ocean) isof less dertainty (Pg. 13). Flood-plain management tation, and enforcement of which could be heavily and influenced by automated and manned satellite Lake Erie shore-erosion researchare certainly capa- areas wherein we hope to apply satellite-acquired bilities. The distribution of appropriate satellite- data. -Orbital data on cloud, snow, ice, and fog acquired photographs, for example, could provide broader perspective on environmental issues conditions in Ohio ( Fig. 14) are to be studied -pri- re- marily as they relate to other discipline interests. quiring legislation. Likewise; Ohio's ERTS and Skylab experiences and findings shouldprove valua- le to studies in progress concerned with Other Benefits. In addition to the technical state re- Itganizational possibilities.This will be especially (discipline-oriented) benefit possibilitiesof ERTS and Skylab, we anticipate several rzo for considerations regarding how the state should byproduct benefits reorganized to be most responsive to increasing 189 resource and environmental issues, the delivery of achieve many of the anticipated benefits requires the state services, and associated Federal controls and the long-range goal of establishing a comprehensive funding opportunities. state resource-management system, supported by new technology, including an operational network(s)-- On a longer-term basis, we anticipate benefits of automated and manned satellites, be accomplishes to accrue from operational orbital surveys which will Technical know -how and user interests are believed impact on all Ohio resource- and environment-related adequate to fulfill this goal. However, effective and problem areas, However, most important are those honest resource and environmental management in potential benefits anticipated in the budget, develop- any state will always be people dependent therein ment, and employment categories. Certainly, even lies the social responsibility that constitutes a chal- if only partially successful, anticipated cost savings lenge to us all. ,inherent in operational orbital surveys will make many new and necessary resource and environmental programs possible. A large percentage of these are Bibliography currently being rejected solely on economic grounds. Brace, B. R4: A Brief Survey of Natural Resources Air and water quality regulations and natural gas and Environmental Needs, Problems and Issues in shortages pose serious national, industrial, and Ohio. Office of State Planning, Department of Devel- community_development problems. Repetitive orbital opment, State of Ohio, 1970 (out of print). survey data could be quite useful in the long-term planning of the types and locations of new industries A Proposed Program for Assessment of the Relevance and new towns in Ohio.- A technically sound and ofERIS Ato Resource Management in the State of positive attitude toward planned industrial expansion Ohio. .Proposal to NASA from the State of Ohio and is essential to maintaining a healthy economy in Batte4 Columbus Laboratories, April 15, 1971. Ohio, as well as to improving the unemployment situ- ation, both of which will worsen if unreasonable envi- ronmental restrictions are imposed. Survey of Ohio State Government Operatic-is and Pro- grams. Division of Planning, Ohio Development Conclusioh Department, State of Ohio, April 1970 (out of print). Implications of Skylab A/EREP to State Resource I have tried to present a brief overview of plans Management. Proposal to NASA from the State f .-z-` and hopes for utilizing orbital surveys for resource Ohio and Battelle Columbus Laboiratories, April 30, and environment management interests in Ohio. To 1971. .111 W To *spend OPPORTUNITY dolo collection ,41+, vid Tp Ono CHALLENGEfriOnofienddl ond analysis sPeciolists r ---_ productsFor useful for POTENTIAL reol-world needs pow.. Figure 1. Space scientist' s view of re. ource management via orbital surveys. 190 _ _ -_--- _Poteru101 r Current (Sato Input data Input O- emtp To saturate further Gilligotis mountain of IOppoRTUNITY unused resource/ resource/environmental environmental issues, 41.,% problems, data bose Ond needs 1444 "o . cb. ,9 y To accurately po0*°1' etegf CHALLENGE assess utility Min to state resource ;4 rev?motion decision making es 43-4 -;' For an operational resource/environmental POTENTIAL management system Sti0pOrt L. environmental protection legislation Catalyst for comprehensive stoter)-<,,N planning Figure 2. 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O 3925N w Cincienoo ZOltslu 0 Kentucky West Virginia OhioSkylob Areas o: Prime lane-it-- Proposed ERTS A Siu../ Sites Figure 5.Location of Ohio areas of interest and study-sites for ERTS/Skylab, Discipline 3 0 3 0 0 a O 00 Q O Study Sites Loke Era Ohio ironspar lotion Center- Ottoivo.-- Crone Creek Witt londs + + Wooster Aginulturol Center Zolesko State Forest Locales sf.Opportullity Adorns County, -- Alum Creek Reservoir + Cleveland + Columhis + Coshocton-County Glocioted Region + Lucosville ++ Nongloceated Region ++ Ohio + McConnelsydle State of Ohio (as o whole) ++ Figure 6.Relationship of study sites and disciplinary interests. 193 Figure 7.Orbital survey -, agriculture. Figure 8.Orbital surveyforestry use. Figure 9. Orbital survey land use. Figure 10.Orbital surveyair quality use. -r _I ;:-..ohie6-0.3iirFiTrie. rah `;j , r I," JieltOki, Figure 11.Orbital survey wafer" quality use. Figure 12. Orbital survey land quality use. A 1 11 r r k 1, I'). I "or:: t_ Figure 13.Geology/hydrology/oceanography (orbital data). 196 : 4V I Figure 14. Meteorology/climatologyiorbital survey). Experimental Orbital Operational. (Mute+ Surveys Surveys .11--rt-Term BeNefits Long-Term Benefits Pr;blem Elements Assured- Possible Possible Budget information Legislation Communications Employment Industry and Community Developmint Orgonizotion Educovion Figure 15. Anticipated orbital survey benefits to resource-manarment-relatedproblems in Ohio. RIVERBED FORMATION By Dr. Morris Skinner Assistant Professor of Ctvil Engineering Colorado State University _Abstract altitude limitations of about 39 000 ft above the mean sea level, has provided good overviews of many im- The general fluvial processes that work to form portant characteristics of rivers. Three baste sen- a riverbed and produce the characteristic pattern of sors have been useda Wild RC -8- precision either meandering, braided, or straight are reviewed. mappit 6 camera (with a variety of film-Tilter combina- A method for quantification of river pattern and cor- tions), a multiband camera and regular aerial cam- relation, with the basic hydraulic characteristics eras with selected filk-filter combinations, and of discharge and slope, is presented. Additional thermal infrared line scanners. Rivers located in characteristics of a riv system may be deduced the Rocky Mountain areas of Colorado, Wyoming, from high-quality phot,. ,raphy and imagery obtained and Montana, to the mighty muddy Mississippi in the from either aircraft or space platforms._ lower Gulf region, have been investigated. During the course of these investigations a great Introduction deal of experience has been gained as to what aarac- teristics ef a river system can be evaluated using Since the establishment of Colorado State Uni- certain censors from an aircraft. Now with obser- versity as the land-grant college for the State of vations from an orbital platform I practical reality, Colorado in 1870, one of the main emphases of both one will finally be able to obtain the vital, r.dditional basic and applied research has been in the broad dimensions of synoptic, sequential overvievs of subject category of water use. Consequently, sub-/ total river syst An extension of our understand- jects concerning rivers and river behavior have been ing of the use and a alysis of remote sensor output of prime concern, particularly as they relate to riv- from an aircraft platform can now be immediately er control, navigation, pollistlen, and water re- applicable to orbital survey data. This paper will source management. In connection with these en- discuss certain tharacteristicref-river systems deavors, engineering stall members of Colorado that are amenable to determination from orbital State University have long maintained a considerable altitudes.. ,amount of direct working relationships with Federal and State agencies, and private corporations both here in the U.S. and abroad. Scope In more recent years, an obvious need has A riverbed is the result of a long-term process emerged for studying a particuiar river problem of transport and deposition of sedimentf_ by the flow- from a broader systems approach. The amount of ing water. The total riverbed is often characterized sediment being carried in a river at a particular by an impermeable or semipermeable bouriary filled location, proposed for a water su ply intake for a with layersecobbles, gravel, sand, silt, clay, and major city, for example, may be the combined re- orgatarmaterial. The live stream may only occupy sult of a heavy rainfall on some new timbering op- a small portion of the total width of the riverbed. eration hundreds of miles upstream. River behav- The overbank area or flood plain is often covered ior is a complex reaction often resulting from a va- with dense growths of vegetation and may extend for riety of manmade and/or natural inputs. consides;abl7listances on either side of the main river. As a result,of the need for a broader overview of a river, certitin remote sensing procedures have The ri'ier anti total flood plain, as a unit, is the been utilized by engineers ut Colorade State Univer- target of interest.Viewed in this total context using sity during the past 10 years in order to provide sup- a variety of sensors, one can extract valuable. infar- plemental information about larger and larger parts mation us to the geologic development of the river- of a given river system. An aircraft platform, with bed, determine the prevent fluvial processes at work, 199 and make certain predictions as to what the raver channels formed in the process of alluvial fan behavior will be in the near future. building. The pattern (planimetric shape) of the flowing oleanders have also been classified -as regular stream may be generally classified as either mean= or irregular, single or compound, acute or flat, and Bering, braided, or straight (Fig. 1). Streams sine, parabolic, circular; or sine-generated curves have a natural tendency to meander, but many [41. streams have a braided pattern, and a very few have straight patterns. Each of these patterns indicate Straight channels over any sizable distance-are a particular set of circumstances regarding-the flow- a rarity, although steep channels in fairly uniform ing water and the riverbed conditions. The-main bed material may develop broad, shallow cross subject emphasis of this paper, and something that sections and can maintain relatively straight align- is particularly feasible from orbital altitudes, is: ment for considerable distances [Q. (1) the general identification of stream pattern, and (2) the use of certain pattern characteristics from Braided Pattern. The braided stream pattern meandering streams for both river-flow and river- has been attributed to steep slopes and/or high bed- slope predictions. load concentration [51.- Although a steer stream may tend to develop a braided pattern, the general These predictions (estimates) of flow and slope direction of the channel as a whole tends to be rela- are tremendously important for water resource plan- tively straight. The channel is generally quite wide, ning purposes. A comparison of relative water relative to the depth, aid ordinarily has a fairly yields from adjacent basins, for example,. should be flat bottom. Braiding generally occurs in channels immediately apparent to a trained interpRier fiom carrying sand or coarser materitl as bedload. a cursory observation of either the corresponding photograph or imagery. Recent work at Colorado Braided streams have a very characteristic State University for determining the correlation pattern on an aerial photograph. Color infrared pho- bettieen meander river pattern characteristics and tography can enhance the intricate pattern and detail river flow and slope has been accomplished [ii. and often help identify the age of the particular braid- Results of these studies clearly indicate the poten- ed channel; that is, to discriminate between vegetated tial of satellite observations for this purpose. and nonvegetated islands, and also to render the lo- cation of channel remnants. A considerable amount of additional qualitative information about the river-system environment may The engineering significance of braided channels be obtained from satellite observations. Examples and the associated design problems to be considered of each of these characteristics will also be illus- for bridge construction, for example, are very im- . trated in the following text. portant. Considerable bedload is in motion, and j streambed and bank scour can be easily induced. General Discussion of River Patterns: The reasoning for straight sections of braided channels was discussed by Chitale [41. He noted Braided, Meandering, or Straight that:( 1)the continuity of the transverse bed profile was broken by numerous islands andjor submerged River channel patterns have been generally clas- bars and ;2) the range of bed material sizes was sified into three categories as braided, meandering, greater than in straight channels with no braiding. and straight [ 21. These categories are neither all encompassing nor mutually exclusive; the stream These two factors tended to disrupt the homo- pattern may change from one type to another over geneity of the flow and dampen the tendency for trans- relatively short stretches or may consist of combi- verse velocity components. Curvilinear flow, such nations [ 31 .However, river-channel patterns can as found in a meats tering channel, was inhibited am be divided into two broader main categories: therefore alignment was relatively straight except ( 1) single channel, and (2)multiple channel. for the possible. effect of channel boundaries. Single-channel pattern can be either meandering, straight, or braided. The multiple channel does For shallow streams of uniform depth and flow- not necessarily imply braided, and can be branching ing with banks full, Brice .16j found that the growth 200 of bars and/or islands in the channel not only divided rapid and large variation in discharge, (3)steep the flow into braids but also reduced the water width slope or excessively low slope, (4) abundant load, to a value less than the bank-full width. and (5) local incompetence for sedimenttransport [101. For a given discharge and bed Materialsize, Brice found that braided sections c f a Aver had Meander Pattern. Meandering channelsarc a steeper channel slopes and greater effective widths most common pattern found in a variety of situations than meandering sections-of-the same river-161.He from steep mountain slopes providingan alluvial cautioned, however, that no general statementabout cone to the deltaic environment. Meandering- rivers relation of valley slope to channel patterncan be can have bed material ranging from large cobbles made unless the other significant variablesare to fir.e-grained silt. A gradual reduction of tortuos- specified, that is to say, bank erodibility, bedma- terial, and discharge. ity ratio was found with an increase in slope 15r. Dominaniillscharge, which controls meanderwave- lengths, is a range of flows (possibly falling stage Large braided rivers, observed by Leopold and flows) somewhere betweenmean discharge for the Maddock were to be characterized by wide channels, month of maximum discharge to the annualmean dis- rapid shifting of bed material, and continuousshift charge. There was some evidence of the effect of ing of the river course [71. Reaches withina single- valley slope on meander wavelength. Incases of channel river having steeper slopes tendedto be bank-full and overbank floods, the main current of braided. The close relationship between meander- the river takes on a valley-axial direction of flow, ing and braided patterns could be recognizedin a and during very large floods the flood plainacts as braided stream; the individual branches ofa braided a river channel 1111. stream definitely meandered. In plan view, how- ever, the overall channel course of a braidedstream Wide, shallow channels are generally associated was less sinuous than a meandering course with with lesser tortuosity. Also, since valley slopepro- similar discharge. Sediment transport anddeposi- vides the force which tends to straighten the channel tion were found to be the essential ingredients for alignment, the higher the mean velocity the flatter braiding [ 81. the curvature required [41. The author-has observed, on the North andSouth The values of- tortuosity ratio (ratio of thalweg- Platte Rivers of western Nebraska, relativelyclear length to valley length) greater than 5.5are rarely water with high rates of bedload movement in braid- found in the field. This was the limiting value for ed patterns. A braided pattern doesnot necessarily idealized circular meanders. The masoning for imply that a channel is overloaded, since "poised" rivers ordinarily developing meanders innarrow, or "degrading" channels have been recognizedas deep sections, but not in wide and shallowones are braided (6, 81. listed: Rivers have been found to tent' to braid where: 1. Narrow, deep channels with low velocities (1) bank caving is active, (2)the slope is steep allow easy adjustment of channel section conducive and sediments are easily erodible,or (3) the slope to flow concentrations at one bank or another and is excessively low and the total sediment load,is create conditions favorable to meandering. Wide, great (91. shallow channels with high flow velocities limit any nonuniformity of flow to a local effect, which dissi- Fahnastock observed that glacial streams changed pates in a short length without affecting the channel in pattern from meandering to braided with high as a whole. summer discharges and returned to meandering with the advent of lower late-summer discharges.Ile 2. For very tortuous channels,- the centerlines found that both braided and meandering sectionscan of the bends become close to each other, andconse- occur where the stream Is aggrading, poised, or quently, the width of the channel must be small,or, degrading. The pattern does not conclusively define alternately, the meander shape dictates that width of river regime. Fahnestock emphasized that the channel increase with decrease in tortuosity. braided pattern cannot develop without bedload. He considered, in his investigation ofthe White 3. Flow curvature creates superelevation,a9cL_ River, the braided pattern to be caused by basically transverse velocity components. In wide, shallow the following conditions: (1) erodible banks, (2) channels theirelative height of roughness elements 201 p to flow depth is greater than in deep channels. Con- pools and rapids in the Colorado River through the sequently, such transverse components are mini- Grand Canyon 1161. mized because of friction on the boundary [41. Straight Pattern. Even when the channel appear Most meandering rivers have a ratio of radius straight, it is unusual for the thalweg not to wander of curvature to channel width in the range of 2 to 3. back and forth in a meandering fashion.Even in Size of bends appear to be proportional to the size straight channels, alternate bars develop 18).Steel of the river; the repeating distance between bends, confined streams, fairly straightin alignment, deve width of the channel, and the radius of curvature op pool and riffle patterns with spacings very com- are the basic dimensions [ 2) . parable to the spacings of pools and crossings in similar-size, fieely meandering streams. "Ex- Discharge was the most important single factor tremely short segments or reaches of the channel affecting the geometry of a meandering channel. may be straight, but it can be stated as a generali- . The width of meandering channels is greater than zation that reaches which are straight for distances straight channels having no well-developed shoal exceeding 10 times the channel width are rare"171. pattern; and that high sediment loads required steeper slopes and wider channels 1 12) A straight pattern was defined as one having a sinuousity or tortuosity ratio of less than 1.5. Long Schumm concluded, as did Leopold and Wolman, reaches (up to 2.5 miles, 30 times river-width) on th that meandering is a principal means of dissipating North Loup and Middle Loup River with a sinuosity stream energy. A river can develop a meandering index of less than 1.01 are fairly common. The course of low gradient without having to transport straightness of the Loup River reaches may be ex- large quantities of sediment by downcutting. ceptions ( 61. Streams transporting little bed-material loath-ife"---- relatively narrow, deep, and sinuous. Some rivers transporting only vary fine sediment are very- Streamflow and Slope Prediction straight (low sinuosity)13). A recent study, completed by the author, has From an engineering standpoint, the only inde- provided prediction equations for average daily dis- pendent variables that need to be considered for de- charge and river slope from river pattern character- fining channel pattern are: ( 1) discharge, ( 2) istics.In the intermountain regions of Colorado, valley slope, (3) material iG the bed and banks, Wyoming, and Montana, 11 freely meandering rivers and (4) man's activities [ 141. were selected. The pattern (planimetric shape) characteristics of each river were determined from The centrifugal force in the bend causes a trans- 7.5 min quadrangle sheets using a coordinatograph verse water-surface slope and helicoidal flow in the and a CDC 64C0 computer.- The correlation coeffi- bend. These transverse gradients induce velocity cient between average daily discharge and mean ra- components toward the convex bank having a- mag- dius of curvature was 0. 88; the correlation coeffi- nitude of about 15 percent of the average channel cient between river slope and tortuosity was 0.73 111. velocity; concentrations of bedload are swept toward the convex bank to be deposited as point bars. The rivers investigated had average daily dis- Scour in the bends causes migration of the entire charges ranging from about 30 cfs to about 1000 cfs, pattern in a downstream direction and sometimes slope ranging from 5 ft per mile to 69 ft per mile, in a lateral direction. Recorded downstream mean- and drainage basin areas ranging from about 80 to der pattern movements have been as great as 2500 4000 square miles. ft per year in alluvial rivers. Also, much of the material eroded from the concave bank is deposited River pattern is a characteristic that can be in the crossing and on the point bar in the next bend easily recognized from almost any form of imagery downstream 115). or photography taken in preferably a near vertical direction (or with known orientation) and with some In steep, confined mountain streams, an alter- estimate of imagery or photographic scale.River nating series of deeps and shallows, related to bends pattern is a characteristic that could be automated at And crossings in freely meandering channels have the sensor output for subsequent use in routine logic been observed. Leopold reported the alternating decisions.Line scanner output, for example, can 202 be programmed to recognize the water-land inter- that is, nonbeneficial plant life, can consume con-' face and subsequently define the river pattern. siderable amounts of ground water. In the western Studies to date indicate a need for additional work part of the U.S. there have been programs to attempt to refine the process of riverflow and slope prediction, to eliminate this undesirable type of vegetation and preferably in the automated fashion (18). consequently save some water in the process. Color infrared photography again has proven quite benefi- cial for evaluating plant species, and identifying Other Characteristics of Rivers certain types of plant stress ( Fig. 3). The plant vigor is often related to the proximity of the water Studies.to.date can provide estimates of river- table. flow and slope from pattern characteristics o1 some intermontane regions of the Rocky MotmtaInS.1 Re-' 3. Flood prediction and damage evaluation. fined prediction equations of a multivariate nature Throughout the entire world e2ccess volumes of water need to be established between the pattern and the cause considerable damage to life and property. The hydraulic characteristics-for rivers in a variety of ability to track a flood crest via the satellite obser- fluvial-geomorphologic environments. Orbital al- vations would be tremendously beneficial. A large titude photography will provide an economical way proportion of the population both here in the U.S. to develop and utilize these relationships. and abroad live immediately adjacent to large rivers and are particularly vulnerable to unexpected high Many additional characteristics related to the flows in a river ( Fig. 4). riverbed may be interpreted from high-quality satel- lite imagery. The author has listed 10 categories 4. Soil classification. The ability to classify of particular importance to river engineers: soils for agricultural purposes and to locate gravel deposits commonly found in the flood-plain areas is 1.Sediment transport processes. Relative of considerable importance. Procedures have been suspended sediment concentrations in rivers may be developed in terms of photointerpretation for these interpreted readily from color infrared photography applications but a good amount more must be done taken from an aircraft platform (Fig. 2). The and would be very practical with more sophisticated Gemini,photography also demonstrated this distinc- sensors and procedures. Gravel deposits, for exam- tive tone change, where dark-colored bodies of water ple, are becoming a rather scarce commodity, and indicate relatively clear water and blue tones in they are often classified as valuable mineral water indicate the presence of suspended sediment. resources in certain areas (Fig. 5). Using this interpretive key, a person acquainted with rivers can determine where erosion is occur- 5. River navigation. A considerable amount ring and trace the transport path. Recent remote of our commerce here in the U. S. depends on very - sensing studies on the lower Mississippi River us- economical transportation on our major river sys- ing color infrared have utilized this technique for tems. A continuing ongoing process is the mainte- identifying areas of erosion, describing flow pat- nance of these navigation channels(Fig. 6). An im- terns, and locating sections of the river where flow proved procedure for locating the thalweg (or the separation is occurring. position of the deepest part of the stream) would be very worthwhile. A person acquainted with rivers 2. Flood plain vegetation surveys. The flood and fluid mechanics can interpret the location of this plain soils are generally very fertile and conse- thalweg from color infrared photography, for exam- quently, much agriculture is practiced on flood ple. Recent studies at Colorado State University plains, particularly in the arid and semiarid parts also indicate that thermal infrared imagery may be of the world. Vegetation of a variety of types, in- used, in some cases, to indicate the major channel cluding beneficial and nonbeneficial vegetation,con- in the river.In addition, space photography-can sumes a considerable amount of the ground water provide an excellent monitoring technique for manag- located in the underground reservoir immediately ing river traffic. beneath the flood-plain areas. 6. Water depths in clear water.Certain films Particular attention must be paid to the en- are now available which allow one to record the bot- croachment of salinity problems induced by theprox--tom detail of near-coastal areas or of clear, inland imityof the water table, poor drainage character- streams to considerable depths. Studies completed istics, and reuse of the water itself.Phreatophytes, in Montana this past year, using color infrared 203 photography, allowed perception ofthe detail of the 9. Channel changes. The Gemini channel bottom and bars fora particular clear- photos of water river. the lower Mississippi Riverare of particular interest to the people concerned withthe maintenan 7. Drainage net pattern. This of navigation and flood controlin this major river. is another Certain portions of the river -planimetric feature that can bequite easily extract- have been longtime ed from either good quality problem areas and, in thecase of several colleague imagery or photography familiar with river mechanics, from space ( Fig. 7). Informationabout the drain- a glance at some of age net pattern can help one to better these photographs can quickly indicatewhy these understand particular areas are causing difficulty. discharge characteristics ofstreams. Work is A river tends to meander, and whereverman has affected currently being undertaken at ColoradoState Uni- versity in this respect. this normal meandering pattern hecan expect con- siderable difficulty in maintenance ofthe channel. 8. Whter resourcemanagement. The ability 10.Increased knowledge to mankind aboutrives to observe very largeareas can be helpful in con- systems. Man knows very little about thebehavior nectionwith recording precipitationpatterns, in- of the total river system primarilybecause he has cluding both rainfall andsnowfall, and for the sub- had only a chance to look at piecesof any particular sequent use of flow predictionin streams (Fig. 8). river'system. Observations froman orbital plat- Historically, flow prediction,at least in the western form -using a variety of sensorscan materially in- part of the U.S., has beenbased on snow surveys s crease man's understanding of this complexsystem. taken periodically during thewinter months. Ordi- It is prohibitive from the data magnitudestandpoint narily these historicalstatistical procedures have_ to try to record everything about allriver systems. provided a fair prediction foruse in planning for On the other hand, orbital altitudeimagery and reservoir fillings and withdrawals.However, this photography can pinpoint thoseareas where additinn- spring on the North PlatteRiver Basin in eastern al investigations can be mosteconomically achieved., Wyoming and western Nebraska,considerable dam- Certainly aircraft and in some casesextensive age was done to the flood-plainareas. This was ground data collectionS are a vital part ofthis over- because of the fact thatexcess runoff from the high all look 119, 201. mountains forced unusuallyhigh releases from the impounding reservoirs inorder to accommodate the new runoff from the snowfields. Conclusion -River pattern definition from orbital It has been evident forsome time that improved altitudes methods for flow prediction can materially increase mankind' s understanding of are necessary for opti- river systems throughout the world. mum management of our waterresources. In con- Quantification nection with the normal irrigation of river pattern can be accomplished forestimating practices, the discharge and river slope. High-quality water resource managers needinformation about imagery water use patterns in order to make and photography can providea unique, overall view appropriate of sediment transpOrt and deposition releases to satisfy demands.Satellite observation processes in streams, delineate flood plains and provide could provide this valuable-Zappingof water use vegeta- patterns.In addition, from theappearance of cer- tion surveys, help. predict and evaluate flooddam- tain crops, the wateruse manager can estimate ir- ages, monitor and identify river traffiC, and aid rigation scheduling. materially in precipitation surveys foroptimum water resource management. Another factor in water-ken-namemanagement, of course, is the aspect of pollution. Large pollution References spills can be very hazardous todownstream users. Oftentimes these spills are noticedbefore they be- come a part of some organization's 1.Skinner, M. I.: Free Meander Patternin Inter- consumption, montane Rivers. In Preparation for Submission but certainly an early warningsystem concerning pollution spills would be very important. to American Society of Civil. Engineers (ASCE), During CEP71-72MMS14. excessive rainfall periods streamsmay become polluted because of runoff frombordering feedlots ( Fig. 9). 2.Leopold, Luna B., and Wolman, M. Gordon: River Channel Patterns: Braided, Meandering, 204 and Straight.Geological Survey Professional and Its Geomorphic Implications. American Paper 282-B, 1957, p. 772. Journal of Science, vol. 263, Det.. 1965, p. 885, Russell, Richard Joel: Louisia-a Stream Patterns.Bulletin of the American Associa- Charlton, F. G.: Meandering Channels in tion of Petroleum Geologists, vol. 23,-no. Alluvium. Channel, A Current Information 8, Aug. 1939, p. _1200. Guide, vol. 2, no. 10, Oct. 1969, p. 305. Chitale, Shrikrishna V.: River Channel 13. Schumm, S. A.: Fluvial Geomorphology Patterns. Journal of the Hydraulics Div. , (The Historical Perspective). Preprint of ASCE, vol. 96, no. HY1, Jan. 1970, pp. Paper presented at the_Institute of River 207, 218, 219. 'Mechanics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo., June 15-26, 1970. i. Lane, E. S.: A Study of the Shape of Chan- nels Formed by Natural Streams Flowing in 14. Winkley, B. R.: Practical Aspects of River Erodible Material. U.S. Army Engineer Regulation and Control. Preprint of Paper Division Missouri River, Corps of Engineers, presented at the Institute of River Mechanics, Omaha, Neb. , M. R. D. Sediment Series, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, no. 9, 1957, p. 33. Colo., June 15-26, 1970. 6. Brice, James C.: Channel Patterns and 15. Simons, D. B.: River and Canal Morphology. terraces of the Loup Rivers in Nebraska. N-* Preprint of Paper presented at the Institute Geological Survey Professional Paper 422-D, of River Mechanics,- Colorado State Univer- 1964, pp. D31, D39. sity, Fort Collins, Colo., June 15-26, 1970. fr 7: Leopold, Luna B., and Maddock, Thomas, 16. Babbitt, Mary C. , McKee, Edwin D. , Hunt,- Jr.: T1Hydraulic Geometry of Stream Charles B., and Leopold, Luna B.: The Channels and Some Physiographic Implica- Colorado River Region and John Wesley tions. Geological Survey Professional .Powell. U.S. Geological Survey Profession- Paper 252, 1953, p. 29. al Paper 669, 1969, p. 13,1. 8. Leopold, Luna B. , Wolman, M. Gordon, 17. Skinner, M. M.: Remote Sensing for Applied and Miller, John P.: Fluvial ProcesSes in River Studies.In preparation for submis- Geomorphology. W. H. Freeman and Com- sion to American Society of Civil Engineers pany, San Francisco, Calif., pp. 282, 294. ( ASCE), CEP71-72MMS16. 9. Shen, H. W.: Stability of Alluvial Channels. 18. Leopold, Luna B. , and Wolman, M. Gordon: /-151:eprint of Paper presented at the Institute River Meanders. Bulletin of the Geological of River Mechanics, Colorado State Univer- Society of America, vol. 71, June 1960, sity, Fort Collins, Colo. , June 15-26, 1970, p. 53. p. 22. 19. Garner, H. F.: Rivers. in the Making. 10. Fahnestock, Robert K.: Morphology and Scientific American, April 1967. Hydrology of a Glacial Stream-White River, Mount Rainier.U.S. Geological Survey Profes-20. Drury, G.H., ed.: Rivers and River sional Paper 422-A, 1963. Terraces. Praeger Publishers, New York, 1970, 11. Carlston, Charles W.: The Relation of Free Meander Geometry to Stream Discharge 205 1 Meander pattern/cutoff oxbows Braided pattern Figure 1.River patterns. art rr Figure 2. Internegative print from Kodak Aerochrome infrared film 2443 (cement plant near Fort Collins, Colorado). 206 J Figure 3. Internegative print ,from Kodak Aerochrome infrared film 2443 (cement plant -near Fort Collins, Colorado). Figure 4. Print from Kodak, Aerocolor negative film 2445 (South Platte River in Denver, Colorado). 207 I Figure 5. Ektachrome RC print from Kodak.Aerochrom cared film 2443 (area near Fort Collins, Colorado). Figure 6. Ektachrome RC print from Kodak Aerochrome infrared film 2443 (Mississippi River near Vicksburg, Mississippi). 208 Figure 7. Special process print from Kodak Aerocolor negative film 2445 (area near Lusk, Wyoming). Figure 8. Ektachrome RC print from Kodak Aerochrome infrared film 2443 (Wolf Creek Pass area, Colorado; photography obtained in conjunction with Marshall Space Flight Center). 209 Figure 9. Ektachrome RC print from Kodak Aerochrome inCrared film 2443 (area near Fort Collins, Colorado; note feedlot adjacentto stream)-.: 210 A LITTLEBEYONDTOMORROW By Daniel J. Fink Vice President and General Manager General Electric Company, Space Division Valley Forge, Pennsylvania It is indeed appropriate that this Space Congress Many of us feel very strongly that the space Pro- is being held in Huninville, because it was here, ads gram will affect our lives in a more direct way than you all know, that we spawned the propulsive powei it has thus tar-4-for one, believe that space will. which-man used to fly in space and land on the moon, become an integral part of us and we-of it. Space and without which we might still be earthbound. must do this, or it may not survive as a broad-based-- What is earthbound about Huntsville, though, is the activity.It must become a part of our everyday lives, fact this fine city is firsthand evidence that the bulk or, perhaps, remain at best a research and develop- of space dollars has been spent right here on the meat pursuit. When addressing the future, it is a ground. With all due respect to my vegetarian friends,well-known fact that we scientists and engineers have it has worked out a lot better than watercress. a strong tendency to overestimate what we can do in the short term and underestimate what can be aceom- lest I do not want to dwell on history with which plished in the longer term. For iestance, we can you are familiar. I want to talk about the future, get very optimistic about meeting'eeting a rather tight about a period beyond the noise and trauma of today launch schedule, say for the next satellite in a Riven when space will directly affect our lives in a daily program. Yet, on UK: other hand, there are many manner. To bring it into sharper focus, we are at prominent t!chnologists who did not think man would the ;Ant where there will soon be more people on land on the moon until the seventies or eighties. earth than in heaven and hell combined. So the space When we 4140 in the near term, we almost always program has a particular challenge to face in helping have some .specific project in mind that somebody Is make sure that we de not unwittingly swap places trying to sell, and there is always a tendency 14 push with the hereafter. (the-immediate accomplishments too hard.- In con- trast, to delve too far into the-future to justify our In many ways the space program can be likened efforts in space may once have been an acceptable to a teenagerone beset with the awkwardness of approach, but, with sd much of sP4ence fletien al- public apathy and the acne of reduced funds. This ready an accomplished fact, things like ceYndzation teenager has some -other problems, too. At one of the planets have about as muck impact as watching point in his life, much like other youngsters, he paint dry. Therefore, I would like to conc,ketrate on- knew it all. The fact that he scored on his first date the time "a little bey and tomorrow," where we can to the moon frigh ;ened off the girls and the public. deal with possibilities that are based on research and Now they are reluctant to go steady with him, even technology already in progress. They do not seem to though be is envied by some of his contemporaries. get the proper attention, even though I think they are This reluctance is aggravated by his ability_ to con- the strongest rationale for our current space efforts. sume a lot of bread. He stands in the unenviable position of having so much to give and yet he faces First, I want to talk about one of the oldest areas the stark danger of becoming impotent before reach- which is benefiting from apace technology, that is, ing his twenties. Our space teenager has not been meteorology. Weather satellites were among the staying home. lie has been on an international tour, first spacecraft put Into orbit in the early sixties. some of it successful. However, there are a lot of They have been eminently successful and yet, we people in the world who look at him only in terms of ,cannot honestly say they have revolutionized fore- a trip to the moan, and many of those think it hah casting. Why not? Simply because, despite our been a bummer. Lest I give you the impreresion that experience, we are still in the early stages of this all is bleak, let us consider some fundamentals. business. What accomplishments have we seen? t-Like ppierteenageerrtlits--iineTipetceleave-the-waTni- Probably the major one Is disaster prediction. The shelter of the sixties and learn bow to live in a com- examples of successful hurricane detection and track- petitive world. He must find his own way in a society ing by satellite with the attendant advanced warring that Is maLlig a quantum break with the past. for saving lives are now commonplace. 211 So far, these satellites have-probably helped We all know of the impact that other countries more titan ours in predicting the space progran the has had on schdol-curricula, -especiallyin mathemat- weather. Australia and Chile cancome up with 1-- ics and the sciences. But, not or 2-day forecasts, which they could not do as much is known of as well the new educational technologiesstemming from before, by using information about conditionsin the space sciences. oceans that lie in the path of their weather. Brazil, for example, is Planning-a direct- broad- If we look ahead, we are on theverge of a signif- east educational television system that 10'1)ml:through, because we arc going from would reach a sit- more than 100 000 schools. In some eases,as many ) atiOn whJrc we receive pictures fromspace to one as six. classrooms with television monitors wheze we are getting data that would be can be fed into comput- used in each school. Another possibleuse-of the ers. In other words, we will be probing the vertical system would be adult education during the dimension of the atmosphere from evening space. This will hours. In the U.S., 'here are plans to beameduca- give us the ability to make better mathematicalmod- tional television via satellite to rural els of the world's weather-and to speak schoolrooms to computers in Appalachia. The intent in all suchprograms on their own terms. Ultimately, aswe get fe under- is to get the best educational talent stand the dynamics of the atmosphere, a country can find we should be to reach the masimum number of people.In the fu- able to solve the problem of the generalcirculation of the atmosphere. Then ture, computer-aided education would enablea child we can expect to achieve at his desk to tap into knowledgesources anywhere, an ac urate rorecast about 2 to 3 week's in advance. instead of relying just on the school library.-These And that is where I believeour space meteorological "electronic encyclopedias" will efforts arc taking us. give us the means so that by the year 2000 everyperson in the world, wherever he may be, could haveaccess to at least The next aspect I want to get into is to look be- a high school education. neath the weather at our earth, in otherwords, the Earth Resources Satellite. A lot hasbeen said and Transportation is another vital area that needs written about this subject, perhaps much of it over- to benefit from space work, becauseour mobility selling in the short term. I would notwant to see as individuals is threatened Ina world that is becom- promises of benefits from our very first EarthRe- ing more densely populatedevery day. There are sources Technology Satellite (ERTS) be those that some obvious problems where space technology is will only come from several years of experience in the only valid solution, suchas air traffic control. this vital and emerging field. The nub ofthe matter Today, airplanes fly over the is that the world's food and other oceans with lateral. resources are in separation standards of 120 miles and 20 min flying critical supply; and for the first time,we arc going time in-track. to have multispectral measurements fromspace that will give us an idea of wherewe stand. The interest is fantastic Sometime in the next decade or two, theymay for example, NASA has receivedsome be able to reduce these standards to, say, 30 7000 proposals for experiments involving the miles ERTS laterally and 5 min in-track so that theycan fly program. These range from studying crop diseases more safely with the denser patterns that will result and ocean conditions to mapping urban areas and as air traffic gets as packed as some ofour highways. getting information about snow and ice cover as a Over land, air controllers will be locatingplanes means of locating water sources. Also, what better within 50 ft and 1.5-mile airspeed. Downon the ground, way will there be to monitor the pollutants inour en- we may see police cars, taxicabs, and other fleet vironment: vehicles controlled through pinpoint locationprovided by satellite. As these programs progress, and thecountries _of the world are ready to take action,we will have Up until now, I have been talking about new guidelines to help us decide where areas in crops can be which a lot of basic work has been done, andthere grown more efficiently, how to manageour precious are programs underway that give us some good ideas water resources, our forests, our land, where to bet-of how the future might turn out. However,there is ter find new resources and fishing grounds,and what a concept that is still in its infancy, called we need to do to clean up our atmosphere. space manufacturing, that may ultimately show themost promise, although it will requirenew progratos to Now, let me turn briefly to education andknowl- get us where we want to go. edge and hew space is playing It is possible that the an important role here. weightlessness and near-perfect vacuum ofspace 212 could serve as the basis for manufacturing facilities letters at their desks and, in a fraction of a second, that will give us materials and products of a quality they could be sent to their destinations by "Telemail." unattainable on earth, except at prohibitive cost. As the world continues to shrink, and each of us can Things like puret vaccines and superior crystals watch and talk with his neighbor in real time, and are examples of prime possibilities.It has been vice versa, our expectations and attitudes will rise estimated that by the end of this century the-total above national boundaries and what we have been value of electronic materials and biologicals manu- taught in the past. So the sociological impacts will factured in space could run upward of $50 billion. be staggering - I will not even venture a guess on the outcome! In the last 20 years of so, we have achieved an order of magnitude of purification in some of our In the field of health, space has already made biological materials. This is, perhaps, a practical many contributions. Electronic heart pacers, diag- limit achievfAle on earth. Yet, you and I still get nostic sensors, and sight switches for manipulating undesirable side effects from some vaccines and wheelchairs are but a few among numerous exam- medicines. Therefore, space may afford us the ples of practical applications. In fact, the medical opportunity to reach another order of magnitude of field has--,...-: been __ one of the prime benefactors of the purity without too much difficulty and thereby do space program, because of the obvious necessity .aWay with these side results. for providing life-support systems for our astronauts. In the future, we may have diagnostic and treatment Another very interesting possibility has to do centers in our own homes, tied into the medical with the manufacture of high-quality magnetic oxide facilities of the world by satellite.If we are ill, we crystals in space. They would have little bubbles can use our own time-sharing computer terminal to of gas moving around inside them, and would be used ask the outstanding minds of the medical profession as memory storage units for computers. The in- what ails us and get a prescribed treatment in return. crease in capacity and reduction in volume, in com- Whether this will lead to a generation of electronic parison with memory devices used today, would en- hypochondriacs remains to be seen. Since diagnoses able us to approach the capacity of the human brain. and treatments will not be restricted to physical We e-might also achieve random access, like the brain ailments either, we may also have group therapy has, in dredging up forgotten facts and figures. by satellite. This development is being experimented with on earth, and the hope is that the better crystal structure we To sum it up, space surrounds all the earth so might attain by manufacturing in space would give us it is, indeed, a province of all peoples. Thus far, vastly improved results. Economically, today' s more than 70 countries are working with the U.S. memory devices cost between 5 cents and 1 cent per on some program or other applying space to their bit of information. The memory units of the future problems. The United Nations is very active, too, that I am deserihing would perhaps cost less than particularly with respect to earth resources pro- one-tenth of a cent grams for developing countries. I submit that with- Turning to more personal factors, not too much out the overview and the information that space has been said about the community aspects of using can afford us, we cannot hope, literally, to survive space. In other words, man living with man, his on earth except at deteriorating levels. We arc into attitudes, the haves and have nots, jobs, equal oppor- the first payoff years of space, and we cannot stop tunities, and everything that goes to make up the now. whole sociological picture. Just a scant 10 years ago, live television could not be sent across the Atlantic. I want to close with several predictions. First, We were able to watch man' s first steps on the we are going to see a resurgence in favor of space moon 2 years ago. Now, communications satellites and technology. Second, many of the benefits I ride shotgun on the world and we can receive tele- have been discussing with you today will surely come vision anywhere. At the same time, about half of to pass. And third, all of us, by virtue of our atten- the international phone calls made today arc going by dance at this Space Congress, qualify as salesmen satellite, and such usage is growing at a rate of for space. I can make these predictions with confi- about 40 percent per year. Voice transmissions on dence because I have been assured by the chairman the earth sometimes have trouble reaching beyond that most people will shortly forget what I said. the horizon, but, with relay satellites, we can cover-Second, if I am wrong, a lot of other people are nearly half the surface of the -world at once. In the wrong, too. And, third, I may just damn well be future, every person could have a portable telephone right.If I am, then there is a great period ahead for and could dial anywhere. Secretaries could type all mankind. 213/92111 ADVANCEMENTS IN MEDICINE FROM AEROSPACE RESEARCH By Dr. F. Thomas Wooten Director, RTI Biomedical Application Thin Research Triangle Institute Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Acknowledgment Many of the methods for implementing the concept of technology utilirution are largely passive in na- This work supported under NASW-2273. ture; passive, in this case, means the information is provided to those who seek it and thus the phy- sician must understand the information system in order to use it. One of the unique features of the Introduction Application Team program is that the method is active. Active, in this sense, means that the prob- The world has recently viewed the dramatic lems and solutions are actively sought. successes of a space effort, which chose a difficult goal and then carefully developed the technology This search for problems is carried out by the necessary to reach that goal. This paper discusses members "1 the. multidisciplinary team. Team mem- a program which is designed to find second applica- bers visit major medical centers (the National Insti- tions in the field of medicine for the technology de:- tutes of Health and medical schools) where suitable veloped to achieve the nation's space goals. The medical problems are identified with the aid of a program is the outgrowth of the congressional char- consultant. the consultant, a medical center staff ter included in the Space Act of 1958, which direct- member, helps to ensure that the problems selected ed NASA. to find second applications for.the technol- meet certain minimum requirements. In general, ogy which resulted from NASA's Research and our team accepts only those problems which (1) have Development (R&D) programs. no solutions available on the commercial market, (2) are discrete and can be defined in specific terms, (3) impede the progress of priority efforts For several years NASA has sponsored a prb- of the physician, and (4) appear amenable to solu- gram whibh has, at its core, multidisciplinary tion by aerospace-related technology. We impose teams of scientists and engineers called Applica- these requirements because this program is designed tion Teams. Such a team is located at each of three for problem solving, not just for information search- not-for-profit research institutes (the Research ing. Triangle Institute of North Carolina, the Southwest Research Institute of Texas, and the Midwest Re- If a problem meets these requirements, it is search Institute of Missouri) and one medical school_ defined by the physician and team member during (Stanford University). The teams seek to provide one or more meetings. Problem definition can an interface between two diverse fields: aerospace probably best be explained by an example: arthritis and medicine. is a crippling disease which can result in the de- struction of the ball-and-socket joint of the hip. One The medical profession has awakened in the method of treating this disease is to replace the past decade to the need for advanced technology In human hip ball-and-socket joint with an artificial medical research and health care. This awakening material. An orthopedic surgeon asked the team te alone is not enough. Some effective avenues for find an improved material. The team quickly deter- the flow of information, ideas, and technology be- mined that the basic problem was that existing mate- tween the physical and medical sciences have been rials have inadequate friction and wear character- established, but more are needed. This program istics. The team looked for improved low friction- provides one such avenue. bearing materials which were biocompatible and not just for prosthetic hip joint materials. Thus, the search could be broadened to areas unrelated to Methodology medicine. "Technology utilization" is the term applied to the After a problem is defined, a solution is sought task of finding second applications for technology. using several approaches. First, a computer search 215 of the NASA document bank is performed, which cov- important facts about the problem of finding second ers approximately 700 000 documents. The bibliog- applications for space technology. First,although raphy and related documents are analyzed by the the searching of document files isone key aspect of physician and the team member to determine whether the program, it is not the most importantaspect. an adequate solution is avaibble. Most information systemsare designed to retrieve information directly related to a subject.Informa- A second approach used in finding solutions is tion that is indirectly related toa subject cannot be to request suggestions from NASA personnel by cir- easily retrieved unless the 'searcher hassome ini- culating concise written problem statements to the tial clues. A search for methods of rapidly NASA field centers. These documents heating are circu- blood, as an example, would probablynot include lated by the Technology Utilization Officers (TUO) semiconductor fabrication as a searchterm unless who are located at each center and who havea de- the searchers were aware that microwave heating tailed knowledge of the research activities at their is a vital aspect of semiconductor fabricationproc-% centers. The TUO provides a vital link between the esses. Thus, search results are limited by the teams and key NASA personnel. experience of the searcher. A third approach is to contact field center per- The second important lesson learnedfrom this sonnel or NASA contractor personnel directly when program is that personal interaction is vital when the teams are aware that these personnel haveknowl- two diverse disciplines are attempting to edge about particular problems. These contacts, interact. In fact, disciplines do not really interact,but people coordinated with each TUO, allow the teamsto rap- do. This interaction between two idly obtain advanced technological inforination. diverse disciplines really results when two people sit downto talk.If we simply give a physician an engineering After an idea or individual has been identified document, the results are usually quite low. Considertwo ex- by these searching procedures, both direct andin- amples: (1) The physician cannot beginto realize direct contacts between physicians and NASA per- the significance of modern communicationstechnol- sonnel are arranged. In the formercase, physicians ogy to his method of dispensing health care, and (2) have visited NASA centers for discussions; in the the engineer cannot recognize the significance latter case, the team members have provided the of his cryogenic technology to leukemia therapyuntil face- contact by visits and correspondence. Always the to-face and repeated interaction idea is to provide the physician with fresh occurs. Personal insight interaction between all elements of the-teamprogram into his problem from a discipline he doesnot nor- (physician, team member, and mally encounter. aerospace engineer) has been found to be of major importancefor success. The team then acts as a catalyst to provide im- plementation of the ideas. Although the primary responsibility for implementation of the technology Examples of Results lies with the physician, the team assistsin engineer- ing consultation and in recommendationsfor ways of In order to illustrate both the methodology and applying the technology. In addition, in a few in= the results of the Application Team, examplesof stances, NASA has initiated feasibility studies di- particular problems will now be discussed. rectly when it is clear that no otheravenues are open to the physician and when the necessaryexper- A prototype ofa prosthetic urethral valve is tise is available only within NASA. At all times, shown in Figure 1. This valve is designed tomeet the team feels that success comes only when utili- the needs of patients with urinary incontinence zation has occurred. or the inability to voluntarily control urination.In addition to the obvious social and hygienic implica- tions of incontinence, this inability to controlurina- Program Analysis tion can result in tissue deterioration, infection, kidney damage, and eventually death.Previous at- Because the transfer of technology in this active tempts to solve this problem using electricalstimu- mode is a unique venture, significant effortsare lation have not been satisfactory. made to analyze the transfer processso that im- provements in transfer methodology can occur. The One problem in attempting to use a valve in the analysis phase of the program has disclosed several urinary system is that urinecauses an incrustation 216 ,1101111.1 -1.-= thatIouls most valves. This problem was posed-to being used to measure the radiation level absorbed NASA engineers at Lewis Research Center who pro- around cancerous areas in-order to determine the posed the use of a flexible membrane valve. A team position of administered radioisotopes. This engineer proposed a check valve that, together with allows more precise definition of cancerous areas the bulb shown in Figure 1, forms a-bistable valve and prevents damage to surrounding healthy tissue. which controls the urine flow.This device is now undergoing testing in experimental animals, and if The final example of a transfer concerns the it is perfected, an estimated 15 000 patients per need for an improved electromyographie muscle year could benefit from this device. trainer. When muscles,of the hand become damaged or atrophied, an electromyographic muscle trainer The next example concerns the need for careful is employed to-determine,whether or not a specific monitoring of leukemia patients who, not uncom- muscle is being used. The trainer consists of two monly, die of shockas opposed to some cause electrodes, an amplifier, and a speaker which al- more directly related to the proliferation of white lows the patient to hear when a specific muscle is blood cell forming tissue.In order to prevent these being used, but the bulky electrodes previously deaths, the National Cancer Institute asked the team employed were too large for proper results. to find a means of monitoring blood pressure with- - out significantly disturbing the patient. Conventional Figure 5 shows the use of small electrodes blood pressure measurements require an occlusive devised from NASA-developed spray-on electrode cuff which is clearly unsuitable for frequent, round- formulations. With these electrodes no further the-clock monitoring. attachment mechanism is needed for the wires; and the electrode, provide extremely satisfactory re- A direct contact with NASA's Ames Research sults. The improved access to the muscle being Center revealed that an ear oximeter had been de- exercised permits improved rehabilitation pro- veloped for measuring oxygen content of the blood cedures for a significant number of patients. The of astronauts in ground testing. This device, shown technique is already in use in several rehabilitation in Figure 2, was also sensitive to relative changes centers. in blood pressure. Although previous ear oximeters required that blood flow in the ear be occluded in order to measure blood pressure, this new NASA Conclusion development removed this requirement and the re- sulting discomfort. At the present time, the NASA This paper has described a new and exciting ear oxiineter is undergoing clinical trials at the approach to the process of finding new applications National Cancer Institute. Successful conclusion for space technology. NASA has taken the lead in of these trials could result in savings of hundreds implementing the concept of technology utilization, of lives annually. and the Technology Utilization program is the first vital step in the goal of a technological society to A third example of an application of aerospace insure maximum benefit from the costs of technol- technology resulted when the Environmental Pro- ogy.Experience has shown that the active approach tection Agency (EPA) wanted to study the effects of to technology transfer is unique and is well received low levels of carbon monoxide on automobile driv- in the medical profession when appropriate problems ers. A search revealed that a NASA scientist at are tackled. The problem-solvingapproach iq a Langley Research Center had developed an instru- useful one at the precise time when medicine is rec- ment, shown in Figure 3, which measured the coor- ognizing the need for new technology. dination and reaction time of astronauts exposed to contaminants in spacecraft. This instrument was It is significant that the decade which heralded loaned to EPA and Is now being used for the planned the space age is also the decade that signaled the study. Although the new application of the equipment awakening of medicine to the need for technology. is not significantly different from the basic NASA Whether the coincidence is directly related, indirect- use, it is interesting to note that EPA had planned ly related, or unrelated can be argued by philoso- to develop such an instrument on contract so that a phers. But this simultaneous occurrence cannot be significant savings in tax dollars resulted. ignored, and this program is one step in the many that are needed to fulfill medicine's needs. Thus, A fourth example is shown in Figure 4. This is the Application Team program clearly fits the pur- a radiation dosimeter probe, developed under NASA pose of this conference which is to discuss"Space sponsorship for nonmedical purposes, and is now for Mankind's Benefit." 217 Figure 1. Prototype prosthetic urinary valve. Figure 2. Ear oximeter. 218 DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS FOR AEROSPACE WASTE AND WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES By Frank DiSanto Manager, Vehicle and Electromechanical Engineering General Electric Company and Robert W. Murray Program Manager, Life Systems General Electric Company Abstract As a reward, Crapper was appointed Sanitary Engi- neer to His Majesty and created a long- and little- The tools for solving many of today' s pollution known series of inventions which evolved into the problems have been developed by aerospace technolo- commode and sanitary drain designs.as we know them today. As today' s water supplies become gists. Of major importance are the approaches used- to identify very complex problems, to select.the more limited, it is again time to call for new ideas best solution, and to implement vast programs. to conserve water. Do you realize that 45 percent None of these approaches or technical processes is of your household water usage goes for flushing e unique to the aerospace community. They have, in commode and only 5 percent for drinking? What a fact, been borrowed from government, academic; waste of a valuable resource: and industrial sources, refined and repeatedly used in solving aerospace problems and are now ready Since we are talking about handling of wastes, for general use in solving today's pollution problems. do you realize that a cow generates as much excreta as 16 humans, and that the wastes from livestock This paper explores some of the aerospace de- and poultry production alone are 1.7 billion tons velopments in solid waste disposal and water purifi- per year or 4 times the amount of waste and trash cation, which are applicable to specific domestic produced in the cities? The problems of pollution problems. Also, the paper will provide an overview and conservation span the full spectrum from urban of the management techniques used in defining the domestic dwellings to rural farms. We are continu- need, in utilizing the available tools, and in synthe- ally bombarded with statistics to show the complex- sizing a solution. ity and magnitude of the problem; however, it does not really hit home until you are told to boil your Specifically, several water recovery processes water before it is safe to drink, or you are stopped will be compared for domestic applicability; e.g., from building your new home because an acceptable filtration, distillation, catalytic oxidation, reverse sewage disposal method is not available. osmosis, electrodialysis, etc. Also solids disposal methods will be discussed; e.g., chemical treatment) drying, incineration, wet oxidation, etc. The latest The aerospace community is being challenged by developments in reducing household water require- nearly everyone with the now standard statement, ments and some concepts for reusing water will "We can put a man on the moon) bvt we cannot..." be outlined. The nation's space activities and earth environmental problems have many areas of commonality, a few of which arc both very coinplex, technical problems, The Need and there are many thousands of skilled engineers and scientists solving them. The biggest difference In 1872 London, the Government' s Metropolis is that putting men on the moon involved the-actual Water Act called for inventions to solve the "shocking landing of a few dedicated men, while improving wastage of water that was going on in the lavatories our environment requires the commitment and sup- of the metropolis." The solution was the Valveless port of millions of people with a diverse view of Water Waste Preventer patented by Thomas Crapper. priorities. 221 This conference, "Space for Mankind's Bene- 1. Translation fit," is focusing priorities and depictsmany sophis- ticated systems developed for spaceor using space 2. Analysis to benefit man through better weather forecasts, communication and navigation, and development of 3. Tradeoff natural resources. A more mundane topic isspace technology developed for waste managementand 4. Synthesis. water recovery, which are applicable to domestic uses. When we think of the earth as a large space- The translation, or initial formulation of the ship, then the relationship of thespace technology problem (need), is an important step that sets (or tools) to earth's ecology becomesmore the course of all the work that will follow.Trans- apparent. lation includes the interpretation of objectives, and, in addition, all recognized constraintson the The Available Tools problem solution criteria shall also be determined. Some categories of constraints, suchas timing and The tools developed to solve very complexacre, policy, may also be used as selectioncriteria in space problems are not unique to the space business. developing the future program plans. The difference In fact, they have been borrowed fromgovernment, between these two uses is that constraintsare gen- academic and industrial sources, refined andre- erally applied as absolute limitations, whereasselec- peatedly used. Two of these managementsciences, tion criteria are applied in the cycle to determine ;namely, systems approach and optimizationtech- the relative merit of possible approaches. During niques, are worthy of more detail. the cycle, a number of feedbacksmay be required, as shown in Figure 1, to improve and reevaluate SYSTEMS APPROACH the output. The systems approach is merely ameans of providing a structured consistency toa program. OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES The complexities of the space program haveneces- sitated the development of this approach. The Optimization is the process by which the best complexities of the pollution problemon earth are system is identified for the predetermined criterion even greater than that required to put a man on the of the study. A typical method of effectivenessand moon. However, now the tools are available to cost modeling is shown in Figt..-1 2. solve the overall problem and the individualprob- lems of each community and household. A general approach or model to system opti- mization is summarized in Figure 3.It can be Basically stated, the systems approach is seen that optimization is a reiterative process characterized by the following ground rules: consisting of the following steps: 1. Start at the highest and most general echelon of cognizance to determine the boundaries of the 1. Design several concepts that satisfy the overall system operational requirements and constraints 2.Define the systems (concepts) and proc- 2. Compute resultant values of effectiveness esses in stages of increasing detail, translating and resource use functional requirements into hardware requirements 3. Evaluate these results and make generaliza- 3. Do not prejudge solutions; any solutions in tions concerning.appropriate combinations of design mind should serve as guides, rather than points of and support factors, which are then reiteratedin departure, in the pbloning process. the model. Figure 1 gives a detailed treatment of the struc- This then is the general method of attacking ture of the systems approach by highlighting the four very complex problems. Some of the tools are the principal states or steps involved: actual hardware developments. 222 AEROSPACE HARDWARE DEVELOPMENTS the shower enclosure. These features alone would save a significant amount of water in the home since' A vast amount of new technology is being devel- much water is wasted in achieving the proper water oped for advanced space missions where waste temperature for showering and only a few commer- management and water recovery are key elements cial models provide for stopping starting the to a successful mission. Ecology-minded citizens waterflow without the possibility of being scalded or are now realizing that the earth is not dissimilar chilled. from a space vehicle and that many of the space developments are also applicable to earth-type prob- Clothes Washer. Conventional clothes washers lems. Even the space-developed zero-gravity oper- generally require over 300 lb of water heated to ational technology is found useful in designs for ship approximately 120F, and in the household of a _ systems which must operate during extreme pitch lame family, the automatic Washer is used at least and roll conditions. once a day. NASA is developing a low water usage washing machine. General Electric has developed Most of the NASA hirOvrare developments have and tested a washer which uses only 1 lb of water centered around low water use devices and water per pound (dry weight) of clothing to be washed. recovery. However, many other ancillary develop- ments have also resulted from a quest for safer and Dishwasher. The development of dishwashers more acceptable systems; e.g., bacteria sensors. has not stressed conservation of water. Cleanli- e ness of the dishes is the main goal, as It should be for a commercial product. Consequently, over 100 Low Water Use Devices lb of hot water are used for dishwashing per day for an average four-membei family. No known Commode. The recent development of the fourth aerospace concept is being developed; however, generation Hydro-John (under NASA Contract NAS there will be a requirement for a dishwasher in a 9-9741) has shown that flushing and cleanliness can space-station-type vehicle where disposable dishes be achieved with less than 1 lb of water compared to and utensils are not contemplated. 40 lb for a typical earth commode flush (Fig. 4). A second advantage of the Hylro-John is that wiping Garbage and Trash Disposal. Garbage and trash tissues are not required. This is an advantage for disposal does not require a large quantity of water; remotely located toilets where maintenance is a however, this disposal problem is of interest since problem; also the cost saving on the tissue may be the solids may be processed in the same way as more significant than the water saving. If water for focal solids. The Integrated Waste Management flushing is not available, the Dry John (Fig. 5) has Program (AEC Contract AT (30 -11 -4104) uses the been successfully used for over 600 man-days in approach of handling all the liquid and solid wastes chamber tests. This unit collects, stores, and by common processes; namely, distillation for water vacuum dries the wastes. It is discussed further recovery and incineration for solids disposal. This on page 224. approach inhousehold would initiate the separation of nonburnable trash, e.g., cans and bottles, which Urinal. Probably the greatest Waste of water is difficult to separate after the trash leaves the is committed when the conventional commode is home. flushed after urination. This technique uses 40 lb of water to flush avray,1 lb of liquid. Commodes Water Recovery =with a "half flush" are in use in Europe. Separate male/female urinals have been designed for space Space-type water recovery systems can be use which have a flush capability requiring only generally categorized as distillation type or nitra- 0.25 lb of water. tion type, although some designs must use distilla- tion and filtration to provide an acceptable product. Some systems also require pre- and post-chemical Showers. The shower configurations being tested treatment. Chemical and sterility requirements at NASA each show a significant reduction in water from NASA for recycled water are much more requirement. Typically, a shower requires leis stringent than those of the U.S. Public Beale.; than 10 lb of water compared to the conventional 160- Service. Consequently, as public water supply lb requirement. The aerospace shower features standards become more stringent, the aerospace temperature control of both the water and the air in technology may be applied. 223 Distillation., The General Electric concept the airflow with a desiccant. Drying does utilizes distillation and high-temperature catalytic not necessarily kill micro-organisms; however,the oxidation with no pre- or post-treatment required. lack of water does prevent propagation and The product is pure and sterile. the Distillation is resulting odors. Feces have been storedat amble achieved by use of waste heat, radioisotope heaters pressure, after drying, for in excess of 1 year wit or vapor compression. out any gas generation problem. Several evaporator designs have been developed Wet Oxidation. Among the several methods for operation in zero gravity; theseuse centrifuges, used for combustion of waste material flash evaporators or membrane diffusers is the Zim- to achieve merman or wet oxidation process. Waste material. liquid/steam sepration. The centrifuge designis entrained in water, is placed in also useful for solids separation. Air a pressure reactior. evaporation chamber and air or oxygen is introducedunder is another distillation technique whichuses a heated pressure to oxidize the organic content of thewaste. airflow to evaporate water from a wick-type material. The mixture is heated to 500-600*F in the Both pre- and post-treatment are required. closed chamber where a pressure of about 2000 psi is developed. Holding time dependsupon temperature Filtration. Filtration has been broadly defined and composition of the waste, but about1 hr is to include processes such as electrodialysis,reverse generally sufficient to oxidize 80 percent of -osmosis and multifiltration. Reverse osmosis the or- and ganic material and yield a sterile inoffensiveend multifiltration are most promising in that theprocess product. is simple and much deVelopment has beencompleted. For example, the Space Station Prototype willuse Incineration. Incineration typically reduces a reverse osmosis unit for water recovery from solid waste volume and weight by 95to 99 percent. wash water. Multifiltration was used in the NASA The present General Electric incinerator forspace four-man, 90-day test to recover water forperson- applications uses a batch-type al hygiene, laundry, and housecleaning. process. Continuous This unit processes have been operated in the laboratory, . used several particulate filters followed byan acti- but require more development to prevent clogging vated carbon column, two ion-exchangeresin col- of the incinerator feed mechanism. umns, and a final activated carbon column. The Large-capacity, continuous-feed mechanisms are used in commercial development of flocculants has permittedmore effi- incinerators. cient filtration. Ancillary Equipment Pre- and Post-treatment. There area multi- tude of chemicals being developed forpre.. and post- Aerospace development of water purity and treatment for systems which cannot handle waste sterility monitors is of special interest. Typically, ammonia generation and/or do not sterilize the pH and water conductivity are monitored andTOC, effluent. These range from electrolytic anddichro- NH3, Cl, and other ions can be detected. Bacteria mic acid pretreatments to chlorine and silverion sensors are of several types; namely, ehemilumi- posttreatments. Usually, the pretreatment is used nescent, spectrographic, 4-hour incubation,chroma- to complex the waste urea to prevent ammoniagen- tographic, and a real-time electromagnetic device eration. The posttreatment is usually requiredto that is in a very preliminary stage of development control microbial growth. A newly developedelec- at General Electric. trolytic -type chlorine generator eliminatesthe need of handling of gaseous chlorine. The Solution Solid Waste Processing INTEGRATED SYSTEMS Basically, there are three advancedspace ve- hicle methods for processing solids; namely,drying, With experience in the development of such as is used in the General Electric waste Dry John management systems for both space vehicles and commode, wet oxidation, and incineration. homes, plus the experiences gained from research, development and marketing in the home appliance Drying. Drying is accomplished by venting the field, the various criteria which hardware closed waste container to vacuum, flowing must an air- meet for either space or domestic applicationscan flow through the container, or circulating anddrying be compared knowledgeably. These criteria 224 described in Table 1 arc essentially the same for 1. Concept 1.This system concept (Fig. 5) both applications, but differ in relative importance utilizes back contamination control devices to sepa- depending on the application. rate the community water supply from the system and to separate the waste collection devices from the A current contract sponsored jointly by the washing and food preparation devices. In the home, AEC and NASA is the Integrated Waste Management- back-contamination control is usually accomplished Water System being developed at the General Elec- by an air gup between the potable water inlet and the tric Company. In th;31evelopment, all wastes are water use device. collected in the evaporator where the water is dis- tilled at a low temperature and the remaining solids The waste liquid with a high-solids content, are centrifugally removed from the evaporator e.g., urinal, commode and garbage-trash disposal, (Figs. 6 and 7). The distilled water vapor contains is processed separately from the waste liquid with impurities which are catalytically oxilized and a low solids content, e.g., wash water. This sepa- vented to a space vacuum. The resulting ultrapure ration may be necessary to more efficiently process and sterile water vapor's condensed and the water the wastes. For example, reverse osmosis may be is ready for reuse and consumption. The solid used for water recovery in the wash water circuit wastes are sterilized, dried, thermally decomposed, and distillation for the commode circuit.Distillation and incinerated with the resulting gases vented to a will operate efficiently for the total water recovery space vacuum. The small amount of remaining ash process; however, the operational cost may be pro- isterile and may be stored or jettisoned. Methods hibitive since evaporation of each pound of water re- of eliminating the vents to six:cc have also been quires approximately 1200 mu or 350 W-hr of enera. identified. If the complexity is warranted, a vapor compressor can be added t9 the circuit to permit reuse of the heat The high - temperature portion of the system is initially used to evaporate the water, thus significantly integrated and insulated to permit heating by one reducing the overall energy requirement. radioisotope heater or electrical heater. Radio- isotope heating provides reliable high-temperature The solids from the waste liquid are separated heating and significantly reduces the system' s and may be converted into either a sterile, dry electrical power requirements. material with little volume reduction or a sterile ash with a 95 to 99 percent volume reduction. The System Performance recovered water would either be drained to the-sew- age line or receive further processing to assure System performance is briefly outlined as sterility and acceptability for watering the lawn or follows: washing the family car. All excess water, over capacity inputs or potential overflows caused by 1. Collect and Process. Feces: 1.2 lb per component failure, will be bypassed to the sewage day for four defecations. Urine: 14.0 lb per ckty drain. from approximately 24 micturitions. Respiration and Perspiration: 20.0 lb per day at a continuous 2. Concept 2. This concept (Fig. 9) contains slow rate from the environmental control system. all the elements the first concept with a different Wash Water: 24.0 lb per day. Trash: 1.2 lb per arrangement. In concept 2, the wash water is proc- day food, packets, wipes, and paper. essed to provide a sterile flush water for the uri- nals,-commodes, and garbage/trash disposal. The 2. Water Recovery. Drinking Water: 30.0 resulting waste liquid is then processed to remove lb per day. Wash Water: 24.0 lb per day. the solids and the resulting water is released to the sewage drain. The water is thus used twice before 3. High Temperature Thermal Energy. The draining, and the reused water can be of a lower system will have the capability of operation with a quality. radioisotope heat source (RITE) or with an electri- cal heat source. Output: 400 Thermal Watts at ,-3. Concept 3. The third concept (Fig. 10) is End of Mission (Life). Fuel Form: Plutonium 238. a step closer to the NASA concept in that the water is recycled, and there is only a minimal reliance Integrated waste and water management sys- on the sewage drain during-normal operation. The tems can be derived for domestic use via the follow- drinking and food preparation water is connected ing concepts: directly to the community water supply with no 225 connection to and, podsibility of, beck contamination We cannot close our eyes to this technology. It from the remainder of the system. The wash water is time to update Thomas Cropper's technologyJust is recycled in the wash water circuit and theceornmcde as he updated the sanitary methods used over 100 flush water is recycled to the commodes.There is years ago. no direct connection between the two circuitsso that the possibility of contamination isminimized. Nor- mally, only excess water in drainedto the sewage line. Bibliography Ir. 1872 London, Thomas Cropperwas given Government grants to innovate and evolve waste 1. management syatems to solve the "shockingwaste Reyburn, W.: Flushed With Pride- The Story of water." So too, in 1971, NASA,100 years later, of Thomas Cropper. Prentice-Hall,1971. has given grants via itsaerospace technology pro- grams in manned flight-waste management systems. 2.Small, W. E.: Agriculture: The Seedsof a Problem. Technology Review, April1971. Future manned space vehicles will providemore ear * like procedures for personal hygiene andwaste management systems. Because thespace vehicle 3.A Study of Flow Reduction and Treatment of is a smaller closed ecology thanearth, space systems Waste Water from Hcuseholds. 2WQA will provide more efficient and Water more rnicroblokigically Pollution Control Research Series, 11050FKE, safe systems than are presently usedon earth. 1969. TABLE 1. TRADEOFF/SELECTIONCRITERIA AND RATIONALE Criterion Domestic Space Vehicle Feasibility Must be fassibk to manufacture on Must be hosible to flake on a "cabinet pass production basis. Dania work" basis. R&D meet show proof of development. compatibility with principle or rtductioo at practice but existing Plumb* must be prism. highly specialised lallitriallt and coniponesito can be uaed. Cost Must be cowartitive wIttelirodocts Cost important. but perforamoce already ea the market. Product is overriding consideration. Improvement may occur over a period of years. Reliability Motors usuolly glaroMeed for one Must be high. year, with In-day gairmatee on other components. Trouble-free operation Is always the goal, but a service 0:Volution exists to lake care of topic ties. °Persia( environments are not severe and t0Plicenteat Is expected within a resommable period. Malidablability Traded *Dopiest cost. Equipment Repairs must be made quickly -__ _s designed for morel/sag by- repairman lather than user. -and wally. (It should be noted that repairs will be performed by highly trained personnel.) User Consumer acceptance In a mass market Acceptability Performance is key item. is key. Color, overall form and Esthetic appeal sigaillesat but esthetic appeal extremely important. secondary to function. Safety Underwriters laboratories plus federal Redundant !sneak devices and state laws govern but failsafe required. devices usually not redundatt. Performaace Nominal performance specifications Striageat performance specifics. glace mulaketuree has no control. lions throughout the anticipated use over operation and cost considerations life. Cost must be considered. but may rule out improvements which con. performance most important. sinners are unwilling to pay for. 226 ANCI11.41 Am..6111111105 moor.. . -t [, -CV 01111~K.I.1111 %rut 111B 001,4 yrlome .1 s syyr "=11t.:7" C. 0.0. Ow + ,sw --- Figure 1. Steps within systems approach. OPTIMIZATION Owl:HAGS WA Um MODEL.) EST EQuipMENT EFFE:cisvENi_ss moDEL Iccer M(l*.i. I RELIABILITY MAINTENANCE PERFoRMANcE Dol.IARS TIME BURDEN . OPERATIONAL. wEIGRT FAILURE REPAIR REQUIREMENT DEVELoPMENT VOLUME DISTMIHrlioN INVESTMENT DisTIDBUTIoN ENVIRONMENT PRODUCTION POWER STRESS OPERATING SPARE PARTS DESIGN TESTING HIGHER REDUNDANCY TRAINING TEST EQCIPMENT INTEGRATION cHEcia)UT oftlEcTIVES RE plAcEMENT REPLACEMENT PACKAGING SAFETY MUER 0TUER POLICY OILIER FACTORS DTIIER FACTORS Fit-TORS FACTORS FACTORS (TILER FACTORS OTHER FACTORS Figure 2. Optimization-criteria. 1011a.046.16.., or I 1.4.T...14. Satelt 6. 1 litto. 1.4 144fte ...a...46, 4.4 ICy.... 4* Y M rwr nvet.64 1 Teo C..014...4 ". eat efte.r. T.. ..4e out _ 1140.1.4444 C.+Issa ...IseI f NOW 1.. mowyeawbfae14. aot Y(4. 416144 6.4.....ao .46 Figure 3. Optimization technique (flow diagram). -I, "63.11".104...__ . Figure 4. Modified Hydro-John separates Figure 5. Dry John does not require flush water. solid waste from float water. 228 TER VAA01.--0R MOORE All Illtaitai:SIS I MR StERILEAdt V flat( ASS !STERILE WATER Figure 6. WM-WS functional diagram. Figure 7. Artist' s concept, integrated waste management- water system using radioisotopes. mammy VIMMIlerr 411...14 I SAM IMF 441, CO.M14,11 11111.0111Itt Vft Ri Figure 8.- Concept 1, integrated system. 229 COMMUNITY WATER S UP PLI BACK CONTAMINATION DRINKING. CONTROL. FOOD PREP. BATHROOM GARBAGE MISC. LAUNDRY WASH DISH WASHING URINALS COMMODES TRASH WATER DISPOSAL -r-SOUPS TT SOLIDS REMOVAL. REMOVAL. BACK SOUDS STERILEI CONTAMINATION CONVERTER RESIDUE CONTROL. WATER WATER WATER PROCESSING PROCESSING 11. STORAGE STERILE WATER EXCESS EXCESS ISTERILE BYPASS BYPASS WATER STORAGE WATER WATER WATER 3 COMMUNITY TREATMENT FACILITY Figure 9. Concept 2, integrated system. CONSICNITI WATER SCPPLY RACK KOMTAMIIMTIOW CONTROL INT11110014 LAINDRI NAM DISH WASHING WATER FOOD PREPARATION II1WAIS Soul REMOVAL HEXCESS WATER WATER PROCEIMIIG LAWN STEM: E WATER FOR WATERING STORAGE WATER Al TO WASH OCTDOOR 1St STERILE WATER GARBAGE COMMODES TRASH DISPOSAL. SOLIDI 0E1101 AL WATER SO LIDS CONVERTER COIMIUTTY STERILE TREATMENT RESIDI E FACILITY Figure 10. Concept 3, integrated system. 230 BREATHING METABOLIC SIMULATOR By Dr. Roscoe G. Bartlett, Jr. Manager, Health Feiences IBM Corporation and C. M. Hendricks and W. B. Morison Introduction rates, ranging from conditions of restto hard work.' However, this wide range would leldom berequired The Breathing Metabolic Simulator (BMS)was in a single test. developed by the IBM Corporation under thejoint funding of NASA and the Office of AdvancedResearch Breathinc Depth. The BMS breathing depth and Technology (OART) and the Bureau of Mines. adjustment covers a range up to 3 litersper breath. The BMS simulates man in the breathing andmeta- Although an individual breath may exceed bolic parameters required for evaluation and 3 liters test under certain conditions, the breathing depthunder of respiratory diagnostic, monitoring,support, continuous hard exercise should not exceedsimulator and resuscitation equipment. For the firsttime, capacity.Also, the BMS can simulate individual breathing and metabolic simulationare incorporated in a single device. breath (tidal volume) which is normally0.5-0.6 Breathing rate, breathing depth, liter under rest conditions. breath velocity contour, oxygen (02) uptake,and carbon dioxide (CO2) release can be variedover For special applicatior.-k, the breathing depth wide ranges to simulate conditions fromsleep to can be expanded beyond 3 liters to simulate a full hard work, with respiratory exchangeratios ranging vital capacity, e.g., 6 liters. from hypoventilation to hyperventilation.Since the BMS can be remotely controlled in hostileenviron.. Velocity -Time Waveform. A human breath ments, it can be used as a stand-in for humans in velocity pattern is hot generally represented bYT testing and validating respiratory equipment.In true sine wave.1 It may vary froma slightly blunted addition, it substantially reduces the costof prolonged sine wave to a draste variation. To provide testing in cases.where simulation chambers with a true simulation, a waveform control is provided,allowing human subjects would require three shiftsof crews, a wide range of variations from a basic sine including standby physicians.Perhaps, most wave. important, it provides a calculated and reproduelbie-- Phnotional Residual Capacity (FRC). test and validation facility. The FRC is the volume of air remaining in the lungsat the end of normal exhalation. To obtainan accurate simula- The second-generation breathingmetabolic tion, the FRC must remain constant for breathing simulator, currently under development, willbe rate or depth changes. Also, the FRC must be automated for computer control. Througha type- variable to simulate individuals with different writer and paper tape the test FRCs. sequence can be input Both of the conditions are provided by theBMS. into the computer which will then automaticallyadjust the BMS to simulate any desired sequence of meta- Exhaled Breath-Temperature and Humidity. bolic activities for time durations up to 15 hours. Exhaled breath, in humans, is at bodytemperature The computer will also monitor the test procedures and, except for conditions of extremelyhard breathing, and provide printout of test results. at 100 percent relative humidity.Both of these con- ditions are simulated by the BMS. BMS Design Oxygen Consumption. The BMS providesa . variable oxygen consumption rate to simulate the Breathing Rate. The BMS contains a breathing metabolic range between sleep and medium-hard rate adjustment that simulates human breathing work. For special applications, the BMScan 231 simulate maximum oxygen consumption rates for the specified limits. The moisture transfer media .human undergoing maximum physical work. (surgical sponges) remain saturated with water fro a separate reservoir (actual humidity is also affect Carbon Dioxide Production. The amount of CO2 by the dwell time of a breath inside the chamber). produced in the human is related to the amount of 02 Temperature maintenance, accomplished by a heate consumed. This CO2/02 ratio Is 0.707 if the fuel blanket in the bottom of the chamber, is monitored 'is fat and is 1. 0 if the fuel is carbohydrates. This by a thermistor placed in the path of the chamber ratio, when referenced to tissue metabolic activity, output.Heater power is remotely controlled by the is referred to as the respiratory quotient (RQ). control unit. When referenced to the ratio of gases in the exhaled breath (as in the BMS), it is referred to as the respiratory exchange ratio (It) (this differentiation This subsystem also contains sensors for is made because an individual may be underbreathing monitoring the characteristics of the air to be exhale or overbreathing, markedly affecting the amount of Wet and dry bulb thermistors placed in the output CO2 removed from the body and thus the value of R). end of the chamber can be monitored by the digital To-simulate these conditions, the BMS provides a voltmeter. A gas sample line, connected to the range of CO2/02 (II) wider than the normal range of chamber input end, allows a sample pump to extraLl 0.7 to 1.0. gas samples which are fed to the sensors of an 02 analyzer and a CO2 analyzer, and returned to the chamber. The readout of these analyzers is accom- BMS Hardware plished on the control unit. The BMS configuration consists of three subsystems: Breathing Subsystem (Fig. 3). 1.Temperature/Humidity Functions. The breathing subsystem controls 2.Breathing bellows expansion and contraction to draw air from and expel air to the temperature /humidify subsystem. 3.Metabolism The bellows motion is independently variable in rate, magnitude of periodic motion, and volume remaining These subsystems are depicted in Figure 1. at the point of minimum periodic volume change. The periodic motion of the bellows is accomplished by a Temperature/Humidity Subsystem (Fig. 2). drive motor operating a crankshaft/connecting rod combination through a 30:1 gear reduction. The drive Functions. Incoming air from the aritificial motor speed is varied by means of 'a motor controller. trachea is fed into an exchange box, where it is Long-term variations, greater than one crankshaft blocked from entering the humidity chamber by a revolution, correspond to changes in breathing check valve. The air then passes through another rate and are varied from the control unit. Short -term check valve and enters the main connection to the top variations, within one crankshaft revolution, cor- of the bellows daring bellosirs-ekpansion. respond to changes in breath waveform and are varied by the individual settings of 12 waveform controls on Outgoing (exhaled) air comes from the main the control unit.Each control is effective during connection to the top of the bellows during bellows one-twelfth of a crankshaft revolution as determined contraction. The air passes through a check valve by a 12-position read switch. and enters the input end of the humidity chamber. i?The-air entering the chamber displaces air from the Connecting rod motion is transmittedto the output end of the chamber through a check valve, bellows by a lever arm operating on a movable where it enters the exchange box and exits to the fulcrum. Fulcrum motion along the lever arm varies artificial trachea. the lever-arm ratio corresponding to changes in breath depth.This motion is accomplished by means Features. The chcck valves and exchange box of a lead screw from the fulcrum drive motor which, are used to control airflow direction and to permit- in turn, is controlled by the bidirectional fulcrum a single connection to the artificial trachea. switch on the control unit. Fulcrum motion normal to the lever arm, i.e., moving the position of the The humid tichamber is used to add moisture bottom of the bellows for a fixed crank position and to the exhaled air and to maintain temperature within lever arm ratio, will change the minimum bellows 232 volume obtainable through periodic motion.This corresponds to a functional residual oxidation chamber input line.A size-D CO2 tank is-- capacity adjust- fitted with a duplicate of thepropane controls (except ment and is controlled by a manualscrew adjustment safety circuit not required) and on the support for the fulcrum base. This also connected to the adjust- oxidation chamber input Me. ment haft a scale calibrated in FRCvolume in liters. The oxidation chamber isan expanded line area Features. The tot; a the bellowscontains two (made of quartz) containing separate gas lines to provide an outputto the com- a probe input for a cham- ber thermocouple and surroundedby an encased insu- pressor of the metabolism subsotem and to receive lated heating element. Power the output of this subsystem.` to the heater is manual- ly controlled (ON /OFF only)from the control panel combustion heater switch and Two separate magnetic flux-type maintains the chamber's sensors are temperature above that required foroxidation of pro- mounted between the bottom of the' bellowsand the pane. In operation, complete oxidationoccurs with adjustable support for the fulcrum_base. These the chamber output having sensors measure position and velocity a CO2/02 ratio which is between variable, dependent upon the CO2 mountings (thus sensing breath characteristics and propane flow rates into the chamber (air inputis a constant). The independent of FRC adjustment) andare input to the chamber output is fed to oscilloscope in the control unit, where a radiant series cooler to either may be reduce temperature to a safe leveland then is re selected for waveform display. turned to the top of the bellows. Metabolism Subsystem (Fig. 4). Features. A safetreircuit (Fig. 5)used to con- trol propane flow will not allow the solenoid Functions. This subsystem is used valve to to control be opened unless theproper oxidation conditions the simulated respiratoryexchange ratio (II).Since R is a CO2-to-02 ratio, exist. The conditions monitoredare the 02 output metabolism is simulated by level in the Temperature/Humidity consuming 02 and producing CO2.This is accom- subsystem, the plished by oxidizing compressor output pressure at the accumulator,and propane and adding varying the chamber temperature. amounts of CO2 in the followingmanner. The chamber thermocoupleoutput can be Air is drawn from the top of thebellows by a monitored by the digital voltmeterto determine compressor. The cmpressed air output is thenfed temperature during preheatingor other conditions to an accumulator used to eliminatesurging caused as desired. by bellows motion. The accumulatoroutput is con- nected to an adjustable orifice usedto preset the flow The following expendablesare required for rate for more than sufficient airfor all oxidation con-operation: ditions; the accumulator Is then connectedto a gas line input to the oxidation chamber.A size-D tank of 1.CO2 Air Products size-D tank CP-grade prowe is fitted witha manual regulator (4 in. by 17 in.) (set to 15 psi). The regulator outputis connected to a solenoid shutoff valve controlled by themanual 2.Propane (CP) Air Products size-D tank switch on the control unit (and theseries safety cir- (4 in. by 18 in.) cuitry discussed later). The solenoidvalve output is connected to a remotely adjustablemetering valve. 3.Distilled water Reservoir capacity (controlled by the valve enable andCO2 adjustment (approximately 2.33 quart) on the control unit). The metering valveoutput is connected to a flowmetersensor (the flowmeter is 4.Surgical sponge Part-Davis gauze located on the control unit panel)and finally to the (approximately 4 in. by 8 in.) 233 '..!MPIRATUREAIUMIDITY r- 1 I 1 WET ARS 0 I /42 1 THOMISM,. METABOLISM As-4= RESERVOIR I DRY OMR 1 1 THEIMISTOR I I 1 I OXIDATV)N I 1 I COMPARE* I L IIIIIIIII I e-Ftow METER ,... I I ...J 1 --- - '"I jeMETERING` I VALVE IIELLOWS MELN'S 1 DRIVE I SOONOID 11(LLOWS POSITION MOTOR I VALVE I AND VELOCITY I SENSORS I 1 ooo. 1 FULCRUM fpREGULATOR I DRIVE 1 MOTOR I 1. FULCRUM O FRC ADJUSTMENT 2 - J1 1 1 OR MINING PROPANE AA07$3-1 AA103 1-1 COMPRESSOR .- . * Figure 1. BMS subsystems. To/From Woos To/From Artitumil Trachea Wow A. f Meow Thumper Wet a Dry Bulb 1 1 1 1 1 1 Thumrstors -Huowddy Otombet a Haw Gm Semple Pump 102 a CO2 Output Sampling-J 02 Level Safety Monitor A807134 All 031.1 Figure 2.- Temperature/Humidity subsystem. 234 1.... th 40 4* ..--0.--. 0444 T.4.... 7414e41.444414v 3.14,494 .---- 11444 144 13 %.M..4 Ailmt Pew 41 13 Weed, 744r1 1114044 Sena II V44/4 am* 1 tow I s iont.1441 4, t 174,4.4 1 Corm, I f wka vs. Adpni C:3 0.4 1 Moo 1 1 011.---44 al3147 117.1 144M 1...11.0,11" IA4 Vc4o4. AGhtm W. vo.4. Figure 3.Breathing subsystems. Figure 4. Metabolism subsystem. 0, 4100, 1104 4,414 0.11I1-0CA1.1 14444. '''. ',__.7..---.77 44.a, (444 0,644 04441444 Figure 5. Metabolism subsystem's safety circuit. MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES FROM SPACE RESEARCH 1. Sam L. Pool, M.D. NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Houston, Texas Abstract Background A number of medically oriented research and The Mercury program started with Alan hardware development programs have been spon- Shepard's 15-min suborbital flight and ended with sored by NASA for support of manned space flights. Gordon Cooper's 34-hour 20-min flight. Some of these medical programs for manned flights resulted in the development of technology which ad- The Gemini program paved the way for man's vanced the state of the art and, when applied to first flight to the moon. The first Gemini flight was earthbound medical tasks, truly represent medical March i965 and the last was November 1966. The benefits from space research. These advances in- first manned Apollo flight was in September 1968. clude computer techniques to remove irrelevant de- The first manned landing on the moon by Neil tails from medical X-rays, sight-operated switches Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin was in July 1969. Per- to assist patients who cannot move their extremi- haps in the distant future, interplanetary flights ties, wireless cardiac monitoring for intensive care lasting as-long as 2 years or more will be flown. Sky- units, and many others. lab is scheduled to be the first of the long-duration flights. Three men will live in an orbital workshop Currently there are several NASA-sponsored for periods lasting as long as 56 days. medical research and development programs which have significant potential for ground use as well as The Shuttle and Space Station complexes are space application. The integrated medical labora- currently planned for the late seventies and early tory, now under development by NASA, incorporates eighties, and the Space Base during the eighties. many advanced features, such as digital biote- Beyonctspace bases there may be manned planetary lemetry systems, automatic visual field mapping missions. equipment, sponge electrode Caps for clinical elec- troencephalograms, and advanced respiratory anal- The early NASA biomedical systems were used ysis equipment. A preliminary flight design has In two ways: to monitor vital physiological param- been completed and a functional testbed unit is con- eters such as heart rate, blood pressure, respi- templated for the mid-seventies. Modules of this ratory rate, electroencephalogram, and body temper- integrated medical laboratory may be useful in ature; and to conduct medical experiments to answer ground-based remote area and regional health care specific scientific questions. The vital physiologic facilities as well as on long-duration space functions were mentioned on all of the manned space missions. flights. Changes in the cardiovascular system were Introduction studied on the Gemini VU mission, which-was the longest of the Gemini flights. Gemini VII indicated it The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- was possible to fly an Apollo mission to the moon tration has had a number of medical development without expecting any serious physiological degrada- programs in support of space flights. Some of tion in the crewmen. these medical development programs have produced technology which has been applied to ground-based The biomedical systems used during Mercury, medical use. Gemini, and Apollo answered many questions. The ability of man to exist safely in space flight for 14 These space-oriented medical programs were days was proved. Man can probably live and work started prior to the Mercury flights and have con- safely during extended-duratiot missions lasting tinued to the present time. 30 days. 237 Physiological studies, such as lower bodyneg- A bicycle with a programmable workloadwas ative pressure experiments, were performed before developed for Skylab. The ergometer workload is and after missions. Extensive pre- and post-flight automatically adjusted to maintain a preset heart testing was accomplished for all NASA mannedspace rate. During the time the crewman is on the bicycle flights. his physiological responses are recorded onboard the workshop and may be transmitted to the ground Dioinstrumentation used in space flights was de- in real time or at a later time for analysis. In ad- veloped to meet the rigorous requirements of size, dition to providing valuable physiological data, the weight, and power consumption of the spacecraft. bicycle crgometer will also function as a 0-g decon- In some cases, complete new bioinstrumentation ditioning countermeasure. systems were necessary to accomplish a specific physiological study. Inflight recorders, bloodpres- The Skylab rotating litter chair will impart sure apparatus, and biopotential signal conditions small gravitational forces to the vestibular canals In were assembled as prototypes and subjected to tests that lead to flight qualification. the inner ear. The vestibular apparatus inman is normally subjected to 1 g and helps man to deter- mine his position relative to the earth,,but in 0g Physiological-data were telemetered to ground it may be more sensitive to gravitational stations or recorded for playback. Physiological disturbances. data were recorded in flight with the crewman at rest, as well as during exercise periods, for blood pressure, electrocardiogram, and respiration The central nervous system's functions will be parameters. monitored during sleep by the Skylab sleep cap, electroencephalogram signal conditioner, and the Frost sleep 4.nalyzer. The Skylab program should provide themedical scientist with the necessary data toassess the effect of the spaceflight environment on several of The Inflight Medical Support System (IMSS) is man's to provide, in the Skylab workshop, a limited Inflight physiological systems for periods of time lastingas long as 56 days. The Skylab orbital workshop medical diagnostic and treatment capability for rou- will tine and emergency medical care of an outpatient be launched unmanned Into earth orbit. Threecrew- men who will inhabit the workshop for periods of nature (11. The IMSS consists of two basic groups of equipment, diagnostic and therapeutic. For diag- time as long as 28 days will be launched inan Apollo Command and Service Module. Two subsequent nostic purposes, the IMSS is supplied with the stand- ard clinical instruments such as stethoscopes, three-man crews are scheduled to inhabit the Skylab workshop for periods as long as 56 days. Medical sphygmomanometers, thermometers, etc. Addition- ally, medical laboratory equipment is provided that equipment to be flownon these flights will permit the measurement of physiological parameters. will allow blood analysis, urinalysis, and microbio- logical examinations. For therapeutic purposes, the Major areas of medical study in the Skylabpro- IMSS is supplied with a wide selection of drugs.It gram include the cardiovascular responses to expo- is also outfitted with a minor surgery pack for the sure of the crewmen to lower body negative pres- care of minor lacerations. sure; respiratory, cardivascular, and metabolic re- sponses to a programmed workload on the bicycle Perhaps in the distant future, interplanetary ergometer; and vestibular responses to rotation and flights will last as long as 2 or more years. How attitude changes in a rotating litter chair 111. will man's physiological systems adapt to piolonged- periods of weightlessness of 1 yr or more? Will Exposure of the crewman's legs and lower torso man's behavior change; and if so, how will the to reduced atmospheric pressure, in some 'respects, changes affect his performance? Are thereany duplicates the pooling of blood in the lower extremi- countermeasures which might be employed to pre- ties while standing in 1 g. This passive carai'ovas- vent, correct, or delay deconditioning? cular stress will allow the medical scientist to de- termine, to some extent, the effects of the 0-gen- The Skylab missions should serve much the vironment on the crewman' s cardiovascular status. same scientific purposes for these extended mis- Repeated regular lower body negative pressure sions as the Gemini VII flight served for the Apollo (LBNP) exposure may serve, asa countermeasure, program. However, the bioinstrumentation systems to keep the cardiovascular system in good condition and medical experiments on Skylab will not be ade- for return to 1 g. quate to answer all of the significant physiological 238 questions about extended - duration missions. Thus, hardware and software. At this stage of development the Skylab medical experiments may only raise addi- it was premature to include any flight packaging. The tional questions. Information collected during the production and testing of the functional breadboards was applied to The extended-duration missions will require the preliminary flight design which followed. more comprehensive capabilities in the areas of medical research and clinical medicine. Onboard The functional breadboard systems (FBils) laboratory facilities will be required to measure were delivered to the Manned Spacecraft Center such diverse factors as lung volumes, lung diffusion (MSC) in January 1970, and were installed and op- capacity, urine and blood ion content, red blood cell erational in February 1970. Since that time the fragility, and sensory perception. FBBs have undergone extensive testing and analy- sis. The testing was intended to establish the value As crew size increases from 3 men, on the Sky- of the techniques under study; however, this testing lab missions, to 12 men, as proposed for early also demonstrated that some of the techniques were space stations, the onboard clinical medicine sup- inadequate, too complex or time consuming to be port for the crew must be expanded. The Skylab included in the flight designs j 21.Alternative tech- IMSS will be adequate to provide support for 3 men niques are being sought for those measurements con- In space for up to 54-daysi-but not for 12 men for sidered essential to the flight system, but were ob- 1 yr or more. viously inadequate techniqubs in the breadboards. As a result of these considerations, NASA is The Integrated Medical and Behavioral Labora- developing the Integrated Medical and Behavioral tory Measurement System is an advanced medical Laboratory Measurement System (IMBLMS). system which may have applications on earth as well as in space. The IMBLMS will provide for onboard medical support of the crew and medical research. The medical support system will provide the capability Benefits foe diagnosis and treatment of illnesses and injuries. The medical research system will provide ,a core With this brief overview of NASA's medical laboratory that will allow the life scientists to con- development programs, it is easier to grasp the po- duct a comprehensive series of physiological and tential for future medical technology applications clinical measurements in flight. Data for display, from space research is well as understand those storage, playback, and transmission to the ground which have already occurred. Apartial listing of will be processed by IMBLIMS. NASA's technology, which has been applied to ground -based medical use, includes infant breathing Flexibility in the IMBLMS design will permit monitor, X-ray enhancement, pre sure transducer changes in capability and equipment integration from for cardiac catheters, special biopotential elec- mission to mission. Each major IMBLMS compo- trodes, and an artificial heart controller (31. nent must be capable of being used individually or in combination to perform many different measure- Infants, comatose children, or adult patients ments. By the use of a flexible design approach, sometimes require surgical implantation of a tra- IMBLMS will not only be suitable for use in early cheotomy tube in the windpipe.If the tube is clogged, extended space flights, but will also have the poten- cutting off breathing, brain damage or death can tial to accommodate new measurements developed in result within from 2 to 4 min. Ordinarily a full- the future to meet the changing mission time nurse is required to visually check the tube and requirements. take immediate corrective action. Integrated cir- cuitry, designed and fabricated for aerospace use, In 1968, NASA elected to design, build, and test was incorporated in a small device to monitor the functional breadboards of the IMBLMS to demon- temperature of air passing through the tube and ac- /strate flight-applicable techniques and gain informa- tuate an audible or visual alarm within 10 sec of any tion needed to develop requirements for flight change. The signal can be given at a nurse's . 239 station, or in another room, if the patient is at required tedious examination of many motion picture home. Thus the patient's care is improved and frames, while low-amplitude tremors remained facilitated. undetected. The breathing monitor, based on an automatic An astronaut's space helmet provideda devel- air surveillance system developed by NASA scien- opment model for research on oxygen consumption tists, contains a-temperature sensor/Fitt transmit- of children at a university medical center. The chil- ter attached directly to the tracheotomy tube to allow dren, both normal individuals and those with heart the inspired and expired air to flow directlyover a defects, experienced difficulties and discomfort with thermistor temperature sensor. the conventional rubber mouthpiece used for collec- tion of exhaled breath. During heavy breathing, the Techniques for the correction of photometric, comparatively high resistance to the flow ofgas in- geometric, and frequency response distortions in creased the workload on the subject. The extra ef- television pictures received from a spacecraft have fort required additional oxygen which impaired the now been applied to the study of medical X-rays. accuracy of the data on oxygen consumption. The X-ray picture is first converted into digital form by means of a cathode-ray device that scans the Win A solution Walt offered by a modified NASA on a line-by-line basis and converts each point of space helmet which was equipped with an air inlet the picture into a number proportional to the film's and outlet and a rubber seal around the neck. A optical density. Each sample (typically 500 000 suction pump was provided to continuously circulate samples for a 1-in. 2 transparency) is recorded on a fresh air through the helmet, picking up the exhaled magnetic tape which is subsequently fed into a breath and drawing the combined fresh air and ex- computer. haled breath into an oxygen analyzer. Further computer enhancement is achieved by a When a pediatric cardiologist experienced dif- two-dimensional digital filter to modify the frequen- ficulties in obtaining accurate electrocardiograms cy spectrum of the picture.Filtering is used to re- from children during exercise, he adopted a tech.' store high-frequency losses of fine detail resulting nique for conducting medical research on test pilots. from the use of fluorescent X-ray intensifying The use of an electrode sprayed onto the body of an screens. astronaut had improved the accuracy of electrocar- diograms by reducing variations in the electrical Another computer processing method involves contacts produced by movements of standard metal- image subtraction. Two pictures depicting the same plate electrodes. area of the body, perhaps taken at different times, are subtracted from one another on a point-by-point A modified commercial spray gun is used to basis. The resul'ant difference picture will empha- spray an electrically conductive mixture of a com- size changes, such as tenter growth. mercial household cement, silver powder, and ace- tone, as well as air-drying the deposit at an air The operational principles of a sensitive micro- pressure of about 20 psi. The mixture is simulta- meteorite detector have been used to develop a mus- neously sprayed over the end of the lead wire from cle accelerometer. Change in acceleration of this the- electrocardiogram and a half-dollar area of instrument causes the deflection of a sensitive pie- skin, previously cleaned and coated with an elec- zoelectric crystal. The accelerometer is attached trode jelly. The application of the electrodes does to the patient to provide an accurate record of very not require removal of hair, and the thin, flexible slight muscle reflexes and tremors. layer is quickly removed with acetone. Use of the instrument is proving vale zble in Transducers originally designed for pressure current studies of reflexes and tremors associated survey probes in wind tunnels and for telemetry of with neurological disorders. Previous studies pressure data from small free-flight models have based on motion pictures and direct viseal observa- been adapted for measurement of intravascular tion were unsatisfactory in obtaining accurate quan- pressures In humans. A miniature diaphragm-type titative data. For example, accurate determina- capacitance transducer was designed to be fitted on tion of the time cycle of arm movements previously the end of a cardiac catheter and inserted by 240 percutaneous techniques, using standard needles make :t complete slide assembly so that the following that arc routinely used for venous or arterial routine blood tests can be conveniently performed on punctures. a single slide: platelet estimation, reticulocyte count, and white blood cell differential count. This The_two capacitor plates, used 'to sense pres- technique reverses the procedure normally practiced sure, consist of a cell diaphragm and a film of plati- with traditional bloodstains. The blood sample is num fired onto a glass core eparated by an air gap. deposited first with these, followed by the application The central metal tube in the cell provides an elec- of the stait.. Elimination of the necessity for manip- trical connection to the platinum film and serves for ulating basic/volatile stains by the technician, with passage of reference pressure to the capacitor air concomitant increase in time, allows preparation of space. The electronic system, connected to the the blood smear in essentially one easy operatinn. catheter for sensing pressure, consists of a capaci- The prestained slide technique also permits the per- tance bridge network excited by a crystal oscillator, formance of these clinical tests on blood uncontami- a low noise transistor amplifier, and a demodulator nated with heparin or other anticoagulants, which for producing an analog signal or a CRT display. may have an effect on cellular morphology. A major problem in teaching a handicapped per- Slight differences In staining characteristics son to walk is to help him make an easy transition will be noted as the result of the new dye mixture to his old environment. There are many severely employed. These differences are easily overcome handicapper; persons who, after a prolonged immo with minimal observation of the preparations through bile period in bed, experience great difficulty in ad- the microscope; experience has shown that person- justing to walking with crutches or sitting up in a nel familiar with the Wright's stain technique are wheelchtir. In addition, there is the problem of a able to adjust to the prestained slide characteristics patient learning to walk with artificial legal under with only 10 or 15 min of practice. normal weight/gravity conditions. A definite need was found for a partial support system to reduce the The National Institutes of Health and National physical workload imposed on such a patient during Institute of Cancer are new evaluating these dry this training and transition period.. Water-bath sup- stained slides with pathological blood samples for port systems being used were inconvenient and ham- possible application in cancer research. pered limb motion. A lunar-gravity simulator was found adaptable to this problem. The device can be The automatic blood pressure measuremenrgys- adjusted for any degree of support required, and the tiNm developed for Skylab has several unique features sling Is more comfortable than a harness. which permit an accurate measurement of blood pressure even during exercise. One of the concerns in using radiation therapy for cancer is preventing damage to the surrounding Dry sliver chloride electrodes were developed healthy tissue.Radiation therapists needed to meas- for manned testing, which have small impedance ure the radiation level absorbed around the can. :m- balancing amplifiers embedded in the electrode. ous area in order to either control the treatment with improved precision, or to determine the position of A three-dimensional tremor and reaction detec- __administered radioisotopes rapidly and accurately. tor has been developed and is now being tested with A miniature radiation-dosimeter probe was made normal subjects, as well as with patients who have available for such use. The probe, approximately neurological disorders. the size of a clinical thermometer, is based on solid -state and semiconductor phenomena. The mass spectrometer developed for the Skylab metabolic analyzer is being configured to measure A list of representative medical technology, oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production which is developed but not generally applied, includes by patients in intensive care unite as well as to meas- such items as dry stained slides. These prestained ure blood gas concentration in near real time. slides employ a specific mixture of dyes which have been predeposited as a thin, dry film on the surface The Frost analyzer, which is to be used on Sky- of a standard microscope tilde. A hinged coverslip, lab as a sleep monitor, may be applicable to operat- in conjunction with the label, is also attached to ing rooms to monitor the level of-anesthesia. 241 Initial studies of this application of the sleep monitor designed as a display capable of presenting a vec- are now underway in the Texas Medical Center. torcardiogram ( VCG) in three-dimensional per- spective. The system is based on the Data General There are many items of medical hardware, NOVA machine; data are displayed_on, an oscillo- which have been breadboarded for ground-based -scope and on an X -Y plotter.Projections of the in- study, that were designed but not fabricated for use dividual VCG complexes on the standard anatomical in space. A few representative items of this type of axes or on rotated axes are provided. Horizontal, development hardware include an automatic periph- frontal, and sagittal plane displays are available foz eral visual-field mapping system. Normally visual comparison with the threc-dimensional VCG display fields are mapped in a manual mode which is time consuming and often not as accurate as might be de- This system, if successful, will provide a pow- sired. The NASA system operates much like an au- erful tool for interpretation of V;Ms and mu:A be tomatic hearing tester (if you hear a sound, push the tested in a clinical setting with both normal and ab- button until the sound goes away), only for the vision normal data to verify its function and capabilities. system the test involves light instead of sound. The method of presentation should be valuable to spaceflight research and ground-based medicine. A disposable sponge electrode cap in the inter- national electrode configuration for the:electroen- Initial studies conducted by MSC using stereo- cephalogram was developed and tested on a limited photogrammetry for determining body shapes in basis. The clinical electroencephalograph cap three dimensions have shown a high probability of seems to have considerable potential for ground- developing into a highly accurate, space-compatible based use. technique for measuring body volume. A digital biobelt is being developed which has Tlfact that organic structures are inherently several advintages over present body-worn systems. three dimensional opens up a wide range of possi- All components will be microminiaturized. Digital bilities from microscopic studies to investigations data may be brought off the man by use of very small of whole body form. A varied research embracing coaxial cables or via an RF link. The biobelt incor- such areas as spinal deformities, prosthetic designi porates optical couplers and advanced current- body and limb plethysme-graphy;jtumor detection and limiting devices for improved safety. - growth is being conducted at the Texas Institute for Rehabilitation and Research, Baylor College of Med- There are a number of medical research and icine, MSC, and other institutions. The need for an development programs in the feasibility stage that accurate and practicable means of measuring body have considerable potential for space and ground- surface areas, volumes, volume distribution based applications. The Microbial Ecological Moni- curves, deformities, changes in form, and related toring System ( MEMS) is a passive immune aggluti- parameters of intact organisms or their parts would nation test for rapid viral identification. Small seem to assure a-bright future for stereometrics in Latex beads, 2.0 to 0.2 mg in size, are coated with the biomedical sciences and clinical practice. specific antibodies which have been developed in animals exposed to the viruses. These antibody- A miniature analytical laboratory system de- coated beads clump or agglutinate when exposed to signed to operate on spaceships for monitoring the the specific virus antigen to which they are sensi- health of astronauts is being developed at Oak Ridge tive. The organisms which have been tested-to date National Laboratory. The minisystem is called. the are myxovirus, adenovirus, herpesvirus, echovirus, gravity-zero analyzer (GO analyzer) because it will coxsackie virus, and mycopiasma. The advantages forbe desiped to operate in the weightlessness of outer space application are the same as on the ground and space. The GO analyzer will utilize the technology include rapid screening (a few minutes versus the developed under Oak Ridge National Laboratory's 2,weeks at the present). The test is highly specific, basic, fast analyzer work at the laboratory's Molec- may be accomplished by a technician, and should ular Anatomy program. cost less than the present tissue-culture techniques. The GO analyzer will be designed to permit The objective of the three-dimensional vector astronauts to perform, quickly and automatically, cardiograph presentation is to test and verify a new up to 16 parallel chemical tests on 0.1 ml of plasma semiautomatic, tilt-cc-dimensional display of a vec- or scrum based on calorimetric determinations..z-fk- torcardiogram in a clinical setting. The system is Results of the test will automatically be radioed to 242 ground control. One application of the system would adequate disposition of medical and traumatic emer- be to analyze the blood and urine of an astronaut if gencies; (4) the use of appropriate combinations of he were to become severely ill during spaceflight. fixed and mobile facilities to meet the varying needs The system will consist of an enclosed rotor, drive dictated by population density, terrain, existing mechanism, and stationary calorimeter for automati- transportation systems, and socioeconomic charac- cally dispensing the sample, mixing it with the nec- teristics of different areas; and ( 5) the use of infor--- essary reagents, and measuring the optical density mation processing to relieve personnel of burden- of each of the reaction mixtures during rotation. some recordkeeping and administrative functions. The GO analyzer system will be useful in hospital- These features permit efficient use of the physi- emergency rooms and riediatricians' offices because cian's time and are essential for support and super- it requires very little_ space, small samples, and is vision of the physician' s assistants. simple to operate. Conceptually, a national network of health serv- In addition to its prinApal application on long- ices units could be developed, although initially, duration space missions, IMBLMS may have appli- a demon4tration program would be a cost-effective cations on earth. The IMBLMS program, estab- method to establish the feasibility of the basic lished to provide systems capability for conducting approach. The exact configuration of the demon- biomedical experiments and clinical support, might stration program units would depend on the site or offer some relief of the medical care problems that sites selected, but basically the system may be exist in the U.S. today. described as follows. There is widespread dissatisfaction with the The remotely located field units would be sup- delivery of health services in this country. The ported by a control center located adjacent to a large Department of Health, Education, and Welfare's hospital emergency facility. The control center report, "Report on the Health of the Nation's Health would be in constant communication with the remote- System," released in 1969, suggested that the U.S. ly located elements of the system. The local center faces a massive crisis in health care delivery. would be a fixed facility located in a town without a The problems of the health care system include: medical clinic or hospital. The local center would (1) inaccessibility of health services for many offer outpatient and emergency health services and Americans, especially those who live in remote would serve as a relay point for communications rural areas or in the inner city; (2) the U.S. with other more remotely located facilities. The health care establishment consists of govern- mobile facility would be a scaled-down version of ment, industrial, and private interests who suffer the local center which would be capable of offering from a lack of adequate means for communication health services to fewer people but has the advan- and Inadequate organization which adversely affects tage of being transportable over major roads, on a the availability, quality, efficiency, and cost of scheduled basis. The ambulances and hand-carried health services; (3) the cost of health services con- equipment would further extend the system to tinues to rise above the financial capabilities of a difficult-to-access areas. large number of citizens; and (4) health personnel arc in short supply, maldistributed, and specialized The IMBLMS could be adapted very profitably without regard to needs. for use on earth as a health services unit. More- over, the IMBLMS program could offer other bene- While the application of IMBLMS technology fits to the general public, such as newly defined could obviously not cure all the ills of the U.S. measurements, techniques, equipment, and ulti- health care establishment, it could be adapted mately, important tools for extending medical for use on earth as a health services access system services. with the following features: (1) the use of an inte- grated medical, communications, and data manage- ment facility manned by physicians' assistants to Conclusion provide points of entry into the health care estab- lishment for people in medically deprived areas; Many medical research and development pro- (2) the provision for outpatient services on a local grams have been sponsored by NASA for space ap- level coupled with the use of communications tech- plication. These efforts to develop techniques and nology to provide the consultation support and su- equipment for application in space have resulted in pervision of the physician's assistant; (3) the medical benefits to the general public. Some 243 medical programs for manned flights resulted in the grated medical laboratory may be useful in ground- development of technology which advanced the state based remote area and regional health care facili- of the art and, when applied to earthbound medical ties as well as on long-duration space missions. tasks, truly represent medical benefits from space research. References Currently there are several NASA-sponsored medical research and development programs which 1.Biomedical Experiments and Systems in Skylab. have significant potential for ground use as well as NASA, April 1971. space application. The integrated medical labora- tory now under development by NASA incorporates 2.Integrated Medical and Behavioral Laboratory many advanced features, such as digital bioteleme- Measurement System Assessment, NAS 9-9456, try systems, automatic visual field mapping equip- A Final Report. The Boeing Company, Decem- ment, sponge electrode caps for clinical electroen- ber 21, 1970. cephalograms, and advanced respiratory analysis equipment. A preliminary flight design has been 3. Medical Benefits from Space Research. Office completed and a functional test bed unit is contem- of Technology Utilization, NASA, Washington, plated for the mid-seventies. Modules of this inte- D. C. , 1970. 244 SESSION V BENEFITS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION, AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS -- i SATELLITE COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION FOR MOBILE USERS By.Dr. Steven L. Bernstein Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetti Institute of Technology (MIT) When people think in terms of satellite corn- Satellite communications for mobile users have munication they probably think of a very large fixed- a number of characteristics in the type of com- earth station.But there is another class of user, munication that are different from the types that the typified in Figure 1.It is the individual highly Commercial Satellite (COMSAT) has to deal with mobile user, in this case, an Air Force KC-135. or the type of communication that NASA requires, As opposed to the fixed-earth station, he might have getting information back and forth from astronauts only very low-rate teletype communications to be in orbit or around the moon. Figure 3 shows a broadcast back to some central facility, or air-to- number of characteristics that would be typical of air communications. the mobile user.First of all, there would be a large number of intermittent users. We are not Obviously, it is rather impractical to put a talking about a user who is on the air all the time; 60-ft dish antenna on an aircraft. Instead, as can be he is someone who will want to "push-to-talk," as seen on the figure, a very small blade antenna is they say. He just wants to get a quick message over ordinarily used for aircraft communication. This and back. Of course, the satellite ground stations breakthrough in satellite communications has been themselves are very numerous. We are not just made possible by advances in the last 6 years or so. talking about a few large stations that can cooperate Most of the applications that have been looked at have with each other in terms of sharing the power of the been for the military, although NASA performed satellite or its bandwidth; thus, we are dealing with some communication experiments with ground sta- a large number of intermittent users, and the equip- tions and commercial airliners with their Applica- ment that these users are going to have must be easy tions Technology Satellite (ATS-I) . to use and inexpensive. The operators of this equip- ment will not be trained satellite communicators; A large number of uses for satellite communi- more typically, they will be radio operators. The cations to mobile users in the civilian section is communication facilities should be as easy to use as seen in Figure 2. A problem, for instance, exists a radio set now; and obviously, the cost is going to with transoceanic airline communications. When a have to be kept down. The operating frequency 'commercial airliner is on a long-distance flight directly determines the type of antenna that can be from this country to Europe, or especially over the used on these terminals. On the aircraft, I indicated Pacific, it has to rely on what is called high-frequencythe blade antenna, as it is called.It is most ap- (HF) communications, which, althoughprovides propriate in the UHF, the frequency band just below considerable range, 'is-somewhat dependent on the the microwave frequencies for satellite communica- sunspot cycle, the weather; the day of the week, the tion, which are also typical of current air-to-ground hour, etc.; and communications are not highly communications. Any frequency higher than that reliable. A satellite always hovering overhead, how- would involve larger antennas, which, in addition, ever,, would provide a reliable link. The same fact would have to be pointed.I think you can see the holds for ships; they too have to rely on HF for their rather difficult problems that an aircraft would have long-range communications, and the satellite would constantly changing its antenna just to keep it be benefiting them also. All types of emergency pointed at the satellite. Another very interesting communications in inaccessible regions, such as technical point which will determine the sort of signal jungles, or any sort of disaster area where com- design that we could use with satellites is that we munications are needed in a hurry, can be set up have to allow for multipath propagation over water. quickly with the types of satellites I will discuss in Later I will have a little bit more to say about that the following. As I mentioned before, the military aspect.Last, there is an ecology issue with the has been the most interested party in satellite com- radio spectrum. The usefulness of the VHF and UHF munications for mobile users. bands for air-to-ground communications and other L647 types of communications has been recognized for them, and broadcasts them out again. You have to quite a while, and it has become a very crowded change the frequency a little bit, because if the portion of the frequency spectrum, so that we will satellite broadcasts on the same frequency that. it have to be careful to allow shared usage and not to receives on, it would just be talking to itself and dominate the band. get caught up in the loop. As a result, it would just sit there and behave like a bit oscillator a very A number of experimental programs aimed at expensi.,e one, too. LES-VI, as a matter of fact, solving a number of problems suggested by these was the very first of the automatically station- characteristics have been conducted in the past.I keeping synchronous satellites. This meant that -mentioned NASA' s ATS-I satellite which was used without commands from ground stations, LES-VI re- for tests between some commercial airliners and mains hovering over one point on the earth. Previous a ground station.I have been more involved with synchronous satellites required ground commands the Lincoln Experimental Satellites and the ground for stationkeeping.Figure 6 depicts, in a rough equipment that has been used with them. The way, how LES-VI did that.It depicts the earth and Lincoln Experimental Satellite (LES-M) was used the pointing direction to the sun. As we all }mow by for propagation measurements, trying to investi- now, a synchronous satellite always stays above one gate the mechanism of how signals would propagate point on the earth because as the earth rotates, so from very high altitudes down to an airplane. does the satellite. The satellite senses the sun and LES-V and -VI were communication satellites; they the earth, and if it knows what time it is, it knows demonstrated with our ground equipment, which we where the sun and the earth ought to be.If they are call the Tactical Transmission System (TAT), that not sensed where they should be, the satellite moves a number of multiple-access techniques or a large itself slightly by applying a sharp electrical pulse number of users could efficiently use these rather to a little piece of Teflon-type material, which simple satellites.Figure 4 indicates just what vaporizes slightly and causes a plasma jet to move one of these satellites looks like.The satellite is the satellite over, just a little bit, until the error is on the left, in this case, the LES-VI. It is the most corrected. The satellite, in order to make its orbit recent of the Lincoln Satellites, and it was launched even more stable, spins around itseU at about 8.5 about 3 years ago.It broadcasts in the UHF frequency revolutions per minute as it slowly moves around band, the band which could easily be used on air- its orbit aboukthe earth. craft, ships, or any other sort of small terminal. Just a few quick items of interest on the satellite rigure 7 shows one of the problems with this are: the dark blue material wrapped around it are sort of spin-stabilized satellite.For greater effi- actually the solar panels; the sun's energy hits the ciency, we would like to be able to broadcast our solar panels and generates roughly a kilowatt of raw energy in a fairly narrow beam toward the earth. dc power, which is converted into radio-frequency Why broadcast energy all over into space when you energy and is transmitted by the small antennas just want the energy beamed down to earth? LES-VI shown. Another benefit of using this lower frequency used a so-called electronically despun antenna system. band is that the satellite, itself, is quite simplified. This system activates only those antennas which are looking at the earth at any instant of time. The elec- Figure 5 shows what the inside of LES-VI looks tronics, thus, switch between antennas at just the like. What appears to begold-covered boxes is just right rate to compensate for the spin of the satellite, that; they are boxes with a very thin gold coating so LES-VI is always looking down at the earth. The on the outside for excellent thermal and electro- fascinating thing about this is that LES-VI actually magnetic shielding. As a matter of fact, the thermal generates only about 50 watts of radio-frequency pow- shielding is so good after very careful design er, or one-half the amount of power in a light bulb. the electronics inside these boxes actually stay at This beaming adds another effective factor of 10, so al- room temperature, plus or minus a few degrees. together LES-VI is broadcasting only 500 watts down to- Considering the extremely hostile environment in ward the earth but it can serve a significant number space, that gays quite a bit about the thermal design of users.I always find that analogy between satel- engineers. lites 22 000 miles up and light bulbs rather amazing. What does one of these satellites do? Its func- Now that our satellite has been established in tion is very simple: it just listens to signals on a orbit, how do we go about using it? The straight- given frequency band, amplifies anything that comes forward way of using the satellite bandwidth, as in on that band, then moves those incoming fre- shown on Figure 8, is to assign channels, similar to quencies to a slightly different frequency, amplifies the way the spectrum is chopped up for television, 248 radio, or whatever, and to use certain simple synthesizer. Thus, the signal can hop from fre- modulation techniques,. AM or FM. One difficulty quency to frequency, covering the whole band. The with this is that there may be only a few channels, frequency synthesizer puts out one of a million yet very many users, so that we have to figure out frequencies and changes frequencies in about ten a good way to assign the users to the channels on millionths of a second. By generating a hopping a dynamical basis.It would not be advisable to pattern it becomes possible to spread those little allocate a fixed frequency to one user because he bits of energy over the bands and to get around the would keep too much of the satellite occupied. multipath problem and around The multiassipment Another interesting problem with frequency-division problem. multiple access is shown in the next slide (Fig. 9). Multiple access means access to the satellite from Figure 14 shows a little more specifically what a multitude of terminals. this band spreading, the way you make each and every individual signal cover thc.whole band in time, Figure 10 shows what the effects of reflective would look like.Each user transmits on some sort propagation can be. We have a multipath inter- of a pattern by changing the frequency of the infor- ference pattern where the received power on some mation slightly as he is making these great big hops frequenCies is very low compared to the received across the bands.It is called the frequency-hopping power on other frequencies, depending on whether type of a multiple access system. the reflected rays just cancel out the direct rays or whether they actually add to them. That is one Figure 15 indicates what sort of performance problem with frequency-division multiple access, if we can get with this system.If we plot the number we consider airborne users. Obviously, ships and of people that can use the satellite simultaneously other stations that are physically on the ground do versus the signal-to-noise ratioand the signal -to- not have this problem. One way around that is noise ratio is very high we could get on the order shown in Figure 11.Instead of assigning people of a dozen high-rate users, certainly not high in the to certain frequencies, we assign them certain sense of gigabits, but high in the sense of needing slots of time, actually very short slots of time, only 2400 bits per second to transmit one voice quick bursts of perhaps a one-millionth or a ten- conversation. On the other hand, if these mobile millionth of a second, and user takes his turn users were satisfied with 75 bits per-second, which with his burst. This system is called time-division is more typical with teletype rates, we can_set a multiple accessing. Instead of splitting frequency factor of 32 more users to a satellite. Of course, up, we divide time into intervals. However, if yon there is a message here, namely, to make most send a very short pulse it will cover, all by itself, efficient use of the satellite bandwidth that is avail- the whole frequency band.This system, thus, has able, it would be best if these mobile users were the same problem of the echo echo from channel using the lowest data rates that they could possibly 1 clobbering channel 2 and also the dynamic get away with. Does an airliner over the ocean assignment problem. really have to talk to his control tower or can he simply teletype Ms position? This is something to A third technique ( Fig. 12) is called code- be looked into. division multiple accessing. Here every user is given some frequencies and some times; he trans- Figure 16, on the TAT system, shows just how mits on a random pattern, at least, it appears ran- big this modulator/demodulator actually is. De- dom, and the person that he is trying to talk to is picted is a prototype the Lincoln Laboratory built, always looking for that type of pattern. With this consisting of two drawers of equipment and a control pattern, we can let everybody talk on top of them- panel. When everything is put together, it is really selves, while the signals from other people tend to smaller than a television set, and all the operator look like noise to the one particular link that is has to do is to key in his little hopping pattern, being received from. A particular system, TAT, which determines how his signal is going to be spread was developed at Lincoln Laboratories and was across the band. Or he enters the receive pattern, pursued by the military.Basically it is a code- which determines what signal he is looking for, division multiple access system, as shown in Figure punches a button or two, and is ready to go. Sylvania 13 in block diagram form. Moderi, meaning a built a number of production models of this Modem modulator/demodulator, is the'lliCrig that takes the for the Government, and they got it down to one input data and somehow converts them into a signal drawer. Most of the equipment shown on the top of ready to be used; it is a very fast frequency this box are small digital integrated circuits. There 249 seems to be one thing in the country where the once tell where it is to within a very small frac- prices are dropping and that seems to be digital tion of a mile to within hundreds of feet.This systen- integrated circuits.That, I would say, is the has been in use for quite a while and has worked trend of the future in terms of communication;it exceedingly well. will be digital. Knowing your position to within hundreds of Up to now, we have talked only about communi- feet implies that you imow the satellite's positionto - cations for mobile users. Navigation is alsoa very within some hundreds of feet. However,we are clear application of Satellitet-.Since those satellites dealing with some very interesting geophysical are always up there in some constellation, why not interactions since the satellite does not travel ina take advantage of them to find out where you are? perfectly circular orbit. The earth itself isnot Figure 17 indicates the basic way.Basically, there perfectly circular and the satellite is drawn arc three transmitters: transmitter a little zero is a ref- this way and a little that way.Thus, in doing this erence and transmitter 1 and transmitter 2are radio experiment they learned quite a bit. about the shape transmitters. The receiver listens to thetime de- of the earth. lays of the transmissions from transmitter2 relative to the base and transmitter 1 relativeto the base, How about future applications for navigation and these generate so-called reference hyperbolas satellites? One area, aside from the obviousone of for a navigation system. The next slide ( Fig. 18) letting a ship or plane know where it is, will be in shows how you can actuallyuse this information. air traffic control. One of the problems is to let If I am a receiver, and I know that I am in the same someone else know where you are.Figure 20 shows geometric plane as the three transmittersor on the how such a system could work. In order to get its surface of the earth (it just complicatesthe geom- position, the airplane needs four satellites, not just etry a little bit more), and if I know that the rela- three, as the ship. The ship Imew it wason the tive delay between these two transmittersis OT2 surface; the airplane has the fourth variable of or whatever, that tells me I must be on a hyperbola, altitude.If it knows its altitude exactly, it can get and if I know the delay between the other two, it away with three satellites, but if it has one more tells me I must be on a second hyperbola.If I am unknown, it needs one more satellite position. We on both hyperbolas, I must be at thecrossover point. can picture a constellation of four satellites, for Fundamentally, all radio navigation systems instance, that either beam down to the airplane work this way. A rather elegant application of this which then makes those hyperbolic calculations that sort of technique was developed by Johns Hopkins I mentioned, or the airplane could transmit University for the Navy which up to was called the Transit the four satellites and down to a ground station. The Navigation System, as indicated in Figure19. ground station could do all the calculations for it and Instead of having three transmitters, why nothave transmit back again. There are all sorts of permuta- one satellite going around so quickly that it mightas tions and combinations on this. At least, the figure well be three satellites? Thus, They put thetransit indicates the idea. satellite about 600 miles above the earth,in a polar orbit.If I am a ship and willing to wait essentially In conclusion, I have tried to relatesome of in one position for a couple of minutes, Ican have our past efforts in communication and navigation the benefit of three different transmissions. Johns and to indicate some future developments thatwe Hopkins developed some rather clevertechniques might be able to expect.in this very fertile for the ship to measure the distance that area in the satellite which space technology can really benefitus in has gone in orbit. From the three points andfrom finding some solutions to these very down-to-earth the knowledge where the satellite is, the shipcan at problems. Transcribed from tape 250 U.S. MUM Crlerit..E440 Figure 1. KC-I35 with blade antenna for satellite communication. Airline Transoceanic Communication Reliable Long-Range Ship-Shore Communication Emergency Communication in Regions With Rough Terrain . e Military Figure 2. Some applications of satellite communication for mobile users. Large Number of Intermittent Users Equipment Must Be Easy to Use and Inexpensive Operating Frequency Must Allow for Simple Antennas on Terminals Must Allow for Multipath Propagation Over Water Must Be Compatible With Other Electromagnetic Spectrum Allocations Figure 3. Characteristics of satellite systems for mobile users. 251 ti I- t .7 , 1_ melt Figure 4. LES-VI external view. Figure 5. LES..VI internal view. SUN CAST CNN PROJECTION OF SUN LINE ORBITAL 'SUN SENSOR )10.1 REVOLUTION SPIN --- EARTH IST LOU CENTER 8 SENSOR,' Ale SUN SENSOR NO. 2 EARTH SATELLITE ORBIT Figure 6. Determination of satelliteposition. Figure 7. LES-VI antenna patterns. 252 Channel N Satellite Bandwidth Channel 3 Channel 2 Channel 1 Figure 8.Frequency-division multiple access. 77 77 77 Figure 9.Multipath propagation. _L -.-i ,.At Figure 10. Multipath interference pattern. 253 1 C C C C a 0 a 0 n n n n n Satellite Bandwidth Satellite 14 %// Bandwidth 1 23 FINN Chant's!"1 Figure 11. Time-division multipleaccess. Figure 12. Code- divisionmultipleaccess. DATA 0+NCODER IN FREOliINCY MODEM SAESIZERYN' OUTPUT HOPPING PATTERN H PATTERN 0ENERAToft (I) TRANSMITTER. MODEM H INPUT MIXER DATA SIGNAL OUT I FREQUENCY HOPPING - SYNTHESIZER PATTERN 4 SYNCHRONIZATION GENERATOR AND TRACKING PATTERN SELECT (0) RECEIVER Figure 13. TATS Modem blockdiagrams. 254 Hopping Pattern Period-Hopping Pattern Period-1 Character intervoi +---Character Interval Tr1 234 5 67 1 2 345 6 7 1 21 ININNWMINN wt MM. OMAN WT MOININEN POWIANNO -r MINBMION MN MM. SYnc -'I; /*- Wts 409.6 kHz Transmitted Frequency Wm= 800 Hz (low rate) or 6.55 MHz ---- Carrier Frequency 8 256kHz (high rate) Without Modulation Figure.14. TATS bandspread signal format-fixed pattern. ...... - ....' 1000 1 -20 -10 0 10 DOWNLINK SNR Pr /NoW (db) In 409.6kHz BW Figure 15. TATS multiple access capacity. 255 ,r (a) . I a *1 I & L I 1 -', ! 1 i i 1 I (c) Figure 16.Lincoln Laboritory prototype TATS Modem. TX1 TA; Constant Al, Hypetiole Constant Alt Nywbola tit2 Ron TX2 ." Figure 17. Radio generation of reference hyperbolas for position finding. Figure 18.Hyperbolic F .ps lion finding. 256 ttee..1 Opos 2 Ar Pos 1 T2 Ti Figure 19. Transit navigation satellite concept. Figure 20. Aircraft n..vi6ation satellite system. 257(253 A NEW DEVICE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS By R. R. Beck Page Communications Engineers,Inc. Washington, D.C. Introduction The two basic characteristics of the Phase-010- herent Frequency Synthesizer In the Government it is often desirable fora which make it different communication system to provide additional features from the more common industrialvariety synthesiz- ers are its phase/frequency coherence and its other than the normal transfer of informationfrom fast point to point. These additional features may be switching or phase setting time.These two charac- any or all of the following: teristics allow the synthesizer to producecombined phase and frequency-hopping-modulatedsignals. 1. Provides distance between the transmitter and the receiver (communication ranging) An explanation of the operation of thePhase Co.. herent Frequency Synthesizermust first begin with 2. Provides locations of the transmitteror re- a definition of "phase coherent frequency."Phase ceiver (communication navigation) coherent frequency is definedas a frequency that has phase-continuation from one appearanceto another. 3. Pmvidesoperation in a common frequency An example of this type of coherence wouldbe a fre- quency standard that has its output switched allocation in a manner which allows multipleuser on and communications (random multiple access) off in alternate fashion. Each timethe frequency appears at the output of the switch, its phaseis the 4. Provides user identification same as if the switch had remained in the closed position ( Fig. 2). The word "phase"means relative 5. Provides Doppler shift correction (correc- position of the signal (usually measuredin degrees). This coherency also requires that the multiplesyn- tion of frequency offset, induced by differentialve- thesizer output frequencies locities of moving transmitter are all separated by or receivers) exactly the same frequency, and the phasesare all related to a common frequency 6. Provides tolerance to external interference. source; in this case, an internal or external frequency standard. This means if the source frequency is changed by In order to provide these features thecommunication a cer- system must have a special modulation tain percent frequency or phase, alloutput frequen- structure. cies will change by that same percent. The Phase coherent frequency-hopping (FH)modulation is precision a prime candidate technique for providing a multiple of the frequency separation is proportionalto the stability of the frequency standard and the feature, flexible communication system. ThePhase quality of Coherent Frequency Synthesizer, recently developed the synthesizer design. by Page and the Naval Research Laboratory,provides the modulation source for sucha communication sys- The Phase Coherent Frequency Synthesizercan tem. This paper will describe this type of synthesizerbe generally described by the followingcharacteris- and its system uses. tics 11: Synthesizer Description 1.Dual modulation capability (phase and fre- quency Hopping) A frequency synthesizer isa single generator that produces any one of a multitude ofpossible 2. 246 VHF output frequencies (television RF signals. Each signal or frequency isprecisely con- spectrum) trolled, and the control is usually insteps rather than being infinitely variable. The frequency and 3. Fast frequency hopping the duration of the frequency periodcan be locally or remotely controlled. Figure 1 showsa frequency 4. Ultrafast transitions from one frequency synthesizer in its simplest form. period to the next. 259 5. Ultrasmall component of noise contained on 3. User identification the output frequency If 4. Ranging (transmitter to receiver distance G. Ultrastable frequency steps measurement) 7.Ultrastable frequency repeatability 5. Navigation 8. Phase continuity from one frequency appear- 6.Doppler ( motion-induced frequency distor- ance to its following appearances (coherence) tion) correction 9.Local and remote control of phase, frequency, 7.Communication privacy. frequency-hopping rate, phase rate, and frequency or phase duration period. The noise tolerance or resistance is provided when a narrow-band data signal is spread over a If you had a super television set at some time in wide bandwidth. The information rate of transfer the future that had 256 channels that had to be is reduced while signal reception quality increases switched from channel to channel. at the frame rate when FH modulation is used to spread the data band- for reception, your television might have a coherent width. This is a very important characteristic for synthesizer for tuner local oscillator. types of communication where there is a possibility that some outside source will try to intentionally The 256 frequencies are generated by multiply- confuse the system receiver with fictitious signals. ing the outputs for two groups of 16 oscillators, each The civil police, the FBI, and Various government of which is referenced back to the internal frequency agencies will all have requirements for this type of standard. Each of these groups supplies 1 of 16 reliable communications. possible outputs. The 1 of 16 selection process is provided by a 16-pole electronic switch and is con- The sequences in which the various synthesizer trolled by either a random encoder, front panel output frequencies are arranged can be made to be switches, or a remote source (computer). Thus, unique or different from one.another. This charac- the 16-by-16 cross-matrix of stable frequency teristic allows each user to be assigned a particular sources produces 256 output frequencies by using sequence which cannot be confused with one of the all combinations of the matrix. A simple b:ock other system user' s sequences. When the receiver diagram of a Phase Coherent Frequency Synthesizer is set to accept a certain input sequence and data are is shown ..: Figure 3. received at that setting, the receiving operator /GP knows for certain that the incoming data are from the A simple analog of the Phase Coherent Fre- desired party (user). The number of users the quency Synthesizer would be a 256-position,single- system can support is proportional to the number arm switch connected to 256 different frequency of different synthesizer frequencies that are avail- standards. Each of the standards would be refer- able. Thus, the system's coded frequency sequences enced or locked to a common frequency standard. provide multiple-user operation, user identification, The switch could jump from one position to any other and communication privacy. position almost instantaneously. The mechanism which controls the switch position time is also locked The ranging or distance measuring feature of to a reference frequency standard. The output of the the FH communication system can be provided by synthesizer is the arm of the switch. measuring the time required for a signal to traverse from the transmitter to the receiver (simplex mode) Synthesizer Features or from the transmitter to the receiver and back to the transmitter (transpond mode). A coded sequence The Phase Coherent Frequency Synthesizer, is the time identifier.In the transpond mode, the when properly incorporated into a communication time is measured between the first-sequence appear- system, will be able to provide normal communica- ance at the transmitter and second-sequence appear- tions plus the following characteristics: ance at a colocated receiver. the third appearance of this sequence can be made sufficiently long so as 1. Noise resistance not to be a consideration. The accuracy of the time measurement, and, thus, the distance measurement, 2.Multiple users in common bandwidth is enhanced by the coherent feature of the signal structure. Figure 4 shows the conventional pulse-to- feature allows a widevariety,of system applications. pulse ranging operation versus the coherentwave- The noise tolerance feature increases the form ranging operation. The conventional effective measure- signal -to -noise margin at the receiver. Thisfea- ment is degraded by the variation in thereceiver's ture will allow a system to: signal shape and width. The coherent technique makes an average measurement over the.individual 1. Operate with more noise and interference cycles of the carrier. This provides higher resolu- than a common system Hon and therefore greater accuracy: 2. Operate with increased systemrange (com- Navigation data can be extracted from theco- munication distance) when the interfering noise is herent FH system by means of thesame features not present, or that ate used for ranging. The system that requires navigational data and has the resLri .:tion of omnidi- 3. Operate over a communication link with rectional antennas or all-direction antennas must more path impairments ( multipath, rain attenuation, perform range measurements from *severalpoints etc.) than that which is possiblewith a common of observation. These multiple range dataare used to system. plot circles of possible location. The intersectionof the multiple circles provides the location ofthe spe- These characteristics arenecessary for top priority cific transmitter. The minimum requirementwould communication channels. be three observation paina triangular sector. Two points may be used if additional locationinfor- Communication satellites which are designated mation (such as forward or backward direction data) as repeating devices are particularly prone to is available.Single reference-point direction-finding ex- ternal interference. As the earth's communication systems require rotating directional antennasor a activity and spectrum crowding multitude of antennas forming grow, satellite com- a circular array. munications will experience larger amounts ofman- made interference. The use of The coherent feature of the FH also a coherent FH provides an system can considerably improve the toleranceto aid to correcting frequency offsetdistortion. This this interference. distortion occurs in a communicationlink when the transmitter and receiver are in relativemotion and Phase-coherent FH modulation could also find is attributed to the Doppler effect.Since all the fre- use as an emergency backup communicationsys- quency periods are phase continuous and phasere- tem for air-traffic control. This backup lated, a phase comparison of every frequency system period would come into operation when adversecommunica- can be used to correct the common clock. This is tion conditions arise. The coherent FH not possible if the system frequency modulation source (the system in this application would be set to synthesizer) is noncoherent. operate'in the noise tolerance mode. Thisoperation takes a narrow bandwidth signal and spreads the signalover a wide bandwidth (on RF spectrum). This trades Synthesizer Application off a reduction in the data rate for improvingthe . effective signal strength at the receiver andthus A. typical incorporation of the synthesizerinto overcomes external noise, self-interference, and a communication system is shown inFigure 5. At poor transmitting conditions. the transmitter the synthesizerserves as data to RF signal-converting device. Its output is amplified and, The multiple-user and user-identificationfeatures in some cases, raised in frequencyand then applied can be used in an application where a commoncom- to the transmit antenna. At the receiverthe synthe- munication point mast talk to a squadron ofmen, a sizer serves as the local oscillator.The RF receiv- group of mobile vehicles or a group of aircraftor er, the intermediate frequency (IF) decodercircuit,, individuals within the latter groups. Thesefeatures and the signal synchronizercircuit work in conjunc- allow specific communication toone individual, tion with the synthesizer to derive thedata which were blanking out all others. Theseare very common originally put into the system at thetransmitter. requirements. When the coherent synthesizer is incorporated in a FH/phase modulation system, the The ranging and navigation features of thede- resultant scribed system are required in applicationswhere 261 the communication uses are in strange or nebulous ment,tO deter the criminal element' s attempt to in- environments and require direction or homing infor- terrupt the police signals. Future law enforcement mation. Examples of this are ship/aircraft in a communications will, in most likelihood, also require: heavy fog or men in a 'thick jungle. Additional appli- (1) message privacy, (2) multiple uscr (total and cations of these features are aircraft collision avoid- individual) operation, (3) user identification, (4) ance, automated landing in crowdedairports, and location_ information for tracking cars or individuals tracking of suspicious individuals via planted trans- (range/navigation operation). A form of cohercnt mitters. FH modulation and its companion coherent synthe- sizer may be incorporated in future law enforce- ment communications to provide the above require- Possible Civilian or Commercial Uses ments. There are a number of future industrial, com- Conclusions mercial, and civil communication systems which may utilize Phase Coherent FrequencySynthesizers and coherent FH modulation. The most prominent A new communication device and modulation of these uses would be the commercial airlines air- capability have been developed for the transmission traffic communications and police communications. of digital data or voices from point to point. This device is a fast-switching Phase Coherent Frequency Air traffic is increasing on a yearly basis. The- Synthesizer. When this synthcsizcr is appropriately amount of data transfer between the aircraft and to incorporated in a communication system it can pro- and from the aircraft and ground is also ever increas- vide interference resistance, multiple-user capability, ing. These two conditions will cause new frequency user identification, ranging, navigation, Doppler cor- channels to be required (more RF spectrum) and. rection, and digitized communication( voice and data). also cause pressure to improve the quality and effi- This device may find extensive use in specific ciency of the communication systems. government communication systems which have a need for the above features.If this device and its Presently commercial air-traffic control corresponding,communication system are success- communications normally incorporate a combination ful for the government, civil and commercial appli- of human intelligence, frequency modulation commu- cation of similar devices and systems is very likely nication, and radar to perform the required control to take place. The prime areas of civil and com- and regulation functions. The future improved com- mercial application are future communications for munication systems will have the human intelligence law enforcement bodies and for the aircraft/airport aided or replaced by computers, while the communi- complex. The future law enforcement bodies' com- cations and control functions will probably be corn- munications can take advantage of the FH system's -bined into an integrated system. Phase-coherent noise tolerance, multiple user capability, and uscr frequency hopping may form a portion of this future identification features primarily, and the ranging integrated system. and navigational features secondarily. The future commercial aircraft communication can take ad- The future civil and commercial air-traffic con- vantage of all the FH system' s features for com- trol communication systems must provide an effective bined communication navigations, collision avoid- collision avoidance mechanism, an automated air- ance, automated landing, and automated route- craft landing capability, an automated route setting setting. Thus, the same or similar types of com- capability, and digitized voice/data communications. munication systems that serve government satellite- This must be provided within a reasonable bandwidth. to-ground or aircraft-to-ground links may also These requirements can be met by some combination serve for the corresponding civil or commercial of,the coherent FH modulation and timesharing [2 1. counterparts. In conclusion, we can say that the Phase Coherent Frequency Synthesizer and corre- As crime, especially syndicate crime, grows in sponding FH modulation are examples of a govern- the U.S. , the law enforcement bodies may be re- mental communication development that may well, quired to utilize sophisticated communication equip- benefit the average man in the street. 262 CONTROL. PHASE COHEkENI Our pur EXT. NT. FREQUENCY FI2 F341 FX i SYNTHESIZER Figure 1. Phase Coherent FrequencySynthesizer, simplified. NON - COHERENT COHERENT Figure 2. Phase coherentfrequency switching. 1(0 REFERENCE OSCILL ATM SWITCH G le OuP*1 PH CONTROL MULTIPLIER 1 IC, OSC.ILLIIToRS SW ITCH GRoL IP * 2. PHASE CONTROL Figure 3. Simplified block diagram of the Phase CoherentFrequency Synthesizer. 263 RANGE -= SPEED X TIME !NE----- TIM E NORMAL RECE I V E COHERENT SEND AI 131 COHERENT CI RECEIVE Figure 4. Noncoherent versus coherent ranging. ANT ANT DATA It F RP IF SYNTHESIZER TRANSMITTER RECEIVER DECoDER S Komi. SYNCHON1211t SYNTHECIZIER Figure 5.^ A simplified FH system with synthesizers. COMMUNICATIONSVIA SATELLITE- DIVIDEND OF THE SPACE AGE By Gustave J. Rauschenbach Director, Congressional Relationsand Corporate Development Communications Satellite Corporation Washington, D.C. Last June my daughter graduated fromcollege, and like all proud fathers, I attended telephone first started to ring- and, by the way, the graduation. we all knew who it was On the way down I spent an hour - my aunt who lived 10 miles or two at the Her- away - the whole house panicked. mitage ... Andrew Jackson's homein Tennessee. Speaking of One of the things that interested panic, do you remember theexpressions on the faces me was his car- of the family receivinga telegram? It sometimes riage. This was the one he usedto travel from took a matter of minutes before Nashville to Washington, and the someone had the sign on it indicated courage to open it . because you knew it contained that he considered the travel timebetween these two cities to average 21 days. important and, sometimes, badnews. You also knew that the message had beentapped out, letter by letter, on a telegraph key, It is difficult to realize but ifyou stop and think and that it had been delivered to your home from thelocal telegraph of- you will conclude that in all the years, fromthe be- fice by a boy on a bicycle, ginning of the world until Jackson's at a delivery speed of time, and, in about 10 mph. fact, almost until the start ofthe century, man' s traveling speed was tied to the speed ofa horse - Well, today we are havinga communications about 15 mph. Then, suddenly, withthe coming of revolution. The moon landingwe talked about earlier trains and automobiles, speeds wentup to 25, then came to you "live - via satellite," and 40, then 70 mph. Nextcame the commercial air- you saw that plane, and man' s speed event happen with only abouta 2 -sec delay. That was again increased, start- delay was in the time it took ing at about 100 mph andprogressing to slightly the signal to come 240 000 miles from themoon to earth, be retransmit- subsonic (700 mph). Sooncommercial supersonic aircraft will be in the skies of ted through a least two satellitechannels, the satel- the world; meantime, lites being in orbit 22 we have the space age.Sitting in your living 300 miles above the earth, and rooms over approximately 10 000 miles of last summer, you sawan event that required speeds telephone and microwave communication link. in excess of 23 000 mph to beachieved. Man made Figures 1 through a round trip to the moon, 480 3 show the actual setup of howthe sound and picture 000 miles, achieved got,into your living room. useful work, and returned allwithin a period of 10 days. This has beena transportation revolution. The International TelecommunicationsSatellite Consortium (INTELSAT IV) satellite (Fig. Now, fortunately or unfortunately, 4) is not many now being used over the Atlantic and people will ever travel at thosespeeds, but then soon to be there are other revolutions in which launched in orbit over the Pacificand Indian Oceans. we are pres- We have satellites over all three ently participating and still othersyet to come. oceans now, but those over the Pacific and IndianOceans are small- er and of an earlier vintage, Up in Washington we havea television commer- commensurate with the requiremetts of thoseareas. The INTELSAT cial advertising bread. Theydraw your attention back to granny's kitchen and the IV satellites weigh 3058 lbat launch. They are al- old coal stove-Ina most 8 ft in diameter and the smell of baking bread andpie. Most of us at the over 17 ft tall, and have a 9000-circuit capacity forcommunications, or 12 Congress-remember all that, but I alsoremember color television channels. The the _day when our first telephonewas installed. satellite is solar- I powered and has a design lifeexpectancy of 7 years. was in grammar school, so itwas not all that long . ago! When this telephonewas installed, my home immediately had the capability The space booster (Fig. 7,) isused to give the to communicate with satellite a maximum speed of 23 every other telephone subscriber in thecity, the 600 mph in order state, and the country. Now, to start it into synchronous orbit.The synchronous that does not say we orbit means that the satellite used this capability.In fact, I remember when the remains motionless relative to a point on earthover which it is placed. 265 In other words, the satellite moves at a speed which the U.S. , having the largest communication require- keeps it positioned directly above a particular point ment, has also the largest investment, while smaller on earth as the earth revolves. The Atlas Centaur nations invest in proportion to their need. COMSAT launch vehicle is, of course, a development of the represents the U.S. in.INTELSAT and also manages space age. The launch vehicle is provided by NASA, and operates the system under contract to INTEL- and we pay NASA at a rate determined by them for SAT. COMSAT' s revenues from international satel- this hardware and a pro rata share of launch service lite communications last year were almost $70 mil- cost.All the risk belongs to the Commercial Satel- lionor a net income of $ 17.5 million, which wprks lite (COMSAT). We pay whether the launch is suc- out to $ 2.75 a share. The important point I want cessful or not! to leave with you from all this is that COMSAT is a private corporation, not a government agency, and The Causcy earth station, Puerto Rico, in Fig- no taxpayer' s money went into its establishment ure 6 ( showing antenna), the Bartlett earth station ( Figs. 14-18). in Talkeetna, Alaska ( Fig.?), and the Paumaula earth station in Hawaii (Fig. 8) are among the In addition to its international interest, COM- largest earth stations in the total earth station com- SAT has before the Federal Communications Com- plex that serves the international system. They have mission (FCC) an application to provide a satellite the capability of two-way communications. system over the U.S. - (Fig.-- 19) -.- -As -you can see from this slide, three satellites would be emplaced Today there are 48 earth station sites around the over the U.S. and would provide coverageof Alaska, world with 56 antennas in 35 countries-Ad more Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the other 48 states. Earth earth stations are joining, literally monthly, as they stations, at least for the first go round, would be are completed and join commercial operations. established in accordance- with Figure 20. They will grow to 82 earth stations and 108 antennas in 63 countries by 1972. The total cost of this system, including satel- lites, earth stations, etc. , would rup in the neighbor-: The present international system with satellites hood of $250 million.Again, COMSAT would under- over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans is take this job without government support, using only shown in Figure 9. Notice that although the cable those moneys available to any private enterprise. system provides point-to-point communication, the satellite services whole areas, requiring only that Finally, as you may have heard, there exists an earth station be provided to give access to all now a requirement for an aeronautical satellite to points within the system. The INTELSAT system provide better communications over the Atlantic and satellite paths and regional coverage are shown in over the Pacific between airplanes and theirground Figure 10. The U.S. earth stations' satellite cover- controllers, and also eventually, airplane-to-airplane age Is shown in Figure 11. communication (Fig. 21).This program has been under consideration by COMSAT for several years. I do not mean this report to be self-serving, but As you would expect, there exists a necessity to I feel that a few words about the international con- bring together a number of commercial companies sortium, of which COMSAT is the manager, might (the airlines), the gbvernment ( Federal Aviation enlightening.The Congress, with the passage Administration (FAA], FCC, Office of Telecom- of the Communications Satellite Act of 1962, estab- munications Policy OTP] , Department of Trans- lished COMSAT as a private corporation, sponsored portation (DOT] , Department of State, etc.), and in the United Nations by the U.S. to bring to the their European counterparts. world the benefits of our space technology.INTEL- SAT ( Fig. 12) presently consists of 82 nations ( Fig. Today, our theme is to try to show that there 13). are, in fact, desirable spin-offs from the space effort. Needless to say, the entire communications It is a joint venture which provides for the satellite system, beginning with the launch vehicle ownership of the satellite system on an investment- which gives the satellite the necessary speed to put use basis. Investment-use means that each member it into orbit; the computers whichcalculate trajec- invests in the system in proportion to its anticipated tories, duration, and amount of thrust, etc.; the use and shares In the same proportion in any reve- satellite itself from its solar cells and its standby nues generated by the system. As you would expect, batteries; its exotic despin motor; and so forth, are 266 all spin-offs of the space age. None of these would Communications are growing at a tremendous rate. be available without the tremendoui effort made We program- into all our planning 15 to 30 percent over the past decade to place man on the moon.it growth per year.It is my earnest hope that as we is heartening to me to note that this entire sophisti- cated system has already paid back in some small progress, we will succeed in bringing the world not measure in that it allowed you, the taxpayer, to only better communications, but better mutual watch men land, work, and walk on the surface of understanding and solutions to worldwide problems the moon. Much greater dividends areon the way. (Fig. 22). it 3.40k 41 41. mole, .1 '4# Figure 1. Apollo XV Astronaut Irwin saluting the flag a ,7ttStit 40-'4 ,""ems Figure 2. Apollo XV crew on Rover. 267 4.; Ir Figure 3. Global telecast, Apollo DC. Figure 4. INTELSAT-IV at Hughes with techiicians on ladder. 268 Figure 5. launch of INTET: gAllit (K-2); Figure 6. Causey earth Atlas /CentaurLaunchtVehla station antenna. `Figure 7. Bartlett earth stationaerial view. . Figure 8. Paumaulua earth station aerial view 1. lj *to.. 4° At V tliiicaiwa.mtvrinf1,,C.041#11:, 041 1/00.00141#5 61#101.4 JACOVE01- Wt.* CAPAINAZEt WSIAtt_A "MOO AA._ Moe/ iyoldor_ .fKAIO ttAtv PAWALU fariA# Narilhatiora.. 4tARTOSTAMMICIUMeAti Figure 9. The INTELSAT System. 270 Figure 10. INTELSAT System satellite paths and coverage by region. ',MUT , . :43 swim _ . _f 0111911111111111110.11111~-- 0 Wall*MON11,111111111011111111, EMU STATICIIS ooNIMOURATIONF_ - _2` - _ _ Figure 11. U.S. earth stations (on topographical-map with U.S. borders). 271, 1 INTELSAT INTERIM COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE= COMMITTEE C.S.C. Mks Win Advise USN MOUT! FIAOCIAt COMSAT SIVCOMMOTTE Mil-CNISITTTS 'HAM COMSAT MANAGER Figure-12. -Organization of INTELSAT. Figure 13.Flags of INTELSAT member nations. 272 iNTELSAT I ME* T TV - Figure 14. Monthly lease charges (New Yorkto Europe). S --1",051174 Figure 15. Circuit costs (New York to Paris). 273 I - -FL-14 inVIVAINIE4 Figuret6.Cireutt ehSts (San Franciscoto Honollu). TT Tr I I I /Ili -=m- W 111111111111t Figute 17.Circuit costs (San Francisco to Philippines). 274 FULL TIME HALF CIRCUITS IN THE INILL'Ar SYSTEM Figure 18. Full-time half-circuits in the INTELSAT System. Figure 19. Multipurpose Domestic System II map. 275 , Figure 20. Domestic earth stations (initial configuration). l Figure 21. Aeronautical satellite services. Figure 22. New dimensions, earth fromthe moon. DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF COLOR TELEVI SON FOR APOLLO XV AND BEYOND By Samuel Russell RCA Astro-Electronics Division Princeton, New Jersey Television played a major role in the spectacu- Considering the above factors in more detail, lar success of Apollo XV. From a research view- Figure 1 shows the components of the television point, the quality of the video enhanced the value of system mounted on the Lunar Roving Vehicle ( . the lunar surface observations. The real-time On the left-hand side is the completely self-contained transmission of astronaut activity on the lunar trav- color camera unit (CTV). During the lunar landing, erses undoubtedly increased the popular appeal of the camera was mounted on the Lunar Module ( LM) the overall mission, also. What was actually done Falcon, in a position that could view the astronauts to develop and improve the quality of the television descending the steps. The camera then was mounted system used on the Apollo XV mission? In thispa- on-a tripod to view deployment of the LRV from the per, I would like to describe briefly the television LM. After deployment of the Rover, the camera system developed for the mission, identify the fac- was transferred to the television control unit (TCU) tors contributing to the high quality of the pictures mounted on the vehicle. The television control unit generated on the lunar surface, and explore several decoded the radio commands from earth andper- possible present and future uses of the television formed the functions shown in Figure 1. The control -equipment developed for Apollo XV. unit also positioned the camera left or right and up or down in response to remote commands from Four factors contributed to the success of earth. Apollo XV television. The first factorwas mobility. The television camera accompanied the astronauts The Lunar Communications Relay Unit ( LCRU) during their explOrations of the lunar surface and is shown at the bottom of Figure 1.This unit con- permitted television coverage from a variety of lo- tained the television transmitter and other co:imuni- cations on the moon. Remote control of the camera cation equipment required for relaying voice al. system from earth also was an important factor in other signals between the backpacks carried by the the success of the mission. Now the camera could astronauts and earth. The high-gain antenna beamed follow the action and zoom-in on details of the lunar the television signal to earth. The camera (CTV), surface! A third factor consisted of improvements control unit (TCU), relay unit ( LCRU), and antenna in television camera performance. The "smears" together weretrreality, a complete television and "blurs" seen on television during previous mis- station.The television shown in Figure 2 (taken by sions were eliminated. Gone also were the "Casper the equipment at Cape Kennedy 1 month prior to the the ghost" images of ttastronauts. But the new mission) is mounted right on the front bumper of television camera alone was not the only technical the Rover! When the astronauts stopped on the lu- improvement in the system. nar surface, one of them got off, turned a power switch ON, aimed the antenna at earth, and the show The fourth and final factor contributing to the began! high quality of Apollo XV television was a major im- provement in the overall television transmission Figure 3 shows the color camera (CTV) and the system - mainly on earth. The original network of remote control unit (TCU). The camera functions ground equipment used for the mannedspace pro- that can be operatedby ground command are shown. gram at NASA was not designed to receive and proc- The camera may be panned to the left or right,or ess color television signals for network distribu- tilted up and down. Motorized drives in the lens tion.Therefore, a joint NASA and RCA effortwas assembly allow changes in the lens focal length and organized to review and improve the entire televi- aperture. Exposure control and power also may be sion transmission system from the lunar surface controlled from earth. The ground controller at to the home receiver. The objective was to gener- MSC-Houston has a set of 18 pushbuttons with ate a television picture from themoon that was just ,,,,which he can control all camera operations (Fig. as good as the pictures received of the local Satur- 4).If the controller wanted the camera to pan left, cjaLafternoon ballgame! A great deal of workwas he first depressed the PAN LEFT button, and the required to achieve this objective. camera moved slowly to the left. The camera 279 motion continued until he depressed the PAN STOP When the Apollo XV television signal left the button. transmitter and antenna on the moon, the signal traveled to one of three ground stations on earth. The flight controllers at Houston faced a unique Let us use, for example, the Australian station and time delay problem. When a pushbutton was trace the path of the television signal front there to pressed, 3.5 sec passed before any response was a home television receiver. From the Australian seen on the television screen.Only through realistic ground station, the signal went via a groundline to a simulation of the time delay before the mission were COMSAT ground station. From the COMSAT the controllers able to train themselves to follow ground station, the signal was transmitted to the action. INTELSAT, a satellite 22 000 miles above the Pa- cific, then back to a COMSAT ground station in Cal- In discussing the improvements in the Apollo XV ifornia. Bell System then tookpe signal to MSC- camera, the difficulty in obtaining good television Houston where the color television signal was pictures on the moon must be stressed.Lighting on changed to the form used for commercial color tel- the moon consists of extreme contrasts. The as- evision transmissions.Finally, the signal was tronauts appear brilliant beCause of the highly distributed to the television networks from MSC- reflective cloth of the spacesuits. The lunar soil Houston for transmission to the public. Along this itself, however, is rather dark. Furthermore, complicated transmission path from the moon, po- shadows on the moon are extremely dark because no tential system problems are constantly threatening sky light exists to soften the shadows. One way to television signal quality. The NASA and RCA sys- solve the lunar illumination problems was to develop tems team turned up quite a number of problems a compatible camera tube. A tube under develop- that could have caused picture degradation.In one ment at RCA, known as a Silicon Intensifier Target case, the ground station receivers caused a break- (SIT) tube, was found to have the characteristics tip in the edge of the picture.In another case, a needed for the Apollo XV camera. The tube is very special processing amplifier was introducing noise. sensitive and_enn see details in shadow areas.It A filter, designed to separate the voice signal from also can withstand the direct rays of the sun without the television signal, was producing ghosts in the being damaged.Sensitivity of the SIT tube can be picture. These and other problems were discovered controlled electrically over a range of light levels and, for the most part, were fixed for the Apollo of about 1000 to 1. XV mission. Another difficult task was isolating the location In conjunction with the SIT tube, all circuitry of ground system malfunctions during television in the camera was of such a nature as to optimize transmissions.In commercial network operations in performance under conditions expected on the moon. ithirti7Sr; the originating station giiver-the Figure 5,' a good example of this optimization, television signal to a common carrier (i.e., the Bell shows the camera is imaging two astronauts on a System) which then routes the signal to its desti- scale model of the lunar surface. One of the astro- nation. For the Apollo mission, however, many nauts is in direct sunlight (simulated) while the carriers were involved. There was one link from other is in shadow. The television system just the moon to the earth, another link through a com- does not have the dynamic range to simultaneously mon carrier in Australia under the jurisdiction of the image properly both the astronaut in sunlight and the Australian Postal Department, then another through one in shadow.This.problein may be resolved, COMSAT and International Telecommunication however, by having two separate modes of automatic Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT) over the Pacific, light control (ALC). A oak mode detects the and finally one through the Bell System to the space brightest object in thd scene, and adjusts the SIT center. A break in any one link would have spoiled tube sensitivity to give the highest modulation value the show. To pinpoint where problems were occur- of the picture signal for this object.In this way, a ring was a difficult task. For this-reason, a special good image of the astronauts is obtained. An aver- NASA Television Flight Control Group was formed age mode is used for looking in the shadow, and to supervise the entire television operation during picture highlights are allowed to saturate and the mission. The manager of this group was located "bloom." A brightly lit astronaut cannot be seen in the control center right behind the controller clearly in an average mode because his linage has operating the camera. From this vantage point, sattiraedd7-Theasironaut in shadow, however, can he could communicate with points all over the world be seen clearly. By using two modes of ALC, im- and locate problems as they occurred. Fortunately, proved exposure control for the pictures seen dur- no serious problems occurred, and the show went ing Apollo XV was possible. off on schedule. 280 What sort of applications can the Apollo XV tele- after the mission, the photograph of the white rocks vision system be used for?In science, there are a showed something completely unexpected. Never number of advantages in having high-quality televi- had formations like this beenseen on the lunar sion. One is just having a good record of scientific surface nor have they been seen since. Due to the exploration. During the Apollo XV, the television sig- pressure of time, or perhaps limited geological nals provided invaluable documentation of the lunar training, the astronauts missed the significance surface investigations. This was really unexpected of these formations.Scientists on earth may have by scientists and the scientists realized the value in seen the formations with television. The EVA these analyses only after extensive replay of the timeline then would have been reorganized to videotapes. A film record of the same data would sample this region more fully in an attempt toex- not have been practical because the weight of film plain these formations. would have reduced the weight allotment for lunar samples. Thus, television provided the idealway A second use of the television camera during to secure these data. future Apollo missions is as a multispectralsensor. The-SIT pickup tube has a broader spectralresponse Te'evision also may change the method of doing than the human eye, and the moon exhibits much scientific research in two rather interestingways. higher contrast in the infrared spectral region than The use of high-quality television for costly scien- in the visible region. A television camera, there- tific projects such as lunar exploration permits fore, can enable scientists on earth to see scene "real-time" scientific research. Whena scientist details that even the astronauts themselves cannot wants to make a normal geological exploration ofa see. region, he first researches the area, then plansan exploration, and goes into the field to take samples. Television also is important as a tool to educate Then he analyzes his field data and defines and to give everyone a unique sense of participation a geo- in the Apollo missions. logical model. Generally, his conclusions lead to "he many applications of space technology to our more earthly needs must be the need for more additional field work anda new model. On earth, this iterative process for scien- realized by the public, especially in the fields of tific research is acceptable. communications, weather forecasting, navigation, and earth resources surveying. The space program is really beginning to bear fruit, and yet many ex- In exploring the moon, however, the high cost ploratory parts of the space program are difficult to involved precludes such luxury. Returning to the justify to the American public. ...For the Apollo mis- same place to gather data for an incomplete model sions, the justification is science. Much stress has is not feasible.Instead, the whole investigative been placed on the importance of discovering how the procedure must be compressed within the available moon was formed, what relationships it has with mission time. Scientific teams must work in real earth, and how the moon may hold the secrets to the time to analyze data and decide how to proceed with origin of the solar system. the explord4on:as the exploration is taking place. 17-r) To the man on the street, the "need to know" is Television, for example, could have been used often a little difficult to understand. He probably has to an advantage during the Apollo XIV mission when justified to himself why we are exploring space, the the astronauts were on their second extravehicular moon, and the planets - just a's a mountain climber activity (EVA) near the edge of Cone Crater.They has reasons to climb a mountain. By allowing him reported seeing some white-rock formations, but to see and experience space exploration through tele- did not elaborate. The response from Houston vision, as we did on Apollo XV, perhaps we have the was for them to take a photograph of .a sample of key for his continuing support of our endeavors in the white rock. When the films were developed space. 281 1 Figure 1.Lunar Communication/Television System 1 Figure 2.Television-installation on Rover. 282 Figure 3.Ground Commanded Television Asrembly (GCTA). 0.P SESSION VI MEANING OF SPACE TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES -.11r ....1.,-^ _4 ADVANCES IN HIGH ENERGY ASTROMMYFROM SPACE By Dr. Riccardo Giacconi Senior Vice President American Science and Engineering INTRODUCTION cultural and social impactsof the Copernican, Keplerian, and New:onian revolutionsarc only In the life of the modern city it is rare for us to- now beginning to be fully realized. day to turn our sight to the night sky and contemplate Primarily be- cause of the development of new techniquesfor ex- the stars. A thousand physical and emotional stimuli ploring regions of the electromagnetic prevent us from doing it; thus, in the age of space spectrum outside the optical window,a spectacular series travel, the stars seem to have receded farther away of discoveries has occurred In from our consciousness than in the past. The question the past two decades. These were so surprising and enigmaticthat they is often asked: why X-ray astronomy, or astronomy provided a powerful stimulus in general? for further exploration and forced a reappraisal ofastrophysical theories. For our remote ancestors the contemplation of First, through radio astronomy,came the the heavens was an important part of life. From the realization That explosi v. phenomenain stars (super- practical point of view, the orderly movement of the novae) released tremendous celestial bodies was used to regulate the time for amounts of energy, a large fraction of which appears inthe form of high- sowing, for the harvest, for the hunt, and then for energy particles. Then followed the discovery market. The position of the stars was used as the of radio galaxies and quasars,leading tolhe conclu- only compass for the traveler on land and on sea. sion that explosive phenomena Later, the study of the orderly and cyclical nature are taking place on a very large scale in galaxiesas a whole. The of the heavenly notions became interwoven with myth, recent discoveries of the microwave background legend, and religion.When today's astronomer looks radiation, X-ray sources, andpulsars have strz'ngth- back to his colleagues of the past, he does not find ened the conclusion that in men like himself, with the same outlook on life and our universe high-energy processes (i.e., processes in which theenergy re- from the same backgrounds, but rather poets, philos- leased per gram is much greater than ophers, priests,and princes with intellects quiteas for normal stellar matter, .1 erg/gm-sec) playa major ar4 powerful as our own, who had realized several quite possibly a decisive role. The thousand years ago a powerful synthesis of their study of these processes defines a new ficid, high-energy cosmological views and the life of their society. astro- physics, the central problem of which isan under- standing of the source of the tremendousamounts m the stupendous accomplishments of these of energy released in X-ray predecessors, such as the construction of the astro- sources, supernovae, radio galaxies, quasars, etc., and theprocesses by nomical observatory of Stonehenge, and possibly the which the high-energy particles understanding of the precession of the equinox, which responsible for the radiation fry m these objectsare produced. It is no implied the oral transmission and knowledge of cyclic overstatement to say that the resolution of phenomena with periods of hundreds and thousands these problems constitutes one of themost important and of years, we encounter. an interest and desire for fascinating taskLin all of physics. pure knowledge, with no possible practical application. This has made astronomy the intellectual adventure it has remained to this day. Since the production of high-energy photons is to be exit eted whenever high-energy particles While the study of the univerea by means of collide with a magnetic or photon or particle field, astronomical observations has traditionally played and whenever high temperature plasmas are present, a large role in the advances of knowledge of the it is not surprising that X-ray astronomy has made physical sciences, its central Impact and appeal have significant contribution to the development of the been in the deeper knowledge man obtains of himself field of high-energy astrophysics, despite the fact by studying the universe in u:iich he lives. The that the total amount of observing time has been 2i,47 small compared to that in other fields. We can ex- us a different aspecb of the cosmos. We have dis- pect "ais contribution to be much greater in the fu- covered the existence of a class of stellar objects ture, when increased observing time becomes-avail- whose main mechanism of electromagnetic energy able, because a number of crucial observations can loss is through emission of high-energy photons. be made only in the X-ray band. A well-known example is Sco X-1, the first of the cosmic X-ray sources to be detected. The name Since high-energy photons from a few electron "extar" which was proposed for this object finds volts to several million electron volts do not pene- some justification in the fact that while in main trate the earth's atmosphere, observations in this sequence, stars emission in the visible light range energy range became possible only by the develop- of wavelengths exceeds, by orders of magnitude, ment of balloons, rockets, and satellites (Fig. 1). the emission in X-rays. In Sco X-1 this ratio is This development made it possible for the first reversed. time in man's history to observe the sky unimpeded. by the atmospheric blanket that surrounds us on The pulsar in the Crab Nebula, 'which has been earth. While this opportunity was of some impor- first detected through its radio pulsations, has been tance in improving "seeing" conditions for traditional also shown to emit most of its radiative energy in observational techniquesits true significance was the X-rays' range of wavelengths. Also, its ro- in permitting the observation of regions of the spec- tational energy which is believed to be expended in trum for which the atmosphere, is an opaque barrier. accelerating particles to relativistic energy may In one stroke, space astronomy could extend the ultimately be dissipated by energy loss of the elec- range of observable wavelengths by as many decades trons through synchrotron emission, mainly in the as had been until then available. X-ray range of wavelengths. We have observed -X-ray emission from exploding galaxies, such as In retrospect, it is easy to understand why M-87where-again the energy emitted in X-rays X-ray observations, rather than ultraviolet or equals or exceeds all other forms of radiative gamma rays, should have provided us the first major dissipation. We have perhaps detected the emission surprises in space astronomy. First, the exist- from intergalactic gases, whose existence and ence of a diffuse interstellar gas produces a sharp density play an essential role in determining closure ihcrease in absorption at 13.5 eV, the energy cor- or openness of our universe. The existence of responding to the ionization potential of atomic hy- these gases can only be detected through their drogen. While photons from the visible through the X-ray emission if they are as hot as presently ultraviolet up to this energy can traverse the inter- believed. stellar medium relatively unattenuated, photons with energy greater than 13.5 eV are completely A general discussion which pretends to encom- absorbed over extremely short distances, in astro- pass all X-ray astronomy would be as hopeless nomical terms.'A. e interstellar medium does not a task today as would be thercase.for optical astron- again become transparent until we reach energies omy. The sheer richness and variety of the field of a few hutylred electron volts in the X-ray range. prevents. completeness.I will, therefore, endeavor On t4e.,, lowlenergy side of this barrier, the proc- only to mention briefly the observational techniques esses we can observe are mainly the same ones and then_to give an example of what we learn through that give rise to the visible light spectrum we ob- X-ray observations of a few objects, such as the serve.It is only on the high-energy side of the sun, a stellar object, and a galactic object, followed barrier that the photons we observe may carry infor- by a few comments about what we can expect from mation about vastly different physical processes and future developments. states of matter (Fig. 2) .Photons in the X-ray range of energy are the lowest energy and, therefore, the most abundant photons beyond this barrier that Instrumentation can penetrate galactic distances. Thus, it is not " surprising that the first discoveries in high-energy The essential elements of an X-ray experiment astronomy occurred in the X-ray rather than in the are a detection device, such as photon counter or gamma ray range of energy. film, .and a collimating device to define the direc- tion from which the X-rays are coming. These In the short 8 years since the first detection of units must be-rigidly mounted on a carrier (rocket cosmic X-iay sources, a number of significant or satellite), and some means must be provided to observations have been made which have revealed to maneuver or point the carrier in order to acquire 288 or sweep interesting regions in the sky. Some means the image formed at the focus is then recordedon to determine instantaneous celestial coordinates for film or on a televi,e'..on camera. Images withangu- the instrumentation must be provided. Finally, lar resolutions of a few arc sec, ..Js, comparable there is the problem of signal conditioning and re- to the ones achieved in visible light,_ can_be obtained turn of the data to the ground. for intense sources, such as our own sun, during exposures of a few seconds, Thus, a rocket flight Rather than discussing in detail each element of only 300 sec provides the opportunity of obtaining of instrumentation, I will mention two examples of several photographs of the sun during one flight. complete instrument systems presently in use. The flux of X-rays from the sun is of about 105 photons /cm2 sec. Even the nearest and mostpower- Uhuru is the first satellite entirely devoted to ful stars are so distant that the X-ray flux reaching X-ray astronomy (Fig. :3).It was launched in an us at earth is'any orders of magnitude smaller, so equatorial orbit of 500 km from Kenya, Africa, on that the much longer observation times provided by December 12, 1970. This day is the anniversary of satellites and much larger telescopes of this type Kenyan independence, hence the Swahili name for will be needed before the technique can be applied freedom, Uhuru.Data are stored onboard on a tape to extrasolar sources. recorder during a 9-min period and then transmit- ted to the ground when the satellite passes over a ground station at Quito, Ecuador. The Sun as an X-ray Star The satellite' s fields of view and scanning mode X-ray emission from the quiet sun originates areshown in Figures 4 and 5. As the satellite slowly in the -pper chromosphere and corona. Low den- rotates about its axis, the detectors scan a band in sity and high-temperature plasmasare crctted in the sky 5 deg wide and 360 deg long. By magnetic these regions by h ating from sound or hydromag- torquing against the earth's magnetic field, we can netic waves originating from below the atmosphere. change the orientation of the spin axis and thus ob- The details of this heating mechanism wherebya serve any desired part of the sky. A typical sample million-degree temperature regio' is createdsur- of data is shown in Figure 6. rounding the very cool surface of the sun (a few thousand degrees) are not fully understood. Inde- This satellite is the most sensitive X-ray instru- pendent of their origin, the thin (1010 particlesper ment yet at our disposal. The relatively large area =3) and hot (T > le -K)gases thus created be- of detection, 1 ft2, and, most important, the long come almost completely ionized. Emission in X- time of observation available, make it some 10 000 rays can occur as free-free collision between parti- times more sensitive to weak extrasolar X-ray cles (thermal bremsstrahlung continuum), iis free sources than the crude rocket aperiment, with bound (recombination continuum), or line emission. which the first X-ray star was discovered in 1962. Most of the emission from the quiet corpna takes Most of-the data I will discuss today come from this place at temperatures of the order of 1 or 2 million satellite. degrees and, therefore, appeatT,mainly as line emission. During flares or from active regions the A totally different system which up to now has tempeLgitie can reach two or three times that value. only been used for solar X-ray studies is shown in Tire hot plasmas whichgenerate the observed X-rays Figure 7.It is mentioned here both to introduce the are contained by the sun's magnetic field. Thus, observations of the sun in X-rays (which I will dis- we would expect to observe X-ray structures reflect- cuss briefly), and because of its importance for ing the configuration of the coronal magnetic field. stellar X-ray astronomy in the future. The system This is precisely what one observes, as shown in consists of an X-ray grazing incidence mirror which Figure 9 (obtained with a grazing incidence telescope forms a high-quality real image in the focal plane. during a rocket flight oa 7, 1970, shortly The mirror consists of a highly polished glassor after the solar eclipse). metal surface on which X-rays impinge atvery small angles of grazing incidence, about 1 deg. Under The striking feature of Figure 9 is the these conditions, X-rays of a few tenths toa few absence of the solar disk, much too cold to be ob- kilovolts reflect with efficiencies of the order of 1. st.rved in X-rays, and the appearance of a complex and varied structure reflecting the presence of plas- The X-rays undergo two reflections from a parab- mas and the configuration of the magnetic field. oloid and a hyperboloid of resolution (Fig. 8), and Tubular arches and loops of enhanced density and temperature rise to heights of more than 105 km b. Not identified above the photosphere. X-ray observations are thus two-dimensional projections of these structures. Pulsating white dwarfs - Cen X-3 ? Rather than discussing in detail the significance Neutron st..rs :540 0 ? of the variou. small- and large-scale structures, I would like to conclude this discussion of the X-ray Black holes - Cyg X-1 ? sun by .,,oting some energetics. The sun emits about 4 x 1033 ergs/sec in all wavelengths. In X-rays, 3. There exists a large number (40) of extra-- its luminosity is only of about 1025 to 1026 erg/sec. galactic sources of which about t2 have been iden- Thus, at the most, one-millionth of the sun's total tified. They include: energy is emitted as X-rays. We will see in what follows that although this ratio is fortunate for us, a. Galaxies of our own LMC it is by no means true for every stellar object-. In fact, if all stars emitted at the same rate as our b.Local cluster (50-100 kpc) SMC own sun, we could not have discovered their exist- ence. We will see that stars exist in which the cen- c. Radio galaxies (10 Mpc) 87, NGC 5128 tral object emits a negligible amount of the total energy dissipated by electromagnetic radiation; its d. Scyfert galaxies (10-70 importance is to provide, by nuclear burning or Mpc) NGC 1275 release of rotational or gravitational energy, the NGC 4151 energy that is expended in the radiative process and e. Clusters of galaxies to serve as an anchor to gravitationally or magneti- (100 Mp) Coma Cluster cally contain the plasmas or high-energy particles that emit the bulk of the radiation. f. QSO (600 Alpe) 3C273 The intrinsic luminosity of these objects ranges Extrasolar Sources from about 10" erg/sec for LMC to about, 1016 erg/ sec for 3C273. The X-ray Sky. When we analyze the information that Churn is sending us about the night sky, we ob- 4. A diffused intense background, partly trig- serve the following main features: inating in our own ga.axy and partly outside; possi-_. bly at cosmological distances front us, is observed. 1. Many stellar objects, now 80 or so, are This background cottlffbe due to a number of unre- observed to emit copious amounts of X-rays. They solved disciete iveak sources or to emission by appear to be strung throughout the disk of our galax- gas or particles in interstellar or intergalactic ies at great distant 2s from us (Fig. 10). They space. emit most of the radiation in X:Fays (typically Lx/Lv = 1000) and they are among the mostpower- I would like to give two examples of study in ful emitters in the galaxy at 1036 to 1038 erg /she, stellar and galactic astronomy to illuitrate the de- some 103 to 105 lintel our own sun. tailed nature of these observations and their significance. 2. These _X -ray sources appear to be associated with a variety of stellar objects, such as: Cen X-3. Cen X-3 is not one of the most in- tense sources.Its intensity at earth is of about:10" a.Identifie.1 photons/cm2 see or some 500 timesess than the strongest known X-ray source, Sco X -1.It is, Supernova remnants Type I - Crab, Tycho however an extremely interesting source dueto its variability, pulsations, and level of detail in Supernova remnants Type II- Cas A which we can study it.It was first observed during rocket experiments exploring the region of Centau- Pulsar - NP -5032 rus. It is called Cen X-3 because it was the third X-ray source discovered in this constellation. Blue varying star - Sc6 X-1, Cyg X-2 Uhuru has observed it since January 1971, and 290 1 Is still observing It as of now. Figure 11 shows model. A search is underway to discover a possi- a plot of the observed intensity of the source in the ble optical or radio counterpart to this object. None 2- to 8-keV-energy range during a day. We observe has as yet been found. One should stress that such a tremendous change in its intensity occurring in a violent behavior of white dwarfs hadnot been under- 1-hr period. This- vast change in emitted X-ray stood to take place prior to the observations.In energy is a common character;stie of X-ray sources. fact, the validity of the model is byno means gener- The time in which such changes occur and the amount ally accepted and could be completely destroyedif of change vary from source to source. several other objects of the same type, but shorter period, should be discovered." If we observe the emission of thissource in A few weeks ago, another object with a period more detail, as in Figure 12, we find an even more of about 1.3 sec was observed. Shorter periods striking fact. The dotted envelope shows whatwe would strain the white-dwarf hypothesis even further. would expect to be the response to a constant point Many other X-ray sources exhibit pulsations, for source through our instrument as we scan through it. instance, the Crab pulsars NP0532 of a 30-msec The very large fl...ctuations we observe, 70or 80 period, which is interpreted as a rotating neutron percent-in intensity, occurring during 100 Sec are star whose gigantic magnetic field dissipates the then occurring at the source. The source is thus star's rotational energy by accelerating particles pulsating in X-rays.If we examine these data in to high energy with consequent emission of X-rays greater detail we find that we can fit them with a via the synchrotron process. sine wave function, including the first and second harmonic. The period is of 4.832 ..zz0.004 sec. An These observations are so new that they have important question is the stability of the period.If outrun theory.It is clear, however, that X-rays these X-ray pulsations are due to rapid rotation of a give us a powerful new tool with which to study the stellar object, we would expect them to be maintained physical processes taking place at the end point of fcir a long time. When we examine this question in stellar evolution. detail (Fig. 13), ice find that relatively large changes of the period occur in short times of the order of1 hour. From the rapid change in X-ray emission,we Extragalactic Sources are driven to postulate small regions from which X- ray emission occurs, of the size of earth, or smaller. Leal king now the confines of our own galaxy and the local group, I would like to focus Ona recent measurement of X-ray emission from the Coma Since the source is quite close to the galactic Cluster ofgalaxies (Fig. 15). The Coma Cluster equator, we believe it is quite distant. At 1 kpc its at a distance of 90 Alpe, that is some 10 000 times intrinsic luminosity is 1036 erg/sec. Thus,we have more remote from us than the center of our own an object one-hundredth the size of the sun, pre- galaxy, contains some 800 galaxies emittinga 100- sumably with the same mass, and thus with incredibly .by 100-arc min area of the sky. We findan X-ray high density, emitting some 103 times moreenergy. source centered very closely to the kinematically determined center of the cluster. If this is nota What type of star are we confronted with? chance coincidence, which we think we can exclude, The small radius requires that it be a collapsed the luminosity of the source is 3 xleerg/sec, star near the endpoint of stellar evolution. Of the some 10c times the luminosity of our own galaxy. three states, white dwarf, neutron stars, and black We find that the region of X-ray emission is ex- hole, in which a star is conceived to end, perhaps tended by about 45 arc min and that, -contrary to what has occurred for other extragalactic sources, the white dwarf is more conventional.It turns out no galaxy with very peculiar optical or radio char- that a recent theoretical model, basedon a pulsating white dwarf, where a dense atmosphere is heated by _acteristics coincides with the source location. shock waves produced by nuclear burning of the shell Or accretion, seems to satisfy all observationatdafa. We are then led to consider several possible The model mikes detailed predictions about the hypotheses: - energy spectrum of the source as a function of phase 1 of the pulse (Fig. 14). Detailed comparismisare 1. A single galaxy which for some reason presently being done to establish the validity of the (local obscuration) is not conspicuous optically. 291 2. A large number of individual galaxies in mission will see the first use of a large focusing the cluster, too faint to be resolved. This would X-ray telescope from a pointed plaVorm (Fig. 16). require galactic luminosity of 1041 - 1042 erg/see This will make it possible to analyze the angular which would be in itself peculiar. structure and position of sources with resolution comparable to one obtained in visible light.Figures 3.Last, the source is due to emission via 17 and 18 show the type of improvement one can thermal bremsstrahlung from a hot intergalactic expect.. From-this observatory, it will also be gas in the cluster. The data can be fit by a tem- possible to analyze in detail the presence of emis- perature of 70 x 10"K with particle velocity of sion lines superimposed on the continuum spectra, 1000 km see1 in agreement with the velocity of the to study in great detail the time variations and the individual galaxies in the cluster. polarization of the sources, and to extend the obser- vations to the farthest objects in our universe. It The mass of the gas would be about 3 x 1013 M, will be possible to study in detail the nature of the which is very largeabout 100 galaxies similar X-ray background and perhaps to detect the pres- to our own, but much too small by a factor of 100 to ence of a hot intergalactic gas, thus contributing prevent indefinite expansion of the galaxies in the to the choice of cosmological models. cluster.In fact; the most significant-aspect of this observation was recently pointed out; the While it may yet be too early to completely amazing fact being not that the emission from the define the role of X-ray stars and other X-ray cluster is too large, but that it is-too little. _If - emitting objects in stellar and galactic evolution, large amounts of intergalactic gas existed,-they the wide range- of observable phenomena mentioned would have fallen into the cluster and-would have above and the large energies involved show that been heated to very high temperatures.If one as- the study of X -ray emission is essential to an sumes that the mass required to close the universe understanding of the physical processes occurring is in this form, we should have observed an emission in many of the objects of greatest astrophysical of a factor of about 10 times greater from this interest. In addition, the mere notion that high- effect alone. energy photons could be detected from various eNtrYsTarar sources has compelled a rethinking of astrophysical theories. Conclusion After a fewyears/of X-ray observations,we have glImpsc.:.. uifferent and important aspect of would like to conclude my remarks by men- the universe surrounding us. From the vantage tioning the new easervational tools that are planned point of this new perspective we have a better in X-ray astronomy for the coming decade.- With understanding of the role and importance of high- Uhuru, we have achieved angular resolutions of energy phenomena in astrophysics. We believe that about 0.25 deg, positional accuracies of a few are this'new awareness will not be lost in the future. minutes, spectral resolution of 10 to 20 percent. X-ray observations have been an unexpected gift In the High Energy-Astronomy Observatory Program to astronomy from space exploration. So long as of NASA, much larger instruments will be made space endeavors continue, X-ray astronomy will available. The first and second missions, due in, maintain its rapid rate of progress and take its 1975, will perform higher sensitivity surveys-of- place beside visible and radio techniques as one the type of instrumentation that Uhuru has pioneered of the powerful tools with which to explore the with similar, though much improved. The third universe. h.- 292 Figure 1. Energy ranges, outside the earth'satmosphere, f-- now observable through balloon. rocket, and satellitedevelopment. PHOTON ENERGY (eV) 02 103 4 I0 yi 5 ._ /v, /i GALACTIC NTER 010 ;, / i /I , /i '/ ; CRABNE Hp , , 0(K) _____...... 010 , .0 17/ H.(K '1 H.(,.. r , I0 10" I 2 lo .io I 10 . 10 WAVELENGTH (A) Figure 2. Attenuation of radiation in interstellarspace. 293 Figure 3. Uhuru. SUN STAR SENSORS SENSORS COLLIMATO COLLIMATOR 1/2XYFYIHRM( 545' FWHM ELECTRONICS PACKAGE PROPORTIONAL SOLAR COUNTER BANKS POWER CELLS AV TELEMETRY ,SPIN -AXIS &SPIN CONTROL Figure 4. Uhuru's fields- of view and scanning mode. I. Figure 5. Scanning mode. S2 AAA. X2 .11f - S1 It IV"tAijjWtWAxktttmiwtvv&rv-vwrus-- ,L____+_____J 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00 120.00 TIME IN SECONDS Figure 6. Raw data day 381. GRATING- FILTER WHEEL VIOIC ON DOUBLE REFLECTING GRAZING INCIDENCE IMAGE INTENSIFIER TELESCOPE Figure 7. New method for solarX-ray studies. 295 HYPERBOLOID INCIDENT PARAXIAL RADIATION PARABOLOID Figure 8. Two reflections from a paraboloid and hyperboloid of resolution. I Figure 9. Photograph of the sun obtained with a grazingincidence telescope. Figure 10. X-ray sky from Uhuru March 29 1971. 296 150 CEN X-3 -JANUARY 11 AND 12, 1971 ++ ++ ff. 4 + + ++t_+ + + + 4. + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + ++ + ++ + a.550 )-cn ++ I I 1 55.000 70,000 0 15,000 30,000 SECONDS UT Figure 11. Plot of observed intensity of theCen X-3 in the 2- to 8-keVenergy range during a day. Ito APRIL 12, 1971 100 90 r DETECTOR RESPONSE = 'W 80 ,e. 70 co 60 RAW DATA M U 4050 SINE WAVE FIT 1-- ( 1ST 8 2ND HARMONIC) 30 820 10 BACKGROUND LEVEL= B 7-6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 TIME (SEC) Figure 12. Detail of Cen X-3 emissions; 8.0 CEN- X-3 JANUARY 11 AND 12, 1971 6.0 %4 83700 5.0 U) 0 4.0 r= 4.838910003 W 3.0 1hr I 2.0 ++ r .48370 1.0 Tri:N+4.41:-.""*++±.},+- -+A 4 .1=4 0 r:4.836;t ,0001 + -1.0 .77177.000 86306.000 19538.000 36337.000 SEr',NDS U.T. Figure 13. Rapid change in X-rayemission. 297 0 I- 1 10 0 2 3 4 5/6 t (sec) Figure 14. X-rayAuminosity, and temperature for a pulsating white dwarf. 2ee 4 45' 30' 15' 28°0 45' 30' 01 13h 00m 59 58 57 56 55 12h 54m 55 Figure 15. X-ray source in Coma Cluster, I. r Figure 16. Large focusingX-ray telescope to be used in NASA's High Energy Astronomy Observatory program's third mission. 299 Figure 17. Improvements seen from use of the telescope shown in Figure 16. 04- V Crab Netaila Distance '"00 pc -A +7 v m x(I - lOkeV)3 x I 0-8ergs/cm2-sec I (100mc)1700 1.u. Angular Size3 arc-minutes NP0532 (PULSAR) m +17 v mx(I - 10keV)10-9ergacm2-sec AA.1.1 Large Mageltanic Cloud Distance 55,000 pc Crab-Like Object m +14.5 mx = 3 x10 ergs/cm ` -sec (100 :tic) » 1.7 f.u. u Art ular Size = 6 arc-seconds NP0532-like object 4 m v +24.5 Mx = 10-1 2 ergs/cm2-sec M-3I Distance 500, 000 pc Crab-Like-Object +20.5 mag -13 z mx 3,, 10 ergs/cm-sec v(100 m) = 0.017 I. u. NP0532-like object m +30.5 Y -14 z mx 10 ergs/cm-sec In- Figure 18. Improvements seen from use of the telescopeshown In Figure 16. 301Jo / BENEFITS OF SPACE RESEARCHTO THE NATURAL SCIENCES By Dr. John A. O'Keefe Assistant Chief for Planetary Studies Laboratory for Space Physics NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center I want to begin with the problems that have,to there were basalts everywhere. But the do with the practical applications of the most strik- stutties of ing thing is that he never seems to findany large the moon. "Are we reallyon the planet best suited for the human species?" If amounts of magnesium. The inside of themoon you ask this question has got to be magnesium, notpure Magnesium, but seriously, the answer-that suggests itself is that 111g0 and magnesium silicate, MgzSiO4or MgSiO3. perhaps we are not. As you know, the bodyplan The point is that it has to be made largely of that we all share here is that of a rather MgO., small mon- We have been told that the maria,the great black key, sort of bent forward. In this creaturemost of spots on the moon, are places where meteorites the soft parts were slung from the backbone where came down and eviscerated the moon, got the guts it would be natural, like a suspension bridge. In out, and spread them on the outside.So we should putting the thing in the erect posture andincreasing have areas on the moon that the mass a great deal, these parts sort of are covered with MgO, slope large amounts of it.But we. do not find it; therefore, down, like a bunch of sacks hung froma vertical something is radically wrong. pole. It does not work very well. It works,I assure you, progressively worse as you grow older. This As you know, right now the almighty dollar is a source of a lot of our bodily difficulties is flat having the worst time since the days of George feet, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, and several Washington, when they papered the walls withthem. other things. What I suggest is thata lot of this The value of the dollar, in terms of gold, trouble comes from the fact that we is drop- are on a planet ping. This is because of the fact thatwe are having on which the force of gravity is stronger than that an excess of imports over exports; we which would be best suited for creatures are not mak- built the ing money as a country; the nationas a whole has a way we are. Ultimately, the agony of childbirth net outflow of gold, and that is making trouble for stems also from this 13.4. We are trapped in this us. It is this trouble, devices that have been devel- situation by the rather L-rge force of gravity of the oped in the Lunar Program planet that we live on. So I want to electronic control de- suggest that vices or computers, both of whichwere an impor- eventually we may find #t to our advantage to shift tant part of the satellite programwhich are the to a planet where Ow force of gravity is less,and kinds of things that are now earningus dollars. where we do not have this painful problem. Those are among the important exports whichare not being balanced by corresponding imports.In-- In our office we have been doingsome work on other words, the U.S. computer industry the surface of the moon, and Adler has is- earn- been doing ing dollars for the U.S. and is helpingus in this some work on it. One of his ideas concernedan dollar crisis. All the other space-related apparatus of about the size of a flat iron which hardware would is also earning us money because we havea net of direct alpha particles down at the lunarsurface. impori. balance on it.In the hardest, coldest, blood- Some X-rays would come Lock, and he would analyze iest sort of sense, the dollar is being heldup by the them to find out of what the lunar surfacewas com- space industry. You cannot get much more practical posed. He never could get approval for that,but, than that with the aid of Dr. Gi;tcconi, he discoveredthat the sun sends energetic X-rays down which generate A second field of effort which we have beenin- other X-rays, which are characteristicof the lunar volved in is the study of impact metamorphism. surface. In this way ho was able to analyze the I will tell this story because I got mixedup in it, not whole thing by using thesun Instead of his apparatus. very much, but I was involved in it. About 15 years A great deal of work has been done by thismethod ago, I went to dinner with Shoemaker out at Ames. We in analyzing the lunar surface. He has thoughtthat were talking about tektites, of course. Shoemaker the back side of the moon is mostlyanorthosite, handed me a little chunk of rock, rather roundish, something like the Adirondacks. The front sideof and he said, ',"Mtektitescome from the moon, you the moon is confirmed, but everybody thought that should see things like that, because that iswhat we 303 found in a meteorite crater and it looks like what that is exactly what had happened. What has come would be thrown out." ,So I took the thing bank. out of that beyond this, is the following: There has Being an astronomer, I handed it to Paul Lowman, been a tremendous effort in the study of impact for- geologist, and said, "Shoemaker says if we ever get mations of all kinds". We have disaVered about GO anything from the moon it will look like this, be- impact craters across the world and mineralogically cause this was thrown out of a meteor crater." identified them as being of this kind. In addition, Lowman sliced it and looked at the thing under a De Carli and Jamison in the U.S. said that there microscope, the way they do. Then he sent the are diamonds in the meteor craters, in the irons. thing over to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), And Nininger had stated that those diamonds were because there was something that he did not under- probably because of.shock. His reasoning was, stand. The U.S.-Geological Survey analyzed it by "If coesite is made from quartz by shock, maybe X-ray and they found coesite in it. A little later diamonds can be made from graphite by shock." a fellow from the USGS came over to see me, and They got together, and according to De Carli' s he said, "Do you know what coesite is?" "No," I story as he told me, he took a barrel of water and said. lie said, "Well, let me explain it.It is a about as much graphite as it takes to make a lead high-pressure polymorph, a high-pressure form of pencil, and 1 lb of gun powder and made diamonds quartz, produced, evidently, by the impact." So out of it. These diamonds were very tiny, so tiny I went around to see one of the fellows in my office that they could not even be used as an abrasive. named McDonald, Gordon MODonald, and asked, Recently, we have discovered how to sinter them so "Gordon, do you know what coesite is?" He an- they can now be used as an abrasive. By this swered, "Yes-,--I do." It turned out that he had been method, diamonds were produced in pound quantity. looking for coesite in the rocks of the earth for about It is a new industrial, process which will eventually 7 years and had never found it.This is an effort be of great importance. My cousin' s wife came directly supported by the space effort. We look at out to visit me from Stanford Research Institute a this thing, because we were trying to study the moon. while ago, trying to figure out how she could sell But that is not the end of the story. these diamonds for any reasonable purpose. They are so fine that at the time the only thing they could The first result of the coesite discovery was think of was to paint them on the outside of automo- that we now had a tool by which we could recognize biles so that they would not scratch. impact craters. Coesite is produced by impact. It is a high-pressure form that takes 16 kilobars. You cannot get that kind of pressure on the earth, except at great depths. The astounding thing was that once Another thing that came out of it wa- that the mineral had been recognized, they went out to Harold Urey had a theory which is called "Diamondi, the meteor crater and found this unknown mineral Meteorites, and The Origin of the Solar System." in carload lots around there. In places it was about It is published in the Astrophysical Journal, 1950 7 percent of the rock. Imagine, an unknown mineral or thereabouts. The basic idea of this theory was in a well-studied site, available in carload lots! that there are diamonds in the meteorites. This They discovered another mineral, stishorite, in the means that the meteorites had to be under great same place, also formed by high pressure, but this pressure when they were formed. The only way to was only available in about 1 percent of the rock. put them under great pressure was to put them in Now with these two minerals, they went to all kinds a center of a body, a large planet. The planet had of places. Shoemaker went to a church in NOrdlingen, to be as big as the moon, and therefore, this theory Germany, on the way to an international congress. was that the whole solar system was composed of The walls of the edifice looked like meteor crater objects which once had been moon size and had been material, so he got a piece from a quarry nearby, broken down to form the solar system and then re- sent it back to the USGS; it showed coesite in it. built to make the planets. Well, our idea collapsed Shoemaker walked into the International Geological because now that we had the coesite, it was clear Congress and said that this crater which is some that shock can make these high pressure polymorphs, 25 km across, with a whole city sitting inside of it like diamonds. There were no grounds to assume is the result of a meteorite impact on the surface of any longer that the meteorites had ever been inside the earth. Professor Wagner of ftibingen said, "I very big objects. There was a battle about this issue have gone over the Rieskessel for 55 years and nobody that lasted about 4 to 5 years. The conclusion was can pick up a single rock on a Sunday afternoon and just as I have stated, there is no reason to assume tell me what the Rieskessel is." But he was wrong; that the solar system was formed this way. 304 There is another implication. We went out to mantle of the earth.I have done some mathematical- look at Sudbury. Bob Dietz had been there, and had developments which show that you can make this found some queer looking things around Sudbury theory stand up and walk. Thus, through these stud- called shadowcones. The shadowcones are supposed ies of the moon, we are working backward toward to he from meteorite impact. So Dietz had suggested the origin of the solar system.I believe this proc- back in 1950 that the Sudbury feature was produced -ess-of-fission, the formation of the moon from The by a meteorite impact. Bevan French went out earth, is fundamental to the way in which the solar there in my place because he did not believe what system itself was formed. Perhaps we can partici- Dietz had said, but he came back a believer; he pate in this enormous intellectual adventure that found, in the Sudbury material, not coesite, but some Dr. Giacconi was talking about, in which we study of the other marks of impact metamorphism. I should the begumings,pf_things, both through.X-ray astron- say that in the 4 or 5 years between the discovery omy and also through the study of the rocks which of coesite and the time when French went to look at lie about us everywhere.If we really look back at Sudbury, there had been a tremendous development the history of cosmology, we see that a key point in of this scientific impact metamorphism not only it, one that astronomers never acknowledge, was in with coesite, but also with quartz, and especially 1948 or 1949 when Patterson and Urey showed that with Tubingen, in Germany a development in the earth must be 4.5 billion years old: The astron- which they saw planar features in quartz, which are omers went back and had a quick look at their figures marks of impact metamorphism. Sa French came and recalculated the distance scale based upon the back and he identified the Sudbury structure as an Cepheid variables. Everything got switched around impact structure. He has now convinced the other and suddenly the universe became a good deal older students of Sudbury (and there are some people who than 4.5 billion years. That was one of the hard study Sudbury with a good deal of enthusiasm) that facts the hinge on which the whole thing turns. it is impact. The reason why people study Sudbury Geology can give you hard facts which are mighty with such enthusiasm is that 75 percent of the useful in the welter of beautiful new results of the free world's nickel comes from Sudbury.It is one type that Giacconi was talking about. You do need of the world's greatest mining sites. Sudbury is a few things that you can absolutely bet on. 25 percent of the mineral wealth of Canada, and the backbone of the International Nickel Company. Bil- lions of dollars have already been taken out of it. So Recently, the meteorite people have shown you cannot really claim that information on how such that at the time when the meteorites were formed, structures are formed is not of considerable prac- there had just been a supernova or something like tical importance! that something had produced enormous amounts of fresh nuclear materials, because there was radio- We have already discussed the implications of active iodine-I29 and radioactive plutonium-124 in. this new science which began I point out again the meteorites when they were formed. Which means as a study directed tovard the moon. The whole that 4.5 billion years ago, within a few hundred interesting field of impact metamorphism came out million years before thatsay 4.7 billion years of the lunar study.Until very recently, we hive not ago, but not earlier than 4.8 billion years ago had actual lunar samples to deal with. We had been there was some kind of a nuclear event producing thinking about what they would be we have actually radioactive material in the immediate vicinity of had to think about what the samples would look like, the solar system, a part of which reached the earth. to plan for them. Ir is out of this planning that this Thus, when you get the geological background, the wonderful new work has come. rock background, you get a lock of a different kind; r- a lock that will not be fitted by just any key but only How does research of this type tie in with cos- by the right key. So there are two kinds of things mology? In the moon there were once tiny blips of that are needed: We need these diffuse observations, nickel iron, which have since disappeared. In the and we also need the very hard results that come out earth, we know where they went; they went to its of hard-rock studies, because they finally define core. But the problem of problems with respect to the thing. the moon is, where is the moon' s nickel? Nickel is one of the siderophiles; you would never purchase a nickel ring. Gold and platinum are also gone. In conclusion, these are some of the things that Where did they go, where did the siderophile ele- we hope to get out of the space program. We hope ments of the moor go? The most logical and ob- to get new techniques and new devices which will vious answer is that they went down to the core of partly support our dollar and partly tell us things the earth, and the moon is formed from the outer about the moon. We hope to see deeper into the 305 origin of the moon, and with it, the origin of the of the solar system and back toward these fasci- solar system. Eventually, we hope to be able to nating cosmological things that Dr. Giacconi has look back to this event which is at the beginning been talking about. Transcribed from tape 306 THE OUTER PLANETS- FLY-BY PROSPECTS By Dr. W. D. De Marcus Processor, Physics and Astronomy University of Kentucky My topic concerns the question, what might be together have only 0.4 percent, and this includesthe some of the benefits from the fly-bys of the outer moon, even though the extrasolar matter have only planets. Now, if you are going to study the solar 0.0027 percent of the matter that is not in thesun system, one thing that you might talk about is its itself. So in the same kind of sense, I will notargue overall chemical composition. that you cannot find out very fascinating thingsabout the moon and all that, but it iseasy to lose sight of With that in mind, suppose we took all the known the fact what a small sample of the solarsystem the mass in the solar system, threw it into a gigantic moon represents. On a basis of abundance, this is blender, ran that blender for a while, and then important. extracted 1 kg.In that kilogram, if it had been well blended, 998.6554 g would have been solar matter, When we go out and launch our fly =bys by the taking up almost the whole kilogram. I have to use planets, the question, of course, is what the bene- that many figures, although they are not accurate, fits will be. One benefit is obvious and I am just in order to illustrate some of the things thatwe are going to mention it briefly. For a. long time,we have interested in later on.If you could identify it, you suspected that we knew the composition of Jupiter. could then pull out 1.336 g of giant planet matter, In fact, theoretical predictionswere made long ago which would include all of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, which said Jupiter was about 80 percent hydrogen; and Neptune. If you could separately identify ityou that was at the time when the spectroscopic evidence could pull out only slightly less than 5mg for all the indicated that first quantitative estimatewas only terrestrial planets together, not just the earth alone. 1 percent oft at. But the theory seemed clew. The moon, of course, would be almost nonexisting, Other theories tried to shake the model and always having such a tiny part in it.If you followed my ended up with that and just argued that the atmosphere figures I accounted for all but 2.72 mg of the origi- of Jupiter was fooling us. It was composed different- nal kilogram -- and that would be Pluto (although that ly but anybody that really looked at the theoretical one is still uncertain) , all the satellites, the problems carefully always came up with 80 percent asteroids, all meteoroid matter, dust,- comets, and hydrogen by mass for Jupiter. Thatseems to be so forth. So, if you really want to study the com- what the spectroscopic people have now homed inon position of the solar system in any real sense, and so now theory and experiment agree. I donot obviously you must study the sun. But it is also anticipate any change in this in the case of Jupiter, reasonable to be interested in that part of the solar and probably little change in the case of Saturn which system which is not the sun, but the next level of has less, although there are worries about Saturn. division.In doing that, let us go through our blend- - ing process again, take everything we know about Now, in regard as to what else is there; a great that is not in the sun, blend it together, and then deal will be learned, but we already know the big- extract from that. -- If we pull out 1 kg o_ f blended bulk of it is hydrogen and the rest of it probablyis a_ extrasolar matter, the earth would be 2.232g. large amount of helium. The amounts ofmore com- All the extraterrestrial planets together without mon elements that we know about, such as carbon the satellites would be 4 gout ofour kilogram. and nitrogen that are there, are small. But when Jupiter, without his satellites, would be 710g, you go out to explore these planets, when you go into which is the biggest chunk of the kilogram. We have any new territory, you will start looking at this Saturn with 213 g of the kilogram. Uranus and subject closer. What always happens is thatyou are Neptune, all lumped together, add another 71g. going to have surprises. In the following, I would We add the satellites, Pluto, asteroids, and all like to anticipate some of the surprises that will that and we get another couple of grams. In other occur from evidence that we already have. There is words, Jupiter and Saturn together have 92.3per- evidence that-there are changes still taking placeon cent of the extrasolar matter. The giants together, Jupiter and Saturn.I do not mean that these are even without their satellites, have 99.4percent. going to be major and I do not necessarilymean that For example, all of the terrestrial planets lumped these are fundamental changes, but Jupiter is 307 certainly a dynrii source.It is some kind of heat --Until Sputnik went up and the-spac-e-progfam got engine. The evidence for that, to my mind, is now started here,.nobody looked at them anymore. But indisputable.It reflects sunlight with a semicyclic the measurements of the fifth satellite were dis- periodicity that, at least in a straight-back direc- 'covered by Barnard. He watched it. for several . tion, has an amplitude.of half a magnitude, which years and his observation, as all of his work, was is .about 36 percent or so in amplitude of 'its ...ital., extremely accurate and well founded. Basically, he in addition to that, strange things have been seen. quit around 1918 because of circumstances beyond Sampson, when he did some monuinental work on his control. Since then some observations have been the Galilean satellites, would have at that time taken up in the late-forties and some more recently gotten by far the most accurate value for the in the sixties, but the upshot is that, now that more astronomical constant-kuntilxaciarxame in) except 'data are in, something seems to have-happened to he was hampered by one thing. After he had done the fifth satellite sometime between 1929 and 1950. all the theories and corrected them empirically and It is about 3 deg in longitude off to where it should . predicted eclipse times, the satellites never eclipsed have been and there is no possibility for error here. exactly when they should have. Sometimes they Were That may not seem like a big angle- over such a long behind, sometimes aheadindicating that the time but it is quite obvious if you look at the observa- surface of Jupiter they were cutting into was fluc- tions as they go and the plot curves. Whether there tuating by something like *200 miles, and this led was such a discontinuity or not, I do not know.It is to an ambiguity in the-eclipse times which stopped interesting, though, that whatever happened to the his accuracy so that he did not have the most fifth satellite also happened within the same general accurate value of the astronomical constant when he time frame that Eropkin saw this obscuring matter, had to assign a probable error for that. and that one explanation of the satellite's advance in longitude would have been some resisting dust. Another thing has happened since then a very great shock. --,When:a_AtIm nara -e ja isin was There are a lot of other arguments for the fact observingthe satellite eclipses photoelectrically, that Jupiter is dynamic. I do not want to over- he ran into a very strange phenomenon. The satel- emphasize this, though, because in a way I think lites would act like they were going into eclipse at Jupiter is a much safer object for study right now distances of several tens of thousands kilometers than Saturn. As for Saturn, I am. ashamed-to- confess-- above the surface. There would be a lowering in that for a long time I had ignored some facts that their light curve, then it would go back up to almost were right in front of my nose. Saturn has what is full brilliance before they would go into true eclipse. called an equatorial current as does virtuplfy every- This Was repeated from satellite to satellite. More- thing that rotates, and it has an atmosphere.I will over, different satellites entering, because of return to thit: in a minute. But Saturn's current is perspective effects, at different places and latitudes much more marked than others. Saturn's equatorial on the planet showed the different height in a very current rotates at least something like 28 min faster well defined pattern as a much more elliptical than the currents at the 38 deg latitude.That is a structure than Jupiter itself has. But the place big effect.Its total rotation period is about 10 hours; from where this light pulse came, was itself if you take a half hou1 off that, you get a major ellipsoidal in structureat least, we saw one equatorial acceleration. dimension of it so something was obscuring the light from the satellites quite high above Jupiter's A long time ago, some spectroscopic work was surface. This is a great deal higher up than the done on it.In the same way that one measured the stuff seen by Sampson.I mention the Sampson work fact that Saturn's rings were not measuring rigidly, only because it has been disputed if Sampsonx&lly the man just placed a spectroscope slit on the equator saw that, by people who have looked one time and of Saturn and then placed it at various latitudes. did not find it. From the tilt of the spectral lines we can get the rotational period of that particular latitude. His Another thing that sort of confirms this is that conclusion concerned the poles, although he did not between 1920 and 1950 something happened to look at them. Considering the way we have to lay Jupiter's fifth satellite. One of the great crosses our slit, we would not get any light at the poles. planetary physics has to bear is that fashions change; He got, in fact, a 60 deg latitude but that is higher around 1920, people had been taking spectra and than any observation has ever been. His conclusion photographs of planets-and watching them assiduously was that the poles might be rotating as much as 1 hr and then suddenly they quit and turned to other things. less than the equator.If that is so, most of the / X 308 I theoretical work that has been done on Jupiter and these other belts that rotate with somewhatdifferent Saturn will have to be looked at again very care- periods but they differ very, very slightly among fully, because that has been based on the assumption themselves never by as much as half a minute. that the body was at least partially and to some fair BaSically, a crude picture of Jupiter'srotation is degree of accuracy in hydrostatic equilibrium.But that the equatorial belt of about t10 deg rotates k irostatic equilibrium requites rigid body rotation. 5 min faster than everything else. The behavior You can put up-with some departure from that be- of the other belts is also confirmed by the periodicity cause you know on general grounds that atmospheres of the radio emanations from them. Ifwe believe and oceans with energy budgets either from within that the radio period is in some sense the true period or without cannot rotate in hydrostatic equilibrium. for Jupiter, its equatorial current is indeeda fast But 1 hour out of 10 hours is too much to swallow. current, ramling.faster and real. Fhen weeenie to There are many speculations. One explanation is that Saturn, we do not know. Saturn is at the present in the process of collapse, at about 10 percent in radius.It is still doing it and Recently there has been introduced in the field therefore is speeding faster inside than outside. of hydrodynamics a new term that is somewhat The speedup, to my mind, would feed primarilyinto dangerous and somewhat analogous to old electrical the equator and then diffuse to the poles from that engineering terms where they used the concept of source. This would explain that pattern. On the negative resistance in talking about certain kinds of other hand, though, it may be that for some reason oscillators. Negative resistance isin principle, that we do not know, the true period of rotation is manifest in the laser; in fact, the laser does have more like what the poles would be if this work is negative resistance but that is not what they are right. I understand that McDonald in Texas is going talking about here.The hydrodynamicists finally to redo this work much more accurately 'to see if realized that you can have negative viscosities ina this is so.The spot work generally tends to confirm real and literal sense, specifically when you have it, but the spots do not go to high latitudes, andso turbulent motions.I will not go into the mathematics we do not know what is going on. here but we have a system called Reynolds stresses which is really not related to molecular viscosity at I would now like to talk a little bit on one quite all except on a much more fundamental level.In- definite topic which is common to the earth, thesun, the past we have always used those stresses when and the giant planets.It is the fact that all the we talked about a turbulent viscosity and a turbulent planets that we know about, the Earth, the Sun itself, diffusion coefficient. These properties are always and Jupiter and Saturn, have these phenomena called many, many powers of 10 higher than the molecular equatorial accelerations.In the case of the earth, properties when we talk about turbulent viscosity. this has been debated in the past and it has, in fact, But if we analyze it in detail, because of the correla- been said that it is the other Way. I believe that tions and exchange of these packets, in normal the latest word on that is that the earth really has, situations the Reynolds stresses do act like an an equatorial acceleration. This is a bad term, but ordinary viscosity and they tend to equalize themean if we average the wind velocities on the earth's flow motions. There is no intrinsic reason thatyou equator over every year equitably and then average an think of offhand as to why these stresses could them over the years, the average wind speed at the not, in fact, cause two streams of water or fluids earth's equator is rotating in the same sense as the that are going in opposite directions, with respect earth but faster. At first the meteorologists had a to each other, to actually accelerate their disparate negative equatorial acceleration. They said, the velocities. Now you may say, "That is not normal, average wind at the earth's equator was actually that does not make sense." Some of.the measure- slower than the earth was turning and that it was ments that were made on the sun early in the game blowing the wrong way. But they averaged all their and detailed analysis showed, in fact, that the eddies data without regard to seasons, and they had a whole seemed to be doing this.I do not really know lot more summer data than winter data. However, whether that has stood '.he test of time or not and I it requires both of them to make the averagecome do not really care because such a phenomenon is out right. The sun has an equatorial acceleration possible. Even if the sun is not doing it, it does not of some sort, We know that its equator, at least, mean that it is going on on the major planets, rotates faster than the poles, and it is very smooth although it would be nice to think that all the explana- and very well defined. As for Jupiter, we have this tions were the same. But we cannot do that because equatorial current there which rotates about 5 min Jupiter and Saturn have too different a structureeven faster than the rest of the planet. Jupiter has -all though they both have equatorial currents. 309 Often in the past and in the present it has been called Hamiltonian form that with appropriate treat- noticed that two-dimensional turbulence often leads ment could be defined as a, very convergent to surprises.In turbulence, as a rule and tendency, Hamiltonian. He treated this system of a finite as everybody knows, if you soddenly cut off whatever number of two-dimensional vortices confined to a it is that is causing it to be turbulent the energy finite area by the methods of statistical mechanics supplythe tendency is given by the old paraphrase and concluded that, if the energy per vortex was of De Morgan, "Big whirls have little whirls which below a certain amount, the behavior of these strictly feed on their velocity, and little whirls have lesser two-dimensional systems was normal in that the whirls and so on to viscosity." I think I am quoting tendency was for big whirls to break up. This was that right.But, in two dimensions, this may or with no viscosity. In the real treatment of turbulence, 'may not be true. Two-dimensional turbulence may in the region where it occurs, the actual viscosity be normal in the sense that what is going on inside plays no role.But then he went on and he said that when it is in steaskzstate, if you look at the inner if you put so much energy into this system, into the workings, or what would happen if you suddenly cut -turbulent motion, thithat the energy per vortex off all energy sources and watched it decay, it might exceeded a certain amount, big whirls coalesce. just be normal in that sense that,bigger whirls are feeding lesser whirls which feed lesser whirls and I will not go into any further details. All I am finally, viscosity dissipates them on the one end. saying is, you may not like these negative viscosities There is a lesser scale of turbulence possible in because they go against the grain, but at 1,r in one two dimensions, also in three, where after cutting case, we have a v., .7 - sreatment off the disturbance everything would die just as it is by - . oobel prize-ior statistical and pretty much independently of everything else- -.names and who says that this is the second law That would be low Reynolds number turh.o_ace, and of thermodynamics; some two-dimensional situations in that case you would have, after a while, big will dictate this if the energetics of the system are vortices left, at least big circulations, which would high enough.I would like to tell ybu a little bit more survive, but they would have been there already and about these negative viscosities because they would they would not have grown. explain these equatorial accelerations, but they would not tell you why Jupiter is belted, why its The other case whch I would like to come to is velocity of rotation is pretty much constant in belts that; in two-dimensional turbulence you can have and then, suddenly, has small discontinuities, then things going on inside where, after cutting off the finally gets down to the equator and breaks loose, energy supply, the reverse would occur, namely, and why Saturn whicig has a fairly sharply defined big whirls would tend to coalesce to form yet bigger equatorial current, but not perfectly sohas its whirls which would tend to coalesce to form yet rotational period change fairly smoothly above that bigger whirls. This wouldbe the natural thing to current, and whether-- or not it flattens out around do. Now, what is natural? Natural means, when 40-some degrees and stays constant being already you really analyze it, that things are in accord with 0.5 hour faster than the equator, or whether it goes the second law of thermodynamics. And this, as a on to the 1.hour difference that would come from fluid dynamicist would also say, is the case for Moore's data. negative viscosity this coalescence of whirls being exactly the opposite of what happens in normal The question of Jupiter's Red Spot has been one turbulence. The fact that in two dimensions you can of the most tantalizing puzzles in the history of have this phenomenon occur where big whirls grow astronomy. In speaking of surprises, this speech the tendency is to grow is in natural accord with was already prepared before I received recent thermodynamics. In a paper in 1949, a man wrote communications on a possible solution of the mystery, very profoundly on statistical hydrodynamics. This but one thing I would say is that solving the mystery paper is not nearly as well known as it should be; of the Red Spot is as easy as Mark Twain said it was in fact, it is hardly known at all even though its easy to quit smoking, namely, that he did it every author subsequently won` the Nobel prize only 2 years day.People have solved the Red Spot mystery over ago not for this work but for his work in the and over and the present speaker is not innocent of general field of statistical mechanics. The author that because the present rash of so-called "Cartesian was Professor Onsager of Yale. He discovered that Diver Red Spots" rests half on my shoulders and half a system of two-dimensional vortices if you cut on Rupert Wildt's because we were the first of the off viscosity, which is legitimate bad hquattons "Cartesian Divers." But that theory was shot down motions which could be technically written in what is recently by one man With one word and all "Cartesian 310 Divers" with it.However, it is easy to get theories know that hurricanes are born in the Caribbean and on the Red Spot but it is not so easy to prove them. die there. On the other hand, though, there are I do not really believe that when we get to Jupiter hurricanes that start up there and act like they arc that we are going to be surprised. A lot of things going to die there and the U.S. Weather Bureau says, that go on there concern the field-of-hydrodynamics "Relax." Then all of a sudden, they rev up again and of rotating fluids, and they are going to bear fruit come in and smash the coast. Well, all of this is here on earth. contained in some of the most recent theories I know of. One of the very recent theories I am familiar I do not believe the Red Spot is going to be a with says that hurricanes are locally stable but .. surprise.I think that, because it is so outrageous, globally unstable.Global is a mathematical term we have been trying to find outrageously complicated borrowed from topology and does not have any direct explanations or bizarre phenomena.. The kind of reference to the globe of the earth, although the way thing that makes the Red Spot has probably been going it got into the usage, I guess, was related to the total on on earth under our noses all the time. The Red earth's surface. An object that is locally stable but Spot could be something like a hurricane. Ordinary globally unstable will do exactly what I have said, in hurricanes are driven by water vapor condensing, principle.It can live indefinitely because it is which is their heat source; however, that is not going always stable locally_but the elements for its destruc- to drive Jupiter's Red Spot. But whether it is tion are always working somewhere in the total cyclonic or countercyclonic does not matter as long dynamical structure with which it is involved. They as we have some condensing mechanism. Thus, I are like glass, for example. Glass is unstable but think that once we understand hurricanes thoroughly, locally stable, and it-lives for a long time. Things we will understand the Red Spot. that are locally stable but globally unstable can virtually live forever. There is good evidence, to You will say, "What about the fact that hurricanes me, that hurricanes would live, occasionally, 'die?" Well, do you know that hurricanes die? Sup.. virtually forever if they did not get over land where_ pose, for example, when a hurricane is born out in their energy supply runs out or if they did not get the Caribbean, we could use some imaginary device over Arctic 'Waters. One of them even crossed that would keep it there without interfering with its Mexico once, I believe; it c 1.1 the land barrier, internal workings that we had some kind of almost died, got into the P. revved up again hurricane swatter that could swat it back to the and, finally, died only considerably north of San place cf its birth without-allowing it to get over land Francisco. They do have a tendency to live.Thus, or to go way up over oceans into Arctic waters where it is hard to shoot down this hurricane idea on. the it becomes hard to feed on water vapor because the grounds that the Red Spot has been too long-lived to pressure vapor gets low. Wruld it then die? Do we be a hurrica3e, because if a hurricane cannot have any reason to believe that hurricanes die? We wander, -it may live forever. Transcribed from tape eNOV.. 31 THE HUM, N.VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM By J. L. Archer Saturn/Aoollo/Skylab Division The Boeing Company Huntsville, Alabama We are in a period when the focuo ic.ouxeeval- Neil Armstrong, as he descended onto the lunar sur- uating our priorities with the objective.,... of redirect- face, "That's one small step for a man, one giant ing our resources and activities toward solving hu- step for mankind" is that man can finally accomplish man problems, rather than problems of a nonhuman near impossible tasks through collective efforts of and purely materialistic nature. We question the many - not only materially, but also intellectually, value of space programs to mankind in terms of psychologically, and spiritually. using both financial and human resources when we are burdened with so many earthbound problems, such as poverty, hunger, overpopulation, pollution, Human Questions and Man's Fears -disease, and urban blight.- We ask if a space pro- gram is relevant to human needs? Most of the life on the earth exists in a bio- sphere; i.e. , shell of life, about 2 miles thick. It ex- The HATS Space Congress has addressed this tends from the continental shelves, onto the land, and other questions, and established the relevance and into the lower regions of the atmosphere. Man- of space programs to human needs on all fronts by made wastes of all sorts have and are still contami- revealing an incredibly large spectrum of techno- nating the biosphere to such a level that all life on logical benefits which are directly related to social, earth is endangered. The rerlization of imminent political, and economic problems. These techno- catastrophe has precipitated some men's fears to a logical benefits, however, provide primarily mate- point of near panic. We ask "Can the world be rial benefits, but we should note that there are also saved?" The answer is probably yes, with the aid intellectual benefits for scientists and other schol- of modern technology, and particularly that of apace ars, in addition to the less obvious psychological technology; e.g., the development of nonpolluting and even spiritual benefits for all men. These power systems, waste manage) ; ,t control systems, benefits are related to the age-old human questions recycling waste materials, etc. This capability can such as "Where do we come from?" "Will mankind and should be applied to the eradication of manmade endure?" "What is man's future?" "What is our .0 biosphere contamination.It, in fact, 'y probably place in the universe?" the most effective means of quickly emanating- con- tamination or pollution without impairing (if not These human questions, however, typically destroying) civilization, itself, because of an over-, arise from man's fears and curiosities. They have emphasis of technology reduction. remained for all times in midst of social, political, and economic issues that change, not only on a On the other hand, man is not the only threat to daily-to-yearly basis but every decade rod every life on earth. Nature occasionally assumea that role century. as well, bestowing a variety of catastrophes over many regions of the earth, such as tornadoes, hurri- The significance of such questions were, no canes, earthquakes, 'volcanoes, tidal waves, not to doubt, manifested by the Apollo VIII crew when they mention an ice age or two, and more. These have responded to man's first awe-inspiring views of resulted in both animal and human disasters through- earth from deep space with phrases such as "The out recorded and witrecorded history and have pre- Good Green Earth" and their Christmas message cipitated man's fears of nature's wrath. from the moon with reading of the Genesis. M a time when the world was ready to pull itself apart, In view of the current concerns with manmade It spiritually united when Apollo VIII arrived at the pollution, natural pollution catastrophes should be moon, and reunited again when Apollo IX landed on recognized as being relevant to the manmade pol- the moon. The meaning of the historic words of lution issue.In terms of the overall ecological 313 leel - question, -One should also recognize our uncertain- solar system, including an understanding of earth ties as to the causes of the extinction of the mighty evolution, is too incomplete at this point in time to dinosaurs and the ice-age mammals, in addition to predict our future with any real certainty. the extinction of their ecological systems. What caused their extinctions? Is the earth evolving such _ If man wishes to protecthimself from the adver- that living species, along with their ecological sys- sities of nature, no matter what the cause, he must tems, will eventually be discarded by nature and understand her. In order to understand her, he must perhaps replaced by newzpecies andi:ev ecological understand her laws, he must complete his under- systems? standing of the solar system evolution and be able to predi %t not only solar eclipses, magnetic storms, A significant example of the destructive powers and the weather, but any phenomena good or bad, of nature is the volcanic disaster at Krakatau, when known and unknown, which affects the evolution of on August 27, 1883, a catastrophic explosion pro.. earth. pelted-sh 50 miles high, over 300 000 square miles, and geh....xted 120-ft tidal waves which took the lives Human Questions and Man's Curiosity of 36 000 pinple in the neighboring coastal towns of Java and Sumatra. The explosion could be heard In addition to man's basic fears, his insatiable within a radius of 3000 miles and the resulting pres- curiosity has precipitated ancient and medieval intel- sure waves were recorded around the world. The lectuals to provide rational philosophical and reli- air became so polluted with expelled ash that the gious answers to them human questions: Moreover, surrounding region (50-mile radios) was in total renaissance to-modern time philosophers and scien- darkness for 2.5 days, and the entire world experi- tists have provided some empirical or scientific enced spectacular red sunsets for over a year, answers to these questions that have resulted in ad- because of the fine dust which rose high in the strat- ditional benefits 4.11 quasi-accurate disaster predic- osphere aed circled the globe several times. Simi- tions, which in turn, provide man with some control larly, the eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79 destroyed over his destiny. In other words, man's curiosity the ancient cities of Herculaneum, Stable, and has driven him to explore nature both rationally and Pompeii. It is interesting to note, however, that empirically, providing him witirsorne means of the inhabitants of Pompeii were killed not with mot- preservation and subsequently, some psychological ten lava but with natural air pollutants: poisonous benefits, with corresponding intellectual benefits. gas and ash which bulled Pompeii under a layer 12 ft or More in depth All is not solved, however, and these same hu- man questions remain; but they can be translated In- Consider even further the recent near- encounter to a more manageable set of scientific questions with the asteroid, Icarus, which passed some 4 mil- which, by their very nature, are capable of being lion miles from the earth. This raises additional answered. Such questions are: questions concerning potential hazards that the solar system may impose on mankind in the course ot , How is the earth evolving? time. One can certainly raise the question "Have How is the solar system evolving? catastrophic events occurred on earth or other How is the universe evolving? planets as a natural result of solar system evolu- How is the life evolving? tion?" In addition, comets, historically, have been What is the origin of the earth, the solar system, considered as signs of disaster and catastrophe, the universe, life? announcing the death of kings, the destruction of kingdoms, pestilence, and famine. Are such fears We ask "Why investigate apparent esoteric based on mere superstition or have comets been scientific questions concerning tot origin and evolu- responsible for an unidentified human catastrophe tion of the earth and the solar system as a whole?" somewhere in the recesses of man's unrecorded The answer to this question is not only to satisfy past? One can certainly ask-the question as to man's insatiable curiosity concerninghts origin and whether or not nature' s wrath will one day unload evolution, but also to mitigate his feaks by address- a new unexpected catastrophe on the earth and ing related questions of the age-old human question eradicate our ecology (if not the earth itself), in of his destiny, identity and purpose, as well as the spite of man, rather than because of man: probably contemporary question, such as "Can the earth be not, but who can actually say2,Our knowledge of tbe saved?" 314 Attempts to Answer Human Questions system in order to establish a high level of scientific creditability; e.g., the fact that all planets of the Since the I7th century, many tkeories have solar system are In nearly the same plane excepting been formulated in attempts to addles,. questions of Pluto. Moreover, all solar system models newt the origin of the solar system, with a minimum take into account the fact that the solar system emphasis as to its evolution. Figure 1 111, for models consist of entirely different kinds of objects, example, lists some of the originators of these ranging from atoms of gas and microscopic dust theories. These theories, each in their own way, grabs to the sun (a star), which is a massive nu- have attempted to :Account for the existence cf the clear inferno. Table 1 lists the class el objects solar system by using data froM astronomical ob- which make up the solar system. servations available at that time in terms of b)0W11 laws of nature. Figure 2 pictorially relates the sizes and dis- tances of the major solar System bodies. Figure 3 relates some of the larger minor bodies withsome, In recent times, contemporary theoretical of the smaller mkor bodies. Jupiter's Red Spot scientists have suggested that some objects of the ( Fig. 3) is about 3 times the size of the, Earth; solar system may provide more information as to Mercury and Mars are seen to be comparable in solar system origin and evolution than others.. The oceans and atmespbereof the earth, for example, size to the larger satellites of Jupiter and Saturn; have washed away much of the earth's past history, and finally the larger asteroids, Ceres and Vesta, but the moon may himrtmdergone relatively minor are seen to be comparable in size to some of the changes in the past few million years and, therefore, smaller satellites of Jupiter and Saturn-It is the possesses permanent records of the sun's activity; origin and evolution of these bodies, to which we i.e. , sun evolution, and the saw environment to refer when we speak of the origin and evolution of which the earth, as well as the moon, was exposed; the solar system. 11...4 i.e., earth and noon evolution. The asteroids are An examination of the various origir.s and evolu- regarded by Alfvin (23 as being structured with pre- tion theories (e.g., tit >se in Figure 1) clearly indi- planet.material; i.e.; primordial. He has alsoeug- cate, however, that tbrre is no single object to be gested that an exploration of the brick-shaped aster- explored and no critical tests that can he applied to oid, Eros (which will pass close to earth in 1975), assert or dew any one theory or model. Each theory may provide a key to the origin of the solar system. has sufficient freedom to permit the incorporation of On the other hand, others have speculated that the almost any now observable data. Advances can be existing asteroids are reminiscent of an exploded made, however, by attempting to understand 'se planet. The resolution of these questions is vital fundamental elements which structure these theories.. in determining asteroid origin and evolution. The These elements are Ur physical processes which giant planet, Jupiter, has been referred to by Rasool Shave operated and are still operating to produce the (31 as "the Rosetta Stone" of the solar system and present state of evolution of the eclat' system from may be inhabited with the mod primitive forms of its initial state or time of origir.. The physical proc- living material. This belief Is supported by many esses by which solar nebula _became fractioned, for in the scientific community. example, to produce the small but dense terrestrial planets and the giant gassy outer planets is a com- mon element in all theories.It most be understood Nature tithe Origin of Evolution Problem in great detail if an enitancld understanding of the origin and evolution of the-solar system is to be Thus far, all theories of the origin and evolution made. It is only through a thorough understanding of the solar systems have taken us only from total of all relevant. physical processes that will erable darkness to the sbadownof dawn. Each theory is, mankind tt understand the actual evolutionary proce- in one way or another, incomplete and considerable dures that occur In solar system formation and eve- observational data are required before we will under- Intim. All theories combine many of these proc- stand each one. mins, most of which are only partially understood, and all are incomplete in one way or another. This Any theory of the origin of the solar system as situation would be considerably improved, however, well as its evolution must be capable of explaining by relating theories with measurements to *maim both the regularities and irregularities of the solar new observational data. Figure 4 (41 shows this 315 .,;,"""- relationship, which, in essence, says that theories The Human Value of Scientific are structured from. ur understanding of the physi- Investigation cal processes: the better we understand them, the better the theory. But in order to understand these To clarify and answer the questions "What good processes, we must collect certain kinds of infor- are lunar rocks?" and "Who can profit from Moon mation which is limited by the kinds of observations rocks beside scientists?," one should recognize that that can be made and is, itself, limited to the meas- stellar observations have revealed that there are urementtechniques available. There. is no doubt many unstable stars in the universe which periodical- that if we can observe the solar system from vari- ly flare up expelling mass in its near-environment ous observation points, such as apace missions pro- that would hair catastrophic effects on nearby and vide, and utilize available measurement techniques, associated planetary systems. We may certainly we can obtain the much-needed information required ask the questions "Will the sun suddenly erupt and to understand the physical processes governing the destroy life on the earth? Is the sun stable caough evolution and origin of the solar system. support life ovek extended time periods? Is there any sign that fluetuations in the sun could affect eco- logical systems on earth?' Prior to the spacepro- The Benefits of the Space Age in Addressing gram scientists typically held the opinion that the middle-aged sun was a stable body havinga stable Science Questions lifetime perhaps 10 to 11 billion years. The lunar rock samples have certainly confirmed these opinions The Space Age has opened nevrinvestigative to some extent by showing that today's sun and thesun horizons for modern science by providing the capa- of a million years ago have not undergone any ap- bility of placing instruments at new on-site obser- preciable change. The answers to additional ques- vation points (i.e., in situ observations) to see the tions concerning the earth's evolution as a result of solar system as it actually is and allowing scientific the sun's evolution will no doubt provide greater investigators to collect otherwiseunobtainable ob- visibility in course time, as we play back the rec- servational data of the solar system. The use of ords of time with further lunar exploration, includ- space exploration mar, in fact, be the only viable ing lunar rock and soil analysis. means of addressing questions of the origin and evolution of the solar system and ultimately an- Designing future space missions which meet swering the related human questions discussed these science goals will no doubt generate new ques- above. tions and new mission requirements ( Fig. 5). The National Academy of Sciences and Presi- In addition to further explorations of the Moon dential Scientific Advisory Committees, in recog- and our nearest planetary neighbors, Mars, Venus, nizing the investigative capabilities provided by the` and Mercury, the grand tours of the late seventies spaage, has recommended that future space ef- to the giant outer planets, along with future asteroid forts be directed toward questions of the origin and and comet missions, will provide a wealth of new in- evolution of not only the solar system, but also of formation on the basic processes involved in the op- the large scale universe, of life itself along with the eration of our solar systems ( Figs. 6-10). This in- discovery of extraterrestrial life, and with particu- formation will further provide man with the greatest lar emphasis on exploring the near-earth terrestri- visibility he ever had since the beginning of time as al environment. They further recommend that these to his origin and evolution. While it is obvious that space efforts be regarded as national goals [5, 61. such missions will be of direct benefit to the natural sciences, we ask "What is the human value of scien- These recommendations are certainly in line tific investigations of the origin and evolution of the -with previous space activities, such as the Inter- solar system?" The answer is that science can national Geophysical* Year (IGY), conducted in help man to answer his age-old human questions by 1958, the exploration of near-earth space, the dis- examining the bridge between our human questions covery of the Van Allen belts, and the retrieval of and science questions and recognizing that both sets lunar rock and soil samples with the Apollo of questions are, in a human sense, the same program. questions. 316. References 4.Hennes, J. P., and Fulmer, C. V.: "Identifying Releiant Scientific Goals in Planetary Explora- 1.Ter Haar, D. , and Cameron, A.G.W.: His- tion." AIAA 7th Annual Meeting and Technical torical Review of Theories of the Origin of the Display, Paper no. 70-1244, October 1970. Solar System. Origin of the Solar System, R. Jastrow and A.G.W. Cameron, editors, Academic Press, N. Y. , 1963, pp. 1 -37. 5.Space Research: Direction; for the Future. A Report by the Space Science Board, NM Publ. 2.Alfvin, H.: On the Origin of the Asteroids. 1403, National Academy of Sciences, Washing- Icarus, vol. 3, 196t, p.. 3,1_40n the Origin of the ton, D. C., 1966. Solar Systems. Quart. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., vol. 8, 1967, pp. 215-226. 6.The Space Program for the Post-Apollo Period. 3.Rasool, S.I.: Jupiter, "Rosetta Stone of the A Report of the President! s Science Advisory Solar System." Astronautics and Aeronautics, Comm., The White House, February 1967. October 1968. TABLE 1. SOLAR SYSTEM OBJECTS SUN (A STAR) ASTEROIDS (30,000) TERRESTRIAL PLANETS (5) COMETS (580) GIANT PLANETS (4) METEORITES SATELLITES (32) DUST & PLASMA KO MAR TIDAL (CLOSED) IOPENI . SUN AND PLANETS FORM TOGETHER EXISTING SUN ACQUIRES EXISTING SUN ACQUIRES OUT OF AN INITIAL GAS CLOUD PLANETARY MATERIAL FROM PLANETARY MATERIAL INTERSTELLAR SPACE EITHER FROM ANOTHER STAR OR BY HAVING MATERIAL PULLED OUT OF IrsELF- DESCARTES 1644 11ERLAGE 1932 CHAMBERLAM 1900 XANT 1755 ALFVEN 1912 JEANS-JEFFREYS 1917 LAPLA( 17% SCHMIDT 1944 LYTTLETON 1936 VON IIEIZSACKER 1944 WOLFSON -1964 HOYLE 1944 TER HMR '1950 HOYLE 1%0 MC CREA 1%0 Figure 1.Solar system cosmologies. 317 7H1CRIES AP e."-vES1: AFC=16.ATc'01 r NEE _NE , I:NETJ: 0*C=E=7 CBSE=VABLE- opePra-- E: ;E :ANEW 0.,:7,NET 11 VAZ;N: VAPPS:- ANC :;EVE%7 A%ALYSS ...EA: TE:PiPCIJES- REeANEV :vETEM Figure 4.Space exploration rationale development. YYLATiON OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM LEADS TOmopE QUESTIONS Figure 5.Relationship of scientific goals to space astronomy1Tj . Figure 6. Planet Jupiter with its four moons. 319 oration of Jupiter. Figure 8.Manned exploration of Jupiter's moon, Ganymede,_ Figure 9. -Exploration of the rings of Saturn. ; 110 Aft' Figure 10.. Manned exploration of Saturn's moon, Titan. 1. SESSION VII SPACE MANUFACTURING BENEFITS - STATUS AND PLANS OF NASA'SMATERIALS SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING IN SPACE(MS/MS) PROGRAM By William 0. Armstrong and JamesH. Bredt NASA - Office of Manned Space Flight Washington, D.C. Abstract properties of space to produce productsImpossible or prohibitively difficult to make otherwise. Following-2 years of relatively This low-level explora- new program had its genesis at the MarshallSpace tory work, the Materials Science andManufacturing Flight Center (MSFC) where in Space program is now ina phase of expansion to- a few farsighted peo- ple began to discuss thepossibilities of this new ward higher levels of effort. Themain thrust of this field of space applications with effort is toward initiation ofa research and develop- representatives of industrial organizations. Basedon these contacts, ment program on the Space Shuttlemissions that can prepare the way for possible commercial two symposia were held at MSFC in1968 and 1969 manu- in whictrindustrial concernswere invited to present facturing operations on permanentlyorbiting space stations. ideas for using space for materialsprocessing and Experiment capabilities, currently being manufacturing in space. Participation planned for the Space Shuttle, willbe based on an was excel- lent. Representatives of over 60companies and inventory of reusable general-purposeequipment that can be configured in many different research organizations attended,and 40 technical ways to meet papers were presented at these two meetings. individual experiment requirements.It is expected that this approach can supportvery large numbers' With this encouraging beginning NASA of experiments and make flightopportunities acces- started sible to many potential a program of research to build a technology base experimenters, who would and explore promising possibilities not be prepared to involve themselves in thedevelop- for space re- ment of flight hardware. search. This has grown froma limited effort of a few hundred thousand dollars in 1968, toa fairly sub- tantial research and developmentactivity Involving Introduction a number of industrial and research organizations, with funding in excess of $1 millionper year. For ages man has dreamed ofspace as a new ocean to convey him out beyond the earth tothe moon, the planets, and ultimately the stars.It is Program Status interesting to note that the spacecraft in these dreams were thought of only in terms of transporta- The results of these activities to datehave con- tion. The spacecraft described by Jules Vernein vinced us that manufacturing in space is technically "Journey to the Moon" and the ones used by Buck feasible and that space research inmaterial,science Rogers in his fascinating adventureswere for travel and technology is likely to pay off. As 4 in space. shown in It is only recently we have begun to real- Figure 1, one form of payoff can be expected in ize that orbiting spacecraftcan provide other very terms of useful scientific knowledge derived from important benefits for use right hereon earth. space research, which imprOves our technological Through use of spacecraft as an observation plat- capability on the ground. This is likelyto be the form, many practical applicationsfor space have area from which benefits are initially derived and evolved. They include such areas as meteorology, indeed may be the area of greatest long-termbene- navigation, communications, and earthresources fit as well. Eventually, however, to name a few. we also expect returns in terms of products produced inspace for market here on earth. Should they materialize, Fairly recently; NASA has begun to explorea these returns will be very direct and tangible,be- completely new field of applications,making use of cause they will come in the form of prOfits on sales. 325. If we are to take space manufacturing seriously As a result of our study effort so far, a number as a goal, we are for-led to contemplate some of promising areas have been identified, which objectives. The whole proposition makes eventually may prove economically attractive. Some economic sense only if we succeed in creating a of the most promising prospects are listed in space-manufacturing technology that can operate at Figure 4. a profit and if manufacturing operations go"on long enough and reach a scale large enough to re-- The possibility of levitating solids and liquids cover the investment that went in to making them- is one of the-most obvious applications of weight- possible. Obviously these are ultimate objectives lessness. Suspension of materials free of physical rather than near-term ones. Our immediate goals contact of containers should permit the production are threefold, as outlined in Figure 2. of ultrapure metals and crystals. New types of glasses could be produced by cooling molten oxides Extensive ground research is needed to under- into the glassy state without external disturbances- stand the potential applications of weightlessness that nucleate unwanted crystalline grain growth. and other features of space well enough to know Semiconductor crystals might shaped directly where the payoffs are. Therefore, an active and from the melt into forms ready for use. diverse program of in-house and contracted re- search is needed to build our technology base and The lack of buoyancy should allow us to main- identify promising processes for in-flight studies. tain a very homogeneous mixture of substances of Concurrent engineering development effort is also varying density. This would prove highly beneficial needed to define experiment techniques and flight in the production of such products as foamed metals, facilities in which to conduct our space experimen- metal composites, and electrophoretic separation of tation. large organic molecules in buffer solutions. Our second goal is to expand the involvement The most sophisticated source of control over of the scientific and industrial community at large. space processes lies in the fact that heat and mass These are the ultimate users of our space capability transport in liquids and gases will be predictable and provide the best source of ideas for eventual and controllable when the complicating influence of utilization of space to solve their problems. convection is suppressed. This has particular appli- cation in growth of large single crystals of high Finally, since the benefits of null gravity can purity.It should also prove useful in the develop- only be realized in space, major program emphasis ment of unique and useful new structures in two- must be directed toward maximum utilization of phase alloys, such as eutectic and monotectic sys- spaceflight opportunities. tems and in making specialized optical components free from defects that limit their performance. Since the thrust of our immediate effort is aimed toward meeting these goals, we will explore These are only a few examples thought of in in more detail our current activities and future the earliest stages of the program without any data plans in each of these areas. from actual space experiments. Considerably more research is needed to ascertain the real potential of these new possibilities. Furthermore, as we con- Buildup of the Technology Base tinue our studies, many new ideas will become ap- parent that should be pursued. Recognizing the need for a sound technological base.to underpin our future flight effort, the major Our current research effort has a twofold pur- emphasis-of our present program is aimed at build- pose, as shown in Figure 5. The major portion of ing this base. As previously mentioned, funding our study activity is aimed toward expanding our for this activity is now well in excess of $1 million understanding of the potential to be derived from per year and involves a number of in-house and con- space processes in these promising areas of materi- tracted efforts (Fig. 3). The program is managed al's procefilligT-Thrlttidies also point up the re- almost entirely from MSFC and is supporting con- quirements and capabilities that must be provided tract studies in 17 outside organizations from a by our experimental facilities in space. Based on variety of different fields and interests. Eight tasks these requirements, a second element of our study also are underway in-house at MSFC. It should be activity is directed toward evolving apparatus tech- noted that nine additional tasks have been proposed nology and experimental techniques needed for de- for which support could not be provided. velopment of an experiment facility in space which 326 an support large numbers of experiments with 1. Increased contact with the tarying needs. A few studiesalso have been under- user community ken to better establish to determine their needsand acquaint them with the user interest and examine possibilities of space research e economic potential ofsome of the more proni- to solve their ising processes. problems. 2. More possibilities for oking ahead, I would expectour support of user participation through open procurement, therebystimulating a 'dc technology effort to beginleveling off. He diversity of ideas throughthe competitive process. or, as new ideas develop, work inthese new art fill be emphasized. Ifwe look at Figure 5, 3. Increased opportunities we that most of our technologyeffort to date for companies to has conduct space research bytaking maximum advantage a directed toward crystal growthand met- of flight opportunities of alit .As our base of interest is current and planned flight broadened, programs. This will be discussedin more detail nev icepts and ideas should beidentified with later in the paper. ne 49port. 4. Persistent missionary second immediate goal of work at technical the program is symposia, laboratory colloquia,technical society t br: Jen our base ofinterest both internally and meetings, etc., to acquaint' exter ally. The expertise and the user community of support of other the available possibilitiesfor space research in NASA .enters is neededto develop the full potential materials processes. of materials processingand manufacturing inspace. Similarly, the involvement of outside organizations 5. Development ofa fair and workable approach needs to be expanded. to the commercial users of space that avoidsun- warranted advantages and yetoffers commercial incentives by protection of Expanded User Involvement proprietary rights. Al- though no formal policyhas been establishedas yet, our objective is to encourage Referring to Figure 5, we findthat approxi- nrivate utilization of our space capability. To thisend, we would adopt mately 20 organizationsare actively involved in the a policy as liberal as possibleand consistent with Materials Science andManufacturing in Spacepro- public interest In gram. Furthermore, while it isnot readily ap- accommodating industrial involve- ment. Specific arrangementswill be worked out on parent from Figure 5, themajority of these groups a case-by-case basis. are aerospace or space-relatedorganizations. A much broader base ofinvolvement is needed, par- ticularly from the nonaerospace research and in- Flight Opportunities dustrial community, andsome preliminary surveys indicate that interest existsamong these potential users. So far we have discussedonly the ground-batied activities which support theMaterials Science and Manufacturing in Spaceprogram. However, by its Following the Space Station UtilizationConfer- nature, this program requires the ence, held last year at the Ames space environment Research Center, to exploit the effects of nullgravity on materials some 20 nonaerospace research,development and processes and product characteristics. manufacturing organizations Further- completed question- more, the kind of special attentitsutndclose control mires expressing interestin this applications area. required to conduct the kind A similar survey of European of experimentation companies and re- planned in space makes theprogram best suited for search labs in eight countriesdrew 76 responses manned space missions. of positive interest in the Consequently, the experi- Materials Science and ment program is beingdeveoped for manned flight. Manufacturing in Spaceprogram. These resultsare highly encr araging. The Apollo program offersthe only manned space flight possibilities for thetwat few years. A number of measuresare being pursued to Since the primary objective capitalize oc this interest of Apollo is lunar explo- (Fig. 6). The program ration, it affordsvery little opportunity for other plans to createmore user awareness and provide areas of experimentation. more avenues for user participation However, Apollo missions through: do sometimes haveenough residual resources to 327 accommodate small, self-contained experiment pack- Science program on Skylab could be significantly ages intended for operation on a noninterference expanded. Two modifications which are being con- basis, making use of residual mission resources sidered include the addition of a multipurpose elec- during the earth-moon drift phase. Several simple tric furnace and an electromagentic positioning demonstrations of techniques and concepts of basic system for levitating samples. With these additions, importance to design of later experiments have been a large number of samples of alloys, composites, developed to take advantage of this capability. They and crystalline materials could be accommodated include (Fig. 7) a sensitive test for any convection from the industrial community for minimum cost effects that may exist at very low force levels, a and complexity. feasibility test of electrophoretic separation in a liquid medium and a study of composite casting, and Another possibility includes the addition of a crystal growth metals solidification of low tempera- carry-on-type electrophoretic separator, designed ture materials in null gravity. These demonstra- to be reloadable in flight. Hence a large number of tions were initially conducted on Apollo XIV with biological samples could be carried to orbit, sepa- varied success, and reports on the results will be- rated, collected, and returned to earth for analysis. come available in the near future. Improved ver- sions of these demonstrations, building on Apollo XIV Even though these possibilities look attractive, experience, are now under development for flight, it must be remembered that changes to Skylab hard- hopefully on Apollo XVI and/or XVII. ware at this late date are very difficult, and the feasibility of these modifications is quite uncertain. _A more ambitious experiment program is being However, there are several other potential mission implemented for the Skylab program scheduled for prospects in the interval between Skylab and the 1973. During the development of experiments for Shuttle. These Include a possible second Skylab the Skylab, it became evident that experiments for mission and/or one or more Command and Service Module (CSM) flights.In Inning in the material manned missions can be built more cheaply and science area to take advantage of these possibilities easilythey can be performed in an existing is underway including incorporation of the modi- general-purpose facility, Therefore, a specialized fied M512 facility described above. facility is being developed for Skylab with the versa- tility to accommodate a variety of materials science Although we expect useful results from our investigations selected for flight. This facility Apollo and Skylab missions, our first opportunity contains a spherical vacuum chamber to house the for research and development work, on the scale experiments, an electron beam unit for sample needed to generate ultimate applications, will come heating, and a control panel to control experiment with the Space Shuttle.For the Space Shuttle mis- activities. Other services, such as water, space- sions NASA plans to provide a relatively large in- craft power and motion picture coverage, are also ventory of modular, general-purpose lab equipment available, that can be configured flexibly to match experiment requirements and spacecraft resources on any mis- Five experiments related to the program are sion where space is available. One concept for a currently approved for flight on Skylab (Fig. 8). Materials Science and Manufacturing in Space Lab- They consist of metallurgical experiments to study oratory to be used with the Shuttle Is shown on Fig- the effects of reduced gravity on solidification, grain ure 9. As envisioned in this concept the equipment structure and mechanical properties of metals and would include a "core" instrumentation and control composites, and the growth of a single gallium rack to provide general support on any mission. arsenide crystal by solution transport. Special-purpose modules could then be added to meet the particular experiment requirements of a mis- Although this experiment program on Skylab is sion. These special-purpose modules would include quite limited, it does provide an early opportunity vacuum chambers, furnaces, levitation apparatus, to gain experience in the development and integration biological processing equipment, fluid- handling of individual experiments into a common facility. facilities, etc. Each of these major components This experience Ix: particularly valuable as we plan would be backed up by an inventory of subassemblies our experiment program for the Shuttle. that could be flown repeatedly in many different combinations as experiment requirements dictate. With relatively simple modifications to the M512 By reuse of this basic equipment, program cost facility, the experiment complement of the Materials can be substantially reduced. 328 Through this approach we hope tosimplify interfaces between the understanding of processesin weightless media, experiment and spacecraft, which eventually may provide and reduce cost and leadtime for experiment Aevel- an economic payoff. opment. Experiments generally willonly be called upon to supply samples and instructionsfor process- When permanently orbitingspace stations begin ing them In NASA, s payloadapparatus.. Thus large to be available, researchwill continue, using-appa- numbers of users can beaccommodted at modest ratus that will have evolvedfrom the Shuttle payload cost and a minimum lead time on'the order of inventory, but development workwill also begin on weeks to months from acceptance to flight, instead a few of the processes thatseem most promising at of 3 to 5 years requiredin current programs. the time. k is hoped thatsome of these processes will be ready for pilot-scalemanufacturing opera- tong-Range Program Prospects tions as soon as the SpaceStation complex can support this level of activity, andthat a few of them will reach full-scale Duda( the early period of Shuttleoperation, commercial manufacturing experimentation rould be limited status in the latter part of thiscentury. By the turn to short-duration of the century, missions (7 to 30 drys), carriedout within a mod- space numufacbaring may account ule which remains attectied for a sipiftcant fraction ofall space operations, to the Shuttle. In this and thereafter it is likely period, the program emphasis willbe on research to play a large role in assuring a permanent future forspace flight because everinients which provide informationuseful to our of the essential functions ground technology, as wellas those that !mild up our it will perform in some pent- of the world's economicactivity. AN APPLICATIONS PROGRAM THAT SEEKS TODELIVER CONCRETE ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROMMANNED SPACE FLIGHT: INDIRECT BENEFITS-FROM RESEARCHRESULTS THAT EXPAND KNOWLEDGE OF MATERIALS DIRECT BENEFITS FROM CREATION OF NEW PRODUCTSOR IMPROVEMENTS TO EXISTING ONES Figure I. Materials scienceand manufacturing inspace. BUILD-UP OF THETECHNOLOGY BASE 'PROCESS R & D ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT EXPANDED USERINVOLVEMENT MAXIMUM UTILIZATIONOF EXISTING FLIGHT OPPORTUNITIES Figure 2. "iodideprogram goals. 329 TYPE OF ORGANIZATION ACTIVELY SUPPORT SUPPORTED SOLICITED AERO SPACE AND DEFENSE 5 4 R&D COMPANIES 1 4 UNIVERSITIES 5 COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATIONS 4 1 OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 2 Figure 3. Organizations involved. CRYSTAL GROWTH 'CRYSTAL GROWTH FROM CONVECTIONLESS SOLUTIONS& VAPORS 'CRYSTAL GROWTH FROM MELT, SHAPED FOR FINAL USE 'FLOATING ZONE REFINING METALLURGICAL PROCESSES METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES EUTECTIC & MONOTECTIC ALLOYS OF CONTROLLED STRUCTURES FOAM CASTING BIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS ELECTROPHORETIC PURIFICATION OF VACCINES INCUBATION PROCESSES FOR BIOLOGICALS GLASS PREPARATION & PROCESSING GLASSES PRODUCED BY CONTAINERLESS SOLIDIFICATION HI QUALITY LENSES FOR LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN FLUIDS CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN FLUIDS Figure 4. Technical areas for potential exploitation. CONTRACT PROCESS R & 0 IN -HOUSE FY-71 FY-72 FY-71 FY-72 CRYSTAL GROWTH 5 7 2 2 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES 4 6 BIOLOGICAL PPEPARATIONS 2 3 GLASS PROCESSING 1 1 PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN FLUIDS 1 2 CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN FLUIDS 1 1 ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT FACILITIES DEFINITION. 3 6 2 2 LABORATORY CONCEPTS 1 USER INTEREST 2 Figure 5. Current program structure. 330 DIRECT NASA/USER CONTACT OPEN COMPETITION FOR CONTRACTWORK MAXIMIZE OPPORTUNITIES FORFLIGHT RESEARCH* SYMPOSIA & TECHNICAL *MEETINGS PROTECTION OF USER INTEREST Figure O. Expansion at user involvement. 111111111 101111M111, OMNI IMMO itsamontMOMS Mt MIN In Figure 7. Apollo demonstrations. Sim imammmeaspelnain no ins aim iniismrs awn mu mum int *mu cams ma MIMI am= mot aine 101 t* Figure 8. Skylab apparatus. 331 -NASA HO MT71-7171 104=i1 Figure 9. One concept for a Materials Science and Manufacturing in Space Laboratory. SPACE ENVIRONMENT A NEW DIMENSION IN THE PREPARATION OF UNIQUE SOLIDS By Dr. Harry C. Gatos Center for Materials Sciences and Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) This report is about solids; primarily electronic To be specific, you heard earlier that if one, solids, and what the absence of gravity in space can on earth, is about to prepare a solid, he must use do in achieving homogeneity in materials that we can a liquid. One must first melt the solid for a solu- not achieve on earth. First, though, some remarks tion by heating it. There is no way that one can will be made regarding materials, in general, and avoid the hest convection which forms gradients-- solids, in particular. changes in temperatures. The heavier things tend to settle in the liquids or fluids, and the lighter Up to about 15 years ago, the materials were pri- things tend to rise. Why is that harmful? When marily a matter of art, of trial and error. Science these convections take place, the temperature was lagging behind. However, 'things have changed. changes at the places where you need perfect control, Now, theoretical or scientific or fundamental pre- that is, between the solid and the melt. This means dictions about devices, structures, and components that the rate at which the solid is formed changes, are way ahead of materials technology. We specu- and once that happens-, there is absolutely' nothing late, in fact, we show, on sound basis, what we could that you can do to make sure that that solid is going do if materials were available; and during the last to be homogeneous. Why is that important? It is 10 or 15 years, nearly all of our expectations were important on a microscale, for example, in the case realized; when the right materials were available. of the ordinary casting of metals, of superalloys, This is true even in the case of high-strength which we need for high-temperature/high-strength materials, the laser, semiconductor devices, and applicatitets, as in the case of jet engines and the many of the other solid-state electronics. like. There is a serious problem that has to do with gravity. As you cast a metal, the bottom part The three parameters that worry us the most of the metal or the container is going to cool; so it about materials are: first, structure that is, bow solidifies, but in between that solid and the melt perfect the materials are in terms of having their above it, there is an intermediate region where you atoms in the right places; two, purityhow pire have bothsolid and melt. As the solid solidifies, in they are; and, three, how homogeneous they are. In many instances some of the lighter elements of that other words, what are the variations in purity and liquid are not incorporated into the solid, but are structural defects from one pout of the material to left behind in the melt. The melt becomes lighter the other? Two of these problems have come a long directly above the solid and shoots up in jetlike way in the last 15 years. Regarding structure, we form through the intermediate stage which is a mix can now prepare materials that are structurally per- of solid and liquid. This mixture then thins out and fect. Particularly in the electronic area, we can pre- destroys the solid configuration and creates what pare silicon crystals and others which have absolutely people now call freckles or channels. These defects no structural defects; all the atoms are where they are very detrimental to the strength and other charac- should be. Regarding purity, we have achieved the teristics of materials. purest materials as we know how to detect and identify. The purity in some of the electronic materials is in Microscopic convection becomes of paramount parts per trillion or better. However, we do not use importance in the electronic materials, the semi- very pure materials, for they are not good for very conductors. These devices are becoming smaller much.- They must haie impurities in them, but those and smaller by the year. In the so-called integrated impurities must be very carefully controlled and be circuit, we assemble hundreds of devices the size of extremely homogeneously distributed. Here is the the order of microns. You can barely see them with stumbling block: how do I identify this type of hetero- the naked eye. This implies that on a wafera geneity? As we have been maldng progress in identi- piece of silicon 0.75 in. diam by 1 in., there are fying them, we have been detecting more and more about 1 million devices. You have to make sure that heterogeneities, which we can directly trace to gravi- all of these devices are of materials which have the ty and which we can do-nothing about on earth. same characteristics on the microscale, to do this. -----r. 333 This is possible, but only with a very small yield to- how fast or how slow the tree was growing. We can day, and it is believed that the limit is here, not in do the same thing with the crystal. We put vibra- terms of what we could do, but in terms of what we tions in it, and these vibrations would be the equiv- can do now. A very large computer on a good-sized alent of the rings of the years in the tree's life. missile will have 2000 individual integrated circuits, And those vibrations are of constant frequencies, a which means that about 20, 30, or 40 thousand devices year each, although it happens to be seconds. The can be accommodated in approximately 2 g of silicon. separation of the rings of vibration is not constant; However, the end is not here. We have a number of where we cannot even tell them apart, the crystals devices waiting on paper and proven on fundamental were growing very, very slowly and where they grounds which we cannot produce, because the re- are farther apart, the crystal grew faster. We see quirements on the homogeneity are even greater that the rate of growth of the crystal is not really than today's. High sensitivity detectors, for in- uniform, and, in fact, it changes very drastically. stance, which require very high controlled impurity distribution, cannot be produced today. There are Is there anything here on earth that we can do to instances where we require very high concentration improve this? Yes. We can decrease the convec? on what we want to put into the material; but, in tion current in two ways. One, we can turn the order to do that, we require very high thermal gra- melt around and heat it on the top, not on the bottom; dients is the metal from which we grow it.In simple that means, from the bottom up, or you grow your terms, this means that we have to impose on the crystal upside down. We certainly have done this, liquid very high thermal gradients, which are impos- but you can appreciate the fact that you only can sible to maintain on earth. do it as a laboratory curiosity, that you cannot turn things upside down, and even then, note, you do not What can be done on a microscale in space actu- completely eliminate the convection configuration,. ally not on a speculative basis? If we take a crys- only to some extent. The second method is by using tal of silicon and look at the outside, it looks very a magnetic field. Most metal melts will behave like heterogeneous, not at all uniform. You see stria- a viscous liquid if you put them in a transverse mag- flans and heterogeneity: But out of that crystal, we netic field, that is,the-viscosity increases and must take sections to prepare the integrated circuit they-will-be-less-hubjected to convective currents. I was referring to before. Thus, it is no wonder We have done that very simply by putting our that the yield of some of these devices is extremely apparatus into a magnet. If the temperature is low, small today. we can now achieve what we would expect to achieve when there was no gravity. We achieve complete Let us open up the crystal now and look further homogeneity. Why do we not do that rather than go into it. Under higher magnification we would see to space? Because we are very limited, in terms the striations become very pronounced. If we mag- of size, in terms of materials, and in terms of nify further to 1000 times, we would see that be- temperature. We achieve good results only at low tween the lines of striatiOnthere are many, many temperatures. If we go up in temperature, even finer lines. Thus, at about 7 pm resolution you see the magnetic fields cannot do us very much good. many, many lines in between two striations; these can change things but cannot eliminate the are strictly the results of convections that take place , --oblems. at the interface and, in no way, can be completely avoided. What can we expect to achieve then in space ? I would like to believe that, in this particular area, What can we really do to understand, here one need not speculate. Once there is no gravity, earth, that indeed theie heterogeneities are due to there will be no convection, and there will be homo- this type convection; that is,"they are because of the geneity. But what do we do with homogeneous mate- fact that the crystal or solid does not solidify at the rials? Do we just improve the yields of the things same rate throughout? It is not easy to prove this, that we can do now? The answer is No. We will but it has been done recently. To illustrate the increase the density of what we can do now by a principle, consider a tree.If you cut ktrea, across large_faetor$ but more important, we will be able to and look at-the trunk, the rings represent the num- Put to use theoretical schemes of devices for higher ber of years that the tree has lived. Now, if two power, higher sensitivity, smaller sizes, and in- rings are far apart, you knowthat the tree grew faster cluding devices which are so badly needed in the bio- than in the year where the two rings are close togeth- logical sciences, for either detection of pressure-- er. That is, We have time markers here to tell us fluctuations in bloodstreams, temperature flucuations 334 in bloodstreams, or things of that nature; not to of space as a truly new dimension in making materi- mention the impacts of high-temperature semicon- als which we can now only play with on paper. ductors, like silicon carbide, zinc sulfide, zinc Having homogeneous materials does not have to do oxide, or exotic types of semicondUctors.' These just with meeting the great expectations which are exotic types are so difficult to prepare at all, in based on sound scientific and engineering basis. any applicable form on earth, Ave are today sort of Beyond that, I believe, the implications of this type bypassing them or are ignoring them outright. of homogeneous materials would even surpass the most far-out science-fiction imagination today. I hope this report has conveyed to you some of the reasons that make us look to space, to the use Transcribed from tape 335,43ci SPACE PROCESSING -A PROJECTION By Louis it. McCreight and Dr. R. N. Griffin General Electric Company, Space Division This paper contains estimates concerning space but we strongly feel that other products in other manufacturing, which might well become the largest quantities will replace them. We firmly believe and IT:Mt/specific application of space technology by this because the basisior space manufacturing ideas the end of the century.It does not say, however, is using the zero gravity, which is available only in that these projections will happen, only that they space. As long as we have gravity; we will have can happen if nurtured and developed. The plan for some of its detrimental effects when we process ma- nurturing and developing space manufacturing is terials on earth. So the basic idea of space manu- very preliminary, although more detailed plans for facturing is both simple and elegant, but much R&D some small-scale research and development activi- will be needed to prove the ideas and to plan the ties have been drafted. experiments and missions in detail. Recent analysis (11 of various ideas for space manufacturing indicates technical benefits which Electronic Crystals may result from preparing many materials and prod- ucts in space.All of these ideas merit further ex- Float-Zone-Refined (FZR) Semiconductors ploration. At this time, however, two classes of materials do appear to satisfy the technical and eco- Small boules of silicon (1.5-2 in. diam). Pres- nomic constraints that must be considered before ent applications for float-zone-refined silicon actual space manufacturing can be seriously contem- range from integrated circuits to rectifiers, diodes, plated. These two classes of materials and some and similar electronic devices. Space processing products are: of this material would primarily be warrantee for the economies of making larger diameter boules and/ 1.Electronic crystals or wafers from them. Such boules or wafers might a. Float-zone-refined semiconductors f be diced into smaller pieces and more efficiently b. Solution-grown crystals, handled'in manufacturing other items. Devices based on this single-crystal silicon are now valued 2.Biologicals at $1.3 billion in the U.S. -and $2 billion worldwide, a. Vaccines for human usage with a predicted increase to $2 and $3 billion re- b. Cells for human usage spectively by 1980 (21. Additional processing in c. Viral insecticides and pesticides. space (if warranted technically and economically, such as by wire or ribbon drawing (.3 J or by using We estimate that some 30-50 Space Shuttle pay- the space vacuum in vapor depositing films) would loads might be generated from these product areas shift some of this potential market toward the space by the end of the century. The total value of a pay- 'ransportation business. Current production is load with this type of product could range from about 28 tons per year in the U.S. and 45 tons total $10 million to $1.5 billion. However, some of worldwide. This material is valued at about $450 this value would be attributed to ground-based pre- per pound or $40 million worldwide. and postflight operations..More'detailed estimates are shown in Table 1. In addition, several more pay- loads may be required to provide logistic support as well as the several research and development Large Silicon Boules and Wafers (4-8 in. diam) (R&D) payloads that will be needed before actual manufacturing can proceed. Float-zone-refining in space is the only apparent way to make large boules and wafers of high quality ,Each of these products is briefly described and [41. the production calculation outlined in the following pages. Many details might refine the calculations If these sizes were available, it would be more and even greatly change the products or quantities, feasible to consider solid state control and direct 337 current power transmission, enabling underground controlled-thickness ribbons directly from the melt. installation in densely populated areas, overhead-in- Although extensively studied, this operation isnot stallation from remote generating facilities, andas possible on earth in the case of materials having interties among systems. Since solid state recti- sharp melting points [31.If this then were accom- fiers and other distribution and conversion equipment plished in space, it could markedly increase the are highly reliable and more easily serviced, such yield of silicon from boules into devices, thereby equipment could easily boom into a tremendousmar- reducing the total requirements. It could alsoper- ket that would quite clearly depend upon Large.. mit preparing the FZR boules here on earth, and diameter silicon. only require space processing for the ribbon drawing. This would not change the weight of material toproc- A Federal Power Commission engineer [51 has ess, but would probably simplify the space process- reported estimates that in the-U.S. alone,within ing operations. two decades, there will be about 350 new generating plants needed to produce another million megawatts Other Single-Crystal Electronic Materials [81. Al- of electrical energy. This will require about though silicon and germanium account for nearly 90 400 000 miles of high voltage transmission lines. percent of the electronic single-crystal materials These additional transmission linesare expected to production, several -other materials are used in require up to 4 million acres of land for right-of-way, single-crystal form in electronic devices and have beyond our present usage of 4 millionacres. While an even higher value per pound than silicon. Such these right-of-way acres potentially are also usable materials currently average $ 5000 -10000 per for industrial or commercial purposes, theyare pound. They could account for about 5 tonsnow, and presently inefficiently used for these secondary pur- could increase to 10 tons by 1980, if one extrapolates poses. In any case, the overhead -..ght-of-way in the present rate of growth. However, the "techni- densely populated areas is rapidly 1. a comingso ex- cal action" for new electronic materials is in this pensive that more cable is likely to go underground field.It is therefore quite possible that the field for the last 20-40 miles into a city (61. Although this could grow to the point of equaling the present pro- move to underground power cables generally costs duction of float-zone-refined silicon or about 50 tons about five times as much as overhead lines, applying per year of materials. This would then lead to a cryogenic (low temperature) technology or perhaps potential of $80-100 million. even superconductor (ultralow temperature) tech- nology may overcome this cost disadvantage. Such cables might require the purity and perfection that Biologicals zone refining and space processing can- probably provide; however, this is not sufficiently-certain to Many feel that higher purity biologicals are warrant inclusion in this forecast.- -Therefore, only generally desirable and urgently required in some the related distribution equipment is included. specific cases (9, 10, 111. The higher purity is required to reduce undesirable side effects and to This expected trend toward High Voltage Direct permit applying stronger, more effective doses I 91. Current (HVDC) [71 energy transmission and the This had been demonstrated here on earth in thecase related use of solid state conversion and distribution of the Hong Kong flu vaccine [121, but itappears equipment would require many tons of semiconduc- possible to further improve this product significantly tors, such as silicon. Assuming that only half of through space processing. the new distribution network were operatedon direct current, but that a large number of substations and Basically, the idea of space processing the three customized power conditioning equipment would also classes of biological products discussed in this sec- need solid state equipment, it is estimated thatsemi- tion would be to purify them primarily by fluid elec- conductor requirements could total 200 to 400 tons trophoresis. This process is nearly unusable for per year for these applications. We have used the large-scale preparative work here on earth because lower figure in our estimates. of convection and sedimentation problems. On avery small scale as an analytical technique, however, it Near zero gravity processing in space might is unsurpassed and is, therefore, widely used. We achieve a potential refinement of these estimates, have concentrated on this process, although space because of a process improvement of great signifi- processing of biologicals may also require some re- cance to the semiconductor, as well as to some re- lated processes, such as freeze drying, to preserve Latcd fields. This would be the drawing of wires and the purified products. 338 Viral Insecticides (13 I.Viral insecticides may require transporting about 10 000 grams of active. replace persistent chemical insecticides (e.g., ingredients per year (22 lb per year) [101. Using DDT), during the next decade or two, for protecting the same assumptions about electrophoretic purifi- forests and agricultural crops because the viral eation as are used elsewhere, this.corresponds to material offers specificity without side effects. 4400 lb of water per year per vaccine purified. Vac- This is particularly true for certain highly destruc- cine production rules and regulations, however, tive insects, such as the tussock moth, eastern tent would probably require a dedicated module for each caterpillar, European pine sawfly, and the cotton vaccine f Therefore, in effect we will have 10 bollworm (alias corn car worm or tomato worm). loads per year if we assume the preparation of a Each of these insects does $50-100 million damage year' s supply of each of 10 vaccines. Thismay per year in the U.S. alone, in spite of the wide- permit the use of excess weight capacity for carry- spread use of chemical insecticides. Recent reduc- ing some inert payload, or perhaps an arrangement tions In the use of chemical pesticides, such as DDT, could be made to carry several compatible vaccine *have been accompanied by alarming increases in production units at the same time, but onlyone destructive insect population's. In the currently could operate at a time. available form, the viral insecticides cost about $45 000-50 000 per pound. About 1 ton of virus Cells and Other Biologicals. Many biologicals for each of the above insects would be requiredper are sepaiated and analyzed by electrophoresis. year in the U.S.; about four times that amount However, very few preparative operations areper- worldwide. The annual market would, therefore, formed. It is quite clear, however, that it would be about $500 million in the U.S. and $2 billion be desirable to conduct preparative electrophoresis, worldwide.It is assumed that the FDA and counter- especially of the cells and of products larger than part organizations in other countries'would not can even be analyzed now in gels or on paper [14 I. sanction widespread use of the present relatively The current research on cells in connection with crude or impure material, which is contaminated cancer research [15 I, for example, would suggest with bacteria. Current preparation methods depend the future need for a considerable quantity of blood upon various purification processes, including cen- separation work. This has been roughly estimated trifugation, but large-scale preparative electrophore- at 10 Shuttle loads per year at about the end of the sis may be the only way of isolating some of these century. viruses in an ultrapure state and with a high degree of viability [9 h Preparative electrophoresison earth is, of course, severely hampered by convection References and sedimentation. Electrophoretic purification of the world's supply of five viral insecticides would 1.McCreight, L.R. and Griffin, R.N.:Survey of require the use of about 150 tons of supplies (prin- the Preparation of Materials in Space. cipally electrolyte) per year. NAS 8-24683, March 1970. Vaccines. While we cannot predict exactly which 2.Hartman, David K.: Private Communication. vaccines will be in widespread use 10 to 20 years from Semiconductor Processing Operation. Electron- now, we generally can predict what the total usage ics Park, General Electric Company, Syracuse, of vaccines in the U.S. and worldwidemay be. Pres- N. Y. ; The Semiconductor Industry: Madness ent U. S. .consumption of the 10 most commonvac- or Method. Forbes, Feb. 15, 1971, pp. 20-26. cines amounts to about 60 million doses per year f 101. 3.Boatman, J. and Wood, R. D.: Single-Crystal Silicon Ribbon Pilot Line. Air Force Materials If we accept the World Health Organization's Laboratory, Report AFML-TR-69-162, Oct. prediction of a world population, in 1990, of 5 billion 1969, and subsequent NASA contract, Texas people, and a public health level equivalent to the Instruments Inc. present-day U.S., world consumption of thesevac- cines should be 1.5 billion doses per year. 4.Pfann, W.G.: Zone Melting. 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1958, p. 93. Normally, 1 g of active ingredient contains enough vaccine for 100 000 people, although it is 5.Gakner, A.: Electric Power and the Environ- administered in more dilute form. Therefore, ment, Collision or Coexistence? Problems processing any one (typical) vaccine inspace will and Issues of a National Materials Policy, '339 tk U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Committee on 11. McAleer, Dr. William: Private Communication. Public Works, U.S. Senate, Washington, D.C., Merck Sharpe gr Dohme, West Point, Pa. 1970, pp. 123-129. 12. Reimer, C.B., Baker, R.S., vanFrank, R.M., 6. Minnick, S.H. and Fox, G.R.: Cryogenic Power Newlin, T. E., Cline, G.B., and Anderson, Transmission. Cryogenics, June 1969. N.I3.: Purification of Large Quantities of In- fluenza Virus by Density Gradient Centrifuga- 7. She*, W.F., and DeCeccio, Angelo: Private tion. J. of Virology, Dec. 1967, pp. 1207-1216. Communication. 13. Ignoffo, C. M.: Insect Viruses. Insect Coloni- 8. Suran, J.J. and Tebon, S.W., and Bray, E., zation and Mass -Production. Academic Press, et al.: Private Communications. General Elec- 1966, pp. 501-530; Viruses-Living Insecticides. tric Company, Electronics Laboratory, Syracuse, vol. 42, Current Topics in Microbiology and New York.(Also generally discussed and con- Immunology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidel- firmed by numerous other experts.) berg, New York, 1968; The Pesticide Review - 1970. United States Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 9. -Anderson, N.G.: Report of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the National Research Council, 14. Rappaport, Dr. Ruth: Private Communication. National Academy of Sciences, National Acad- Wyeth Laboratories, Radnor, Pa. emy of Engineering, Washington, D.C.Portion of Session on Progress in Nonmilitary Applica- 15. Manipulating the New Immunology, an inter- tions of Nuclear Energy, 1969, pp. 123-135. view with Robert A. Good, M.D., Ph. D., University of Minnesota Medical School, Journal 10. Rubin, Dr. B. A.: Private Communications. American Medical Assoc., vol. 207, no. 5, Wyeth Laboratories, Radnor, Pa. Feb. 3, 1969, pp. 852-856. 340 EXTRATERRESTRIAL IMPERATIVE By Dr. Krafft A. EhrIcke Chief Scientific Advisor North American Rockwell /Space Division Introduction threatens to be a scanty Eden for his numbers and - aspirations in the future. "Earth is the only luxury passenger liner in a convoy of freighters loaded with resources. These The result is a new kind of disillusion, a wave resources are for us to use after earth has hatched of pessimism that tends to undermine man's confi- us to the point where we have the intelligence and the dence in a soaring future and therewith, in his means to gain partial independence from our planet nature which, some claim, must be altered radical- and where the time has come to convert our earth ly to conform with what is called insurmountable from an all-supplying womb intola home for the long limitations. Confidence in a soaring future spir- future of the human race, finally born into the greater itually as well as materially is the essence of our environment of many worlds." Ktafft A. Ehricke, a techno-scientific civilization and Western man's Space Agi pioneer, is Chief Scientific Advisor, Ad- greatest message to mankind. Erosion of this con- vanced Programs, Space Division, North American fidence threatens the value system and weakens the Rockwell. This article is based on a talk to the Na- drive on which our monumental accomplishments tional Space Meeting of the Institute of Navigation, rest, ever since the dawn of the Renaissance. And, Huntsville, Alabama, in February 1971. It contains nowhere are the roots of the Renaissance spirit excerpts and condensations from a forthcoming book more deeply embedded than in history's boldest so- of the same title by the author and E.A. Miller, to cial achievement, the United States of America. be published by Doubleday, Inc. A science policy that places the protection of Once earth was, to man, the center of the uni- our environment over man' s overall needs of to- verse for all practical purposes, infinite and inde- morrow is not realistic, however well-meaning, be- structible. Man's mind and soul evolved in this infi- cause preservation of the environment is only a nec- nite world. He has known no other. Then, astronomy essary, not a sufficient requirement.It is no more reduced earth to a tiny planet, circling an average sufficient for the preservation of man than is a pret- star somewhere in an unlimited universe.But, total- ty cage for the preservation of an animal born free ly conditioned to boundless environment, man' s so- in the wilds of an infinite world. cial, political and economic behavior continued as if earth were infinite and indestructible. Space is obviously not a panacea for all of man's problems. Neither is earth, in the long run, In the past 100 years, industrialization, world because of its sensitive biosphere and its limited commerce, world wars, the "bomb," technology, resources. We need both. Man has needs that will population increase and, finally, pollution have pto- outgrow his planet in time.This'll; not an unrealis- gressively turned our planetary "infinity" into an il- tic notionto presume that he will not try virtually lusion. Avoidance of war, still so recently the cher- anything to satisfy these needs, is.These very ished panacea for all of man' s problems, now proves needs are so powerful that they not his inability to be too simplistic a goal. The pollution issue has to see what he is doinghave pw; man and envi- added another dimension to man' s capability of pro- ronment on their present collisiol course. voking catastrophes on a global scale. The notion that man will, in the centuries and Concurrent advances in planetary exploration millennia ahead, submit to a slowly declining living drove into public awareness the not-so-new recogni- standard in harmony with a Slowly degrading terres- tion that earth is a singular world in this solar sys- trial environment is, of course, not an impossible tem. After 500 years of bold and vigorous expan- one but it is rather absurd. A healthy mankind sion, a reaction has set in. Man seems to be locked is not that docile, stretching, and growing on chal- into a cosmic reservation that, for all its wealth, lenges and impossible dreams; and it makes little 341 difference whether these challenges and dreams are growing world consumption rate, if earth resources found on earth or beyond. Man's relation to nature management is improved by action In space and or has always been dictated by two passions love and the ground; and (3) growing industrial-agricultural conquest. productivity, if that productivity is amelibrated by the benign industrial revolution. Preservation, therefore, has a much deeper meaning in our time than ever before: that is, not The indivisiblity of earth and space will enhance only must we preserve our world's environment, we and favor the inviolability of earth more safely in must also preserve the reality of our world's infinite the long run than can planetary confinement of man. expanse because man's nature is attunecrto it as Since the beginning of recorded history, it has been much as his eyes are attuned to the sunlight spec- a fundamental goal of civilizations to search for trum. This means that if we were to single out our civilizing motivations of their cultural activities. one overriding generic responsibility to future gener- Where will this continued search have a greater ations, it is that we should lay the foundations for a chance of successin the shrinking world of earth world in which man can act as he must or, in any or in the expanding world of indivisible earth and case, as he does. For modern man, with his pow- space? ers, this is a world which is what earth alone once was to earlier man. It is not merely a world that is Recognition of the uniquenes of our planet has a gilded environmental cage where he can only act as become part of conventional wisdom.But, like he should by the imperatives of a static existence, or everything, uniqueness is not all good. Moreover, else perish.This means we must give man of tomor- our planet is not all that unique. Earth shares row a world that is bigger than a single planet. many common characteristics with other planets, especially the rocky planets and asteroids (Fig. 1). Of course, man should strive constantly to ap- Within the next 100 years, the ramuniqueness of earn- ply a higher degree of reasonableness to his affairs will play a growing role in our attempts to preserve in order to improve the quality of life, even within this uniqueness without paralyzing our future. This the' limits of terrestrial resources. But it is a fact is not man's only environment, merely his only that man finds his powers of intelligence and reason unique environment. perpetually distorted by instinctive drives and emo- tional forces.If we expect this to change significant- Earth's unique features are its atmosphere, ly in the foreseeable future, we are not being realis- huge hydrosphere, abundant biosphere and, there- tic and neither will be our policy and planning. from; vast deposits of fossil energy. These fea- tures provide on with the only livable planet around. We have no effective alternative but to plan for Their deterioration by pollution precipitates an en- a world in which earth and space are indivisible. We vironmental crisis. still have time to accomplish the transition. But this uniquenes cuts both ways: it is the_ A realistic assessment of the present situation basis of our existence.But it is also the principal does not support the apocalyptic claim that this constraint on man's industries and technology, on planet will be destroyed in the short order of a which he must rely to sustain his growing numbers. a few decades. The very awareness of the dangers This is because the uncultivated, unprocessed bio- ahead-trikgers remedial action.It is still within sphere has long ceased to satisfy man's needs. our control to reduce the worst transgressions, and Nature could sustain only a fraction of today's 3.7" subsequently proceed to deal with the more subtle billion people.on a very modest living standard, dangers as we become progressively more knowl- probably not more than a billion. (Only 300 years edgeable and capable. Remedial and ameliorative ago, at the end of the preindustrial era, the world measures can be introduced judiciously; the pace of population was about 500 million; thus, 1 billion is change depends upon the crisis level of the problem. probably a generous estimate. ) Therefore, 3.7 billion people m"st produce to barely survive. In this manner, we can assure for ourselves They must produce much more in order to provide a viable grace period of the order of a century a bearable standard of living. TheY must produce during which to accommodate (1) a growing world at a feverish pace to sustain 6, 10 or 15 billion population, if the growth rate slows down; (2) a people. s 342 In the last analysis, the question before us is flux into the biosphere.By the year 2110, the whether we will continue in the long run to insist on thermal burden would equal the solar energy ab- endangering the unique environment of earth our sorbed annually by the earth's hydrosphere (about greatest basic resource; if left as much untouched 221 600 trillion kilowatt-hours). But these figures as possible to exploit resources that are not uniquely are not realistic, since long before most of the basis earth's and t carry out industrial activities that are of our biosphere the photosynthetic process in the not tied to earth's unique environment? oceans would have been destroyed and oxygen regeneration of our atmosphere seriously impeded The nonunigtueness of earth is as important to if not halted altogether. At the previously men- our future as is its uniqueness. The fact that we do tioned growth facto a of 40 to 160 between 1970 and not have to depend on earth for everythingis the key 2070, the thermal burden from electric power gen- to our future.It makes possible the gradual evolu- eration would, by 2070, reach 16 to 63 percent of tion of a practical division of labor in an indivisible the solar energy absorbed annually by terrestrial earth-space continuum a domain of many environ- vegetation. This range Is already quite critical, ments, each serving us to maximum advantage and considering that the actual value is likely to be each assuring the preservation not of the one but of closer to the upper than the lower value, and con- the two great uniquenesses of this solar system, mar sidering further that actual heat release will cause and earth's biosphere. local concentrations of extremely biocidal thermal pollution. At 16 percent, the heat influx into the To achieve this division of labor, man needs biosphere is about 600 trillion kilowatt-hours, only to engage the most valuable of all the unique re- enough to raise the temperature from ambient to sources at his disposal: his Intelligence and his de- the boiling point of some 60 percent of all fresh termination. Will we use this resource properly and water lakes on earth.Thus, it is a definite possi- in time? bility that fresh water life is mortally threatened on a continental scale in the highly industrialized One might anticipate for the next 100 years an regions of earth. Ocean life in the estuaries and increase in world consumption level by, at least, a other fertile regions can be seriously threatened factor of 40, whereas, a more likely increase is a by the combination of temperature increases and factor of 160 and quite possibly more. chemical pollution.Pollution watch of continental coastlines, from satellites or space stations,- will The estimated electric power consumption, for become increasingly important. 1970, is about 1.7 trillion kW-h for the U.S. and about 6 trillion kW-h on the world level. These figures are twice the 1960 value. At such an annual Space Power Plant growth rate (about 7 percent), the world's energy consumption will pass the 100 trillion kilowatt- Yet,- without energy our techno- scientific civili- hour mark by 2010. The thermal heat release is, zation cannot be preserved. If our techno- scientific' characteristically, 2.5 kW-h per electric kilowatt- civilization collapses, the lives of billions of people hour. The heat is released into environment, cannot be preserved a death toll equaling or ex- passed through the biosphere (hydrosphere, atmos- ceeding that of a massive nuclear exchange.Thus, phere) and, eventually, is radiated into the infinite energy is one of the sectors of man-environment heat sink of- space. If sufficiently large this heat interaction in which we will reach the confrontation release becomes a thenr.1 burden on the biosphere. phase within 100 years from now. New approaches are required. The projected global thermal burden in the form of waste heat from electric power generation Three benign methods of electric power gener- amounts to about 30 trillion thermal kilowatt-hours ation are available, constituting long-range solu- in 1980 (Fig. 2).This is only about 8 percent of the tions to man's energy problems: geothermal, nu- solar energy absorbed annually by all terrestrial clear fusion, and space power generation. It is vegetation (3800 trillion kilowatt-hours). At the quite possible that a combination of these will pro- present 7 percent growth rate, this value would be vide the most desirable flexibility to meet future reached by 2050, thus, doubling the natural heat practical needs. The third approach to a long-range energy so-, measure between 320 and 214 square miles. IA lution is the generation of power in space. With the recent study by Peter Glaser of a 10- Million- kilowatt advent of beamed power transmission technology it sole,. electric power generation system arrived at a becomes possible to generate power in space for solar cell area of 25 square miles. This would consumption on earth. correspond to an overall conversion efficiency of 11.2 percent.) This or preferably, a modularized Beamed paver transmission will be of almost version consisting of, say, several smaller primary unlimited consequences for space operations and the -energy conversion systems is certainly feasible, opening of moon and planets. Power generation in considering the technology of the next 30 to 50 years. space for power consumption on earth is a signifi- cant example of the future division of labor in the An alternate way of tailing solar energy is by indivisible earth-space continuum of human activity means of radiation collectors, an array of mirrors (Fig. 3). in whose focal region solar radiation is a.gsorbed by heaters and converted to electric power. Depending Power generation is the conversion process of on the conversion system, the efficiency of this sys- energy from its primary form (heat or radiation) to tem could exceed that of a solar array, resulting in energy in its desired form. On earth, the desired a smaller collector panel whose size, however, energy form is electricity. In space, the desired nevertheless measures in square miles. energy form is radiation, suitable for transmission to the surface. In any case, it is the initial conver- The concentrated form in which nuclear energy sion of primary energy that produces the greatest is available offers many advantages in terms of the thermal waste and the greatest chemical waste if the cost of establishing the station and its maintenance. power plant operates on coal or oil.Therefore, Breeder reactors could be used, _combining the pro- transplanting this process into space removes the duction of valuable isotopes and uranium-235 with the bulk of the environmental burden associated with the generation of electric power. The radioactive sub- generation of electric power. stances would be stored in space and brought to earth safely, in space shuttles, on the basis of need. The Power generation in space involves a primary most concentrated form of large-scale nuclear- energy source, conversion to electric energy and electric power generation short of fusion genera- conversion to beamed energy, beam transmission tors would be a combination of gas core reactor to a central receiver ground station, reconversion (GCR) and magnetohydrodynamic (MUD) converter. into electric energy and regional distribution to con- The degree of compactness of such a system can be sumers through high-voltage grids.At least 80 per- inferred from the fact that a 15 000 kW (earth) solar cent of the thermal waste produced in the entire power generator system (producing 0.13 billion process is generated in space and radiated directly kilowatt-hours) would require an interceptor area of into the cosmic energy sink without first passing 1000 by 1000 ft, whereas a GCR-MHD system of the through the biosphere. The conversion process same capability would measure less than 20 ft in di- ,,from beamed to electric energy in ground stations ameter. The weight of a GCR-MHD system would is better than 80 percent. The chemical or nuclear run between 70 and 80 percent, possibly less, of the (fission) waste burden is eliminated entirely. solar energy system. The primary, energy source of a space power Nuclear energy is far less difficult to handle in plant could be solar radiation or nuclear energy. the vacuum of space than on earth and, of course, all Solar energy at the earth's distance from sun is apprehensions (which are known to extend far beyond rather diluted. One square meter (about 10 square the normal environmental misgivings) relative to the feet) receives about 12 200 kW-h annually. To gen- large-scale use of nuclear energy in terrestrial pow- erate 1 trillion kilowatt-hours annually for the ter- er plants are eliminated. Transportation of fission- restrial consumer at 10 percent overall efficiency able material by a Space Shuttle involves negligible requires a solar radiation interception area of about hazards, because the Shuttle is designed for safe 8 billion square feet (200 000 acres or 320 square abort. The use of nuclear reactors in orbit is for all miles; or a square measuring 56.6 by 56.6 miles). practical purposes perfectly safe, since the need for The actually obtainable overall efficiency will lie neutron reflectors and shielding renders the struc- between 10 and 15 percent, so that the required ture virtually impregnable for space debris or for intercept area for 1 trillion kilowatt-hours will meteoroids of any practical size. 344 Thus, we have, for space power plants, a choice revolution in the orbit matters little.The polar of two primary power sources solar and nuclear route, therefore, also offers greater flexibility in and an eventual optimal arrangement might involve the international availability 'of spare power plants an integration of both into an overall system. should the operation be a joint project by nations of the northern hemisphere. North America, Europe, The size of the beam transmitter area depends the Soviet Union, Japan, and'other nations are cov- on the practically feasible power density. This den- ered, simultaneously, as the power plant passes sity can vary from many kilowatts per square centi- through the farflung arc above the North Pole, able meter for laser beams to the order of 0.5 W per to direct its beam where needed. Coverage of the square centimeter for microwave beams. For the northern hemisphere down to 40 deg latitude encom- latter case, transmission of 1,trillion kilowatt-hours passes most of the U.S. (the southern strip and annually at constant power level requires a transmit- Mexico could be supplied by a high-voltage grid), ter area of 10 square miles. On earth. the dimen- practically all of Europe, the Soviet Union, northe.n sions of the receiver complex are determined by the China and northern Japan. If an orbit with a period allowable power density of the beam. At a safe of 12 hours is chosen, for example, four stations representative power density of 0.005 W per square could provide continuous, overlapping coverage of the centimeter, a receiver area of 1000 square miles northern hemisphere down to 40 deg latitude.The is needed to process I trillion kilowatt-hours annually stations can be established and maintained more cost- on a constant power level basis. effectively than in geosynchronous orbit. To reach the same countries from a geosynchronous orbit, Tens to a few hundreds of billions of kilowatt- with some overlapping, the same number of stations hours annually are more representative for regional is required.It is not important at this point to make power consumption. In that case, receiver antenna a case for the superiority of the one or the other or- areas of the order of hundreds of square miles are bit. Of importance is the fact that several alterna- needed. These are not impractical requirements, tives are available. even in densely populated areas such as Europe or Japan. Manufacturing in Space Maximum Dwell Time Space manufacturing has two basic aspects: (1) utilization of unique extraterrestrial envieroimen- The most obvious, but not the only appropriate, tal properties (such as different gravity levels and location for terrestrial space power plants is the vacuum); (2) reduction of terrestrial environmen'.4. equatorial geosynchronous orbit (22 300-mi altitude). burdens from the surface, by applying the principle Because in such orbit an object is in a stationary of division of labor between earth and the extraterres- position relative to the area over which it is located, trial domain. Just as earth is not a unique place for one power plant is needed to serve a given region generating power (other than by fossil fuels), so is (e.g., North America or Africa). But there are it not a unique place for manufacturing (other than also suitable ellipticorbits, for instance, polar el.. for products relying on the processing of large liptic orbits with their most distant point (apogee) amounts of rock or fossil or other organic materials). over the North Pole (Fig. 4). This assures maxi- mum dwell time of the power plants over the northern Space environmental utilization is of interest in hemisphere, where the majority of the power con- metallurgical processes, glass processes, crystal sumers are located (a:R1 probably will be even 50 growth processes, and biological manufacturing proc- years hence), and where the know-how is amply esses. In the metallurgical field, unique alloys and available to operate and maintain the huge receiver metal products with superior properties (weight, installations. Position over the northern hemisphere streagth, purity, etc.) can be produced. Glasses allows simultaneous coverage of all longitudes down with superior optical characteristics and base ma..s- to a certain latitude depending upon altitude; whereas, rials for advanced semiconductors can be produced in in geosynchronous orbit all important latitudes are the low-gravity environment of space. Single crystals covered, but only over a limited range of longitudes. of larger size, higher purity and higher crystallo- Because of the circumglobal coverage of the northern graphic perfection for electronic, optical, and other. hemisphere in polar elliptic orbits, the period of applications can be manufactured in space more than 345 on earth. Finally, biological materials (serums, would release about 3500 thermal kilowatt-hoursper viruses) of highest purity can be produced in weight- ton payload into the atmospheric biosphere,or about lessness.Initially, the biological and crystal 8000 kW-b per ton of aluminum produced in orbit. ,rowth manufacturing groups offer the greatest But even this would provide a significantly favorable promise, because they combine significant product thermal balance only for aluminum, sincc'thenext improvement over terrestrial manufacturing with -highest consumer (electric furnace ferroalloys)re- acceptable transportation demands. quires less than 6000 kW-h per ton. The second aspectthe reduction of terrestrial Besides the thermal burden, chemical pollution environmental burdens from the surface of the earth is, in principle, a possible reason why it might be can have a far more incisive effect on our world desirable to remove an industry from earth into and on the future of man's resource base. Itin- space. But at least in the metal manufacturing Indus- volves both the environmental effects of themanu- try, as distinguished from the primary metal indus- facturing process proper, and the environmental try (mining, metallurgy), pollution by itself is not effect of extracting the mineral resources. likely to become a sufficient justification. The prin- cipal chemical burdens in the manufacturing industry In principle, all industrial activity could be are generated by industries which depend to the transplanted into space, that is, into near-earthor- greatest part on organic raw materials that are bit. The worthwhileness of it depends on the objec- uniquely earth's. tive.The objective must meet a vital need to justify the effort. Compared to the secondary (manufacturing) metal industry, the primary sector (mining, refin- If reduction of the terrestrial thermal burden is ing) is a far worse chemical polluter.It would, the objective, then the move would defeat its purpose then, be more worthwtile to remove the primary if the raw materials must be supplied from earth. sector. The reason is simply that delivering a ton of materi- al into orbit releases more energy into the biosphere If delivery of metals from extraterrestrial than is released in processing either the raw materi- sources is considered, orbital manufacturing as. al, (primary processing) or in working it intomanu- sumes a different complexion. Raw materials factured goods (secondary processing). Using Sat- are delivered at no terrestrial thermal burden.Little urn V as an example, virtually the entire energy therrni burden is Involved in delivering products content of the first stage, namely 5.6million from space to earth, even if the atmosphere is used kilowatt-hours, is injected into the hiospheric por- as energy absorber. The bulk of the energy is dissi- tion of the atmosphere - -41 000 kW-h per ton pated as heat in the outer and upper atmosphere of payload delivered into low orbit. Presently, (above 100 000 ft), which is outside the biosphere. it takes 17 000 kW-h to gain the 1 ton of aluminum Thus, metals and metal products can be delivered froml tons of alumina. In the future, this value is from the extraterrestrial domain for indefinite time likely to decrease to about 15 000 kW-h. Ingener- periods with virtually no detrimental environmental ating 15 000 kW-h of electricity, 30 000 to 37 000 effects, certainly. incomparably smaller effects than thermal kilowatt-hours are released into the envi- if they were produced on earth. ronment. In transporting 2 tons of alumina (plus consumable carbon for the electrodes used in the electrolytic process of extracting the aluminum), Minerals and Our Planet approximately 90 000 kW-h would be released into the biosphere by a Saturn V type transport topro- Except, perhaps, forvery distant speculative duce Mon of aluminum. future, the only way to obtain the needed metals in needed quantities is through the processing of miner- Of course, Saturn V would not be a suitable als.It is, therefore, not possible to think in con- transport.Conditions could be improved by the use crete terms of a condition in our technological civili- of more advanced nonchemical transports. The zation where we will no longer be dependenton ultimate would be a gas-core, reactor-powered, air-- minerals. breathing transport, capable of reaching orbitalve- locity by air-heating at only negligible fuelconsump- Mining produces the largest amount, so far, of tion for final maneuvering in space. Such a vehicle inorganic waste: upwards of 1 billion tons annually 346 in tne U.S. alone, exceeded only by the 1.3 billion first place. Exploiting reserves located at great tons of organic agricultural waste (manure and ref- depths requires also the development of a new, abys- use). Compared with the wastes from mines, the sal technology. Exploiting progressively lower- amount of wastes and sewage from manufacturing grade or and, perhaps, eventually rocks will, like plants, homes and office buildings (350million tons ocean floor mining and land milling at great depth, in the U.S.) appears almost small. Acids from steadily increase production costs. In addition, min- metal processing are among the most biocidal ing lower grades demands the processing of growing polluters. amounts of material, causing rapidly spreading land devastation, and pollution. Mining by nuclear deto- But the ultimate problem is the finite amount of nation the only way in which the exploitation of reserves available in the earth's crust. Only a- rel- ore below certain,grade levels, or of rocks, could be atively very small amount of reserve.; of each metal made economically viable appears to be out of the is found in ores in sufficient concentration to be question in view of the environmental implications mined economically with present methods. This except, perhaps, in combination with the exploitation is especially true of many important nonferrous of reserves on land at great depths beyond the danger metals. of radioactive gas escaping to the surface or radio- active substances poisoning ground water (Fig. 5). Can terrestrial reserves support an at least 40- to 160-fold increase in the next 100 years; and, But even if the full potential of science and tech- more importantly still, can they sustain this con- nology is brought to bear, the mineral resource limi- sumption level for a long period of time? Based on tations of one single planet simply cannot sustain con- presently known reserves, the answer is clearly tinued exploitation at much higher than present levels negative for a number of-important nonferrous on a long-term (even centuries long-term) basis, be- metals, such as lead, zinc, silver, mercury, bis- _cause environmental constraints do not permit exploi- muth and probably also copper, tin-and cobalt. tation of even the limited reserves. Thus, "placing There is always the possibility that new ore re- all our eggs" into the terrestrial basket adds up to a serves will be discovered, especially in conjunction losing proposition. with earth resources surveys from space. There are also certain possibilities in recycling, but they Minerals are the one natural resource that is s.- can at best only slow down unavoidable dissipation widespread in the inner solar system and the asteroid and, moreover, are of no help in satisfying demand belt.It is also a fact that the earth is more sensitive increases. Also, there is the possibility of mining and, in this sense, a less suitable world for massive ever poorer grades down to common rock. mineral exploitation than any other body in the inner solar systemas the furniture of the living room is What about the oceans? Most mineral and chem- a less suitable source of wood for the living room's ical resources will, in the next 50 years, be those fireplace than supplies in the woodshed or garage_ that can be gained from seawater and from the rela- tively shallow continental shelves. But these are the Earth is not merely a spaceship.It is a member biologically most important and most sensitive of the Sun's convoy traversing the vast ocean of our regions of the oceans. Extracting metalt from the Milky Way galaxy. We are separated from our sister ocean bottom at depths of 1000 ft or more requires ships by greater distances than our land surface is the development of an abyssal technology, an accom- from the bottom of our oceans. But far more impor- plishment that is no easier or less costly than devel- tant than distance is the nature of the intervening oping the space technology required for extraterres- medium. trial miner' resource utilization. Even aside from development problems, the Vacuum technology of It is very fortuitous that we need only to traverse space cannot help but lighten the terrestrial burden open space to reach our extraterrestrial resources, and the threat to life's roots in the oceans, while rather than ocean depths or miles of eartlis crust to ocean-bed mining cannot help but do the opposite, reach our remote terrestrial mineral resources. It since it appears unavoidable that effluents and tail- is equally fortuitous that our companion worlds are ings are pumped directly into the sea. not other earths. One intelligent species is probably as much as most solar systems can accommodate. Land mining at increasing depths faces a for- Our companion worlds are underdeveloped. Earth is midable problem of locating promising ore in the the only luxury passenger liner in a convoy pf 347 freighters loaded with resources. These resources radioactive materials, thereby reducing the fallout are for us to use, after earth has hatched us to the on the worlds in question. point where we have the intelligence and the means to gain partial independence from our planetand Metallurgical methods will have to be revised for where the time has come to convert our earth from absence of water and for use of gases of different an all-supplying womb into a home for the long future composition than are used on earth. However,oxy- of the human race, finally born into the greateren- gen is fairly abundant in chemical (e.g., silicon) vironment of many worlds. compounds from which -it can be extracted. Oxygen is an important ingredient in some beneficiation On those worlds we can bring nuclear power to methods the first step in nonferrous metallurgy, bear to exploit minerals with an efficiency that would where waste is removed, concentrating the valuable be prohibitive on earth. This changes the basis for mineral into smaller bulk for subsequent steps in exploitation inasmuch as lower grales can be ex- refining. The large energy requirements for electric ploited more efficiently than on earth. We have the smelting, high-frequency induction melting, electro- nuclear muscle to break an asteroid apart, or to metallurgy, and pc rhaps modified forms ofpyro- work the crust of another planet extensively, in metallurgy can easily be provided anywhere by order to get at needed minerals. nuclear-electric or nuclear-thermal power plants. Some will see in this a threat to soil other worlds as well as our own. But like every creature, Transportation Costs we cannot help soiling something by living. One of the most thoughtless statements, parroted adnau- For the transportation from the moon or the seam ever since rational concern for our environ- planets to be economically viable, the energy must be ment exploded into an emodonal syndrome, calls very inexpensive and metal transporters must travel man the only animal that soils its own nest. Every in relatively slow paths. To be inexpensive, theen- animal soils its nest with the products of its metabo- ergy must be extremely concentrated and the materi- lism if unable to move away. Space technology gives als (expellant) expended in propelling the transport- us, for the first time, the freedom to leave our nest, ers must be small in mass and low in cost; or they at least for certain functions, in order not to soil it. must be provided at the place of mining. With the exception of the latter possibility, which is uncertain, Mineral exploitation is not the cleanest business only nuclear fusion meets these conditions. Because in the world. But soiling an asteroid ora desolate of the large payloads, the transporter requires high place on another planet cannot reasonably be equated thrust values. Fusion drives, operating through to continued soiling of the earth. Moreover, pollu- pulsed energy release, can most readily attain high tion assumes an entirely different, and far less crit- thrust values while keeping propellant consumption ical, meaning in the context of the extraterrestrial low. Their operation uses a sequence of detonatiOns environment. This environment isan inorganic somewhat analogous to the operation of a combustion world, exposed to a steady stream of biocidal, ultra- engine. In the latter, a piston is propelled by chemi- violet radiation and particle flares fromour sun, cal detonation. In the pulsed fusion drive,an elastic both of which would constitute pollutantspar excel- device absorbs the energy shock from the detonating lence if they could flood our terrestrial environment. nuclear pulse, thereby driving the spacecraft There is nothing that man's exploits-on-other worlds forward. . could add to make things worse in the vastexpanse of the solar system. The energy-releasing device is a nuclear fusion charge of adequate strength. The energy transmit- Extraterrestrial mining of mineral deposits will ting device is an expellant which could be eithera be made possible by using nuclear explosives (Fig. metal or hydrogen (or water), dependingon design 5), or possibly by nuclear fusion torchesinvestigat- specifics of the engine. ed more recently by Atomic EnergyCommission (AEC) researchers, to break rocks andore bodies Figure 6 surveys the propellant cost of an inter- an extraterrestrial version of Plowshare. Ab- orbital transport having a dry weight of 1000tons sence of a significant atmosphere in most cases, and (2.2 million pounds), capable of deliveringa useful low gravitational pull, will permit easierescape of payload of 3000 tons ( 6.6 million pounds) froman 348 extraterrestrial resource base to earth.In order Transportation costs need not be the principal con- to determine the propellant cost, the following as- straint, 50 yr hence. " sumptions were made: It is interesting to note that in order to bring 1. The cost of the nuclear fuel is $ 424 000 per home 3000 tons of metal from the lunar surface, a kiloton (10-14 $/erg) . nuclear energy of only about 50 kt need be expended for the round trip; and only some 150 to 200 kt to 2. The cost of the expellant is negligible com- return 3000 tons from the Mars complex or from pared to the cost of the nuclear fuel or the cost of asteroids. transporting the expellant from earth to orbit. Many consider this way out or look at it with 3. The earth-to-orbit transportation cost of derision or skepticism as to its practicality, while - nu-clear fuel and expellant is $ 20 000 per ton ( about at the same time we are compelled by our primordial $10 per pound, or 10 times less than with presently instincts to pile up vast megatcsmages to keep each projected shuttle, assuming a much larger earth-to- other In line. orbit shuttle some 30 years hence). 4. The transport carries as payload on its out- Future of Man bound flight the fuel and expellant needed for the re- turn flight where its payload is 3600 tons of extract- The central concept is the rreservation of man ed metal. and his future. This means the preservation of both the natural terrestrial environment and the infinite world of man, because he needs both. They were one The result is shown for three levels of transpor- in the past. But this one-world era is drawing to a tation energy, corresponding to: (1) 10 km/sec; close.In the future, they will encompass many (2) 20 km/sec; (3) 40 km/sec each way. Lunar - worlds and, thereby, the world of man may become missions are well under the level of curve (1). Mars a world so savagely tivided in the past. missions would fall near to, Or somewhat above curve one (1) .Asteroid missions would lie between (1) and But for this to happen, niant s root planet must (2), Mercury missions between (2) and (3). Each be his seat of power, not his his root com- curve shows the propellant cost per kilogram payload plex with the crown reaching to the stars.In this versus the nuclear energy expended on the round trip and in the next century, man will experience a trans- of transportation energy. at the definr,i formation without equal since he emerged on this planet. He must have new options to cope with his The minima shown in Figure 6 are representa- altogether new existential universe. tive. They indicate cost figures that are economi- cally viable, especially for the 10 km/sec and the Earth and space am indivisible. Together they 20 km/sec level, if compared to the costof some represent the greater environment of tomorrow metals already today. through which the balance between man and planet can be restored, so that Loth his terrestrial birth Of course, the figurers in Figure 6 are far from environment as well as the needed boundlessness of being the total cost even the total transportation his world can be maintained for the long future. cost. The latter includes the cost of ship mainte, nance, loading and unloading, and crew maintenance In the greater earth-space environment a practi- during layover times in earth orbit and at the target. cal division of labor can be developed in which maxi- These additional transportation costs can presently mum advantage is taken of each of the three principal be detailed only on a highly .speculative basis. But environmental regimes: earth, space, and other they will hardly as much as double the indicated worlds in the inner solar system. Earth resource minima. Possible reductions in nuclear fuel cost or management from space, power generation to space reductions in earth-to-orbit transportation cost for consumption on earth, and minerals from other would have a far greater effect. worlds in the inner solar system these are only the beginnings recognizable to us today of an evolu- The point to be made here is that contrary to a . tion in which the nonuniqueness of earth becomes generally held presupposition, interorbital transpor- one of the important keys to the long-range future of tation costs can be decreased to a competitive level. the human race. . - -Q1'1While we must correct the mistakes of the past, different points in earth' s orbit.Space cities, with it inest not be done by discriminating against the giant factories and food-producing future facilities, will and that is precisely what weare doing if maintain their own merchant fleet of we do not work concurrently toward broadening spacecraft, our their own raw material mining centerson other ce- option base, especially in the greater earth-space lestial bodies, and be politicallyindependent city- environment. Because we are emancipated fromthe states, trading with earth, formingnew cultural natural environment on a massive scale,we must cells of mankind whose choice of living invest more heavily than ever in the future of in space has a hu- increased tremendously and addingto the plurality man race that must rely primarily on its genius, of human civilization. not on its terrestrial environment, to provide forits future needs, physical and emotional. Forwe alone are responsible from now on for ourselves,our Perhaps, as we place the extraterrestrialdo- planet and our solar system to the end ofour time. main into the service of all people,we may be per- mitted to hope for the greatest benefit ofalit that Orbits are the new lands of our time. Before the ugly, the bigoted, the hateful, thecheapness of we even get to settle on another celestial body,we opportunism, and all else that is small,narrow, can build growing installations in space whose archi-: contemptible and repulsive becomesmore apparent teeture rests as safelyon the dynamic foundations of and far less tolerable from the vantagepoint of the celestial mechanics as our terrestrial architecture stars than it ever was from the perspectiveof the rests on the static foundations of the ground. Earth mudhole., and space must be interconnected by safe andcost- effective routine transportation. After all, should we not take a cue from the fact that since the beginning man has placed his Large space cities will eventually nq longer only dreams and aspirations among the stars and his occupy earth satellite orbits, but circle our sun at nightmares into caves whence he came? Figure 1. The solar system. 350 log 7.45 SOLAR ENERGY FLUX INTERCEPTED ANNUALLY SY EARTH 2.2111 SOLAR ENERGY AS001111ED ANNUALLY BY HYDROSPHERE los 7% ANNUAL GROWTH RATE 104 SOLAR ENERGY ABSORBED ANNUALLY BY TERRESTRIAL 3.11` VEGETATION 3.11 INCREASE BY FACTOR OF 2.4140 OVER 1070 LEVEL 'INCREASE SY FACTOR OF 140 OVER 1070 LEVEL .. 11 .00 102 1.2 A WASTE NEAT FROM TOTAL POWER GENERATION II. WASTE HEAT FROM ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION 101 4 111110 $OO 2110 aoso 2110 YEAR Figure 2. The thermal burden. SOLAR RADIATION COLLECTOR PANEL GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT SOLAR 122,300 MILES ALTITUDE) ARRAY PANEL ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSMISSION WASTE HEAT RADIATOR MICROWAVE POWER BEAM TRANSMITTER NUCLEAR4AHD POWER GENERATOR Figure 3. Methods of power generation in space for consumption on earth. 351 124ANN1 POI AR (LOOM ORNT N-11014111410tYNCINIONOUSI 101)ATORIAL DAFT ORCIARIAPIAL COVIRAOS AMNION ., amersemc covenmx Figure 4. Choke of power station orbits. 'Al IIII ICI I CAVITY FORMATION Of A CHIMNEY FORMATION Of A CHIMNEY 2 FRACTUR1210 TONE OF mamma ROCK AND ACCESS TO fRACTU01210 3 DEFORMED ZONE THROUGH A COMPINATION MINERALS DY A SECONDARY 4 FALLING ROCK Of COOLING Of GRAVITY EXPLOSION 41 TO COMMIS 3 PUDDLE OF MOLTEN ROCK SATE FOR INSUFFICIENT GRAVITATIONAL FORCE Figure 5.Extraterrestrial mining. NM PROPILLANT COAT COST Of NUCL. OIL TRANSPORTATION COST Of JIM. NUM NAL AND 1 IOWAN, INTO ORM? COW W" NMS 1101,1111111pat I* TRANSPORTATION COST MAN re NA fROPSIANT COST MR AMMAN VITAL mamma)10 ISA, INN -- AAA SAS IN NW INS ROUND TRIP TRAININIKATION POOPULINvI MIRY 1111.0TOPIII Figure 6.Interorbital transportation propellantcost for 3000-ton payload nuclear pulse freighter for specific destination. 352 SESSION VII I BENEFITS TO FUTURE POWER GENERATION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION POWER AND ENERGY FOR POSTERITY By Robert F. Barthelemy and Robert F. Cooper Robert F. Cooper Air Force Aero-Propulsion Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio Abstract the development of lightweight, low-temperature, and superconducting electrical energy storage sys- During the past 20 years, the increasing electri- tems. On .the other end of the power and energy cal and thermal energy demands of aerospace vehi- scale, electrical and thermal energy conversion and cles have led to the development of highly sophisti- storage systems had to be developed in an extremely cated energy generation and storage systems. High- lightweight form to satisfy manned spacecraft and efficiency solar arrays, very reliable batteries and satellite energy needs. Since fuel and oxidizer sys- fuel cells, highly efficient turbogenerators, zero- tems for the long lifetime space missions would be loss superconducting energy storage devices, prom- very heavy, energy conversion systems for these ising magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power systems, applications concentrated on using free solar energy high-energy density solar collectors, and reliable or lightweight nuclear energy. Solar cells, tiolir thermionic and thermoelectric electrical converters collectors, thermoelectrics, and thermionic con- have all been developed to satisfy our aerospace version devices were developed to use these energy needs.Since one of 20th century man's great_ sources. est needs is for usable energy, application of this technology to benefit the general public was consid- Although the development of higher performance ered. The utilization of these-systems for energy systems for aerospace application, is a con- pollution-free generation of energy to satisfy man- tinuing process, it seems appropriate, at this time kind's future electrical, thermal, and propulsion of ecological awareness, to reflect upon the benefits needs was of primary concern. Ground, air, and that man might derive from the recent developments space transportation; commercial, peaking, and in this area. In particular, the great care taken emergency electrical power; and metropolitan and during the evolution of these systems to either utilize unit thermal energy requirements were considered. natural energy sources or operate at very high effi- Each type of energy system was first analyzed in ciencies suggests that their applicability might be terins of its utility in satisfying the requirement, toward reducing pollution from our major energy and then its potential in reducing the air, noise, generation and conversion processes. With this in thermal, water, and nuclear pollution from future mind, we have reviewed the technology and recent electrical and thermal systems was determined. developments in aerospace energy systems in order to assess their potential promise for reducing the Introduction various forms of pollution associated with energy generation processes. All of the new energy sys- During the past two decades, the increasing elec- tems seem to have some merit in this area. trical and thermal energy demands of aerospace Although several interesting applications were found vehicles have required the development of highly and are conceptually discussed, a detailed analysis sophisticated and unique energy generation and stor- to determine their payoff was not carried out.In age systems. For the megawatt aircraft electrical addition, the cursory investigation carried out in power requirements, MHD generators, and high- this paper is by no means exhaustive.It is the performance turboalternators have been investigat- authors' hope that this discussion of aerospace ed and arc-being-Constructed. The need to achieve energy systems will lead to new ideas on their appli- lightweight MHD generators led to,the study of su- cability in solving some of the world' s energy perconducting magnets, which opened the way for problems. 355 Solar Arrays Uniil last year, spacecraft engineers were primarily into rested in using solar collectors as a heat source Solar arrays have been developed by the Air for electrical-power generation turbogenerators or Force and NASA to provide electric power for space thermoelectric devices were used to convert the satellites. The advantage of solar arrays is that thermal energy to electrical power. Recently, re- they utilize solar energy for power generation, and quirements for large amounts of heat on spacecraft hence, no heavy fuels and oxidizers need be launched have 4ed to renewed interest in solar collectors and for their operation. The disadtantage of arrays is programs to develop these solar to thermal conver- that they operate only in sunlight.In order to satis- sion systems are currently underway. fy the spacecraft's need for continuous electrical power, energy storage systems, such as batteries or Solar collectors have been built in a wide variety fuel cells, must be employed for dark-time power. of sizes. For space systems, collectors capable of delivering several hundred kilowatts of thermal en- Solar arrays have been developed to the point ergy have been constructed. The collectors operate where they can be launched in a rolled-up configura- at very high efficiencies 90 percent), are ex- tion and deployed into flat plates in space. They are tremely lightweight (0.2 lb/ft2), and have long life- efficient, lightweight, and last for as long as 7 years times (5-10 years) in space. in space without maintenance. Their main perform- ance disadvantage is their cost, which could be sub- They could be used to provide both thermal and stantially reduced with greater usage and increased electrical power for either small units, such as production. homes, or large industrial complexes. Like solar cells, collectors are noiseless, nonnuclear and use They are ideally :tutted as a pollution-free meth- nothing but sunlight for energy production. Although od of generating electrical power. They generate no it would be possible to place solar collectors in or- air or water pollutants, and are noiseless and non- bit and transfer the collected energy to the earth, a nuclear, using nothing but sunlight for power produc- more practical approach would be to utilize ground- tion. Commercial solar power plants could be de- based collectors. Heat storage systems, using the signed in two ways. Long lifetime systems could be energy stored during the phase cliange of an alkali placed in an orbit around the earth where electrical metal (like sodium) from the liquid state to the va- power would be produced by the array and converted por state, could be employed to maintain constant into microwave energy, which could be-beamed down heat output during dark'periods. These heat storage to earth and reconverted into electrical power. systems have been built using heat pipe technology While such a system would have a very high initial and have lifetimes of several years. cost ( because of launch), its operating cost would be negligible. A typical systeni might be a 5-square Housing and industrial complexes built around mile array at synchronous orbit which could supply central solar-collector systems, providing both 10 million kilowatts of power for-inours a day. thermal and thermally converted electrical power, An earth-based battery storage bank would be needed should be considered. The electrical conversion to cover the remaining hour. The alternative system systems could be either' centrally located or placed . would be a ground-based array/battery complex. appropriately within the using subunits. Approxi- In this case, the initial cost is low but the operating mately 100 ft2 of collector would be required for cost is high (replacement, damage).In addition, thermal input to a single family unit.In order to the storage system would be much larger (8 -12 hours reduce costs, very large solar collectors could be versus 1 hour), and weather would greatly affect used for inputs to several units. the system's operation. The major disadvantage of ground-based solar- Although solar array power production is essen- collector thermal beating and conversion is its per- tially pollution free, application of this approach is formance dependence on weather. Heavy cloud being delayed because of the economics. cover virtually destroys the collector' s ability to deliver thermal energy. There are several ap- proaches which could compensate for this disadvan- Solar Collectors tage. Collectors could be used primarily in areas where bad weather is rare. Oversized units with Solar collectors can be used to convert solar large storage systems could be employed in margin- energy into highly concentrated thermal energy. ' al areas. Auxiliary nonsolar powee systems could A./ 356 be used with solar collectors to cover these blackout Superconductivity periods.Finally, solar collectors could only beuti- lized to provide Auxiliary power for specific applica- A decade ago, a discoverywas made in materi- tions, such as air-conditioning, when heavycloud als which has provided cover is not a rablem. a basis for revolutionizing energy conversion and energy transmissionproc= esses. This discovery, referred toas high mag- netic strength superconductivity, has Batteries/Fuel Cells led to mate- rials having zero resistance,under extremely low temperatures, to electric currents. This, Thy conversion of chemical of course, energy directly into leads to the design and constructionof high electric electrical energy can be accomplished ineither a current conductors and very high strengthmagnets. battery or a fuel cell. The only differencebetween The use of these magnets has further the two lies in the state and physical led very ef- relationship of ficient power generation schemes- either previously the chemical reactants going into thereaction. Both unavailable or of low efficiency. Superconductors fuel cells and batteries can be made to operate in a were first applied to-large bubblechambers for high primary mode where they are never recharged,such energy physics. Now, in less than 10 as flashlight batteries, or in the secondary mode, years from discovery,to application, superconductorsare being where recharging is used to extend theiruseful life- applied to compact and efficient time. Batteries and fuel cells which rotating generators can operate for and motors, under groundenergy transmission, as many years with thousands of chnrgeldiecharge well as one of the most promising of cycles have been developed for aircraft direct electri- satellites. cal power generation schemes,MHD. Both the ro- Since most batteries and fuel cellsare modular, tating machines using superconductors there is really no limit to the as well as power levels one can l'ZID will be discussed in more detailin the follow- achieve using them. In order to reducelaunch costs ing paragraphs. and increase aircraft payload fractions,a very large development effort has been underwayto reduce the Considerable detail could be given weight of batteries and fuel cells. on the other Priniary batter- uses of superconductivity alluded to above- such ies, with excellent reliability, have beendeveloped with power densities of 100 W-h as high-speed trains, energy storage, underground per pound for 100 - electrical power transmission, medicalresearch, hour applications. Secondary batteriesand fuel plus general industrial applications. cells, with 5-year continuous use lifetimes, However, only have the electrical power generationapplications will be achieved power densities of 10 W-h/lb. discussed. Although the use of batteries for specialappli- cations in industrial and household applications has Superconducting Rotating been considered, and in somecases, utilized, the Machinery general use of these storage systems isnow being The use of superconductors (instead of studied. Battery-driven electric automobiles, water- cooled copper) in electrical rotatingmachinery al- where lifetime, weight, and volumeare premiums, lows the increase of 10-100 times the are very attractive from a pollution-control view- current through a given area of conductor. Thisleads to a point. Automobiles designated primarilyfor short dramatic reduction in physical size, volume, mileage use could operate on secondary and batteries weight of rotating electrical machinery.Thus, one with recharging accomplished via commercialpower can either obtain a much smaller unit of fixed during nonuse periods. Family and commercial power or can produce 5-10 times more power for thesame unit electricity could be supplied withfuel cells volume and weight of conventional machinery. operating on natural gas. These fuel, cells Not could be only does this size advantage turn out to be combined with a natural-gas heating of value system to sup,..4for aircraft and ship power, but forcommercial ply thermal energy to the units.Finally, the appli- power as well cation either steady-state (base load)or fuel cells or batteries to commercial emergency (portable) power systems of multimega- transportation, via electrically driven land or sea watt capability. The additional advantages ofhigh systems, should be studied to determine theeco- voltage (better for transmitting nomic feasibility of these low-pollution long distances) and systems. high overload capability (intermittentpower pulse 357 demands) are some other attributes of this type of hydrocarbon fuels where the MHD system may in- generator/motor. crease the overall plant efficiency from 40 percent to 50-60 percent. This could r'sult in a reduction In this area of superconducting rotating machht- of the thermal pollution by over 200 percent for cry, there have been programs sponsored by private the same electrical power output. in addition more industry and various governmental agencies to pro- efficient utilization of our limited natural resources vide for engineering evaluations. The support for would be possible. general superconducting technology has come from many governmental organizations and laboratories. The marriage of MHD with a nuclear energy This support has provided a strong basis for the source could also be realized in a number of ways rapid development of this area of power generation. each of which requires high temperature reactors. But today, the technology is here. Machines do The higher temperatures are essential to make the exist and the power levels, megawatts, and learn- MHD conversion process work efficiently. Operat- ing curves are rapidly growing as new goals are ing temperature of above 4000F, for example, continuously being achieved. are required for direct coupling of MHD to a gaseous cooled reactor. By using regenerative techniques, For as this country doubles its power production cycle efficiencies of 60-70 percent are feasible for capability in the next decade, the location, efficien- commercial MHD power generation. This repre- cy, and physical size of the power plants become in- sents a doubling of today's nuclear powerplant ef- creasingly important and costly. What advantages ficiencies and a reducing of thermal pollution by has the new area of superconducting electrical ma- over 300 percent. chinery? The answers are high efficiency, com- pactness, and lower costs - costs from power gen- Today, development programs are considering eration, plus fewer and more compact facilities. MHD plus nuclear energy combinations for electri- cal power in space.Efficiencies for near-term systems are*much lower, but still attractive, in or- MHD Power Generation der to provide long life and to use lower tempera- ture reactors. A great leap forward would be to have a type of energy conversion which ce id directly extract large MHD power generation technology has been sup- amounts of electrical pm; rom a thermal energy ported in the past mainly by the Department of source. Such a technique ut....s exist.It is called Defense (DOD) and NASA, until recently when the magnetohydrodynamics or MID. Department of the Interior entered the support pic- ture for commercial power. NASA's major emphasis MHD is an energy conversion process which has been on nuclear MHD systems, while DOD's directly generates power from a veryhot gas while has been on hydrocarbon-fueled (combustion driven) it is moving through a magnetic field.In general. MHD for short time operation.The advantages of the higher the temperature one can work with for instant on-off of combustion-driven MHD systems energy extraction, the higher the efficiency of the make it very attractive for emergency power and process. The limitation is generally set by materi- other very high-level putsezi power uses. The als, which in rotating machinery is the fery high startup and shutdown mechanisms for MHD do not stress caused by spinning at high speeds and at high involve the dynamic loading of many precision com- temperatures. The MHD energy conversion process ponents, such as in conventional rotating machinery. requires no moving parts, and thus, can be operated MHD has the added advantage of becoming more at a much higher temperature and efficiency than ro7 efficient with a larger power size as well as higher tating machinery. Higher efficiency can then be temperatures. equated to reduced pollution, better use of resources (conservation), and higher power per fixed unit The output of most MHD systems of interest is leading to fewer plant sites. direct current power which could be directly used in applications, such as wind tunnels, metal refin- The MHD process can he used with any thermal ing, and chemic"l industry which require very large energy source, which is hot enough, to either couple amounts of power over short time periods. (Short directly with the energy source or to complement a times may range from millisecond pulses to running conventional powerplant system. The thermal en- times of seconds to minutes, perhaps even hours.) ergy sources primarily being considered today are The technology is directly applicable to emergency 358 power plants, .portable megawatt (1000 kW) units In summary, since the MUD processcan work with fast, online responses and minimalwater and at much higher temperatures, and since theprocess air pollution systems. The attractiveness ofport- eliminates a complete step in the directconversion able power units, each mcxiekd toa particular ap- of thermal energy to electricity, MHOpower sys- plication, exists. MHD would provide not onlya new tems should indeed by considered a ?1st century capability in today's modern rociety, but thedrastic energy conversion process that is available today: lowering of thermal, air, and solid pollution coupled with resource conservation. Thisarea of pulsed MUD power can differ significantly from commercial baseload MHD power, where economics stilldomi- Conclusion nate the choice. However, as the pulses become longer the two will approachcommon technological The necessity for compact, efficient energy goals, areas of development, and technological sources for aerospace vehicles has led to the devel- problems, opment a high performance energy generation,con- version, and storage systems.. Because of their An obvious question is the cost per kilowatt unique operating characteristics, these systems could be applied to significantly reduce air, ther- in fact, does it cost more for MHD unitsthan con- ventional power? But what is really meant by mal, noise, and waste pollution, which aregener- costs? ated during the commercial and private production If you mean dollars per unit of electricity, thean- swer may be yes for the early- MHD plants,Aecause and consumption of useful energy. Some of these of the development required. However, applications have been discussed in this paper; costs must hopefully more can be found. not only be gaged in economics. To many ofus it costs dearly to add more thermal and air pollution; The staggering ecological problems caused by to waste valuable needed land for less efficient our energy utilization necessitate the use of the very (more real estate) power plants; when a 50-percent best technology to reduce this effect.Fortunately, increase in electricity could be obtained from each this technology can be made availableas a result pound of fuel but is not being accomplished! of pioneering aerospace programs. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM SPACETECHNOLOGY TO CENTRAL POWER GENERATION By Dr. John B. Dicks, Jr. Professor of Physics University of Tennessee Space Institute Tullahoma, Tennessee Abstract ciable number of these deilcescan be put on the line and 2030 before a large portion of thepower can be This paper discusses the centralpower crisis, supplied by breeder technology. Some and the present and relatively near-time eventual contribu- solution may come from fusion plants,but the tions that aerospace technology is makingto help source of power has not even been demonstrated in soive.this crisis. The principal emphasisis placed a on the prospects of aerospace-derived magnetohydro- sustained reaction and, hence, stands fromthe viewpoint of developing technology wherefission dynamic (MHD) large-scalepower generation. The power stood in 1939. The time--required for central strides that the Soviet Union Lunaking-inthis field power development-is illustrated when with the startup of the new U-15 plant one recog- near Moscow, nizes that only about 1 percent ofour power is having a total power capability of 75 MW,are re- -currently produced from fission reactors viewed. A much smaller some 30 program in the U.S. is years after sustained fission reactionswere first outlined, and prospects of future benefitsare demonstrated. discussed. We also face the possibility that the public will not accept the risks presented by fission Acknowledgments reactors and later, the more dangerous breederreactors. Recent evidence of this fact appeared Research was sponsored in part by the Air on August 28 Force of this year when the U.S. Court ofAppeals decided Office of Scientific Research, Office -of- Aerospace that the Atomic Energy Commission Research, USAF, Contract F44620-69-C-0031 had failed to and implement environmental safeguards inthe construc- Department of the Interior, Office of CoalResearch, tion of 68 nuclear power plants. Contract 14-32-0001-1213. The existence of an energy crisis became The technical approach to Improve centralpower an technology has been extremely one-sidedin the officially recognized fact with the June6, 1971, release of the...President's U. S., concentrating almost exclusivelyon fission message on this subject power, which is simply an energy source, and to Congress. This crisis arises froma combination completely neglecting the process of converting of factors, chiefly our civilization's insatiablere- energy into electrinity once it is formed. Thus, quirements for energy, and the suddenrealization we find that the thermal the_fission that the very production of thisenergy is destroying reactor is about 32 percent and is even less than the the environment. One of the primary causes of our 40 percent efficiency found infossil-fuel-fired problems stems from centralpower generation steam plants. The technology in both of these where approximately 20 percent of the stems ground-based from the 19th century steam cycle, and theimprove- air pollution, and most of the thermalpollution, arises. ments that have taken place have been through the evolutionary process with very little thought being given to other methods of conversion. Improvements, This country has spent a vast portion of its in the steam cycle efficiency, progress ata rate technical resources in the development ofenergy of a fraction of a percent per year. The remarkable,- based on the fission of uranium. We now discover fact that electrical power had not risen in cost -" that this energy source is not backed by sufficient before the recent power crisis is because of the low-cost uranium reserves to make it economically sizing effect, which allows marked economic savings feasible past 1985 11) .The tardy development in power cost as the size ofpower plant units in- of the breeder reactor is delaying its installationto creased from 250 kW to 1200-kW. Currently, such an extent that it will be 1995 beforean appre- technical difficulties being experienced with large 361 units in the 1200-kW range indicate a tcmporary load power generation, their value in peaking was limit to an improved economy with increased size. . demonstrated last summer when large numbers of them operating on long-duty cycles prevented power The only place one can look for the technology blackouts. A vast amount of the technology used in which may save the current power situation is in the these gas turbines come from experience in ir- past developments of aerospace technology where breathing propulsion research and develepre nt. attempts have been made to investigate new forms of Such turbine generation units have a short eselivery energy conversion, and where particular attention time of approximately 1 year 313 compared to the 5 to has been -paid to high-temperature technology. In 7 years required for delivery of ordinary central pow fact, it is through high-temperature technology that er stations. Thus, installation of aerospace-derived the most likely near-time benefits can be achieved, hardware has allowed overstrained, conventional since the principal loss in overall central power plant power systems to remain in operation and has been efficiency arises in the heat cycle. The heat cycle an important factor in avoiding what might have in such plants is presently less than 40 percent been a disastrous failure of power equipment in the efficient as compared to a boiler efficiency of 90 eastern U.S. percent and electrical generator efficiency of 38 percent. Therefore, we see that little is to be gained in efficiency of other comp. rents than the heat cycle We can thus obtain relatively high temperatures itself, and so we turn to ;Ms improvement to achieve and its attendant benefits from gas turbines, but our greatest advance. it is not possible to *..ely on them for baseload plants. As stated in the President' s message of The Carnet efficiency of a heat engine is given June 6, 1971, MID is a possibility for aiding in by pollution reduction and in the more efficient produc- tion of base power. The Office of Science and Tech- TC nology in the White House has further projected = 1 $ 500 million to be spent in acquiring this MID tech- TH nology over the next 15 years. Through the Interior Department, the Federal Government is spending where $2 million during the current fiscal year in this technology matched with additioral funds from utili- TH = the absolute temperature of the heat source ties. Such amounts of money are of little significance in the central power field where it is necessary to Tc = the absolute temperature of the heat sink spend approximately $200 million to build a central power plant, but this amount ',Wald in the early to which heat is rejected. development of this technology and represents a start of federally-funded development in the central In the central power plant Te is the temperature of power area. Previous to this time MID technology has been developed through funds furnished by NASA available cooling water at the site and TH cannot and the U.S. Air Force for aerospace applications. exceed the highest obtainable combustion temperature, the adiabatic flame temperature. Magnetohydrodynamic power generation is Currently the temperature limitation for steam achieved when an easily ionized metal, such as is about 1200'F and the limitation for gas turbines, potassium or cesium, is introduced into high- though higher, is generally considered to be 2400' F. temperature combustion gas, which is expanded to a Unfortunately, gas turbines are also limited to fuels high velocity through a nozzle and then directed containing no contamination in the form of ash, as a into a magnetic field with properly are aged elec- small amount of ash will rapidly destroy the turbine. trodes and external circuit. In this situation a The limitation of gas turbines requires that they moving conductor is cutting magnetic -field lines and burn fuels that are not really economical in the cen- a useful emf is generated. Although this kind of tral power plant. Also, the gas turbine must be of electrical configuration was described by Faraday small size to avoid limitations in blade tip velocity. over 100 years ago and was one of the first generator Their size is projected to a limit of 2I0-kW electrical configurations invented, the problems associated output per unit. with high temperature have prevented its application to high-temperature gas until recently. Through the Despite the limitation of turbines, which is likely use of current high-temperature, space. 441ented to prevent their taking over a large portion of base technology and some 10 years of research and 362"'t -development in MHD, the state of the art has reached From the preheater the gas enters a steam the point such that 10 more years of workcan produce boiler, but this boiler must be ofa design that dif- large power plants in the 2000-MW range size for rfers from that of the conventionalboiler. In the practical use. The impetus for developing such conventional boiler, much of the heat transferoccurs plants lies in the high thermal efficiency between50 through radiation. In this case, nearly all the heht and 60 percent, as compared to 40 percent forcon- transfer will be through convection and, in addition, ventional fossil fuel and 32 percent for nuclearpower the boiler materials must stand up to relatively high plants. This makes MHD-typ., steam plantsattrac- temperatures and the alkali metal seed that ispres- tive from the standpoint of economics, thermal pol- ent in the flow. The associated steam equipment lution, and air pollution. is conventional in nature as is, of course, the al- ternator connected to it. This conventionalpower The bar graph in Figure 1 shows the temperature generating stage will supply 50 percent of thepower range used in the ideal steam cycle, as compared to or less. the range of temperature actually available.It is seen from this that the steam cycle uses only a rela- Within recent years in the U.S., there has been tively small portion of the available temperature literally no central power MHD program other than range, and it is apparent that a much more efficient the small efforts which could be maintained in indus- cycle might operate by topping the steam cyclewith tries and the universities using their own funds to a device that could operate at the flame temperature work on central power on the side. The vast major- or above. ity of the work has been in basic researchon basic phenomena and development work for the Defense In the MHD cycle an increase in flametempera- Department. During 1971, funds have become avail- ture is necessary to prodtice the required electrical able to start a minimal amount of centralpower conductivity, and thus, the MHD generatoruses MUD work. This is being largely funded by the regeneratively preheated inlet air. The bar graph Office of Coal Research, in cooperation withpower showing the MUD operating range is illustratedin companies. The largest such effort is under a Figure 2. The MHD generator cycle is thusa true contract let to AVCO and a group of utility companies topping cycle since it does not use any portion of the to work on clean-fuel peaking plants, witha small temperature range of the conventional steam plant. amount of coal burning included. This contract is of the magnitude of $1.5 million to be spentover A simplified schematic diagram of the MHD- 3 years. Additional amounts would come from AVCO topped steam plant is shown in Figure 3. In this and the associated utilities. The next largestcon- figure, a high temperature combustor is fedwith tract is with The University of Tennessee Space coal, char, oil or combustion gas, pretreated air, Institute, with $350 000 to be spent over.1 yearon and a seed compound containing the easilyionized power generation with coal and char fuels. This metal. The combination of high temperatureand work includes a small investigation of chemical easily ionized metal produces the conducting combus- regeneration. The Office of Coal Research is fur- tion gas needed in the MHD generator. Theconditions nishing $264 000, $50 000 by the Tennessee Valley in these combustors are similar to thosemet in Authority, and $35 000 by the university. It is rocket engines. The conditions in thegenerator are expected that a contract for approximately $100 000 near to those found in rocket nozzles, hence, much per year will be let to The Massachusetts Institute of the technology being used here has been developed of Technology (MIT) to performsome basic research in the space program. MHD generators ofcontempo- studies, and to advise the Electrical Research rary design generate do current and therefore, Coun- an cil on MHD work to be carried out by thepower in- inverter must be used if we wishan alternating cur- dustry and the Office of Coal Research. In addition rent output. From the generator section the combus- to this, STD Corporation of Los Angelesmay receive tion gas passes through a regenerative preheater approximately $90 000 to direct and operate required, as previously described, to produce a mas- the ter computer program designed for MUDpower sys- high temperature needed in the combustorfor 'Conduc- tivity. High pressure air at approximately tem analysis. At Stanford University, there will be 5 atm is a research program funded by the Electric Research needed in the preheater combustor andgenerator so Council and the Bureau of Mines. that the compressor work here has to besubtracted from the energy produced by the M_ iltrgenerator section. Stanford, The University of Tennessee Space Institute, and AVCO have a long history otcoutinuous 363 research and development on open-cycle MHD power increasing efficiency. In Professor Scheindlin' s generation and have additional MHD open-cycle work method a gigaLtic experimental breadboard has been funded from other sources. The total central power constructed.,The .rerVant components are wide- program in the U.S. is inadequate to make appreci- ly separated aat-ffr)used in a large building which is able progress in this area, but there is the anticipa- so devised that experimental changes can be made tion that additional money will be available in the FY `with ease. Fnause of the problem of radioactivity, 1972 appropriation by Congress and from the Elec- it is not possible to develop nuclear power along tric Research Council. The participants in the ini- these lines, but MHD suffers from no such limita- tial program have plans for such expansion when the tions, and the bread card approach will give the resources are made available. Soviet Union an optimum experimental program. The question, for example, most frequently asked The situation, with respect to this technology, is, "What is the optimum channel design for the is quite different in the Soviet Union as an announce- MHD generator, and what is its capability of endur- ment of spectacular results was made in Moscow at ance?" The U-25 is so designed that a number of the 24th Party Conference in March 1971, that a new trial channels can be placed within its magnet and kind of power plant was in operation on the Moscow tried in succession. We believe that such channels power network. This plant is the IT-25, whose pro- have already been constructed with cold-wall design, spective design was described in the August 1969 hot-wall design, and intermediate-wall temperature. issue of MechanicalEngineering [2, 3, 4, 51. Con- The only photogra, h that we have seen of these jecture in the U.S. had commonly speculated that devices was the corner of such a channel shown is this plant would begin operation somewhere around a motion picture. It appeared to be a steep,- diagonal November 1971, so it appears to be ahead of our wall design with relatively large insulator spacing. original estimates. We believe that the plant is com- We expect that in addition to the diagonal wall elec- plete except for the steam turbine of the bottoming trical design, Faraday and Hall channels will be unit which would be of no importance inthe experi- tried as well, so that in the near future the High mental plant. Figure 4 indicates somewhat the size Temperature Institute will have information tn of the experimental installation, showing the gen- which channel works best. Not only is the MHD erator diffuser, downstream heat exchanger, and channel removable in this setup but other components exhaust cleanup and seed recovery tower. The ex- are as well. We expect that at some time the con- terior air preheaters, currently consisting of alums- ventional magnet will be replaced by a superconduct- vim oxide, are heated by natural, gas and then used ing magnet. We have been told that the seed removal to neat tae incoming air. The heaters will be cycled and exhaust cleanup device has been used at some periodically to provide a continuous flow of air at other location. We were also informed that the per- 1200' C. Such preheat is necessary in the MHD cycle formance of the preheaters was not satisfactory, in order to make the combustion products conducting. and some improvements will be made in this device. In the U-25 additional temperature is gained through the addition of a small amount of pure oxygen pre- We have been told that there are 1000 people at heated at 1200°C to the air. The preheaters have work on this MHD project alone, and we believe that been in operation for some time, though it is-not the project itself is skillfully and intelligently orga- completely clear how long they have been operated. nized so that the Soviet Union will acquire the neces- Others at the High Temperature Institute have been sary technology for central4vwer in a short period cycled for 8000 hours. We have not seen photographs of time, at an optimum cost. We know that this of the combustion chamber but one would expect that plant is in operation and producing data. Questions it is drastically smaller than the combustion chain- of endurance and electrical efficiency will be solved bers used with conventional power plants of the same in good time, and theIligh Temperature Institute Size, because of the high temperature and pressure. should be congratulated on its ability to put such a plant in operation so soon. In the U.S., because of It is interesting to speculate on the rationale cost limitation, we are at least 5 years away from a behind this approach by the High Temperature Insti- plant of this type. Cost estimates of-U-25 hardware ture to develop MUD central power technology. The range from $45 to $60 million for comparable approach is all the more interesting since no large- construction cost in the U.S. scale development in nonnuclear power plants has been undertaken before. In general, rather than a revolu- The yearly savings in the nation's power bill, tionary approach, power technology has crept up slow- if MUD fossil fuel plants were installed beginning in ly year by year to higher powers ( 13 MW) with slightly 1985, instead of ordinary fossil fuel plants, is shown 364 !..,%f," in Figure 5. The upper curve represents the savings utilization of advanced technologies into applications to be realized if fossil fuel takes over completely for the utility field. There is evidence thatthis situ- from nuclear fuel in 1985, and the lowercurve indi- ation is changing for the butter, and we find that cates the savings if the split between nuclear and certain topics of advanced technologyare under study fossil fuel power generation isas anticipated from by utility organizations. There is hope offuture uti- the usual power demand curves. U MHD central lization of advanced technologies by the utilitiesto power plants of 55 percent efficiency are developed, avoid the impending disaster in theenergy field. one would expect the savings in the power bill to lie somewhere between these two curves. The compe- tition might very well be effective in loweringthe cost of nuclear power as well. It is assumed in References making these cost estimates that SO2 is virtually eliminated from the MHD exhaust, regardless of the type coal burned, because of the seed recovery 1.Dicks, J. B.: process. Review of the MHD Power Situa- tion. 71-WA/ENER, ASME 92d Winter Annual Meeting, Nov. 28-Dec. 7, 1971. The future of central power is C.tidy with the uranium supply and price difficult to forecast, the 2.Dicks, J. B., et al.: MHD Power Generation: breeder reactor is uncertain in its development time Current Status. Mechanical Engineering, and acceptance by the public, the conventional fossil Aog. 1969. fuel plant now, asymptotically approaching its highest efficiency, and with the cost of power plant construc- 3.Kirillin, V. A., et al.:Investigations at U-02 tion steeply rising along with the price of fossil fuel. MHD Plant -- Some Results.Proceedings of _ All of these conditions make the future of central the Fifth International Conferenceon Magneto.: power in the U.S. uncertain and predictions exceed- hydrodynamic Electrical Power Generation, ingly difficult.It does seem clear, however, that Munich, Germany, vol. 1, 1971,p. 353. MHD fossil fuel power generation, if acquired, would do several important things.It will provide economic 4.Gnesin, G.G., et al.: Research on Materials competition for the nuclear system, give a possible for Manufacturing of Open-Cycle-MGDT Elec- alternative for relatively pollution-free power pro- trodes. Proceedings of the Fifth International duction if the breeder reactor fails to gain public Conference on Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical acceptance, and extend the lifetime of our coal Pdver Generation, Munich, Germany, vol. 1, reserves. 1971, p. 393. There are numerous contributions that the space 5.Zhimerin, D. G., et al.:Investigation of program has made to all of technology which are Cooled Channel on Enin-2 Installation.Proceed- difficult to document. This is especially true in the . ings of the Fifth International Conference on central power situation. The utilities are the least Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Genera- advanced group in all of American industry. Asa tion, Munich, Germany, vol. 1, 1971, p. 249. matter of fact, they have, among their employees, the smallest portion of Ph.D.'s found in any sub- 6.Walter, Samuel: Dower in the Year 2001. division in large American industry. In 1968, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 93,no. 9, for example, statistics show that the entire utility Sept. 1971, pp. 24-26. Industry employed only eight Ph.D. s, whereas the average for an industry this size in the U.S. would 7.Are You Really Underpaid. Engineer, Engineers be 590 [7).It has thus been very difficult to get Joint Council, May-June 1969. 365 FLAME TEMPERATURE 1500 UNUSEO AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCE TEMPERATURE CONVENTIONAL STEAM POWER '//// Figure 1. Temperature range comparison. FLAME TEMPERATURF PREriE AT LtHD SOURCE T'EMPERA7URE 2500 MHD TOPPING AND PREHEAT 2000 /// A 1500 1000 4 STEAM. SOURCE 7EMPERATURE 500 CONVENTIONAL/ STEAM PO'NER/ 0 Figure 2. 411D operating range. 366 r pa, muit Figure 3. MIID-topped steam plant. ,"11SEED 17I-COMY "rOitilt STEAM HEAT EXCIIANGER coUPRESSolt 1TOft in/ ft NFIt 25 Figure 4.EI-25 power plant. 18 16 1.4.- 12 10 8 6 0 4 4 4 2 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Figure 5.Savings each year that might be achieved through MJID technology on total cost of central power- in the U.S. 368 SOLAR ENERGY, ITS CONVERSION AND UTILIZATION By Dr. Erich A. Farber Professor and Research Professor Director, Solar Energy and Energy Conversion Laboratory University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Abstract It presents the overall activities of the Solar Energy and Energy Conversion Laboratory of the University This paper describes the work being carried of Florida rather than the technical details of one out at the University of Florida Solar Energy and particular investigation: Energy Conversion Laboratory in converting solar energy, our only income, into other needed and use- The laboratory has looked into old methods of ful forms of energy. A treatment such as this converting solar energy into the forms of energy demonstrates, in proper perspective, hoW solar needed, has used the present state of the art, and energy can benefit mankind with its many problems has pioneered in many areas of solar energy of shortages and pollution. utilization. The paper will be conducted like a tour through Before.going into the various programs and the laboratory, describing the conversion processes, efforts to utilize solar energy, the reasons for the equipment, and performance. The testing of mate- .great interest in this field should be presented. rials; solar water heating; space heating; cooking and baking; solar distillation; refrigeration and air- It is obvious from all surveys and reports that conditioning; work with the solar furnace; conversion we are using our fossil fuels at a tremendous and to mechanical power; hot air engines; solar-heated ever-increasing rate so that, in the not-too-distant sewage digestion; conversion to electricity; and future, these supplies of energy, so vital to our other devices will be discussed. present growth of civilization, will be depleted. For this reason, it is of utmost importance that we look for other more permanent sources of energy Acknowledgments and learn to use them befoie the dire need arises. Solar energy is readily available; well distributed; The Solar Energy and Energy Conversion inexhaustible, for all practical purposes; and has no Laboratory of the University of Florida was used pollution effects upon the environment when con- as a basis for this paper, but credit must be given verted and utilized. to the many laboratories around the world and individuals who are engaged in the effort to utilize Our present usage of energy can be compared solar energy for the betterment of mankind.Their to a family or group living off their savings, stored work supports ours through ideas and results as in a bank, and being steadily depleted.This process our work is helpful to them. cannot go on very long unless some income is added to the savings. Thanks must be given to the faculty, students, and staff of our laboratory who have, over the years, In the field of energy the-most abundant income had an important part in advancing the state of the is solar energy. This incoming energy was, usually art of solar energy utilization. They have also in very, inefficient processes and over millions of provided knowledge and results for others to build on. years, converted into our fossil fuels.With these savings rapidly disappearing, we will have to learn to use this income, in the form of radiant energy, Introduction directly, by converting it into the forms of energy needed. The widespread concern with our energy situa- tion and crisis, and what meeting the ever-increasing This conversion from solar energy into the demand of this energy does to the environment desired forms should be done in the fewest possible through pollution, prompted the writing of this paper. steps and along the most direct route. This procedure 369 j5r 355 will insure the most efficient way of doing this and laboratories look like and the kind of work which is will keep the necessary equipment simplest. carried out in them. The work carried out at this laboratory is supported by work and persons allover Solar energy has certain'characteristics.It is the world, and proper credit should be given to them. intermittent, only available during the day on a particular location on the surface of the earth.In Figure 1 presents the entrance, within thegate spectral character, it approximatesa blackbody to the laboratory, and two of the four buildings. source of about 10 000F, modified by gaseous layers of both the sun and the earth' s atmosphere. Stepping around these two buildingsone can see some of the laboratory equipment, which will be It arrives on the surface of the earth both as discussed in more detail in the paper and thefollowing direct radiation and diffuse radiation. The former illustrations.Figure 2 shows this equipment with portion can be concentrated if desirable. engines of various types in the foreground and behind them are collectors and concentrators of A knowledge of the specific properties of various types. On the left of the pictureare a small materials under solar irradiation will then allow the solar air-conditioning system and two solarwater collection and/or concentration and absorption of heaters, and a solar still and parabolicconcentrators. this energy. Further visible are a solar power plant,a solar still, the solar furnace and solar calorimeterto If nighttime operation or operation during bad investigate the solar properties of materials.In the weather conditions is necessary or desirable, the background, partially visible, is a 5-ton solarair.. storage has to be provided. For many applications, conditioning equipment. this is not necessary. The energy could be stored in a conventional manner as potentialenergy (pumped water, etc.); as heat in hot water storage Solar Properties of Materials tanks or rock bins; as chemical energy utilizing chemical processes, the latent heat or heat offusion; The first step in utilizing solar energy isto find etc. materials which will withstand theexposure necessary in the equipment to be built. To do this,we take some In other words, the technology has been devel- of these materials and expose them underrather oped to convert and utilize solarenergy, but the realistic operating conditions to the weatherand the economics and sociologial acceptance has stillto be sun.Figure 3 shows different plastics exposedto worked out in many cases. Theseproblems vary the environment, stretched overcans which are from region to region and therefore takeon a local filled with water or sand or wet soil,etc.If these character to be worked out by.the potentialusers. materials deteriorate after a short time the investi- gation is terminated. To be most effective, local materials shouldbe used in fabricating by local methods and labor Those materials which, however, withstand this fitting the economics and habits ci the local civilization. exposure test satisfactorily are then investigated in our Solar Calorimeter, as to their reflection, absorption, and transmission characteristics under With this introduction of a general nature, the actual solar irradiation.( Fig. 4). paper will now go into some of the work done byone group. The best way to do this is to take youon a tour through the Solar Energy Laboratory of the The Solar Calorimeter can be oriented into any University of Florida. desired position, it can be made to follow thesun, it can simulate severe winter conditionsor extreme summer environments.It is further instrumented OF Solar Energy Laboratory with many, many thermocouples to be able to obtain complete heat balances. This instrument, the only The University of Florida Solar Energy Labora- one of its kind, is constantly used to investigate new tory is one of the largest laboratories of this kind, types of materials, such as glasses with tintingor and a tour through it will give an idea whatsuch coatings, laminated glasses and plastic materials, 370 venetian blinds, thermopane windows, plastic These standard units may be damaged if used bubbles for aircraft, fabric used for clothing, in freezing temperatures, and for this reason, curtains and draperies, water-cooled venetian we developed a dual circulation system which blinds, etc. eliminates this problem.It consists of two tanks, one inside the other, the outer tank being Connected With the properties determined a selection can to the collector., This system is filled with an he made to obtain the best results in any desired antifreeze solution. The heat is then transferred application. from this solution and through the wall of the inner tank to the water to be used. Since in this system the primary circuit opprates at atmospheric condi- Solar Water Heating tions (the outer tank can just have a lid on it) the collector can be constructed much cheaper and In Figure 5, five different flat plate collectors lighter, for example, patterned after the most used for water heating are presented. They consist efficient design mentioned earlier.Insulation of a box with glass or plastic covers (oneor more) covers the outside tanks. with a metallic absorber element inside, which contains the water. This water is circulated to the small water storage tanks shown above. These Swimming Pool Heating absorbers can be compared with each other when exposed to the sun under identical conditions and for Another type of heater which has interested the same length of time. many in Florida is a swimming pool heater, as shown in Figure 8.It is one of the simplest ones Some of the absorbers have copper plates with and least expensive.It consists of a galvanized copper tubes soldered onto them; others are two sheet wrapped into plastic. The sheet is painted flat plates riveted, crimped, or welded together. black (flat) like all the other absorbers. Water The most efficient unit found consisted of two thin from the pool can be fed to these by the filter tint copper plates fastened together on the edges, and pump and then running down the front and back of providing a water space of about 0. 25 in., with one the metal plate, drains back into the pool.It usually glass cover and 1 in. of Styrofoam insulation behind takes a collecting surface equal to the pool surface the plates.IN1oplastic materials were found to be for raising the water temperature in the pool r F. as good as glass since none of the ones we could find These absOrbers can be constructed to form the had the characteristics of glass- namely, letting fence around the pool, which is in many localities through the short-wave radiation but- not the long- required by law, and, in addition, can provide wave radiation. This characteristic of glass allows privacy. it to be used in the design of a solar Trap. Figure 6 presents a typical Florida Solar Water House Heating Heater.It consists of a sheet metal box, 4 ft by 12 ft, covered by a layer of glass.Inside the box If the objective is to heat a house rather than is a copper sheet with copper tubes soldered to it in the water, it can be done by hot water circulated sinusoidal configuration and connected toan 80-gal through baseboard pipes in a conventional hot-water water storage tank.This system, rather common, heating system. However, 'frequently, it is more is found satisfactory for a typical American family convenient or desirable to heat a building by hot air. of four with an automatic washing machine, etc. Figure 9 shows such an air heater, made up of over- Under the copper sheet is 1 in. of Styrofoam insula- lapping aluminum plates, painted black on the portion tion.For satisfactory operation, the bottom of the exposed to the sun. About one-third of each plate is hot water storage tank must be above the top of the showing; the other two-thirds is shaded by the plate absorber to provide circulation without apump. above. They are put into a glass-covered box. The air will enter this unit on the bottom and then, stream- Figure 7 shows actual installations of this type ing between the hot plates, will pick up the heat and in an apartment house in Florida with each apart- leave on top as hot air. The circulation can be Ment having its own unit to provide the needed hot produced either by free or natural circulation or by water. a fan. 371 All the above-mentioned collectors are ideally conderisation, letting the solar energy through facing the south and inclined with the horizontal without much difficulty.Plastics, in general, at an angle equal to the local geographic latitude, produce dropwise condensation, each droplet plus 10 deg. This gives a little higher collection forming a little crystal which reflects much of the efficiency during the winter when the days are incident solar energy. This larger still is also shorter. designed,to-be-able to collect rainwater and, in some areas such as Florida, this can double the . The air heatercould be designed forming the output of the still. wall of a building, let us say the east wall where it could produce hot air the first thing in the morning, The best orientation of the still depends some- to take the chill out of the building._ what upon the angles of the glass but is generally east-west or somewhat northeast-southwest. Sola Cooking Solar Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Another application can be a solar oven, essentially a glass-covered box facing into the sun. Another phase of our work is the use of solar- Cooking and baking temperatures can easily be energy for solar refrigeration and air-conditioning. reached with such a device (Fig. 10).Periodic At a number of international meetings it was pointed (about every 15 min) reorientation, because of out that famine could be prevented in much of the the movement-of the sun, is required.Flaps can be world if the food, which is raised during certain added (Fig. 11) to provide some degree of con- parts of the year, could be preserved from spoilage, centration and, thus, bringing the things to be and thus preserved for use during the rest of the cooked up to temperature quicker. Very little heat year. This requires refrigeration, and for remote is actually required for the cooking process, only areas, or areas without electricity, solar refrigera- a certain temperature for the required length of tion may well be the answer. time.If one of these ovens is to be used in the late afternoon or early evening, the walls could be Some of our early work along these lines was made thick of clay or other materials which can to heat oil to rather high temperatures by con- store appreciable amounts of heat and thus remain centrating solar energy, and then circulating the warm long after the sun has gone clown. hot oil around the generator of an ammonia absorption refrigeration system (Fig. 14).This picture is somewhat out of order since all the Solar Distillation applications thus far dealt with solar energy in its natural state, without concentration, but it was . One of the major problems in many parts of the put in here since it was actually our first attempt. world is fresh water. With very simple equipment, We believe, however, that solar refrigeration solar energy can convert salt or brackish water into without concentration holds much more promise fresh and pure water. Figure 12 shows a simple since nonconcentrating devices can also utilize the solar still, a metal box with slanting glass facing diffuse portion of solar radiation, thus function south.Inside the box is a pan on short legs, even on cloudy days. painted black and holding the bad water. The sun shining into this pan heats the water and vaporizes A number of small units have been built and it.The vapor or steam then will, when coming in then a 5-ton unit shown in Figure 15.Flat plate contact with the cold surfaces of the box, both the collectors heat water, which is then circulated to glass and the metal, condense, forming the fresh drive out the ammonia from the water in the water which runs dow.u.lhe sides in the form of generator of the system. This ammonia vapor is droplets. This fresh water can then be collected condensed and then expanded, providing the cooling for future use. About 0.5 lb of water can be pro- effect by evaporation. After having done its work duced at an average per square foot, per day. the ammonia vapor is reabsorbed in the ammonia absorber of the system into the water to repeat the Another larger still is shown in Figure 15.The cycle. pan is covered by glass at about 45 deg, which forms most of the condensing surface.Glass is Figures 16 and 17 show a smaller version of much better than plastic since it forms film such a system with some improvements. The main one, combining the solar collector and the ammonia can be used. In the simplest form they can be generator into one unit, thus eliminates the primary made (Fig. 19) of a single parabola witha Pipe - fluid and reduces the heat losses by providing a at the focal line.This particular absorber is used more direct path for the solar heat to get into the to produce steam to operate a small steam engine, system and do its work. On a good day this small which in turn drives a small generator and lightsup 4- by 4-ft unit can produce 80 lb of ice. a light bulb, thus demonstrating what a solar power It should be pointed out again that all the plant could look like. The 2- by 5-ft absorber is the equivalent of 500 watts of electrical heat. applications mentioned so far did not require con- centration of solar energy, and therefore could utilize the diffuse portion of solar energy andeven A large cylindrical parabolic absorber is work on cloudy days. shown in Figure 20, having dimensions of 6 by 8 ft, The solar air-conditioning or refrigeration. with a glass-covered focal tube. The glass cover systems have an added advantage, that the em-arid reduces the losses from the heated tube. Depending and supply are in phase. When the sun shines upon the needs, different diameter tubes can b hottest, the need for refrigeration and air- used. Copper has been found best, again painted conditioning is greatest. with a good absorbing high-temperature paint. This absorber is mounted on a rotating axis parallel to the earth axis. Solar Energy Concentration It is adjusted to face the east in the morning and then, by an electrically driven worm For some uses, however, -higher temperatures gear reduction unit, is made to follow the sun all than can be obtained with flat plate, nonconcentrating day. Where electricity is not available, a heavy collectors are needed.If this is the case, then weight with a clockwork timing unit can be used as concentration is.called for. Many different niethods well. The construction of such a large device can be used for concentration, the simplest ones must be rather rigid, since wind loads in windy stationary in design but not as good, and the better areas may make it difficult to keep the unit directly ones requiring methods which allow them to follow facing the sun and to keep it from oscillating. the sun. Figure 18 shows a simple high-temperature. This unit has been used to produce steam for the absorber.It consists of a number of parabolic operation of a fractional horsepower steam engine, troughs oriented horizontally and with a pipe 'running to provide 800F oil to operate a solar refrigerator, down the focal line of the parabolas. The system etc. of parabolic troughs is inclined at about the local latitude. Depending upon the diameter of the pipe, Other methods of concentrating solar energy adjustment may or may not be needed during the are lenses both of glass and other materials (includ- year. The solar energy is reflected by the parabolic ing liquid lenses), but they are not widely used surfaces upon the focal pipe, which is painted with because of their cost in large sizes and their weight. a good absorbing paint (flat black), absorbs this However, Fresnel lenses, specially made from energy, and transmits it to the fluid inside the pipe. plaslic sheets, with grooves cut or embossed so as This device can easily produce hot water, steam, to focus the rays, can be produced rather inexpen- or hot oil. sively, are unbreakable and can be of large size and Some energy is lost during the early morning light weight. The lens shown in Figure 21 is of and the late afternoon hours with the above method this type, and can produce temperatures of 2000F. of converting solar energy to heat because of shading, but the simplicity and stationary design have A very effective way of concentrating solar considerable advantages economically and do not need energy is to take flat pieces of reflecting materials much attention. (for better results, they can even be slightly curved), such as mirrors or reflecting metal surfaces, and Solar Power Plant oriented in such a manner as to reflect the solar radiation on one spot.Front surface reflecting If better efficiency is desired, then cylindrical mirrors are giving better performance than, for parabolas, which are allowed to follow the sun, instance, back silvered mirrors, where some of the 373 energy is absorbed in the glass. Very large con- Higher concentration, that is, higher concentra- centrators of this type have been built with thousands tion than the surfaces previously discussed can of these mirrors used in some of the large solar provide, is needed for high-temperature work, solar furnaces in the world. engines, etc. For this purpose, the geometry has to be more perfect.Figure 26 shows various. mirrors of rather high quality giving high degrees Solar Cooking of concentration, with the ultimate reached in the solar furnace (Fri.-27). A few concentrating panels of this type are shown in Figure 22, where three of them concentrated upon a board will make this board flash Into fire. Solar Furnace Such mirrors can also be set up In a different pattern like the one shown in Figure 23 where the mirrors This solar furnanee, with a 5-ft-diam are set up into a circular pattern, heating the fluid can produce concentration ratios of almost 25 000 in the jar at the focal region of the device. and temperatures of up to 7000 F. If higher concentration, and thus, higher Solar furnaces can be used for research where temperatures, and smaller focal regions are desired, high temperatures and extremely pure, uncontaminatc then either smaller mirrors are needed or con- heat are needed. Materials can be enclosed in glass tinuously curved surfaces can be employed.. In this containers or plastic containers, surrounded by manner excellent concentrating mirrors, even of vacuum or any desired atmosphere, and heated optical quality, can be made but they are very under very closely controlled condiiions.Since the expensive, and there is a practical limit to the size solar energy can be concentrated onto a very small of these configurations. region, it is not necessary fur the support of the sample to be able to withstand very high temperatures Two such mirrors of fair quality are shown in nor is it necessary for the glass or plastic container Figure 24, the one on the left being strong enough to to be high-temperature resistant since the energy, hold its shape by being properly formed and the as it goes through this material, is not yet con- one on the right being supported by ribs from wood, centrated to a high degree (Figs. 28 and 29). in this case, which are cut out forming parabolas. Then thin, highly reflecting metal sheets are held The furnace has been used to produce extremely loosely to these ribs to allow for expansion when high purity materials, to grow crystals of high- the metal sheets are slightly heated, thus avoiding temperature materialscrystals nonexisting in distortion. This type of construction is especially nature, to extract water from rocks and moisture- important In large sizes, and was also used in the containing soils (work which may be of great large parabolic cylindrical concentrator mentioned importance when a lunar station Is going to be set up, earlier. since many experts believe that the solar furnace will be an important tool on the moon), and it may be The two concentrators (Fig. 24) were used as possible to produce materials on location instead of solar cookers where only a moderate amount of hauling them from the earth to the moon. We concentration is needed (too good a concentrator received a citation from the Air Force for this work. may burn holes into the containers used if great care is not taken). Therefore, not toogood a quality is more desirable for this application. Mechanical Power If such concentrators are used for solar cooking; One of the largest programs in our laboratory it may be desirable to design them for easy porta- is the conversion of solar energy into mechanical bility, thus either in sections which can be collapsed power. This is done by steam engines, one of them for moving, or of coated cloths of an umbrella design shown in Figure 30 and supplied with steam from which can be folded when not In use. This type of the large cylindrical parabolic concentrator (Fig. 31). an oven and a cooker of moderate concentration is The combination shown will give about 0. 25 horse- shown in Figure 25. The flaps on the oven can be power, only limited by the concentrator and quantity adjusted to regulate the degree of concentration of steam delivered by it. needed. An oven of this design will shorten the cooking and baking time by bringing the food up to the A working model of a steam power plant is shown desired temperature faster than the type mentioned. in Figure 32, with the absorber and boiler shown from earlier. the front (Fig. 10, and the engine drivlag a generator 374 and lighting up a small light bulb. A steam engine not require any valves, carburetor, or electrical with a different type of absorber is also shown in. system. Figure 33. The small square boiler in this case must be used with the concentrators shown in Figure 22. Another engine (Fig. 36) is shown in operation Other combinations and designs are possible and with a radiation shield around the hot end of the dis- will work equally well, if designed properly. placement cylinder. The concentrated solar energy can clearly be seen heating the end of the displace- We believe, however, that hot-air engines have ment cylinder. A 5-ft mirror is used with this en- a much greater promise than steam engines for frac- gine, which has to be moved about every 15 min to tional horsepower requirements. They are safer, keep the energy concentrated on the engine. This quiet, and only need a source of heat, any source. movement is rather small and could be automated. These engines can be operated off solar energy during Enough heat capacity is built into this engine so that the day and, if power is needed during the night, by if small clouds pass over the sun the engine will other sources of heat, suchls wood, sloal, oil, or continue to operate. it can be operated by the heat produced from the burning of waste products such as trash, cow dung, These engines are not self-starting and after the etc. engine surfaces are her..ed they must be given a push but will then take off on their own. This should be no handicap it compared with the attention a Closed-Cycle Hot Air Engines team of bull oxen requires. A single man can operate a bank of these small engines, adjusting the mirrors There are two basic types of hot-air engines. periodically. In addition, no further land is needed, One is the closed-cycle type, which encloses a cer- as in the case when animals are used to raise the tain amount of air which can he pushed back and food they need. forth by a plunger between hot and cold surfaces. When the air is in contact with the hot surfaces, it Figure 37 shows another one of the closed-cycle is heated and thus increases the pressure in the en- hot air engines in operation. In Figure 38 it is gine. When in contact with the cold surfaces, it is pumping water out of a ditch. The mirror shown cooled, thus decreasing the pressure in the engine. with this engine is actually much better than needed A power piston is pushed down wheathe pressure in but was used since it is available.It is an old mir- the engine is high and returns because of flywheel ror from the solar furnace which has been polished action when the pressure is low. So every downstroke so many times that the reflecting surface iano is a power stroke. With proper timing of the power longer very good. FIr engine operation the coven= piston and the plunger, considerable amounts of trator only has to be good enough to provide a spot energy can be produced. of concentration of the size of the displacement cylinder of the engine, about 3.5-in. diam, for the These engines are inherently slow-speed engines, engine shown. a few hundred revolutions per minute, since it takes time to heat and cool the air. The heat transfer can A one half horsepower engine, closed cycle, is be improved by either pressurizing the engine or shown in Figure 39, which is designed to be used filling it with gases, such as hydrogen or helium. with solar energy and can directly, without modifi- Also, a large surface regenerator will increase the cation, be used to burn wood,, coal, or liquid fuels. performance Of such engines, but they becomemore If used with solar energy it is only necessary to open complicated and much more expensive by such addi- the big door shown and to concentrate the solar tions and refinements. energy upon the end of the displacer cylinder inside the furnace box. Figure 34 shows a quarter-horsepower engine with the displacement cylinder in a horizontal posi- tion on top and the power cylinder directly underneath Open-Cycle Hot Air Engines in a vertical position. The blackened end of the dis- placement cylinder is heated and the other end cooled, The other type of hot air engines is of the open- in this case, by a water jacket. Figure 35 shows such cycle type (Fig. 40), which takes atmospheric air, an engine disassembled. The basic unit for this compresses it, then heats it, agaia by solar energy engine is a lawnmower engine, but the engine itself or other means, expands the air and exhausts it into is much simpler and less expensive since it does the ()Pen. 375 These engines have the advantage that the heat- surface has a cover with a small hole in the bottom ing of the air and the speed of the engine are inde- of the chamber. The liquid will drain through this pendent, therefore these engines can be made to hole into the space below, will come in contact with run at much higher speed. This higher speed makes the hot surface below and vaporize. The vapor will it possible to reduce the weight per unit power out- stream upward forming a jet which I, hem drives the put, but the engines built by us so far do not have as turbine wheel. When leaving the turbine wheel it high a 'conversion efficiency as the closed-cycle will come in contact with the cold surfaces of the engines. upper part of the vertical chamber and condense, running down the walls and repeating the cycle. Both these types of hot air engines, but especial- ly the closed-cycle type, can be built without special For some applications it is more convenient to equipment and with only the simplest types of machine separate the steam generator from the turbine and tools. The timing for best performance is rather the condenser. critical and should be adjusted carefully. Another critical parameter of the closed-cycle engine is the clearance volume. Solar-Gravity Motor Our work was concentrated on fractional horse- Shifting of weights from one side to the other on power- engines of the portable type which could be a wheel or seessrs can do work. Figure 43 shows a used for irrigation or drive small machinery. motor where a 'lumber of spheres, two at a time, are connected by a tube and mounted on a wheel. The There are other solar devices which can convert sun shining on one side will vaporize the liquid, and soar energy into mechanical energy nut they are of the vapor streaming to the other side will condense. less importance. If properly designed, continuous motion can be obtained. which can be used to pump water or do other useful work. The conversion efficiency and power output Solar Pump are rather small but-may be sufficient for certain tasks. Figure 41 shows a solar pump model, in this case, made out of glass so that its operation can be observed. It otdy has two check valves and other- Solar.Thermo-Plisse Shift wise, no moving parts. A boiler is connected by a Reciprocating Engine straight and a U-shaped tube to a chamber with check valves at the inlet and outlet. The liquid in Figure 44 shows another device for the conver- the boiler is vaporized, pushing-liquid out of the sion-of solar energy into mechanical energy. It system, and when the vapor reaches the bottom of consists essentially of a column of water with bellows the U-tube, it suddenly streams into the other cham- at the top. The system is completely purged of air. ber filled with cold liquid, where the steam rapidly The end of the tube is heated by concentrating solar condenses. While the stream is-produced, the top energy upon it or any other concentrated source of check valve is open and liquid is pushed out. When heat. This will vaporize the water on the end of the the vapor condenses the top check valve closes, tube and force the column of water to the right, as because of the vacuum produced, and the bottom shown in the picture. With vapor now in contact check valve opens, letting in more new liquid to be with the hot surface, the heat transfer is suddenly transported. This pulsating action can be smoothed decreased tremendoutly, and so, the cooling effects into a steady flow if an air chamber is provided past are now greater than the heating. The vapor con- the top check valve. denses, letting the column of water return to the left until it toucher the hot end, and the cycle repeats. Cooling of the lower end of the column of water will Solar Turbine improve-the performance. The moving column will make the end of the bellows move back and forth. Another method of converting solar energy into By coupling to a flywheel, this reciprocating motion mechanical energy is by means of a turbine, a model may be transformed into rotary. motion. This very of which is shown in Figure 42. A vertical chamber simple little device is quite noisy, sounding like a with a turbine wheel in it is filled with a volatile small gasoline engine and can, by adjusting the pres- liquid to just above the turbine wheel. The collecting sure on the era of the bellows, be made to run at 376 different speeds, several hundred cycles per minute temperature of the digesters increased. The basic if desired. problem of heating here is the same as for swimming pools (Fig. 47). Conversion to Electricity If the digester is designed more like a solar still, in addition to the digestion, fresh water can If electricity is desired as the form of energy be produced by distillation and the remaining sludge to be used, it can be produced by converting solar used for fertilization. energy into mechanical energy and then driving a conventional electric generator. The solar energy can be converted more conveniently directly into Conclusion electricity by one of the many solid-state devices, normally referred to as solar cells. Through the The above discussion is provided with a number space program great strides have been made in the of illustrations because we believe that pictures photogalvanic conversion field utilizing silicon as the can tell a story much better, covers much of our most common material. Two photogalvanic convert- work, but by no means all of it.It presents the ers are shown in Figures 45 and 46. range of activities in our laboratory. Thermoelectric conversion has also been inves- When solar energy_ utilization is contemplated, tigated in our laboratory, using certain semiconductor its availability and amount of supply, the require- materials as superthermocouples as well as thermi- ments, the availability of materials and labor, as onic conversion, but not a great deal of energy was well as economic considerations should be analyzed spent in these areas. on a 'regional or local basis, since large variations can occur from place to place on a global scale. The devices discussed and shown here may have Sewage Treatment different degrees of applicability in different areas. ./ Another project of interest is application of solar We recommended one time, as an example, energy to sewage treatment. One phase of this work for an Army post in Chile to spread steel.pipes_on provided solar heating for sewage digesters. By the sandy ground and to hook them together into a heating these digesters and controlling the tempera- number of parallel circuits to provide the hot water ture for optimum efficiency, considerably more sewage they needed; they had the steel pipe, the labor and can be handled by a given size plant. Many plants the sandy land. To recommend the Florida- buy expensive covers ( $30 000 and more for not a type solar water heater would have been the wrong very big one) and collect the sewage gas and then thing to do since they did not have copper sheets, burn it to heat the fluid in the digesters. Many of copper pipes, and hot water storage tanks. Their_ these plants even buy fuel, and all of this becomes a problem was solved with local materials under local very expensive operation. Solar heating of these conditions and produced the required results. digesters proved relatively inexpensive by being able _*o use plastic sheets glued together to form an air- In closing, I would like to say that solar energy, attress-type cover floated on top of the digester. its conversion and utilization, will not solve all our This-,-in many cases, provided enough of a solar trap problems, but it will be a great step in the right to keep the digester at good operating temperatures direction, by supplying needed energy wherever it in our region. As a matter of fact, in one winter with can without having adverse effects upon the environ- rather severe and prolonged freezes, all the bacteria ment and, at the same time, conserving our fossil in the unheated digesters died and action stopped com- fuels, which can do much more for us than provide pletely until they were restocked. During this same heat. The chemicals they contain can be used as I period the solar-heated digesters survived, and the preservatives, in medication, etc., so that the- indis- bacterial action, even though slowed down during the criminate use of these resources for energy is un-= extreme cold spells, picked right-tip-akainwhen the wise and a loss_ to future generations. Figure 1. Entrance to University of Florida Figure 2. View of some of the solar energy Solar Energy Laboratory. conversion equipment in the laboratory. Figure 3. Exposure test of some plastic films. Figure 4. Solar Calorimeter. 378 Figure 5.Experimental flat plate collectors. Figure 6.Florida-type solar water heater. Figure 7. Solar water heaters in an apartment house. tt 379 Figure 11. Small solar still. Figure 12. Larger solar still, also able to collect rainwater. Figure 13. Refrigerattir driven by solar energy. Figure 14.Five-ton solar air-conditioning system. 381 :1.4, 14-k Figure 15. Small solar refrigeration Figure 16. Small solar refrigeration system, front. system, back. 4 , Figure 17.Stationary high-temperature absorber. Figure 8.Solar steam boiler of solar steam power plant. Figure 19. Cylintlicp labolic_Osorber, 6 by 8 ft. Figure 20.Plastic Fresnel lens. Ar 382 .Figure 21.Solar concentrating panels. Figure 22.Solar cooker. Figure 23.Parabolic solar concentrators. Figure 24.Collapsible solar cooker.' Figure 25.Solar oven and solar cooker.. Figure 26. Concentrating mirrors. 383 Figure 27. Five-foot solar furnace. 44. Figure 28.Concentrating solar energy. Figure 29. High-temperature crystal growth Figure 30. Small steam engine. from the solar furnace. 384 11 AiigraiE ,,r Figure 31, Steam engine operated by solar Figure 32.Solar steam power plant energy (one -f ,urth horsepower). (see also Figure 17). ,..-"^11,. . Figure 33. Solar steam power plant Figure 34. Closed-cycle, hot air engine (see also Figure 21). one -fourth horsepower. M.+ Figure 35. Disassembled,. closed-cycle Figure 36. Hot air engine operated hot air engine. by solar energy. 385 -... 4' 1" Figure 37. Closed-cycle, hot air engine. Figure 38. Pumping water with solar energy. Figure 39. Closed-cycle, hot air engine. Figure 40.Open-cycle, hot air engine. Figure 41. Solar pump: 386 AM, Pigure 42.Solar turbine. Figure 43. Solar gravity motor. Figure 44. -Solar thermo-phase shift -Figure 45.Solar Celia. reciprocating engine. _ _ Figure 46. Solar cells. 387 Figure 47. Sewage digesters. SESSION IX GENERAL TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATIONIN THE PUBLIC SECTOR (MINOMMO- 46 ocox verraREs $0. KNOWLEDGE Ta. %a. LWRS BRING COMPUTERS NEW ifir MATERIALS BENEFITS * MEDICAL .... SYSTEMS TO RESOURCE MONITORS 1...... SIMULATORS 4 ller. MANAGEMENT # SYSTEMS . NEW, TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL GOODWILL WEATHERPitEDKTIde COMMUNICATION EARTH SYSTEMS! LIFE SUPPORT Owit SYSTEMS POLLUTION MONITORS SOME OF THE MANY "DOWN-TO-EARTH" BENEFITS RESULTING FROM SPACE RESEARCH ANO EXPLORA TION (CHART COURTESY OF 0. L. CHRISTENSEN/ APPLICATION OF SPACE BENEFITSTO EDUCATION By Konrad K. Dannenberg Program Development Directorate NASA Marshall Space Flight C 'ter, Alabama and FredericklOrchvay M Professor, Science and Technology Applications University of Alabama in Huntsville The Alabama Section of the American Institute .activities. Toassure maximum benefits to educa- of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)established tion-fiont these Skylab a study_group to determine activities, sourcebook-type reasons for the decrease data will have to be prepared of public interest in space activitie, and to propose and distributed to remedial measures. Recommendations teachers and students. The valueof technology, -the called for systems approach, and the need for deeper involvement of the communityto create adaptability at any future system to changeswere emphasized broader public awareness of themany identified throughout the workshop. benefits from Space. Other engineeringsocieties were invited throughthe HATS to participatein a Because of the positive lecture series, the organization ofa space benefits, response of teachers congress, and workshops to be' conducted andstudents,lollow-on workshops foreducators as a joint from Huntsvilleand elsewhereare being considered. venture with the local educational system,which would benefit greatly from The workshop project will enableteachers to improve new space knowledge, classroom education for life in the and the application of advancedtechnologies. space age, recog- nizing that an understanding byyouth of space- derived science and technology is This paper presents informationon the conduct- a prerequisite for ing of a teacher. workshop. This Maximum progress in mankind'sdrive to improve educational pilot life here on earth. project updated instruction material,used improved teaching terhniqUes, and increasedstudent tion. 'The NASA/MSFC industrial facilities, and IntroductiOn andBackground Information the displays at the Alabama Spaceand Rocleleen- ter (ASRC) were key elements of the program, in- Public interest in the nation' cluding a permanentexhibit, at the latter, s space program on select- ha.; decreased greatlyin spite &several successful ed benefits accruing from thespace program. lunar landings. The events ofthe Apollo XIII and XV The summer workshop .missions revived this interest somewhat,but this was structured around does not appear to be anticipated broadcasts from, forthcoming a permanent improvement. Apollo This lack of support has become of Lunar and Skylab Space Stationmissions. Engineers great concern teachers, and scientists to the aerospace community.Accordingly, the are now defining require- Board of Directors of the AIM" ments that these broadcasts willimpose on teachers s Alabama Section -and -the /School initiated r study of underlyingcauses and suitable systems of cities, counties, and measures to remedy this situation. states. The Skylab missionmay show that educa- This study con- cluded that'this new knowledge isoften only visible tional broadcasts should be madea major element to a handful of scientists, although of future manned space missions, such information especially with can aid in the solution of proper support by,well-coordinated classroom many of the problems facing the nation today. Unfortunately,it is widely- 391 dispersed, existing in many governmental depart- 1. What are the future goals of the space pro- ments, in associated industries, and in universities _gram? and nonprofit organizations. 2. How do these goals compare with thosc of These facts have created a situation' where the Apollo program? space-oriented scientific and technological efforts have been criticized to be the least understood of 3. Why should the nation eontinue the space ongoing national endeavors; the man-in-the-street program in spite of the many pressing problems in does not understand the importance of Space re- other fields? search to his standard of living, and he does not know of the advances already made. The. benefits 4. How have space technologies aided nonspace of space c-ploration have never been properly ex- industries and endeavors? Attained to the public, which is generally not aware of the fact that the space program has led to greatly 5. What direct benefits have resulted, and improved global communications, including world- predictably, will result fron4he_spamprogram? wide color television programming of major events and 3-day weather forecasts of good accuracy. The It was recognized that these questions could impact of the latter, alone, on sports events and best be-answered first, through a series of lectures,, recreational activities cannot be measured in simple presentations and discussions, and later, through dollars and cents, nor can a monetary value be teacher workshops. These requirements led to a -placed on timely hurricane warnings that have saved series of lectures cBenefits from Space" shown- many human lives. in Table 1. Ten subjects were presented to an audi- ence of up to 100 persons -per erining, gathered in Forthcoming contributions from the Earth Re- the ASRC_in_Huntsville, Alabama. Since scientists -sources Satellites will be even more amazing. and engineers were the speakers, the audience- was These flights will begin in 1972, and continue normally rather sophisticated; usually about half the through this decade. Zero gravity will permit attendees were associated with aerospace activities. testing of previouslrunexplored natural phenomena The remainder was made up of specially invited and will improve our understanding of physics, science teachers of public higif,schools, as well as chemistry, biology, and biotechnoloff. The-great- senior high school and university students. Atten- est contributions have been or will be made to the dance by the general public was rather limited, but application of advanced technology and program . increased as the series progressed. Suitable and management to our multitude of worldly problems effective publicity appeared to be a major problem. and their technology-oriented solutions. A permanent result of these activities its new ex- hibit at the ASHC,on space benefits, which we To obtain active participation by other sectors dedicated at the beginning of the,1971 summer of society, it was proposed to combine the efforts season. of the AIAA. with those of nonaerespace-oriented or- ganizations. Accordingly, HATS was approached Selected subjects have been furnished to the for cooperation in such an undertaking. HATS con- NASA SpdeeMobile organizatien and have been sists of various professional and engineering organi- Worked into presentations by its lecturers.. They zations, most of which, on the national level, are not have been adapted to all school levels, but have tied to the space program, although most Huntsville particularly been oriented to the younger grades chapters do actively support space activities. 'HATS and their teachers. agreed to support efforts to make the public aware of the myriad of benefits from space, and a joint un- Studies made following the initial lectuie series dertaking was started in late 1970 to organize and have shown that a most important audience appears manage the various tasks involved. togathered in our schools, where. we find azep- resentative cross section of the general public. Ed-- ucation in the U.S.-Involves a sizable portion (25 Public Lectures on "Benefits from Space percent - 30 percent) of the population: Our youth is greatly interested in and often highly Informed AtAA and HATS members determined that it was about space flight.Their teachers, on the other important to furnish credible answers to the following hand, are often reluctant to discuss the space,pro- types of questions: gram, its challenges,_ and results in great part, 392 because they do not have relevant and easily unde-t---- elseWhere, would adequately stood material for teaching purposes. prepare our educational Suitable as- system to obtain maximum benefits from thespace sistance from the aerospace-community will enable program. the school system to teach about thenew space knowledge, in general, and space benefits anddivi- dends, in particular. Seminar Extension by Teacher Workshop Education, 'an proodbly benefit more and faster Those teachers who were willing to spend than any other profession, from an ad- space know-how and ditional week for a greater in-depth studyof the ed- the application of advanced technologies.Concen- ucational benefits from space were invited tr Jiang on the teachers will optimize to partici- use of available pate in an exercise to use the workshop techniqueand resources, and also make good use of the the systems approach to prepare future classroom "multiplier-effect," once the teachers startto apply activities in support of forthcomingspace flights. - the netektowledge in their clas..rooms. Afew years Additional visits toJISFC and other local facilities hence, today's pupils and students will makeup the were a part of this extension, as well as discussions majority of the general public. Through the teach. with associated engineers, scientists, andsystems crs, the entire future population can be reached at analysts and managers. impressionable ages and made aware ofspace pro- gram goals, technologies, and benefits. This workshop served a different intent than other aerospace workshops; it particularly respond- ed to the findings -oUthe previously describedHATS- Slimmer Teacher Seminar efforts, which do not make other workshopsobsolete but specify a precise role for them. Thisworkshop To Implement the conclusion of an Ad Hoc Com- highlighted means to apply the newspace knowledge mittee for a teacher workshop program, HATSan=-- to our educational system. Expert engineers and nounced that a teacher seminar would take place in scientists discussed the impact of the-spaceage-on- lax summer, 1971, on the subject "Educational mankind's future living conditionson earth, creating Benefits from Space 711- The 1-week seminar, held novel educational requirements._ Teacherswere pro- in Huntsville, Alabama, was oriented toward bene- vided with advanced scientific information, which fits from space. It discussed the uses and applica- has not yet been fed into the e.ducationalsystem.It tions of the net- information, &lined during the first is hoped that this speedup of the information flowto decade of space exploration. Also, plans forand the teachers will-also accelera'e inputs fromspace expected results from future space flightswere on into all our earthbound endeavors. In turn, early-- the agenda. The seminar was enhanced byvisits to missions are expected to assure maximum benefits appropriate MSFC laboratories, local industries, to everyone involved. Such a situLtion will generate and the ASRC. The University otAlabama iiiHunts- an alert, informed and highly responsive public. uille-OLTAH) assumed the responsibility for theac- tual conduct of the seminar under MSFC aiidASRC Accordingly, the scope and the aims of thispar- support. Topics presented at the seminar, includ- ticular pilot workshop ('and; hopefully, regular ing speakers or lecturers, are listed in Table 2. follow-on workshops) were as follows: The seminar addressed broadcasts from 1. Important results of recent space events as NASA's remaining Apollo missions andthe Skylab well as goals of forthcomingspace research were mission, presently scheirled to fly in the spring-of discussed with the highly motivated participants of 1973, The scientific objectives of the Skylabexperi- this workshop, who will funnel this knowledge to the, ments and their expected benefits were discussed. final user, the general public: Thus,everyone will Included were experiments on solar and stellar quickly benefit from this-information whichcan be astronomy; earth surveys; biomedicine and biology; applied to the solution of the many problems facing and space physics and chemistry, with demonstra- the nation today. This accelerated flow of education- tions of the effects of zero gravityon all natural al knowledge will assure that space-bitsed technology phenomena. This` kind of space researchappears is properly considered in plans to solve the many to provide an ideal framework to discuss the bene- local, national,_ and global problems. Such solutions fits from space achievable from future NASAflight are now being planned, managed, and implemented missions.It was expected that this type of seminar,- by persons who are not intimately aware of the tre- as well as potential follow-on seminars given mendous potential that new management techniques, 393 new technologies, improved information systems, desires of our educational system and the potential mass' memories, and rapid computation methods of pace exploitation. NASA and industry scientists will hay.' on all future activitcs.It was the purpose learned firsthand abOut the problems in teaching;' of this workshop to complement the many individual the educators were made to understand the capabili- and direct contacts between specific space efforts ties and constraints of space flights.It is hoped and associated scientists or experts by broadly that a working-group relationship can be established based edicaidial activities in many new fields. and maintained for maximum 'mutual benefit. This first workshop was considered a pilot project for enlarged activities of similar nature,- in the fu- It was also expected that particularly relevant ture, to bring the benefits from space to everyone. and meaningful suggestions from the workshop par- ticipants would be considered for broadcasting from 2. This workshop stressed the answer to the Skylab, particularly if no equipment changes are question, "Why are we doing these things?" Other reqtiired only modificaticns of the "scenario" and workshops have addressed the question, "What is some Skylab operations. In any event, hardiare being done?," describing ha -iware, programs and modifications are practically impotsible because of projects, systems (such as propulsion, guidance, the advanced development status of the Skylab. A control, air bearings) , and similar subjects. - much more basic definition of educational broadcast: These workshops should continue to lay a sound from space stations and experiment modules-is pos- foundation in these fields. This new benefits- sible and will be pursued. The Univertity of Ala- oriented workshop described the advantages that bama in Huntsville is coordinating an effort with other nonacrospace-oriented fields of erideaVor could tis goal in Mind. reap from this new human capability to do things from outer space, unhampered by earth's gravity 5. This workshop was also used to demonstrate field. Our energy source, the sun, can be obserred the usefulness and applicability of a little-understow with visibility, unfiltered by the atmosphere. For byproduct of the space program: a greatly enhanced the first time in man's history we also now have system management capability. The workshop was the capability to 'obtain a really vast overview of organized in conformance witt. a sound system ap- events down here on our globe, coupled with a tre- proach, which was applied by theleachers to their mendously improved communications system. - analysis and implementation of a series of television These new capabilities wilLbave an impact on the -tapes produced to demonstrate the benefits from future life on earth, greater than anything that has space. This firsthand experience underlined tae happened heretofore.It is the task of our educa- value of systems management, and encouraged the tional system to prepare our peens for these years. teachers to apply system-engineering to classroom A joint NASA /university /industry /education effort education, overcome existing hurdles, and restruc- will be required to accomplish this goal, and only a ture educations: methods and proeeddres. More- first step in this direction has been taken. over, a greatly mcreased necessity fee continuing (adult) educaticei would have to emphasize the new 3. The intent of this workshop was to prepare space-generated requirements.It was relieved that teachers for forthcoming space missions, such as oely a thorough, system-oriented study led properly two more Apollo flights, an extended Skylab program, devised total system management would provide an future Space Shuttle flights and Space Station opera- acceptable answer as to how these requirements tions, and eventually, a large -scale earth orbital should be fulfilled. systeni of activities,It also made the teachers and the educational system aware of needs for new equipment, new educational material, and -a well- 6. The workshop also defined associated sup- trained and prepared teacher corps capable of meet--porting activities needed in the schools`: The tlew ing the new requirements. This need for enhanced technological inputs have to be analyzed fortheir education for the space age will be there, regard- effect on classroom activities and the need for am- less of the role the U.S. is eventually going to play plified teacher-training. Additional teaching materia in the application of space capabilities and/or the would have to be prepared in the form ola space exploration of the universe.Life on earth will be benefits sourcebook. The planer in which this greatly affected, in any event. new information is presented would require that new types of equipment be obtained and installed, and - 4. This workshop was also to initiate a two-way operators for its use and repair would, of course, channel of communications between the needs and have to be, trained. 394 The Sourcebook stitutions.Full support has been assured by UAII, as well as the granting of teacher credits andan One of the most important tasks to be accom- interest in establishing a regular workshopprogram plished in the program to apply space benefitsto in support of aerospace education. education is the systematic accumulation and organi- zation of space benefits inforination for teachers . Besides these purely educational and students. This information wouldappear in the activities, it should alio be Lied to optimize informationmanage- form of a sourcebook that would be usedto enhance ment as related to the U.S. educational educational programs tied to actualspace broad- system. casts, to provide a channel through whict, University personnel cooperated with NASAand pri- space- vate industry to determine the impact of generated science and technology could be assimi- educational requirements on information managementsystems lated by teacher and student alike, and to spplya single fountain of data on the application of of future Space Stations and Space Shuttleflights. once The presently foreseen Space Station knowledge to all fields of endeavor. Extenshe will orbit in a flightpath which is ideal for education sourcebook-type material is already available.for broadcasts, since it ;:an address a majority of thepeople on the review, discussion, and use. Indeed, the wori.- globe.It appears that a minor investment in shop used some of it, while at the educa--- same time, Wiwi:- tional information systems will enhance worldWide ing up recommendations far rollow-onimprovements education. that would lead to a full-scalz sourcebookjm tremendously. Drastic advances in edu- sPaci cational technology seem to be requiredto make benefits, supported by literature citations,teach- broad progress in continuing adult , ing raaterialsr(e.g., charts, slides, filmstrip-4-- education econom- ically feasible. Early Skylab broadcasts films, and filmloops), and the like. and geo- synchronous educational satelliteswere considered as a pilot project for future space-oriented educa- tion, which would require supporting groundefforts Future Activities prior to, during, and after thespace broadcast. A pilot effort to study such possibilities in Parallel to the actual conduct of the -seminar regard to future earth orbital systems activitiesis presently and workshop, responses from city,county, pri= vale, and state educational institutions being researched by UAH and will beproposed to were obtained. MSFC shortly. It can be shown that educational Initial responses were favorable andindicated the broadcasts from geosynchronous readiness to amplify education space can aid in the on space in city, quick, efficient, and effective distribution county, and state instruction, in the form of selec- of any-. information. Manned oarticipation will berequired tive courses. A recent questionnaire sentto Ala- in the conduct of many sophisticated -biota schools by the stile education space experi- system indicated ments, but will initially be limited to lowearth great interest to imple,nent aerospace instruction7. orbits. A lecture room as an elective subject, It is believed that this can be set up in these same low earth orbits to demonstratethe physical, situation exists throughout the country. To make chemical, and biological behavior of various such instruction as meaningfulas possible, we must materi- als, living things, plants, and even the humanopera- continue to generate up-to-date and interestingin- tions. These same broadcasts formation for use by the teachers. can also explain the immediate benefits of earthsurveys and earth re- sources management, as well as the long-range In support of this situation, the AIAA Alabama benefits of better uerstanding and Section and HATS were asked to take the lead improvement in the in our basic knowledge, whichwe can obtain from establishment of a Space Education AdvisoryCoun- cil, solar and stellar research. Oncewe have managed to advise the BOard of Education In the definition to arrange- for such a far-reaching educational of .;curses for aerospace education, pro- to organize as- gram from space, we have made a giant step toward sistance-from UAH, NASA, private industry, ASRC, the actual application of space benefitsto all our state and city government, and possibly,other in- daily activities. TABLE 1. SPACE BENEFITS LECTURES AND SPEAKERS arefita from Space Dr. K. Ehricke North American _ Rockwell Corp. was R. Holmen McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. 2.Skylab Experiments C. Dc Sanctis Marshall Space and Objectives Flight Center 3.Dividends from Space Prof. F. Ordway University of_ Alabama, Huntsville 4.The Systems Approach - J. Aberg Marihall Space A Space Lesson and others Flight Center 5.Results from Lunar G. Heller Marshall Space Exploration Flight Center Teledyne - Brown , t 6.Sound, Noise, and SST I. Vats Engirecring 7-Nuclear Energy for Power R. W. Hunt Westinghoese Dr. J. B. F. Champlin Electric S.Weather Satellites and W. Vaughan Marshall Space Meteorology and others Flight Center 3.Space Exploration for Dr. Mercieca Alabama A&M World Peace University 10.Why to Explore Space? Dr. Stuhlinger Marshall Spae Flight Center TABLE 2. LISTING OF SEMINAR TOPICS AND SPEAKERS- I. Registration - Introduction C. Hammett 2. NASA's Educational Program E. Collins 3. Dividends from Space Technology - Christensen An Overview 4. The Systems Approach - A Space Lesson J. Aberg 5. Skylab Mission and Concept L. Belew 6. Skylab Experiments and Objectives C. De Sanctis 7. Earth Surveys Dr. McDonough 8. Weather Satellites and Meteorology - O. E. Smith 9. Space Manubeturing H. iVuensch - 10. Application of Space Remote Sensing to A. Adelrran Solution of Ecological Problems II., Results from Lunar Exploration B. Jones 12. Information Management Dr. R. Vachon 13. The Space Shuttle T. O'C"nnell 14. The Lunar Roving Vehicle Morea . 15. Space Exploration for World Peace -K. Vannenberg 16. Why to Explore Space? Dr. E.- Stuhlinger . 396 FROM SPACE OUR HOUSING HOPES? By Dr. L. Albert Scipio II Professor of Space Sciences Howard University Washington, D.C. Introduction However, the ability to accept the world's avail- able materials requires an inventive approach to the It is obvious that if we are to build the new Challenging demands of design'. Dreaming about _cities and new towns in cities (Fig.. 1) urban plan- removing limitations of materials; however, pro- ners are discussing, some pretty advanced con- vides powerful incentives for research. Ultimately, -struction techniques and materials are required. We may envision a heterogeneous solid (a mixed -The real question, however, -is: What Will-it-take material system, perhaps) possessing the deSired to build these towns and cities? This s is not an easy variable mechanical and physical properties which question to answer, but let us attempt to examine will simultaneously satisfy all of the desimi functions. certain aspects of the associated problems. Giving vent to our imagination, we contrive-the ultimate structure ( Fig. 3), a structure resulting Although at this, hour, unsympathetic voices_ to from an interplay of the highest order. continued-space -eftert-s-resound loudly over the land,_ it is easily hown that-space developments have NewresnLieziaterials emanating from space provided with the laww-how, the technology, and technology, such as titanium, beryllium, carbon, ches for dealing with many of our earth--- _ -boron, and special glasses, offer many design problenis. This presentation deals with only possibilities. On a higher order, we have several one of these problems Housing. new material mixtures, called composites,' which are strong yet. lightweight and able to withstand In these very brief moments, we shall give an severe load, temperature, and corrosive conditions. overview of three points: These too are developments necessitated to meet requirements of high -speed aircraft and space ve- Material Advances hicles. Composites, in fact, are seen now to ap- proach dream materials with tailor-made properties. 2. New Building Methods In general, composite materials [2) are divided 3. Systematic Design and Building M..nagemenL into five basic groups ( Fig. 4) by form of the struc- tural constituents which determine the internal These three items will be treated from the view- character of th composites. Since the structural f point of the Design-Structures-Materials Complex, constituent is generally embedded in a continuousr. indicated by Figure 2 II). matrix of another material, the matrix is called the body constituent. The matrix generally encases -the structural constituent, holds it in place, seals Material Advances it from mechanical damage, protects it from en-. . vironmental deterioriation, and gives the composite -First, a brief word about materials.It is clear form. Concrete, for example, is one of our oldest* that there are many aspects to the proper selection . and simplest composites. and effective utilization of materials for a suc- cessful stri ntural design, particularly one for In particular, recent trends in the structural severe environmental-conditions. As Figure 2 use of plastics (more precisely, reinforced plastic .illustrates, there are strong interactions-among composites) We-demonstrated the great poten- _materials, structures, and design. Furthermore, tialities of structural plastics in building.In-addition because of these strong interactions, it is most to lending theniselves to an-infinite variety of shapes important That the rational design of the system be ( Fig. 5) , structural plastia can be einployed in approached on an integrated basis, considering strong, tough, lightweight, and even light- simultaneously the structure, materials, and de- transmitting structures. Although certain of these sign conditions. developments can be expected to haVe practical. 397 solutions of building problems, a number of diffi- MASC extrusion process. A revolutionary new culties still remain. construction technique for continuously extruding buildings was developed by Midwest Applied Science Corporation (MASC) of West Lafayette, Indiana. New Building Methods The new MASC extrusion process makes it possible The urgent need to provide low-cost mass to "spin" buildings out in one piece ( walls, roof, housing for the nation has posed a real challenge partitions, etc.) (Figs. 10, 11), and not piece it together from components, on the site. __for _the building industry. In particular, this need Fast-rising and hardening plastic foams are used as construction includes a variety of housing types; e.g., single- family detached units, low-rise, high-rise multiple materials. Fast-reacting liquid ingredients are puniped through the arm into a mixer and immediately units, etc.Let us examine a few of the proposed transferred into a molding form at the end. As the systems which show promise in meeting some of these needs. arm_ moves along, a continuous layer of material is, deposited. Single-Detailed Units. Double Units. The following are some interesting designs for singular Foaming eqUipment and supply tanks are mounted dwellings. These illustrative designs, selected on a truck, and the- system in its entirety can be for their uniqueness, are only representative of a moved to the construction site without need for variety suggested for the single-system housing auxiliary equipment. The process is applicable to market. During the past 3 years, a number_ of experi- structures of all types and sizes, including farm mental designs have found their way into the shelter, warehouses, factories, and low- and high- literature. rise buildings. The traveling mold designed so that construction is not restricted to any one geom- Flexible-corridor dwelling. The Sam Davis etry. Any shape of wall, whether straight or curbed, system [3] is constructed of fiberglass and polyure- can be erected. Figure 12 shows how the process thane sandwich panels, molded in C-shaped ele- can be used to generate --.)ther shapes. An articulated ments. The element is used as Pail of the floor, arm could be used that eould be shortened-or wall, and ceiling; four or more are bolted together lengthened, or whose center of rotation could be to form an enclosure or room. In production, two shifted.Still other shapes could be genet-add-by molds are used: one for the outside skin-and one moving a linear slip along a pair of inclined edge for the inside skin. The space between the -two skins ribs. is filled with a low density polyurethane foam. For other shapes, the "C" is cut at the factory to make Filament winding. In addition to the xploratorx, either interior or exterior corners. Doors and work on composite materials, aerospace research__ windows are cut into-the rooms on the site ( Fig. 6). and development has contributed to a useful fabricw- tion procedure for building. THOrithe wraparound Each room is connected to the others by flexible technique, exemplified by the filament winding of corridors, permitting many design variations,as rr ket cases, pressure bottles, and other aerospace suggested by Figure 7._Horizontally, electric_ -.1ponents. services run through the units' subfloors and the corridors, the latter carrying also all mechanical By winding continuous strands of resin-coated systems. glass filaments on a collapsible mandrel (Fig. 13), high-streng-th, lightweight structures are aelii-diied Floating house. An amphibious structure [3], whose strength properties are tailored to h. :et the designed by Domenico Mortellito, is formed in two imposed stresses by orienting the filamentein molds - one for the top, the other for the bottom - helical, longitudinal, or circumferential directions the two sections are bolted together (Fig. 8). Con- as needed. This technique has been tried experi- structed of rigid urethane, such a structure could be mentally to produce room-sized boxes with two thin molded,, extruded, and cagT4Wocesses in- layers or facings of filament-w6und resin-coated -corporating structural, insulation, acoustical and glass fibers surrounding, - a core of lightweight plastic lighting factors. Rigid urethane-is a flotation form. material impervious to the elements and thereby particularly suitable for such a structure; the design /An axtension to wraparound consisting of a corn- is by no means limited to the, amphibious application.'Thitiatien of., fibrous sheets, gypsum board, and honey- Figure 9 shows the bottom half of the house, at the comb-haiteen proposed for industrialized I-ousing top). production 131. ,,, 398 Architectural Research Laboratory (University unlike the air-supliorted membrane, itdoes not of Michigan) system. The Architectural Research require a heavy foundation to withstand the large Laboratory (University of Michigan) [51 haspro- uplift forces at the support. The quilt provides posed a-complete building system which utilizes continuous multiplemeinbranes. The pillowcon- the filament-wound technique (compositeconcept) struction consists of two membranes held apart to produce onsite housing shells (Figs. 14:15) . the desired distance by internal ties.Intersecting The inner and outer skins, only 0.10 in. thick, are ribs provide a two-way enclosure withmembranes separated by a nonburning polyurethanecore 6 to between the ribs. Of course, most pneumatic 9 in. thick, to form tubes up to 36 ft long, 20 ft structures are inherently self-erecting in that only wide, and 8 ft high. Various combinationsof these air need be injected to deVelop a stable expanded can be assembled, including two-story units whose ,shape from a compacted form 141. inner skins are wound separately, and aftercore application, are combined for outer windings. Environmentalists will find William Moseley's imaginative design 181 most satisfying. Thehouse, Lift-shape process. The lift-shapeprocess swimming pool, patio and gardens are enclosedin'a [61 is primarily a method ofconstruction of thin- plastic umbrella (Fig. 23). A boom extending shell structures that permits elimination of over con- the house supports the umbrella and containsall ventional form work. A structural skeletonis plumbing and wiring. Sections of the bubble developed so that it can be fabricated are on a horizontal mounted on tracks, and can be openedor closed at plane and then lifted and warped (Fig. 16)into final pushbutton command. Inside the umbrella,air is position (Fig. 17) for a spray covering ofconcrete filtered; climate is controlled. Entry is-provided (Fig. 18) or other material. by a driveway passing throughan air curtain. The shapes that are available throughvarious Finally, the potentialities of -a newly developed patterns of-bars are almost infinite, and thecrea- structural system may be gaged, to some extent, by tive imagination of the designer would seem to be its versatility in being able to satisfy expectedfuture the only limit on shapes available (Fig.19). As trends on a broad' basis. the armature is warped from its horizontalposition and assumes a finished shape, thenaturalness of Multiple-Units, Large-Scale Units. Several of structural form becomes apparent; and,as the the techniques just discussed have direct application sprayed-on covering is applied and the structureis . to the constructroirof multistory structures and brought to completion,- the sculpturalqualities are large-scale housing units. Since we shall deal with, readily apparent ( Fig. 20). the subject, in part, in our discussion 01 construc- tion on a vast scale, for the present, only twofrom Self- erecting structures. Significantamong among several techniques applicable for multistory construction methods is the self-erecting construction are examined. structure. Present developments, significantas they are, are but transitional steps towardthe fully Pneumatic construction. A recent development automatic self-erection of structures.Ideally, a of the University of Sydney, Australia 191, has self-erecting structure would be brought onsite re- in sulted in the application of pneumatic constructionto some compact form. Then; with the addition ofan multistory buildings. The underlying principles energy input,- it would automatically develop into of a the propOsed syStem are illustrated in Figures24 predetermined, expanded, stable form.Figure 21 and 25. According to Figure 24, [71 illustrates a variety of structural a flexible tube, shapes and when subjected to a proportionate internal iirpres- space applications and their techniques. sure, becomes a stable compression member. The space program has exploited thesestructures Furthermore, it is possible to utilize the load.: in a way which may be very applicableto archi- bearing capacity of this structural tecture. system, whether the load is applied externally to theTiree endor suspended internally in the form of floors. Self-erec 'Mg structures of the pneumatic type , . ( Fig. 22) can produce a large variety ofshapes by A typicadesign of a 10-story office building tailoring the fabric, providing internal elements based on pne tic criteria is- shown in Figure 21. and external restraints. The simplest formof In the on the left, access to the building is Pneumatic structure is that of the inflated membrane. gained by means of an airlock tunnel at groundfloor The inflated rib is under pressure insidethe rib and level. At ground and basement level, substantial 399 plain areas are required for air-conditioning and or collapsed in a reverse manner to that in which pressurization equipment. These areas are not. it was erected. As the life process of a city changes, pressurized. The variation on the right shows a the location of many structures would optimally rigid, self-supporting membrane which is erected change with it. A certain shop, for example, might to full height before the building-is-pressurized. be forced to abandon its location for particular Here an open,_ pressured colon* supports a load on reasons.If the building were designed for easy a piston which is in itself supported by internal reversibility and shipment, it might not only be pressure. 4 moved to another part of the city, but perhaps to another cityer state. Tentatively, a pressure range of 0 to 14 psi internal pressure above external atmospheric pres- Reversibility, however, is not intended to be sure has been adopted for the design of multistory restricted to small buildings, as is possible today. pneumatic buildings 110]. With technological developments, it should be pos- sible to sectionally and systematically disthantle a Modular high-rise system. The system devel- structure of any size, including megastiuctures . oped by National Homes for Operation BreakthroUgh An evolutionary trend toward hard, large-scale (111 'combines a precast concrete space frame with reversible structures can currently be noted, steel modular boxes.The structure is extruded particularly in housing. The well-publicized Moshe round sections of concrete pipe with a post-tensioned Safdie's high-rise Habitat (Montreal, Canada), and A-frame every four floors. The precast central the 21-story Palacio del Rio Hotel (San Antonio, core of the cruciform-shaped building contains the Texas) are possible solutions to reversibility, al- stairs and elevators. A crane is used in this con- though neither was originally intended to be reversed. struction, which limits structures to 24 floors. After the precast elements are erected (Fig. 26), The Acron house- (Fig. 27), designed by Carl the boxes are lifted and slid in on top of each other. Koch, in 1948, is an example of a prefabricated-house Four pairs of modular boxes can be stacked on each that utilized initial deformability characteristics. :-X-frame. A typical one-bedroom box isshown in Initially, the house is a movable package of approxi- the bottom right of Figure 26: mately 180 square feet. The walls, floor, and roof fold around, the central utility core kitchen, heater, Several types orsinall modules are joined to and bath. Closets are also stored here when the form each 14 in. wide unit.It maS, be desired, for home is folded. When expanded the house`contains example, to have several bedrooms and a bath in one 810 square feet. module, and a living room, kitchen/utility core, and bedroom in another. Furthermore, the modules can More generuay then,,, architectural form can be be placed .t "le by side or can be stacked up. inherently deformable, expandable, displaceable, disposable,- and to some extent, capable of kinetic New Communities, NeW Cities: In contemporary movement J121. To tAke full advantage of these society, we no longer expect people to stay reneu characteristics, however, -there must be established for reasons of family loyalty, economic sec..ity, or new criteria for materials, new technology, new emotional attachment. Families move. Jibs change. construction techniques, new building economics, Populations shift. Each year one out cf every five etc.' American householders moves, changing homes, as they change jobs, income levels, Spcju es, age Reflecting some efforts in this direction, the groups, desires, and life styles. The constant tear- following multifacility systems have been proposed ing down, remodeling, and rebuilding that occurs in for urban or regional popUlations: today's cities testify to the fact that continual change is needed and desired. New approaches which Arcology. Paolo Soleri conceives future cities address themselves to these contemporary requcre- with more than a million people living in vast multi- ments of mobility and reversibility are th'e subject-_ Jr, level,structures.Soleri's city - design concept, of the present discussion. called Arcology, is an integration of;architecture with ecology.It is a total planned environment, The concept of reversibility 1121 is rather new dwellings, factories, utilities, entertainment centers, to architectural design; and perhaps, a few pre- within a single megastructure 1 to 2miles wide and liminary remarks are in order. This is a form of up to 300 stories high. Making maximum use of architecture that can be dismantled nondestructively three-dimensional space, freeing nine-tenths of the 1,1 surrounding land for farming and leistitearcology Super-roof structure. An instant plastic build- combines the benefits of urban and rural life-and ing has been developed by the Ferro Corporation. provides alternatives to congestion, pollution and The process employs flexible plastic material that resource waste. Because the diameter of an hardens under sunlight in hours or in days, depend- arcology is small, walking, bicycling, escalator, ing on the sizes of the structure and the temperature.. eleVator,Alfivi ng sidewalk, and pneumatic or elec- Once cured, the material is claimed to be relatively tric vehicle transport r.ake automobiles unnecessary indestructible. The material may be possible to --except for travel outside the arcology. build structures up to .0.5 mile in diameter. The ultimate size will be established after complete Two examples of such multilevel structures stress analysis of full-size structures. Made of are: the three-dimensional Jersey and the woven fiberglass impregnated with tough cylindrical HeXahedron (Fig. 28). The three-dimensional plastics, the structures are translucent,_ permitting Jersey (-top) is a 13 -mil transport center for a mil- 80 to 90 percent light transmission. They are dome lion people, planned for Jersey swamps. The main shaped or cylindrical in outline. The light weight of structure is circled by park-covered industrial- the finished shell makes these structures easy to buildings, farms, airstrip, etc. Two Hexahedrons transport. A structure 50 ft in diameter should (bottom) are each 3600 ft high..3300 ft wide,- and weigh about 2500 lb. house 170 000 people. Pyramids textured surface permits architectural adaptation to individual tastes In the future, immense super-roofs utilizing and needs. --this concept could cover entire cities.Such mega - structures are depicted in Figure 30 t 151. Although the conceptions have been rejected by . some as mere pipedreams, they do represent real Sea city. The technology to build floating cities challenges for the interplay between structure, already exists. One proposal for such a floating material, design, and, of course, ecology. .city is the recent Tritoneity15] designed by Buckniinster Fuller. The city would be created in Plug-in city.In architecture and urban planning, three stages. The first stage, or module, is a the concept of interchangeable components had been neighborhood of from 3500 to 6500 people.It can be explored by two groups in particular, the Archigram composed of a string of four to six small platforms Group (England) and the Metabolists (Japan). The accommodating about 1000 people each or of a larger objective is to create buildings which are so basic 4 acre triangular platform which could house 6500 and adjustable that they can meet future changes. people. Each neighborhood unit would contain a In the most general terms, the results are designs small supermarket, an elementary school,.and local which are of indeterminate form, assembled from stores and services. The second module (second expendable components.. Basically, the buildings stage), a town, is created by linking together three are composed of two components: a basic skeleton to six neighborhoods, which would create a popula- or latticework or mast which acts as structural sup= tibn of 15 000 to 30 000 people. For this combina= ports and carries mechanical services and expend- tion, a town platform is added containing a high able modules or capsules which can be plugged-in, school; more commercial, recreational and civic' removed, or replaced. facilities; and perhaps, some light industry. The third module, the last stage, is a full-scale city of The plug-in city (Fig. 29) [14] , by the Archi- 90 000 to 125 000 populaLln.It is created by con- gram Group, is a complete urban complex that necting three to seven towns and will include a city- explores-many aspects of the concept. Cranes re- center module containing governmental offices, move, install, or service substitutive accommoda- medical facilities, etc.Units, of course, could be tion capsules. The giant Jatticeifork serves for added or subtracted if the needs of the community both life support and structural support. Lateral should change, thus allowing and providing for in-. expansion can take place along the lines between ckemental growth. The proposal is being considered -A and B.Plug-in city has been de-scribed as "a for implementation by Baltimore, Maryland. city of components on racks, components in stacks, components plugged into networks and grids, and a The c_ ity at sea (Fig, 31) (17], conceived by city of components being swung into place by cranes." Pilkinton Glass Age Development Committee ( London, Its success, howevermay depend upon new light- England), is another proposal of the concept of float- weight, fireproof, and economical structural mate- ing cities. The designers envisage a glass-and- rials; equally important are new, quick, and cheap concrete offahore island for 30 000 inhabitants that techniques of fabrication. could be comparable in cost to a conventional land 401 city but would not use vital food-producing land. Space Station programs and those Of the USSR are The site suggested for the first sea city is 15 miles offclearing the way for mass utilization of space for the east coast of England in shoals covered by 35 ft hat tation.Designs for space cities have already of water at high tide. Although such a project may received serious consideration. Douglas Aircraft, not be realized for 50 years, the structural and for instance, has proposed a space ball complex engineering techniques needed exist today. Sea city which has a molecular structure that could be added could also be economically feasible and capable of to, much like a giant Tinker toy: Other proposals `providing all the facilities of a mainland town. The include enormous wheels and multispoked configure= complex would be a 16-story amphitheater on piles, tions in which the inhabitants circulate to other with a central lagoon warmed by waste heat from chambers via hollow spokes. The design (Fig. 33) the city's industries and containing a clusier of is a space city complex with an average population floating islands that carry houses, schools, and of about 4000. The giant wheel consists of modules public buildings. A breakwater of- water- filled containing offices, laboratories, living quarters, plastic bags would encircle the city as a first line and a hotel. A ferry system, perhaps similar to the of defense against waves, and a curved outer wall proposed Space Shuttle of our own space program, would deflect the wind. On-the-spot power from would transport people and supplies from earth. undersea natural gas would be the keystone of the city's economy and surplus fresh water front a. desalination plant could be piped ashore to provide Systematic Design and Building Management revenue. According to the designers, the kind of shoal water best suited for the construction actually Among the approaches to provide low-cost mass exists over nearly 10 percent of the world's seabed, housing, it appears that the creation of an industri- so there is no lack of suitable sites. alized system of building, one that is fully automated, technologically advanced, well managed, and most Undersea-community. There is an ever- important, free from artificial impediments, may increasing possibility that undersea working and be the best hope in the attack.In other words, it is living may become a reality.Following ..ttcttacs- felt that it would be achieved through an integrated Yves Cousteau's underwater explorations and demon- approach. This suggests a systems epproach to the strations of undersea living, several designs for undersea habitats are the subject of experimentation- of several countries: U.S., Japan, United Kingdom, The systems concept is a way of tninking and USSR, West Germany, etc. approaching problems, which involves looking at the entire problem rather than concentrating onone One interesting design is a sea igloo, proposed or more parts;to the exclusion of everything else. by Edwin A. Link. Made of heavy-duty rubber, the igloo is actually an inflated house which works Syetematic management, aerospace's most on the principle of maintaining equalized inside and characteristic product, offers the broad-based, outside pressures.. When not in use, the igloo can interdisciplinary approach:so necessary to solve be deflated, packaged and easily removed. An the extremely complex housing problem. The prob- artist's concept. of an underwater environment is lem is not one of a purely technological nature but shown in Figure 321181'.It is a "shirtsleeiie one requiring the proper adaptation of technology to environment" working and living facility, designed the human interface in the city. for depths up.to, perhaps, 600 ft. A recent develop- ment of General Electric, an artificial gill, may free In closing, we will examine.the general features man from today's umbilical ties between undersea of the systems approach as it may be applied to shelters and the surface and, eventually, from housing.First, however, a few definitions are in today's typical oxygen breathing apparatus used by order to avo:l the contusion resulting from the often divers.It is an ultrathin membrane of silicone indiscriminate use of the technical terms, rubber which adMits air from the surrounding water and allows carbon dioxide from breathing to escape. Systems building is a combination of parts in a whole.In systems building, the term buflaing system Space city. The ability to initiate efforts for is used for an entity comprised of subsystems that actual living in space is largely basedon the are fully coordinated and interrelated. Imustrialized capabilities and experience obtained fromover a building is programmed and systemizes: building decade of space exploration. The U.S. Skylab and. using a highly mechanized flow line.Prefabrication in building is the offsite fabrication of components represented by the doublearrow emanating from or assemblies. Prefabrication is not prerequisite the house-occupant set (box 1) and to industrialized building,even though it usually entering the box representing change-in-housecharacteristics plays an important role in it.Figure 34 1197 (box 5). illustrates the various elements of thebuilding system. The second double arrow out of box2 indicates the occupant's decision to Conceptual Model of the Housing Sy item.There move out of his house and are five major elements in the conceptual model 1201 neighborhood. In the event theperson, moves out of the housing system. First, there of the neighborhood, the houseto which he was are people. matched leaves the-neighborhood housing The people exhibit many differentcharacteristics, inventor, one of the most important of which, in (box 6) and becomes part of theroof-finding system terms of inventory (btx 7). Once matched, the housing, is that to theowner or renter of a house. new house- Second, there is the roof-finding occupant pair reenters the neighborhood(goes from system,- which` box 7 to box I) 11A1. includes all institutions and individualsengaged in the process of finding and securinghomes for people The single-arrow pair from box to live in. Thelthird element is thecollection of 1to box 5 rep- houses and residential land in resents each of the physicalprocesses (wearing the area. The fourth, out, repairs, maintenance) in and most important, is the matchbetween the-house turn. The loop from and the renter and landlord box1 through boxes 5 and 6 backto 1 represents or owner, called the the deterioration process. house - occupant (11-0) pair. Thefifth is the neigh- borhood or community, an' Isixthis interest rates. The Construction-System. Buildingsand the The model diagrammed in Figure 35includes Processes that create and put theminto place are seven system elements. Two majorprocesses are manmade systems with humanly definedobjectives. represented: the process involving people,or A building,- for example (likeany other designed migration, and the process involving thehousing facility, for that matter), isa system, that is, an inventory, or deterioration. Inaddition, two types interconnected complex of functionallyrelated of action are defined: those involvingphysical components de-signed to accomplisha purpose 121j. processes (double arrows) and those involving perceptual processes (single arrows). Theforces Since the system is made up ofcomponents, acting on people are* produced by physicalprocestes, they, in turn, constitute wholes withtheir own whereas the forces acting on the housesare (1e re- ordering of parts. The system thenconsists of sult of perceptualprocesses. several subsystems relatedone to another, each possessing the basic systems framework.Figure The change itspeople and the peopletLemselves 36 1211 illustrates the constructionprocess (the are represented in blocks 2 and 3, respectively.It Construction subsystem), a subsystem of the build- is postulated that the H-Opairing(block 1), the ing system. neighborhood and communitycharacteristics (block IA and Table 1), and the external influences (block 4 and Table 2) are forces which, Let us consider the structural model of the modified by the Construction process. The Constructionprocess internal characteristics, acton the occupant to produce hisheha ior. comprises three main steps: site preparation, component fabrication, qnd component connection. The process is affected by the Designprocess in the Consider now the blocks andloops.First, form of design specifications (materials,. Compo- the double-arrow! physical-processloop starling with block 2, which represents nents, dimensions, and arrangements whichtogether the occupant. There make up a building or facility). The design are two arrows out of this block, representing the speci- decision outcome to stay or fications, together with other inputs,enter the move.If the person Construction process. The inputs stays, he then remainsn the neighborhood matched are: land, labor, to his house, as represented by the materials, capital, know -how, anddesign specific?. double arrows V.ons. The objective is to achieve from box 2 to box 3 to box 1. His a building or living in the house facility with specified characteristics and subject implies some physical effecton the house, both in terms of wear and tear and in terms of to certain constraints. The constraints of the repairs or Construction subsystem are technological,, improvements. ThesephysicaLprocesses are tional, economic, and climatic. A' 403 Scurf!, of the restrictions come from outside of 3. Plastics. A Decade of Progress. Progressive the subsystem, others from inside.Feedback Architecture, no.10, Oct. 1970, pp. 64-109. control within the model works in two ways. Should the performance criteria indicate discrepancies 4. Hersey, Irvin: Construction in the Seventies between inputs and obji.ctlues, changes in construc- and Beyond. Engineering Opportun'ties, tion inputs are provided, and perhaps changes in the Oct. 1968, pp: 32-43. Inputs of the design process are required.. 5. Architectural Research Laboratory, University of Michigan: Research on PoWiiffil of Advarced Conclusion I Technology for Housing.1968. Obviously, in this brief overview, a number of 6. his- Y:1,_4. H., : 'Construction cl Thin Shell aspects of our subject have, of neceseity, been Structures by the "Lift-Shape" Process. World omitted. We did not, for example, discuss the Conference on Shell Structures, San,Francisco, various buildingeystems themielves. Space limita- California, NAS-NRC Publication no. 1187, tions necessitated that such specific, but noteworthy---1962, pp. 447-452. information-be sacrifi--for a more general exposure., 7: Forbes, F Expandable Structures. Space/ Aerrenutics, Dec. 19647-pp-.-62-68. In the foregoing, we have attempted to offer sow,vel,oloments of material systems and building 8. An Oasis for Living. Machine Design, Ne21, methoi.e._that could he brought-to bear on thelcomplex 1968,- p. 21.-- housing problem. Some steps are le Teady taking place. In addition,--a-sUgglited_approach for dealing 9. Pohl, J. G.: Multi -story Pneumatic Buildings with the problem as it relates to other components as a Challenge to the Plastics Industry, within the total community or city structure has Australian Building Science and Technology. been mentioned. Most of these developments are Journal of the Building Science Forum o? traceable, directly or indirectly, to the space Australia, ac.ne 1967. programs. 10. Pneumatic-Construction Applied to Multistory The degree to which pose and other develop- Buildings. Progressive Architecture, Sept. ments ultimately are utilfrsd in the housing rr build- 1970, pp. 110-117. ing industry depends on the foresight; ingenuity, and progressiveness of the building industry itself. The 11. The Nation's Largest Pre-fabber Proposes a potential for good design and for bringing good Modular High-Rise System, lious. and Home, housing down into the price range where every June 1970, Americt a family can afford it and where we can . make a serious start to rebuild our cities seems 12. Zuk, William.. and Clark, Roger H.: Kinetic. unlimited. Architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, -1970. It is well, then, that we end on that optimistic note. 13. Soleil, Paolo:t rcology: The City in tne Image ofrAII.WIT Press, 1969. References 14. Coo --, Peter: Architecture: Action and Plan. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1967. 1.Gerard, G.: Structural Interplay: Design and Materials. Aero/Space Engineering, Aug. 1959, 15. A Progress Report in the Development of the pp. 37-42. Instant Plr,mic Structures Program. Cordo Divisior., Ferro Corporation, Sept. 1967. 2.Scipio, L. A.: Structural Design Concepts: Some NASA Contributions. NASA SP-5039, 16. Triton City A Prototype Floating Community 1967. by the Triton Foundation. Clearinghouse for 404 Federal Scientific and Technical Information, 20. Handler, A. B.: Systems Approach to Archi- Springfield, 1968. tecture. American Elsevier, 1970. 17. Sea City Could Ease Population Problem. 21. Hirshberg, A. S. , and Barber, Thomas A. : Machine Design, June 20, 1968, p. 50. A Conceptual Model of the Pasadena Housing System. Urban Technology Conference (New 18. Hilbert.Wolf: Toward Cybertecture. Pro- York), AIAA Paper no. 71-500, May 24-26, gressive Aichttecture, w. 5, May 1970, 1971. pp. 98-103. 19. Systems Definitions. Progressive Architecture, No. 9, Sept. 1970, pp. 100-101. TABLE 1. NEIGHBORHOOD MODEL TABLE 2. EXTERNA INFLUENCES 121) CHARACTERISTICS )21) Figure 1. Our new city. 405 ii s3 tt Figure 5. Some structural plastics shell forms (courtesy ofProgressive Architecture). nein!) le corridors Denying Oltrneehant- cal systems connect boxes formed by t,(.1: re. together four C-shaped modules. ,y set, °Avis Figure 6. flexible-corridor dwelling Figure 7. One possible floor plan for flexible-corridor (courtesy of Progressive dwelling. Architecture). 407 . --Figure 10. MASC extrusion process wall formation of a rectangular building. , tss Figure 11. MASC extrusion process ceiling and roof formation. 409 -^ez,4, " I4/144,,, . .432.114I.,dvw,..,40.-.4.4a.,4111*Vi .:-4 Figure 12. Some extrusion shell forms (courtesy of Figure 13.Filament winding (courtesy of Progressive Architecture). Progressive Architecture). 0'4 nel.D.mounGtulltal 9.*46.61^114M.410716twf16084_ , 44, 4. - Figure 14. Architectural Research Laboratory (University of Michigan)system. 410 Figure 15.Completed units. -0" amok _ "012./44 Figure 16. Lift-shape process r,6] placing temporary supports. 411 Figure 17.Final stage of construction [6] completed steel armature. s Figure 18.Final stage of construction (61 spray Figure 19. Bar pattern model of 50-ftspan test application of first concrete coat. structure. - 1.K. Figure 20.Final stage of constructioncompleted six-point parabolic shell. 412 Figure 21. Expandable structures deployment technique and applications (courtesy of Space/Aeronautics). 413 Weil" A...Near/CM=Levelatr 11...14" oat$ D1.'40410 vancos a it sur/Kred $1,101,e$ fl. e a $ . r$n $Safi tut n't.4 yjAtt ftweet J,,t,41^4. try we fr....dal 5'.4 nut .tt red V S t, et t . Of NO 4,4' 0,4' ta, as at taa sttraots tat 1, ", t",ir tt, a ta,,,,,totaatts stow,$pa,. 114t,rt a r ./S r .iy fer t Figure 22. Diagrams of various air-supported structures (.urtesy of Progressive Architecture). $szyr Figure 23. An oasis for living (courtesy of Machine Design). 414 tZ.". V.z/ 1 '''srono -...,* pot nu...CM:NCO /Loomswer* COLLAOfillMC rLEXIIIKIL runcourruse ork,A-rtofL111,C .011411 Figure 24. Pneumatic construction applied to multistory buildings(courtesy of Progressive Architecture). Ming ta :MI U1I SIM 11115 MEI a BEIM -hill MEM r 2212 tn te;LiSAL i Vain I "I- t 0,ssasosli 740 Os Iss CO.vossewstss4 set isst COsTICO, or/ot OsssA.,s,40low sO Figure 25. Office building designs (courtesy of Progressive Architecture). 415 Pr' *ha 46.1 kw. medi weal. 110111411.1 Pwir pm 41 eleak .4".- more as 11.1..a. vilidIrv. Am I. Ise a boo mow. *Vera Mg Moe 11%. laureavw *a rano *rob 4.110.1.* 00.1.4 ad WOW.. 40, 14.1. Im.s..11111 11In Matoe4 ...NM11. Figure 26.Modular high-rise system (courtesy of :louse and Home). Iti!;4:1; Figure 27.The Acron house [12]. Figure 28. Arcology [VA . wt s to; - t.""'-"4."'" V - 17;* s:r A1 usIrs t 5,11 Figure 29. Plug-in city. Figure 30. Super-roof structure. P' v^" t..s,4 ftttlit y Figure 31.Sea city (courtesy of Machine Design). 418 . Arlcavzr. Figure 32. Undersea community (courtesy of Progressive Architecture). Figure 33. Space city. 419 Figure 34. Systems definition (courtesy of Progressive Architecture). Figure 35.Major elements of the housing system (211. r BENEFITS TO BE DERIVED FROM METEOROLOGICAL SATELATETECHNOLOGY By Dr. Delbert D. Smith Professor and Legal Advisor Space Science and Engineering Center University of Wisconsin Introduction use of communication satellite technology.It is necessary to examine the various ramifications of The ultimate user of satellite technology had the technology, while resisting developmentalpro- been relegated to a position of relative insignificance grams, which do not deal with the software problems in early developmental programs, because of great and possibilities that should, in fact, establishpre- pressures at a domestic and international level for requisites for hardware design. successful technical results. Even where theuser was considered, it was primarily concerning bene- fits derived from technological spillover. Now this While commercial satellite development, and situation has changed, and an attempt is being made particularly, the signing of the definitive Internation- to insure that the full benefits of satellite technology al Telecommunications Satellite Consortium reach the general population. But this is notan (INTELSAT) Agreements, revolutionizes world- easy-task. In a sense, it becomes an exercise in wide telecommunications, there are also educational the "linking" function, attempting to determine aild needs and related specialized needs inareas, such correlate users' needs with the technology required as law, medicine, and government services that to fulfill these needs, and then to shape the develop- must be explored. There is a presumption in favor ment of future technology. of the desirability of widespread utilization of satellite telecommunication in conjunction with At the Space Science and Engineering Center of commercial rauio, telephone, television, and data the University of Wisconsin the above approach has transmission, but there is no such presumption been undertaken in two areas: communication and regarding an educational satellite system, whether meteorological satellite development.It is the pur- global, regional, or domestic. pose to briefly set forth the efforts that have been undertaken in these two fields. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is_considering proposals which would allow private corporations to develop domes- Educational Satellite Development: tic satellite systems in conjunction with existing An Approach ground communications facilities. Within these proposals there is little said regarding educational While advances in satellite telecommunication usage of the system. This is an area where detailed technology promise to revolutionize global communi- arrangements and plans should be formulated if edu- cation, it is not certain that educational uses of such cational users are to be accommodated. satellite systems will develop concomitantly. Edu- cational uses may be relegated to obscurity while Some of the less-industrialized countries of the our society utilizes the more spectacular andcom- world are considering the possibility of national mercially viable facets of the medium. and regional communication satellite systems, which may prove to be the best means of expanding pres- A relevant question for satellite development ently inadequate terrestrial communications facili- becomes: What if the medium really is the message? ties; but they, too, lack a full understanding of such What if the communication satellite, which isa tre- a system pertaining to education and the need for - -pious new medium, becomes the ultimate message? in-depth feasibility research. ..c this outcome I suggest that there is an ethical responsibility which must be assumed by At the World Administrative Radio Conference those charged with the development and utilization (WARC), which this writer attended this pastsum- of communication satellites andalso, by thosein mer in Geneva, frequency allocations were con- our universities who must apply the knowledge ob- sidered for a wide variety of space activities. Of tained from their respective disciplines for optimal particular interest was the worldwide allocation at 423 2.5 GHz for educational purposes. The implication and social applications of satellite telecommunica- of this allocation is that there will be significant tions, coupled with the development of the necessary domestic and regional educational uses of communi- hardware systems. The Center is p multidiscipli- cation satellites. Thus, it is necessary for educa- nary facility with a satellite transmitting capability, tors and government officials responsible for educa- which focuses on problems relating to satellites tional planning to develop educationally viable satel- and their educational and social applications. The lite experiments, which contain evaluation compo- . main objectives of the Center are: nents. The Rook Mountain satellite experiment and the possible Appalachia experiment are pointed in 1. To provide a focus for multidisciplinary the right direction, but much more needs to be done research and training in the educational and social if the potential of the satellite is to be realized as a applications and impact of satellite telecommunica- medium for education at a distance. tion If satellite technology is to fulfill its promise, 2. To develop working models for the applica- its development must be guided by carefully defined tion of satellite telecommunication systems to humanistic purposes and priorities. There must educational and social problems be an objective assessment of the limitations and capabilities of the new communication satellitP 3. To develop and maintain a satellite trans- technology'in meeting our expectations. Often we mission and reception capability which will allow proceed under the illusion that, merely because it for an integration of hardware and software research is technically feasible to develop a given satellite system, it is reasonable to expect that the system 4. To serve as an information clearinghouse will function successfully in pursuing the goals we for the collection, annotation, and dissemination have set for ourselves or for our national develop- of information relative to the educational and social ment. There are many components of any major applications of space telecommunication. technological system, and usually the least complex of these is the technical one. Perhaps most often The location of the Center within the Space overlooked is the question of social feasibility, and Science and Engineering Center of the University particularly, of users' needs. Assuming that a provides immediate access to scientists, technicians satellite system can be built, is there reason to and engineers so that our software research does not believe that it will be accepted and used as antici- lose touch with reality and we are able to maintain pated by the people for whom it is intended? an effective multidisciplinary approach to our work. In addition, representatives from the fields of Another vital problem relates to the effectiveness international development, anthropology, law, edu- of the system once it has been accepted and is being cation and mass communication help to maintain a used.If you wish to design a satellite system to significant humanities' input. serve the teleconference needs of legal educators, for, example, to what extent will this means of com- Research and Training munication effectively replace, supplement, or im- prove the conventional techniques of the face-to-face Center research interests focus on the inter- conference? The question of effectiveness applies institutional, problem-oriented applications of satel- to most educational and social communications proc- lite telecommunication and the potential of satellites esses, which have been suggested as communication in education. Research areas of special irterest satellite activities, and can be determined only by include: conducting in-depth feasibility studies in particular discipline areas. We need to learn more about the 1.Satellite teleconferencing: information consequences of utilizing communication satellites. exchange and data transmission with links between To do otherwise would be, at best, irresponsible institutions, administrators, and scholars in multi- and, at worst, disastrous. disciplinary; national, international, monocultural, and cross-cultural settings The Educational Satellite (EDSAT) Center 2.Satellite telecommunications in teaching_ learning activities: the uses of satellite telecom- At the University of Wisconsin, the EDSAT munication in the context of other educational media Center has undertaken the study of the educational and their broader educational and social implications 424 3. Telecommunication law: the stimulationand special national and international legislationto deal development of studies with special emphasison with the problems involyed. international telecommunication control and theneed for relevant international treaties andagreements Further legal research has been undertaken pertaining to the need for changes in the International 4. Evaluation and assessment: the design and Telecommunications Union (ITU) to enable it to deal testing of means for the evaluation andassessment more effectively with problems arising in the satel- of the social and educational impact of satellite lite broadcasting area, and concerning the needfor telecommunications. revision in international copyright law. Many of the problems that will arise at the 1973 rru The Center provides research facilities toes- Plenipotentiary Conference are also under study. tablished scholars concerned with problems relating to the educational and social applications of satel- The legal implications of the Definitive lites, and involves foreign scholars in researchand--SAT Agreements have been analyzed at the Center training operations. and an analysis of the domestic satellite offerings is currently being made with emphasis beinggiven Development of Models to the provisions-being made for educationalaccess. A user-oricnted approach is applied at the The educational and legal implietions of Cable EDSAT Center which utilizes feasibility studies and Television (CATV) developmentare also being other means in determining the most beneficial studied, and the roles of the Office of Telecommuni- satellite system configurations. Based on the results cation Policy and the FCC are being considered. of research generated at the,Center and in the field, This research is considered necessary inasmuchas working models are developed which can then be CATV promises to provide a mean:, of local distri- adapted by others, in cooperation with EDSAT,to bution for satellite signals. suit their particular needs and circumstances. Experimental-Demonstration Lai oratory It is important that hardware and software be regarded as integral parts of thesame total system, The Center' s experimental-demonstration labo- neither of which can be applied in an unrelated ratory operates under an experimental radio license fashion. To the extent that software development with FCC call letters KB2-XML. Equipped withtwe precedes and shapes hardware development and Motorola base station transceiver units (110 watt and uses, it becomes possible to develop a hardware 400 watt) and a Cushcraft Model A144-20T antenna, technology which is user-oriented and whichcon. the Center has full voice and data transmission sists of equipment of a specialized nature developed and reception capabilities. The base stationis in response to users' needs. designed for remote-control operation permitting transmission, reception, monitoring, and control Further, the Center is attempting to determine, fitan' various locations. EDSAT Centertrans- by hypothesis, demonstration, testing andevaluation, missions are made at 149.22 and 149.25 Ilz and models for teaching and learning that will be effec- receptions at 135.6 and 135.62 Hz.All activities tive in expanding the scope of multicultural adult thus far have been conducted via Applications Tech- education. These models will examine theuse of nology Satellites (ATS) I and III which are used by satellites as a component of a broad-based system permission of NASA. Future transmissions will be of information diffusion. at 2.5 GHz and participation in ATSF-G experi- ments is anticipated. Telecommunication Law Information Clearinghouse In addition to models for the development of hardware and software, the Center also conducts The EDSAT information clearinghouse provides studies to establish legal and organizational models for the collection, annotation, and selective dissem- to serve as the basis for eventual national, regional, ination of information. After initial selection, the and global Ponnnuilication satellite systems. The information is made available through the publica- complexities of such systems may in some cases tion of 'Special bibliographies. The clearinghouse require the creation of new institutional bodiesor has developed a continuing in-house bibliographic 425 service to meet the information needs of the Center - amdunt of-time elapsed between the taking of-the connectedresearch personnel in the U.S. and abroad. picture and the dissemination of the information, the more desirable the system. In order to deter- In May 1970, the first EDSAT bibliography was mine the optimum dissemination system and the published, titled, "The Educational and Social Use of sensor configuration for future meteorological Communications Satellites." A second entitled satellites, NASA-sponsored research has been "Teleconferencing" has been published and our first undertaken by the Space Science and Engineering annotated bibliography entitled "The Legal and Center to determine users' needs. Political Aspects of Satellite Telecommunication" has recently been made available. An annotated bib- The Research Design liography on conferencing and teleconferencing as related to future telecommunicutions trends, and a The approach of the matiAisciplinary team, bibliography on the adult learner are in the printing in this area, was to begin with the Liscr :And to work process. back to the meteorological data, in order to be able to make suggestions as to the design and develop- Further, the Center is developing an information ment of future satellite systems. It was considered network in cooperation with United Nations Educa- important that meteorological satellite system tional, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) development be responsive to users' needs, since, which can utilize the resources of other- institutions, ultimately, it is the satisfaction of these needs that domestically and internationally, in pursuit of com- juStifies the system. Such a system shz-nld possess mon educational goals. There is a need for a con- the ability to respond to a wide variety of users, who sortium of universities and research institutions to will be increasing in number, and it should also be become involved in research and the exchange of able to serve a wide variety of users who have both information in the area of educational satellite usage. general and specific needs. In addition, there should be an case of access to the data and suffi- We are also aware of the technological changes cient flexibility in the system to enable it to change that have brought about new concepts pertaining to to meet new needs. information exchange. The areas of information transfer utilizing existing technology for services,- such as medical diagnosis, high-speed transfer of One difficulty in trying to develop an optimum data, teleconferencing and data retrieval, arc all system is that the users who might benefit from being given research consideration. Again our re- an improved forecasting service are not ordinarily search in these areas is user-oriented, attempting self-motivated to seek the data. The mass media to ascertain both the perceived needs and the future have been used to some extent to increase the avail- demand for a specific service, within the context ability of the data, but no attempt has been made of the necessary legal regulations. It is hoped that to ascertain from the media viewer whether this is this research and experimentation will have a posi- what he really wants and needs. tive effect on governmental decisionmakers in coming years. Data that originate with the satellite is altered in form as it proceeds from its source to the general public. One of the first-users of satellite data is The Communication of Meteorological government and other scientists, who have the great- Satellite Data to User Groups:. The Need est-effect on the-alterations to be -made-in-the satel- for a Multidisciplinary Approach lite data acquisition systems. Since the data are altered and processed before reaching the general While the applications of educational satellite public, it becomes difficult for the average person broadcasting activities present a wide variety of -to suggest changes in the quality, or quantity, of problems covering areas of educational policy and information that he is receiving. Specifically, users related areas, the utilization of meteorological satel- of weather data arc not aware of any possibility for lite data presents a more precise parameter. The improving their weather information and thus they spin-scan camera in the meteorological satellite do not attempt to initiate any changes. In fact, produces a photograph which is enhanced and inter- there could even be some user resistance to change, preted with the result being information that a person which has to be overcome by making the user aware can use to determine his activities for the day. The of opportunities that could be made available through more accurate the information is, and the less the the new satellite technology. 426 What we arc determining isnot only user needs but also user behavior. utilization, and thata comprehensive linking func- By utilizing the expertise tion must be present. available in various disciplines,we were able to analyze this behavior and thuscome to a truer pic- ture of actual needs. By The major divisions withinour case studies including agricultural were (1) natural resources specialists in user-orientedresearch, not only utilization and impact, were we able to ascertain users' (2) agriculturalimpact, and (a) commercial needs but also to activities impact. determine unarticulated needs Experts in these areas undertook: which the satellite individual case studies can fulfill. The use of f,e ld studiesto determine to determine the nature of users' needs and, specifically, the impact ofweather-predicting capabilities,pro- the analysis of the vided by the meteorological behavior patterns ofusers when interrogating a satellite program, weather distribution upon their area of specialconcern. They detailed, syLtem for informationwere the where possible, the annual best techniques for thispurpose. By using the addi- cycle of human activity tional techniques of oral in their area and identifiedthose times when weath- interviews, questionnaires, er affected their operations. The and meetings, wewere able to optimize our research characteristic findings. effects, wrought by weathervariations, the type and cost (if any) of preventivemeasures which might be taken as a protection Therefore, it was one ofour research param- against adverse weather eters that not only should the phenomena, and the benefitsderived from this pro- user be made aware tection were estimated. of the best way touse satellite data, but also, there should be a user input which would contribute to the Each case-study investigator best development of thesystem; in this case, the described how meteorological satellite. the weather and the availabilityof precise weather, prediction informationaffected the activity hewas studying. The values to be gained throughuser-oriented research includean improved use of our natural resources, a reduction of damage to Generally, each case studywas undertaken people and according to the following buildings from naturaldisasters, economic gain outline: in agricultural and other sectors, a reduction in 1. The activity to be uncertainty, and a greatercase of planning for studied was described. various sectors of oursociety. 2. The weather-sensitivefeatures of the activity were identified. There is also a time factorinvi-lved in any user oriented study. When we first made contact 3. The functional relationships with various usergroups, we received an initial between weath- response. To a large extent, er phenomena and weather-sensitivefeatures thisKresponse was were described. based on a complete lackof knowledge or under- standing concerning the satellite.As we proceeded with our interviews and 4. The economic implicationsof this relation- other forms of user contact, ship were ascertained. an education process was takingplace. Users' needs were actually beingcreated. The awareness of the possibilities of the 5. The potential economicbenefit_of weather satellite created needs-in information; available from areas that 'rid not been givenany prior consideration. currently used In this sense the rescaret-vs weather-gathering methods,were compared with the acted as "linkers" potential economic benefit between the user and theoriginator of the data. to be gained from fuller utilization of the meteorologicalsatellite program. The concept of a linking function, which has been The Legal Study utilized in the communicationstheory for some time, provided for us a focus forthe,collcction of data relative to users' needs. Various independent studieswere undertaken in Our subject matter ex- conjunction with the ease studies perts served an educationalfunction as they trans- in this multidisci- lated the technical terms plinary project. Anindependent legal study has associated with satellite examined the national and weather data to the varioususer communities. In international effects and the course of our research ramifications of the U.S.meteorological satellite we reaffirmed our feel- rogram. The focus has been upon ing that the existence ofthe data does not insureits the impact of this program on politicaland international affairs, 427 and the nature of the international cooperation, of improved weather information, whether from the which has stemmad from the development of the present origination and distribution system or U.S. weather satellite program. Emphasis has directly from a meteorological satellite without any been placed on the implications of the use of satel- system in between, it was necessary to look into lites in conjunction with sensors, such as constant. each case study area in some detail in order to ex- altitude superpressure balloons and ocean data tract the relevant information. acquisition systems. The fact that the existing international law in this area is minimal has given The case studies clearly showed that different increased significance to this work which considers weather parameters can ite critical along the path both the state of the current law and the alternatives from beginning to completion of the activity and, available for a future legal regime. The inter- also, that the time scale required for the user to actions between the law and technology have been react in a useful way, also varied over wide limits. presented, and consideration has been given to an It appears, thus, that the best way to meet user analysis of the relevant international legislation, needs would not be to produce highly detailed data the applicable safety regulations, the question of far in advance. To do so would simply transfer the liability, and tilt.. need for possible international data storage and retrieval task to the aser. Users' agreements. The legal problems relating to the needs arc specific, both in time and data content. multiplicity of uses of satellites have been con- Predictions of those weather parameters which af- sidered, as have been mechanisms for the dis- fect long leadtime items are needed well in advance semination of information from meteorological of the weather, but when short reaction time is satellites. possible, the user actually would prefer being advised at a later date. In general, large-scale weather phenomena can be predicted further in advance than Further research in this area will stress both can smaller scale phenomena. There is a tendency the need for international legal rules in the area of for users' needs to correspond with forecast capa- satellite meteorology and the need itsr the develop- bility, but, unfortunately, this is not always true. ment of domestic law to deal with the interpretation If the occurrence of smaller scale phenomena, such and utilization of satellite meteorological data. An as hail, could be predicted sufficiently in advance, analysis of the question of legal liability for the use crops could be selected at planting time to avoid and applications of satellite meteorological data will loss. Put another way, it may be argued that users' be of particular concern. Also included will be a needs adapt to forecast capabilities only because section on the law of evidence relating to the use of other forecast options have not been offered. A meteorological photographs in courtroom proceed- specific finding of our work shows that even very ings. short-range information of severe weather (hours rather than days) has significant economic value. Preliminary Findings One need not provide any predictive information at all in this situation, sincemerely,communicating the Weather 4ensitive parameters. While there present weather in some detail would be sufficient was found to be a significant information gap, we if it were received in a timely manner. also found that there were inarticulated needs that satellite meteorology could fulfill. Even though Key information flow. Still another finding of some users were completely unaware that meteoro- our work thus far emphasizes the need for a"linker" logical satellites were even existent, it was apparent in the overall weather information gathering, dissem- that the two-culture separation that existed could be ination and utilization process. This individual must bridged by undertaking detailed analysis of users' know enough about meteorology and about satellite needs. From these case studies we found that there observing systems, as well as the needs of the user, are weather-sensitive parameters for about 80 per- to be able to enhance the key information flow. We cent of the users studied, and there are substantial emphasize the words "key information," which refer economic benefits to be obtainedirom increased to data which are necessary in the operationof a weather information in the majority, that is, 70 per- weather information service and is also critical cent of the cases studied. The existence of these in the design of a meteorological system. weather-sensitive parameters provided a first cut for our research and indicated that further work The dual need for key weather information can would prove valuable. Thus, in order to evaluate be illustrated with two examples, one requiring user requirements in detail and to assessthe impact medium-range and the other short-range information: 12s 9 1. The case study concerning the hay crop linker is needed to interpret what could be available showed a very large potential economic benefit and match this to the expressed needs in order that ($ 88 million for one crop, in one state, in 1 year) the agriculturalist be able to reduce his costs and if a 3-day spell of no rain could be predicted near maximize the benefits. the hay crop flowering date, in early June. This crop needs a 3-day, no-rain period to dry after it Most of the cast studies show several similar is cut. The protein content of the crop is sharply specific short-term information needs, and this area reduced if the crop becomes wet after cutting.In of weather data dissemination is clearly identified looking at this statement in detail, we learn that as needing additional study, both to establish the im- what is really needed is.the specification of an pact of the requirements on the design of meteorolog- effectiye drying index. Three days with no rain but ical satellite systems, and also to project the great- extensive cloud cover may not be as effective as 2 est benefit to the user.In this continuing multidisci- days with no rain Lnd bright sunshine. Since in the plinary study, we are building on our current findings summertime the satellite can easily indicate exten- to proceed back along the chain from the user to the sive clear, sunny areas, it becomes apparent that satellite in order to be able to suggest the optimum satellite meteorology could have a significant impact design of the meteorological satellite system. in this sector of our agricultural economy. 2. With vegetable crops there is a need to pre- diet calm wind conditions for spraying operations. Conclusion Except for very flat pressure gradients usually found near the center of a high-pressure area near 'calm winds, it is almost impossible to predict calm wind In both educational satellite communication conditions from gross weather features alone. In and meteorological satellite data dissemination the Midwest a calm or light wind condition can exist there is a need to more fully develop an appreciation in early evening, even with fresh winds a few hundred of users' needs and requirements. In the former, feet above the. surface, provided the sky is clear. the educational process must be explored and related Surface cooling by strong back radiation stabilizes to the technology. In the latter the weather-sensitive the atmosphere and decouples the surface layer from parameters and key information flow must be iso- the windy layers above. Satellite cloud images, par- lated and this information used in turn to help in- ticularly IR images, provide the key information crease the use of the system. In each case the infor- needed here, and, thus, could improve the economic mation obtained will help to determine the configu- situation for another agricultural area. ration of future satellite systems, the interface between the hardware and the software in the system, It would be unrealistic to expect every agricultur- and the optimum application of the data from the alist to become an expert in quantitative boundary- system, whether it be educational programming or layer physics and be able to derive the key informa- meteorological information. The result will be a tion needed himself, although he is an adequate ama- more responsive and user-sensitive satellite tech- teur micrometeorologist from experience. Thus, a nology. 429430 POWER WITHOUT POLLUTION By Dr. Peter F.. Glaser Head, Engineering Sciences Section . Arthur D. Little; inc. Cambridge, Masa. Energy is being recognized as the limitingre- surface of the earth or its atmosphere-as a heat source in an industrial society. While demands arc sink or as a repository of its waste materials. being made to increase energy production, thepo- Because of these potential consequences, serious tential impact on the environment and the exhaustion consideration is being given to reducing therates of of natural resources, associated with present and industrial growth and thus achievea period of sta- planned production methods, has caused demands to bility. However, slower industrial growthhas in it be made for a reappraisal of these methods. Viewed the inherent danger of cultural regression. on the time scale of human history, exhaustion of the world' s fossil fuel will be but an ephemeral This uninviting prospect is basedon the assump- event lasting a few centuries IL This rapid ex- tion that there is no alternativeenergy source and - haustion of our basic fuel can be readily understo-xl that the conversion of anenergy sourceinto its most when one considers that the world demand for ele .- useful form, electricity, is limited in efficiencyto trical power is doubling about once every decade, that possible through the Carnot cycle. Directener- and is-expected to continue to do so until living gy conversion, which invokes the principles ofquan- standar4s throughout the world have been equalized tum mechanics and which relies on the solid-statebe- and some form of population control has been havior of materials, opens up new ways to tap the achieved. energy source which has sustained life on earth, the sun. At the present, all efforts to meet theenergy crisis are keyed to a single energy source, nuclear Utilization of the sun' s energy is an old dream power, and to a single technology, the fast breeder (2-61. Solar enemy has long invited collectionand reactor. However, other options need to be explored conversion into other useful forms, such as mechan- so that each major potential energy source, fission, ical and electrical power, but past attempts havenot fusion, geothermal, tidal, oceanicor solar, can shown enough economic promise to find widespread be put Into perspective with its mom. conventional application. Recent developments in science, parr compet i tors. ticularly in solid-state physics and in applied tech- nology as exemplified by the complex hardware The source of energy within the nucleus ofan required for space exploration; by advances in pho- atom is certainly large enough to provide for future tovoltaic conversion of solar energy; and in thegen- large-scale power generation needs, whether it be eration, two' aission, and conversion of micro- released by the fission of certain heavy isotopes or waves to generate power add a new dimension to by the fusion of the lighter isotopes. Also, this en- the concept of pollution -I\> power from solar ergy source may yet make man independent of other energy. terrestrial energy resources. However, the dele- terious effects on the ecology of the earth arc now The primary advantage of any large-scaleuse of being recognized as possible limitationson this solar energy is the inherent absence of source of energy. virtually all In fact, the ecological consequen- of the undesirable environmental conditions created ces of the presently known sources of energyrep- on earth by traditional means of power generation. resent the most important obstacle to an increase Which of the approaches, now being proposedfor in the generation of power and its associated indus- large-scale conversion of solar energy (7-101, will trial activities in the future. The ecology of the become the most feasible alternative to presentpow- earth simply may not be capable of sustaining,or er generation methods, remains to be established. even tolerating, the growth of power generating ca- Therefore, efforts to provide details on various pacity so long as power plants are based on the methods of converting solar energy topower should principles of thermodynamics and have to utilizethe be recognized as worthy of increasing attention. 4:31 Concept of a Satellite Solar Power Station The microwave power transmission system con- sists of three major parts: One approach Is based on the concept of a sat- ellite solar power station. An artist' s concept of 1.Microwave generation, the conversicn of the a system of such satellites placed in synchronous dc power output from the solar cells into microwave orbit with the earth Is shown In Figure 1. Each sat- power ellite consists of arrays of solar cells to collect and convert solar energy to electricity, a transmission 2. Beam forming, focusing the microwave en- cable to supply the electricity to microwave genera- ergy into a sharp b.:m by means of the transmitting tors, and an antenna to beam the microwaves to a antenna receiving station on earth, where they could be con- verted to electricity (Fig. 2). 3. Microwave collection and reconversion to electrical energy. A synchronous satellite in an equatorial orbit High efficiencies have already been demonstrated in will remain stationary over.a point on the earth's all three segments of the system 1121. Additional surface.It would be exposed continuous4 to the development effort promises to iliac the -onversion sun, except near the spring or fall equinoxes, when efficiencies at both the transmitting and receiving It would be eclipsed by the earth for a maximum of end to 90 percent. While the efficiency of :microwave _t_hour 8 min. These short periods of nonexpoaure beam transmission can be raised to virtually 100 can be overcome by using at least two satellite solar percent, cost considerations would probably indicate power stations, each displaced in an orbit from the some lower efficiency. Ne% ertheleas, the transmis- other. Another solution would be to place the space sion efficiency would still be far in excess of any power station in a nonequatoriat orbit with a season- comparable conventional earthbound power transmis- al rhythm pattern. The satellite power station sion system. would no longer remain stationary with respect to the earth's surface but would appear to move up and The power-handling capacity of a transmission down the southern horizon with a ,24-hour period, the link In free space is virtually unlimited. Further- swing ',Ping the greatest during the equinox period. more, It car. be upgraded by adding additional ele- ments to the solar cell array, additional or higher- The electrica: and physical size of a typical powered conversion elements at the transmitting end, system are illustrated in Figure 3. The system is and higher-powered elel..ents at the receiving end. scaled to deliver 10 00011W of electrical power to Neither the area the transmitting antenna nor that the earth, enough to supply New York City and its of the receiving device on the ground needs to be in- surrounding area. Based on a solar array efficiency creased. Thus, a system, once installed, has ample of lu percent, the solar collector would cover 25 square opportunity for power growth without the need for miles. The microwave power transmission system additional real estate on the earth. would be designed to operate at a wavelength between- At first glance, the very high power levels as- 10 and 20 cm so the %tam of energy would penetrate sociated with the system do not seem to be consistent the earth's atmosphere with a very low loss, even with a microwave technology, usually identified with under adverse weather conditions. A transmitting the lower power levels common in the communica- antenna, i square mile in area, designed for operation tion industry. However, high -tower tubes with high at a wavelength of 10 cm, and located in synchronous efficiencies have been developed and await applica- orbit 22 300 miles from the earth, can he designed to tions 1131. To be sure, no single tube. now avail- focus 92.9 percent of the generated microwave energy able can supply 10 000 MW of microwave power, but into a 25-square mile area on the earth's surface (Ill. even if one were available, it would not be used. - Outs/de of that receiving area, the density of the inci- Transmitting antenna construction and service relia- dent oicrowlve energy will be negligible. Even bility are more likely to favor the use of several the collection of the microwave within tne ar: thousand transmitting tubes on a one-phase array. energy will be so efficient that with the possible Such an array would reduce the rating of the individu- exception of the immediate center of the area, grazing al tubes to the point where their design would be animals, for example, would be unaffected by the consistent with a modest extension of existing tube microwaves. technology. 43 What if we should need transmitting tubes with of the space program. The development of a satellite individual ratings of a magnitude two or three orders solar power station would have to call on these greater than those in existence? Very likely, they techniques to determine the size and capacity of could be designed by taking advantage of one ormore each component of the system, to predict the per- recent developments. The availability of samarium formance of the assembled components for the vari- cobalt as a permanent magnet material, for example, ous system configurations, to estimate the depend- permits an order-of-magnitude decrease in magnet ency of the performance of the component charac- weight for microwave power generators. The major components of the system (Fig. 3) The power-handling capability at the receiving will have to be well defined, the componnnts'illenti- end is based on a device called the rectenna [14). find as to function and type, the sequence in which This device is nondirective and can be made in the they are connected established, their functions ana- form of a lightweight web supported on posts.It lyzed, and the differences among various approaches uses highly efficient Schottky barrier diodes, whose reconciled. Although candidates for most of the efficiency and power-handling capability are being components now exist, at least in the form of labo- improved continuously. ratory models, new and quite different components can be expected to be developed. How each will per- The satellite solar power station and the micro- form if fully developed is uncertain, but systems wave power transmission system would use consider- engineering techniques can be used to approximate ably less copper than would a traditional power gen- and compare the performance and costs of the vari- eration facility of an equal power rating. Hence, the ous system configurations, to estimate the depend- solar space power station would help conserve this ency of the performance of the component charac- and, perhaps, other critical materials. teristics, and to set quantitative targets for com- ponent developments based on forecasts of compo- A system of space power satellites could provide nent technology and performance. a nearly inexhaustible source of electric power. A belt of solar cells 3 mi wide in a synchronous orbit A reusable space shuttle is expected to result around the earth would intercept 1.68 x 1015 %V of in significantly lower costs for orbiting payloads in solar energy. Even if there were no improvements the 1975-1985 period. As envisioned, the Space in solar cell efficiency, 8 percent of this power, or a Shuttle will be capable of carrying payloads of total of 1.34 x 101$ W, could be made available in the 50 000 lb. Succeeding generations of space trans- form of de power to widely distributed locations on portation systems would be expected to have sub- the earth. Such a power level would provide 1.17 x stantially greater payload-carrying capacities. 1015 kW-hour of electricalenergy per year, or more Over a period of several months, a Space Tug, pow- than 200 times the projected world electrical energy ered by ion engines, could transport to synchronous requirements for the year, 1980. As conversion ef- orbit modules of a satellite station that had been as- ficiencies of solar cells and of other system compo-- sembled in a train in a low earth orbit. Alterna- nents were increased, satellite solar power stations tively, a reusable nuclear stage could be used to would be able to keep up with increasing world energy transport the modules between low earth orbit and demands. synchronous orbit. Such a huge potential for electrical power gener- The concept of a satellite solar power station ation might well provide the necessary leverage to rests on the availability of an efficient and economi- conserve our fossil-fuel sources of energy, now cal space transportation system. Its successful de- used, not only for electrical power generation, but- velopment over the ncxt decade will depend on solv- also for many other energy requirements. ing many technical problems that are being addressed in our efforts to place large manned space stations in orbit. Thus, the capability to produce large Systems Considerations structures in space, which will be essential to as- sembling the modular space stations envisioned for System cngineerirg and management techniques, future missions, should be available during the next developed to direct and control massive engineering decade [ 151. The experience gained in the assem- undertakings, have contributed heavily to the success bly of such large structures by human operators, 433 subsequently, with the help of automated teleopera- their efficiencies are only a fraction of a percent, tors, will be a step toward a satellite solar pJwer but efforts are underway to synthesize polymers station. with good photovoltaic characteristics and to study the behavior of other organic compounds [201. Technology Status Transmission of Electrical Power. Electric power produced through photovoltaic conversion Solar Energy Conversion. Silicon solar cells will have to be gathered at the solar collector and have been the primary source of electric power for transmitted to the microwave generators. The high almost all unmanned spacecraft, both for space ex- power levels may require that the transmission line ploration programs and for the application of space be superconducting to reduce weight and power loss- teennology to communications, navigation, and me- es. To transmit 107 kW (20 kV at 5 X105 A), for teorology. Improveinent of the technology of silicon example, would require two conductors of a 2-in. solar cells has been accelerated by the increasing diam cooled to about 15° K, and each suitably in- requirements of large spacecraft for missions in illated. The state of the art of thermal insulations earth orbit and for exploration of the planets. Solar for this purpose is well advanced, and proper design cell arrays have grown from a few square feet, to woild reduce heat losses to a minimum (211. the lightweight deployable solar cell arrays of sev- Mu.tiple-staged refrigerators would provide the de- eral thousand square feet, and power levels of tens sired temperatures over the length of the transmis- of kilowatts now being applied in the Skylab sion line. At the superconducting temperature, spacecraft. 100G W of refrigeration capacity would be sufficient to ccol the line and to absorb heat leaks at the cable 'The-N/P-silicon solar cells, with their superior ends.Such refrigerators have already entered an radiation resistance and good control over mechani- advanced development stage and would be adaptable cal end electrical tolerances, have been the mainstay for tnis purpose. for space missions. New processes, such as the manufacture of solar cells from webbed dendrite sil- The transmission line, itself, would have to be icon or from extrusion of a ribbon of silicon single articulated to provide relative movement between crystals, arc expected to increase the cell size, and the solar collector and the antenna. The solar col- thus, reduce cost, especially for the large solar cell lector will have to be approximately pointed at the arrays. Lithium-doped silicon solar cells have the sun, while the microwave radiating antenna will have potential of providing a fiftyfold improvement in ra- to be accurately beamed to a receiving antenna on diation resistance over the conventional N/P silicon earth, thus relative motion between the solar col- cell [161.Ito !lout solar cell arrays with a specific lector and the antenna will.have to be provided. power of 30 W per pound, within the state of the art Rotary joints at the warm end of the transmission and further improvements can be anticipated [171. line with low friction and capability to carry the power would have to be developed. Experience with The most significant long-term opportunity is for. movable joints,their lubrication requirements, and a major advance in photovoltaic efficiency. While the influence of the space environment on frictional the single-transition silicon solar cell is theoretical- characteristics would provide bench marks for this ly limited to efficiencies of 25 percent, with about development [221. 10 percent attained in practice, solar cells with higher efficiencies arc possible. A multicellular de- vice, for example, consisting of two or more photo- Guidance and Control. The large structures voltaic layers in a sandwich configuration, could use which will have to be guided and controlled, particu- wavelength bands where the materials have high larly the antenna required to beam the microwaves quantum efficiencies aid thereby increase overall to earth, will require that the state of the art of efficiency considerably. Attained efficiencies of 20 guidance and control systems be extended to achieve percent arc considered feasible in the near future desired position control. The pointing requirements ( MI. for the solar collector which will have to face the sun arc less stringent. Combinations of sun sensors, or Organic compounds which slow characteristic star trackers could provide the desired pointing ae-- semiconductor properties, including the photovoltaic curacy of about 1 deg. Except for the size of the effect [191, have only recently been considered as structure which has to be controlled, the types of possible energy conversion devices. At present, devices required arc within the state of the art. 434 The microwave beam will have to lock onto the control the flow of heat has advanced to the stage where earth-based receiving antenna and to stray less than it can be thermally controlled. 500 ft in any direction. A perimeter of land 1 or 2 mi wide surrounding the antenna may be neces- Detailed designs and concepts for a satellite sary to assure that the microwave power density solar power station have not yet evolved to the point not absorbed by the antenna will be below stated that,firm cost estimates ..an be made. However, limits outside this area. This is desirable, not the first step toward this goal can be taken by pro-. only to maintain a high efficiency for transferring jeeting from the present state of the art in the di- microwave power, but also to assure environmental rection that future developments may have to take. safety during operation. To achieve this accuracy The assumption can be made that a system of satel- would require pointing the microwave radiating an- lite solar power stations should be capable of pro- tenna to about 0.5 sec of arc. Although this re- viding a significant portion of U.S., and eventually quirement stretches the present limits of attitude world, energy needs. Thus, the design and devel- control techniques and pointing accuracies, the sig- opment of components will require that they be nificant advances in guidance and control over the mass produced on a very substantial scale.This is last decade indicate that this technology could be in sharp contrast to present techniques and the re- extended to meet the requirements of a satellite so- sulting costs associated with the production of space lar power station. flight hardware. A guidance and control system will have to deal Should the option for energy production based with the forces acting on the satellite to maintain on satellite solar power stations be found to be de4 a circular orbit. Among these is the radiation sirable, the establishment of an industrial base, pressure acting on the solar collector and, to a not unlike that existing in the consumer electronics lesser extent, on the antenna. The force, in a di- and the automobile industry, would be a result.- The rection opposite to the sun, on the solar collector, satellites lend themselves to mass production be- will be about 300 N; this force will be partially cause there-are only a few different types of com- averaged out during an orbit. The force in a radial ponents.Production will involve the replication and direction away from the earth, on the antenna, will assembly of large numbers of components, such as be about 200 N; this force would have to be counter- solar cells, microwave generators and microwave acted with thrusters. Gravity gradients will intro- rectifiers. In an optimum design, the structure of duce a torque about an axis perpendicular to the the satellite will largely be formed by the compo- equatorial plane, as long as a circular equatorial nents and the required electrical interconnectors. orbit is maintained.Counteracting continuous an- gular displacement will require thrusters. High Major components may be assembled in syn- specific impulse could be achieved using ion en- chronous orbit with assembly techniques, perhaps, gines, which would be an outgrowth of present based on the use of automated teleoperators.Cer- technology 1231. tain of the components could be formed in an orbital assembly facility to utilize the low-gravity condi- Cooling Equipment. The microwave generators tions to fullest advantage. Similarly, once in orbit, will have to be cooled, because heat is generated materials and components could be refurbished; at the cathede and the anode of each generator.. The e.g., annealing of solar cells, to extend their op- amount of heat is a direct function of the efficiency erating life. The development of radiation resistant of the generator system.Ir a multiplicity of small materials, such as solar cells, intlicates that the microwave generators is used, the generated heat space environment will be more benign than the ter- could be removed by means of heat pipes or space restrial environment, with its continued physical and radiators distributed over the structure of the mi- chemical eroding processes acting on solar energy crowave radiating antenna. The efficiency of the conversion devices, and 30-year lifetimes for solar heat pipes and space radiators would affect the over- celli can be projected in space. all weight of the satellite structure significantly. The technology of heat pipes, for instance, has been The twin goals of design for mass production advancing rapidly and projected weights of 0.1 lb/kW and extended operating life are a strong indication appear to be feasible (24). The state of the art of of the potential for substantial innovation, as work coatings and thermal insulations to attenuate and on a satellite solar power station progresses. A 435 number of analogous advances in technology have taken place as the need for innovation in certain References areas was recognized. Examples are the 10 percent efficient solar cells, developed in 1953; the first payload orbited, in 1957; and the first transmission 1.Hubbert, M. K.: Resources and Man. Energy of microwave power, in 1963. Should technical, Resources, W. H. Freeman and Co., San economic, and social feasibility studies indicate that Francisco, Calif., 1969. satellite solar power stations deserve a major ef- 4-- fort, the development time of about 20 years would 2.Daniels, F.: Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. not be unlike that required for nuclear power Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, Conn. , 1964. development. 3.Robinson, N., ed.: Solar Radiation. Elsevier, Cost projections, based on an extension of pres- New York, 1966. ently known technology, indicate that a satellite so- lar power station would generate power at two to 4.Zarem, A. M., and Erdway;D. D., eds.: Intro- five times the cost of competing power generating duction to the Utilization of Solar Energy. McGrav plants.Additional developments may reduce the Hill, 1963. presently projected cost differential. However, be- fore meaningful cost comparisons can be made, it 5.Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on will be necessary to arrive at a method of cost ac- New Sources of Energy, Rome, May 1961; United counting, which establishes true environmental and Nations, 1964. social costs chargeable to each energy production system, rather than comparing systems only on the 6.Solar Energy. Pergamon Press. (A Journal baSis of capital costs and interest. for discussion of specific aspects of solar energy application. ) Conclusion 7.Rink, J. R., and Hewitt, J.G. , Jr.: Large Ter- restrial Solar Arrays. Proceedings of the 1971 The large-scale use of solar energy to generate Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering power without pollution could sustain a highly energy- Conference; Soc. Automotive Eng., New York, dependent world culture for much longer than the 1971, p.15. few centuries associated with fossil fuels or, per- haps, even nuclear power. The potential for making 8.Cherry, W.R.: Concept for Generating Commer- this option available to meet future energy demands cial Electrical Power from Sunlight.Proceedings will be influenced by continuing efforts to advance of the 1971 Intersociety Energy Conversion Engi- space technology. There is a risk that exclusive neering Conference, Soc. Automotive Eng., New concern with contemporary problems and short-term York, 1971, p. 15. solutions, without regard to the future, could lead to a deemphasis of space technology and foreclose 9.Glaser, P. E.: Power from the Sun: Its Future. the large-scale use of solar energy by satellites. Science, 162,1968. As yet, it is too early to state what bets should 10.Meinel, A.B., and Meinel, P.M. :Is it Time for be placed on this option to produce power without a New Look at Solar Energy? Bull. Atomic pollution. What is required, therefore, is a pro- Scientists, vol. 27, no. 8, Oct. 1971, p. 32. gram of research and development to resolve out- standing technical, economic, and social issues, and 11.Goubau, G.: Microwave Power Transmission to place this concept for using solar energy into per- from an Orbiting Solar Power Station. Journal of spective with respect to both conventional sources of Microwave Power, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 1970, p. energy and its more exotic competitors. Only with 223. this information in hand can actions be initiated to develop energy sources consistent with a coherent 12. Robinson, W. J. :Wireless Transmission in a national policy designed to meet future energy Space Environment. Journal Of Microwave Pow- demands [251. .. er, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 1970. 436 13.Brown, W. C. rHigh-Power Microwave Genera- 19. Golubovic, A.: Organic Photovoltaic Devices. tors of the Crossed-Field Type. Journal of Mi- Proceedings of the OAR Research Applications crowave Power, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 4, 1970, Conference, Dept. of Air Fo ce, March 1967, p. 245. pp. 211-225. 14.Brown, W. C.: The Receiving Antenna and Mi- 20.Energetic Processes Research Project 8659. Air crowave Power Rectification. Journal of Mi.- Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, -crowave Power, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 4, 1970, Bedford, Mass. p. 279. 21. Thermal Insulation Systems A Survey. Na- tional Aeronautics and Space Administration, 15.America' s Next Decades Space. A report for the Space Task Group, NASA, Sept. 1969. Office of Technology Utilization, NASA SP-5027, 1967. , 16. Wysocki, J. J. :The Effect of Lithium on Radia- 22.Bisson, E.E.and Anderson, W.J.: Advanced tion Damage in Silicon Solar Cell Devices. Bearing Technology. NASA SP-38, 1964. Proceedings of the Fifth Photovoltaic Special- ists Conference, vol. 2, section D-G, Oct. 23.Proceedings of the AIAA 8th Electric Propulsion 1965. Conference, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif., Aug. 31 - Sept. 2, 1970. 17.Shepard, N. F. , and Hanson, K. L.: A Design Concept for a 30 W per pound Roll-up Solar Ar- 24. Turner, R. C. , and Harbaugh, W. E.: Design ray. Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy of a 50 000-W Heat-Pipe Space Radiator. Conversion Engineering Conference. IEE Pub- ASME Aviation and Space Progress and Pros- lication 68C21-Energy 1968, pp. 549-559. pects, Annual Aviation and Space Conference, June 16-19, 1968, pp. 639-643. 18.Report of Ad Hoc Panel on Solar Cell Efficiency, Space Science Board.National Academy of 25.The President's Energy Message to the Con- Sciences (To be published). gress of the United States, June 4, 1971. Figure 1.Artist rendering of satellite solar power station. 437 Sok/ Colima S %f Mass Repwarq Ammo 3%3 Mks Figure 2, Diagram of satellite solar power station to produce 10 000 MW. COOLING FAIL SAFE PHASE THERMAL SYSTEM SWITCH CONTROL CONTROL MICROWAVE SOLAR EL. POWER MICROWAVE BEAM BEAM COLLECTOR TRANSMISSION GENERATION TRANSMISSION4 FORMING GUIDANCE COOLING COOLING GUIDANCE SYSTEM SYSTEM & CONTROL CONTROL A. SATELLITE STATION ENVIRONMENT CONTROL MICROWAVE POWER' POWER COLLECTION CONDITIONING TRANSMISSION POWER POWER DENSITY SUPPLY MEASUREMENT CONTROL B. GROUND STATION Figure 3. Major components of a satellite solar power station. 438 SPACE BENEFITS TO THE PUBLIC NEW KNOWLEDGE TOOLS COMMUNICATION F1.11 POWER k if////d/ /,WEATHER HOUSING -7-7:*" EDUCATION ""' TRANSPORTATION WASTE DISPOSAL F000 f-111ti 11*-1-11W INDUSTRY MEDICAL ` OVERALL CONCEPTION OF MAJOR PUBLIC BENEFITS RESULTING FROM THE SPACE PROGRAM. (CHART COURTESY OF DI. CHRISTENSEN) SESSION X SOCIAL BENEFITS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION THROUGH SPACE If THE POLITICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF SPACE APPLICATIONS By Dv. John Hanessian, Jr. Director, International Studies Group The George Washington University My first attachment with space affairs, which is already beginning to happen, there will be greatly happened rather suddenly, occurred back in 1954 and increased interest on applications and a considerable 1955, when I was with the National Academy of Sci- decrease in public attention, at least, on the impor- ences in Washington.I was the first staff member tance and the funding of manned programs. to be brought in to deal with something called the International Geophysical Year. We had no money, The second major shift that we think is happen- just a couple of borrowed desks and somc rather ing is that, during the fifties and sixties, the U.S., grandiose ideas. Two of these were, first, we the Soviet Union. Europe, Japan, etc., concen- might borrow some Navy ships and go to Antarctica, trated very much on a competitive development and second, we might talk somebody into an uter- of national capabilities.It was the political compet- space program. A couple of years later, very much itiveness of the effort that finally convinced President to our surprise, we were able to do h number of Kennedy that we should go ahead with the race to these things. the moon and the whole beginning of the Apollo pro- gram in this country. There was some international I still remember with considerable clarity the activity in these past 10 years, particularly in the day Wernher von Braun walked into our office it areas of meteorology and communications. But must have been in 1954 and said, "Gentlemen, you still, the greatest emphasis was on this terribly have been talking about outer space and all these wasteful competitive nature of what we had been things. We have a rocket down there in Alabama, doing. We feel that there will be a significant change and I think it will do the job for you." We had a very in the next couple of decades here. That change, lengthy discussion with him and were very impressed I think, is going to bring in more international with his presentation, but unfortunately the govern- interdependence, more international cooperation ment was not. Instead, they went ahead with a com- and perhaps, even some multinational programs as pletely different program with the Navy and you are all familiar with the Vanguard story. we go along. Most of these developments are going to be centered on the applications of space programs I would like to discuss some of the political and and particularly on the benefits that they can bring legal aspects without trying to get into the jargon to people on earth, in the economic and social that some of us use in the international legal commu- spheres.It is this kind of thing, we feel, that the nity, but trying to bring up some of the points that are public is going to be willing to pay for, and not so rather urgent and important, many of which are not much for expeditions to Mars and that sort of thing. often accepted by governmental agencies as being This is in no way detracting from the value of space relevant to the kinds of problems that they have in missions; I am simply trying to pull it down to what, terms of engineering requirements and launching. I think, the public is likely to support. With this beginning of the second decade in space, There are a number of reasons for these shifts. it is my feeling and it is probably shared with others, The first one, as I have already mentioned, is cost. that a major shift of interest is taking place.I would When the public was told that it cost $25 billion to like to pinpoint two areas in which this is happening. go to the moon, and then, when somebody did some First, during the sixties, as you know, the United computations on how much it would.cost to bring States and the Soviet programs concentrated on each pound of rock back from the moon, without manned space exploration, with some attention to going into any of the other aspects, like technology science and applications. In the future,. I. think it utilization and so on, there was a very large cringing 11/.1/443 on the part of the American public which, during developed countries and the developing countries the same period, was required to pay over $100 is increasing. This is the problem. The average billion for the war in Vietnam. The public sees an income for the American is increasing much faster end to this kind of expenditure. They are much than the average income for the African or the more concerned these days in using our public Southeast Asian, although theirs fs going up, too. finances to help things out a little bit, here on earth. However, the gap is growing. Unless something A second reason for this is one that may be difficult is done about this we are going to have a society to explain, but we have had considerable writing on in this country, in the next 50 or 60 yr, that is this and a lot of discussion, and many of us feel it going to seenaUck-Rogerish compared to what is is the way things are going; the way electronics and going on in the middle of Africa, or Southeastern technology are going. As a matter of fact, one of the Asia. The point here is that we can no longer look writers has coined a new word here. He calls it the at this problem in an esoteric or philosophical way. Technotronic Age. The feeling here is, that as this We are too tied up with each other; we need them kind of age continucs there will come a greater need and they need us. Lest this sounds too idealistic, for international cooperation.It is something that let me put it this way. The United Nations system we all have talked about before. We say, "it is a has, I think, seized upon this point as the focus fine thing," we pay lip service, we pray before the of most of its activities. There are limited oppor- alter of international cooperation, but governments tunities in the United Nations for peacekeeping. in the past have not really been that concerned.It The Security Council has its problems; we do not is national priorities and national needs that have quite know yet what it is going to do with Peking in been first. The way things are going, individual there: it may help, it may not help.In any event, nations cannot do this anymore. There is an ioter- several years ago the whole United Nations shifted dependence, a very great degree of interdependence, a little bit. They said, "We can only do so much in and it is going to force countries to adopt certain peacekeeping. Let us turn our attention to the real changes in their programs. problem of the world, which is how to help the developing countries." In the Outer Space.Commit- A third element responsible for this change tee, in the General Assembly, in its subcommittees, and in every meeting that has taken place in the is a rapidly growing awareness by the public of the United Nations on outer space, the one theme that need for global conservation of resources, and for runs right through everything is, "How can this global environmental management and global manage- program help the developing countries?" It is al- ment of the exploitation of our resources. For the ways therel In fact, this past year they have appoint- first time, we are beginning to realize that we are ed an individual in the UnitA Nations Secretariat going to run out of things. We are going to run out who has a title which is unique in the history of of fossil fuels in another 100 years. And we are going international organizations. His formal title is to run out of clean air, perhaps, if we do not start "Expert On Space Applications"; he has to sign his doing something about pollution. The point which is letters that way after his name. His whole job and relevant is, that the public is finally aware of all of the only reason he was appointed to this position this. They finally fcel that the only way that you by U Thant directly, is to set up and maintain rela- can lick these problems is to do it on a global or tionships with developing countries; to try to show worldwide scale. This is something new. them how they can participate in space programs; and how, particularly, the Earth Resources Survey Finally, there is a growing awareness, even program, that we will get started next year, can be on the part of some of our Congressmen, that you meaningful and useful to them.It is a big job. lie have got to do something about the developing coun- has the cooperative relationships with 50 or 60 tries. There is much confusion here. There is also countries and he travels around. Dr. Fiorio and I a technical term that we have developed in recent are going to join him in Brazil for a meeting which years, which is called the North-South gap. North- the Brazilian Government is cosponsoring with the South does not mean much, except that the more United Nations. The whole focus of the meeting is developed countries are in the north and most of the on how can a space program, like the Earth Re- underdeveloped countries are in the south. Essential- sources Survey Satellite, be of use to a developing ly the term was coined to differentiate the problem country. They have practically invited all of the from the East-West problem; the confrontation, which Latin American countries there. existed for 20 years, between the U.S. and its friends. But this North-South gap, the gap in the gross national The United Nations conducted a meeting in product, or the gap in living standards between the Vienna 3 years ago. It was the first rather big meeting 444 trying to explain space applications, not to the public we claim the whole thing.It is ours." Well, the this time, but to diplomats, heads of government, feeling on the part of many people was that this and Foreign Ministry representatives. The idea was would have been disastrous because thenyou that if the experts could get up there in front of an really would have had a rush betweenc urselves auk- nce full of diplomatic types, somehow or and the Soviets. Thus, esstaitially, therewere another, space applications could be explained and three different points of view; first, "let us get this point cod be made"Look, Representative there, claim this, and grab it" then the opposite from a little country, you should be interested in point of view was that perhaps outer space, includ- space. Get your people going there, get your geol- ing the Moon, Mars, and all the other planets, ogists and meteorologists interested in this so should be completely protected from exploitation in that you can participate and receive benefits from a political and legal sense. In other words, nobody space in the next 10 years." It was a very tough job, could be able to claim them, whatsoever, and outer and it was the United Nations' staff in New York space would be open to all mankind. The Latin that did all the work for this. So it is beginning. term that we use for this is "Res Communis." The In the last 10 years, whenever you went to another third idea, pushed very hard be India, Egypt, Bra- zil e.:10 other developing countries, took an altogether country and talked space, the rea.tion was, "Oh different point. "No, nol We should internationalize well, this is something that the th ited States and the all of these areas. The United Nations should be in Soviet Union spent billions of dollars for, and theygo control of the moo:::' This horrified the United up there, do things, come back, and that is about all." Stites Government and the Soviet Government, both, Occasionally, you can tell them that some experi- so we did not quite get into that one. Whst was ments are performed and they did hear a little bit finally selected, and this is the 1967 Outer ',pace about communications, but that was about it.It is Treaty, was the second of these three rules; a tremendous job now to try to get these countries nothing in space can be claimed by anybody.It is to be involved themselves, in programs related to totally free and it is to stay that way. The deploy- outer space. We made a terrible mistake 10 years ago ment of an American flag on the moon is only meant when we put all this attention on manned space flight, symbolically.It has no legal meaning and we can- too much of it. Now we have got to go back and not claim or own i In. of that territory up there. start getting reinvolved again.It is a very, very big operation. These diplomats did not understand. Thus, the common Interest of mankind Is one of the They said, "I do not see how that satellite up there major themes that has been accepted.It Is one is going to help my farming problem and my country." theme that the United Nations pushes very hard. It took many hours of patient explanation to tell them about remote sensing and how thiscan, in fact, help A second theme, which is brand new in inter- his farm with infrared photography. national politics and international law and which has disturbed and bothered the Soviets and the United States, is that there ought to be an equal On the subject of politics and legality problems sharing of space benefits. We do not know how to that I think we are going to be faced with, I will go about sharing space benefits. We can publish mention, very quickly and superficially, some of papers and send copies around to the world but is the primary principles which have been accepted at this really sharing it? The focus now is very strong the international level, primarily through the leader- on the point that every country has the right, not ship of the United Nations, and try to indicate why just a privilege, to benefit on equal terms, and I these are important. One of the first very important am quoting from the United Nations document, points was to try to figure out what the jurisdictional "regardless of the actual capabilities of individual situation in outer space would be. We never knew, states to acquire such benefits by themselves." In until 1967, what we were going to do, as far as legal other words, it is now mandatory for the United problems in outer space were concerned.It was States and the Soviet Union, France, or Britain or totally unclear, for instance, as to whether you could "any other space power, to share the benefits of claim a section of the moon or whether you cculd outer space with the whole world.It is very difficult not or what was to happen with it.The Daughters to take that mandatory requirement and translate it of the American Revolution and many other patriotic into actual operation. We do not spend enough time groups passed a resolution a few years ago or energy; nor do we see many system models put that said, "As soon as the first American astronaut together as to how to share this.It is an obligation, gets to the moon, the U.S. flag has to be there, and however, that we have. 445 Another point that has bothered some people pick it up in India. There would De a national is something which I often call the Mafia Satellite. revolution or somethinr:. Then one of the Russians Now that we can get a satellite up there for a few took me aside and smiled and said, "Look, do you million dollars, we are very much concerned as to think that your Congressman is going to approve what is going to happen whcn the Mafia puts together any kind of a deal whereby your American public a launching facility. In the 1967 treaty there was will turn on Channel 11 and there is Moscow?" lie some concern about this aspect; lawyers do get very said, "I don't think so, and, by the way, I think practical, and they worried about this. So they put that your deodorant commercials are terrible and a very formal requirement into the treaty that, re- we do not want that stuff in the Soviet Union." The gardless of how a satellite or spacecraft gets up point he was trying to make and, which was eloquent- into space, the country from which It originates, ly established by their diplomats, was that there the'launching place, has total responsibility. Thus, should be, in the Soviet terms, censorship and con- if the Mafia launches from Chicago, the U.S. Govern- trol by the receiving government on any kind of ment has responsibility. broadcast from a direct broadcast system outside. In other words, each country and each government A couple of years ago in Geneva, I attended a has the right to examine what broadcast is spitting meeting of the Working Group on Direct-Broadcast into the country and select out those which It feels Satellites of the United Nations. The committee was arc unfit for its people. Well, here are these two worrying about political and legal aspects of direct completely opposing arguments. They have not broadcasting; not so much about channels or fre- been resolved and will not be resolved for a while. quencies or regulation of this and that, but about It is one of the major problems that we have. program content. Again, this is going to be a prob- I think you are all familiar with what the Earth lem which engineers, technical people, or NASA Resources Survey Satellite will be, and with the fact is simply not going to be able to cope with. What we that the first launch will be made in Spring 1972. are worrying about is something which we call propa- Essentially, we are going to have a satellite that ganda. Propaganda is a very big word, and can be a will circle the globe, take infrared photography, very dirty word. Essentially, there were two atti- send it to earth through television systems, and tudes expressed at that Geneva meeting and unfor- come up with color photographs which will enable tunately, it was the United States and the Soviet the data processors and data users on earth to use Union that were on opposite sides of the fence on this information for a number of.cconomic and this one.,_ The U. S., as you know, is a strong be- social purposes. There are problems here, and I liever in the idea, that he who puts up a satellite will quickly discuss a few of these. The first of should be able to do what he wants with it.If we these, the one which NASA denies to exist as a prob- want to put up an Applications Technology Satellite lem, is the question of intrusion into territorial (ATS) and use it for direct broadcasting purposes sovereignty. What do I mean by that? Well, here in India, then that is our and India' s business, and you have a satellite with a camera taking pictures nobody else should get involved in this.If someone of a country that maybe does not want to be photo- else should happen to tune in on one of these pro- graphed, especially when it finds out that the pho- grams, that is just too bad.It is not something that tography is going to come up with data which can be we really should worry about. This attitude is translated by another country or a 'real "hotshot" backed up further by a longstanding kind of human company into means by which it can be exploited, rights development in the United Nations, that every- or where, at least, they will perceive a possible body has the right to receive whatever information exploitation.. They are going to say, "Sure, we he wants. This is the anticensorship argument. If have the photograph, but we will not know what it you want to get a Soviet newspaper, or a Chinese means. Meanwhile, the XYZ Company is going to one, you should be able to get it.If you want to come in here and grab something from us." So the listen to these programs, you should have the right perceived exploitation is an extremely important to do that. The Soviet Union took just the opposite part of this; but there also is a legal question. Do side of this. They said, "This is horrible' Imagine we, the United States, the Soviet Union, or any the propaganda that is going to be sent around." other launching power, have the right to take pictures They pointed out a couple of rather humorous things; of a country and use those pictures for economic for example they said that suppose Spain puts on value? The reply NASA gave to this kind of circu- a television broadcast of bullfighting and the Indians lar argument is, "Oh well, there have been spy sat-. 446 ellites around for years and nobody has complained We do not have any re.r1 mechanism yet for the about it yet." international manager;ent of this program. It is true that NASA is pro.eribed by its charter to only The second problem with Earth Resources engage. in expertmenta; programs; ERTS-A and -B Survey Satellites is who is going to own these data? arc going to be an experiment. Later in this decade You say, "All right, it is an American satellite, it weare going to have an operational Earth Resources is an American camera, and it is going to be an Survey program, there is no question about this American data processing system." But who owns Therefore, are we going to go into anotner long- the information that is going to lie on that photo- drawn debate about the International Teleammtuni graph? Why should not the country that is being cations Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT) ? Is this photographed have some share in this? And what the answer, a consortium of sorts?I doubt very about the point I made earlier, whereby we have much whether the countries of the earth are going an international commitment to share this infor- to agree to another consortium, in which, for the mation? Our government's response is very first 10 years, the U.S. owns 51 percent. This kind simple. They say, "Oh yes, anybody that wants of development is no longer possible. 'They are the pictures can have them." But that is not suffi- going to want a greater share of it right from the cient here. flow do we guarntee that everybody or start, even if the U.S. is paying most of the cost. every country has not only an equal share in looking This is one of the hardest things to swallow for the at the pictures, but also equal.benefits from utilizing U.S. and its government here. the data that can be perceived from these pictures? Transcribed from tape 44741g SPACE EXPLORATION AND WORLD PEACE By Dr. Charles Alercieea Professor, Educational Philosophy and Socioloa Director, Center of Intercultural Studies Alabama AL M University Until this century there was always some Present Technical Knowledge place on earth to explore and know fully. Men have clinched earth's highest mountain, walked upon the From a purely technical stahlpoint, we already North and South Poles, and plunged the depths of the now know enough to do each of the following: ocean. Man's determination to fully explore his na- tive planet has finally turned him toward outer space, Produce enough food to feed every hungry from which he can learn more about the earth and mouth on earth, even though the world's its surroundings, the sun and its radiations, the population should double or treble possibility of life on other planets, and the distant galaxies. that lie beyond the Milky Way. 2.Rid our cities' air of all forms of manmade pollution The Meaning of Space 3.Make fresh water out of sea water and thus irrigate all the world's arid regions Space begins at the point where the atmosphere is so thin that it has no effect on anything in it; 4.Transport large numbers of people or large where meteors start to glow from friction against quantities of material from any place on the air; and where the ionosphere ends, let us say, earth to any other, in a few hours somewhere about 250 miles above the earth. This is our frontier. Beyond this frontier there is practi- 5.Prodt.ce enough energy from uranium to cally nothing. Space is a near-vacuum without air light and heat cur homes and offices, elec- or sound. trify our railroads, and run all our factories Around the sun are nine major planets imduding 6.Establish instantaneous communication by earth; many thousands of minor planets which we telegraph, telephone, telet.pc, or television call asteroids, a big family, of comets; clouds or between any two points on the surface of the cosmic dust; and swarms of meteors. Between the earthand wharthe occasion arises, be- various parts of our solar system is the void, which tween any two points of the solar system. is another way of saying space. Gravity is the cos- mic glue which holds the system Iwtether. Scientific Space Development In spite of the fact that there are military and political reasons for the present urgency of the Since the inception of the space program, it has space programs by both the U.S. and the Soviet been a policy, especially carried on by the U.S., to Union, a rich future can grow out of the very extend the benefits of space research "to all nuw..- discoveries that people dread mostnuclear energy, kind, " as required by the 1958 act. The American automation, and biological advances, which are the space effort has been conducted openly, and its re- most powerful social forces in this century. But sults have been shared with many nations. these powerful social forces can be as great in peace, as in war; we can use them to create the future and The global communications satellite network is not to destroy it.In space exploration, science a prime example of tremendous space benefits. Over promises a future in which men can lead intelligent 70 countries joined the U.S. in the International Tele- and healthy lives a future that is worth living communications Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT), for. all of which are enjoying the benefits of this satellite. 449 In the same way, more than 40 nations are benefiting New uses are continually being found for tele- from improved weather forecasting, based on cloud- communications. Banks, stock exchanges, hotel res- cover photographs relayed by a space system equipped ervations, cable television, hospitals, --omputer with NASA-dev-Ziloped satellites.' Many of these coun- centers, and other new customers are eppearing at tries could not have afforded the elaborate ground an increasing rate. As one recently remarked, space stations, once needed to acquire and process satellite exploration is leading us "to a global communications photos. Recently, developed prototypes of a simpli- explosion." fied, inexpensive receiving station enable even the smallest nation to buy and use. An example of new applications was provided, in 1970, by the 18th International Congress, for post- graduate medical instruction. The American doctors International Benefits stayed at Houston and San Antonio in Texas; their counterparts were in Switzerland, Germany, and To quote a few instances of international benefits Austria.Satellites provided closed-circuit television derived from space programs, the U.S. and France and two-way voice circuits between the United States combined their efforts to orbit a satellite to track and Europe, enabling a reported 30 000 European hundreds of balloons, making it possible to chart, doctors to hear and see the 3-hour transatlantic con- for the first time, the winds that circle the ference. globe. Through space programs, weather forecasting is World as a Unit becoming increasingly accurate. Satellites and weather are inherently global systems. By rsing Space has made the world seem smaller, more automatic readout systems, every nation in the delicate and precious. At the same time, it made world can benefit from the Automatic Picture Taking man seem larger. Man can now look at his earth the (APT) systems on board U.S. weather satellites. way it truly stands a tiny blue watery pebble that Over 50 countries are now using this to daily view constantly roams in the silent abyss of the universe. weather patterns over their own territory a won- derful example of the use of space for the benefits of Since the race in space was started by Sputnik, over men everywhere. These same countries also bene- a billion children have been born all around the world, fit from cloud picture mosaics routinely made avail- the first space generation. Today's children can look able by the Weather Bureau to Europe, Asia, Austra- ahead confidently to new opportunities and to great lia, and North and South America. The weathermo- new strides that man will make in the 21st century, saic is built up from individual weather photos and when they will be in their thirties and forties. processed by computer; it is then retransmitted from Their generation will view the earth as a whole for ESSA ground station via NASA satellites. This is a the first time and be able to deal with technology, very real example of the combined benefits, nation- j:science, and philosophy as a unified experience, com- al and international, that space systems are creat- mon to all men of the blue planet, earth. This will ing for the average citizen. certainly have profound educational consequences in relation to international stability and world peace. A joint United States - India project in mass in- structional television is under development.In 1972 When a generation learns to view the world as a an advanced satellite known as Applications Technolo- whole, many individual and national problems would gy Satellite-F (ATS-F) will be maneuvered into a sta- then be solved. Such problems will be approached in tionary position over India where it can "see" some correlation and not in isolation.In correlation means 5000 villages equipped with inexpensive community considering similar problems that other individuals, receivers built by India. From a few transmitting other nations have and, in collaboration with them, stations, the Indian Government will beam education- try to arrive to a practical solution. What is the use al television programs, focused initially on population of concentrating on curing a fatal disease in the arm .control and improvement of agriculture, to the satel- when afterwards I let it develop in the leg? If the leg lite. ATS-F will then retransmit the programs to is amputated in consequence of neglect, the rest of hundreds of thousands of people in the receiver - the members of the body will suffer inconveniency as equipped villages. a result. 450 We are all members of the same species called us begin by healing the wounds from within.This the unman race. Like the various members of the remark, of course, could be simultaneously applied body we have various kinds of people in the human to every single country without exception. society. Some people have unique roles to play tinct from others. Yet all roles are important each person in his own unique way. The eyesare Reevaluation of Human Relations certainly the most important member of the body in relation to the recognition of colors, and the ears Why does the source of educational chaos,re- are undoubtedly the most important member of the vealed in tensions existent in national and internation- body in relation to the appreciation of music. How- al relationships, consist in the not-yet-solved prob- ever, certain :arts of the body, such as the heart and lem of priorities? We simply have formed the habit the brains, are of vital importance. Althougha hu- of concentrating primarily on the unessential, with man being .lould live without an arm or a leg, he is little regard to the actually essential. not expected to live without heart or brains. This means that in the history of human society there A human being could be nicknamed American, certain members that arc of vital importance. These French, Russian, or Chinese because of the fact members of society consist of thosepersons who are that he was accidentally born in a globalarea that dedicating themselves thoroughly for the welfare of was in turn nicknamed America, France, Russia, mankind. They consist of persons who developed, or China, Hence, in our reevaluation-of educational since early childhood, outstanding virtues that later priorities, especially in terms of human relations, enabled them to develop a sense of equilibrium, bal- the nationality we carry, the political party to which ance, and judgment, which is so badly needed in the we claim we belong, as well as the ethnic creed we solution of certain delicate problems at both national embrace in our private and perhaps public life, and international levels. should, for all practical purposes, be considered of secondary and not of primary importance. Priorities in Education In this way, the problem of communication in the realm of human understanding will diminish Because of surmounting problems, we seem to considerably. The conflicts that may remainamong have, in the world today, a race between education humans will then take the shape of those existent in and catastrophe. If we all yearn to see educationas the ordinary family.-_-No matter how much brothers the hopeful winner, then the time has arrivedto re- and sisters quarrel, litigate, and fight each other, evaluate our educational needs and project a kind of they all end up eating at the same table and sleeping education that transcends national, political, and under the roof of the same house in protection and ethnic boundaries. security. Our view of man, in terms of priorities, has to Bringing people together to live in a brotherly be reevaluated. A human being is first a sacredper- way is an educational task of a large order. So far, son with a unique identity of his own. Second, he is education has not accomplished this desired perennial what he habitually presents himself to be through his goal. People are brought together only after we actions and purposes a good, honest, reliable per- learn how to break through national and international son, or a bad, dishonest, unreliable individua:. In barriers. In this regard, President Nixon took a the third place, a human being is a man or a woman, great step forward in the establishment of world with all his specific characteristics and needs that his peace when he lifted the ban from American people sexual role develops in a rational and sensible society. to travel to the mainland of China. It was obviously in terms of such priorities and the kind of educational approach that urged President Space as an Instrument of -Peace Kennedy to plead with the American people: "Ask not what your country can do for you, but whatyou With a clear knowledge of space bone/its on one can do for your country." In other words, let us ask hand and of educational needs on the. other, wecan how beneficial we can render ourselves to the human now begin to realize that space exploration may per- race, beginning with ourselves here at home. Or, to haps prove itself to be the most effective instrument put it in the words of Senator Robert Kennedy: "Let in procuring international understanding though 451 improved facilities in worldwide communications, in history as the generation that initiated the genera- and through the building of an emotionally and social- tion of peace.This will eventually be revealed in ly stable society in the growth of a peaceful world. our wholehearted efforts in space exploration that slowly, but surely, will break the barriers of com- When people of every nation learn how to corre- munications that exist through national, political, late their problems to those of others, when humans and ethnic boundaries. Through space exploration in every country learn how to break the barriers that we will, as a matter of fact, look at our planet as a hinder communications, when all the people across unit void of artificial boundaries set by man since every continent learn to view their earthly blue plan- ancient times; through space exploration we will et as a unit and a whole, then the time would have eventually look at all people as humans who share the arrived when man's long quest for peace would bear same needs. regardless of their background culture; the desired results. through spabe exploration we will finally look at our- selves as lucky members of an intelligent species We will certainly not be written down in history with unique contributions to make for the welfare of aS members of the generation of peace, because of mankind in this planet and hopefully elsewhere as the short span of our lifetime. But we will go down well. zr 452 APPLICATION OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS By Jai P. Singh Research Engineer, Center for DevelopmentTechnology Washington University In this report, I will discuss what communica- and objectives are.I will come back to that, but tion satellites could do for education,what the first I will discuss the "how" current thinking is, what the experimental that we hope the domes- plans . tic educational instructional satellite system might are, and what the problem areas are. develop. The communication satellite unfolds attractive, First, you look into the existing situationor potential benefits for our educationalestablishments. into the future and try to define It can provide wide distanceaccess to a broad U.S. educational needs and objectives; try to definethe constraints variety of information resources, beyondthe capa- bility of a single institution. and limitations, both political, technological,and In 1958, the U.S. was administrative. What kind of the first nation to putup a communication satellite. a system is going to be acceptable; what is the feasibilityof a centralized These potential benefits have not yetbeen realized system? How much centralization do in the U.S. Any variety of you need in the communication facilities system? Then, you try to build upa requirement for have either been too costlyor inappropriate for wide a satellite system. That requirement is goingto use by educational institutions. The proposeddo- depend upon other -competing terrestrialtechnologies mestic satellite systems, currentlyunder considera- that may be capable of delivering the tion by the Federal Communications same services. Commission It would be a function of the technologicalenviron- (FCC), do not offer any significantcost reduction ment, the research and development (R&D) in the potentials, as they are multipurposeand locked in the International Telecommunications communication satellite area, and it wouldbe a Satellite function of available funding. Youtry to build up Consortium (INTEISAT) III andIV type technology some alternate systems, and present the decision- with the sole exception of two filings. makers with a couple of different systemdesigns, all capable of delivering different It is in this respect that Washington things. From this, University hopefully, some systems would has undertaken a NASA-sponsored emerge, some deci- project to define sions for future R&D would be made, andyou would educational services which telecommunications have a pilot operational system. satellites may help provide, and toprovide the decisionmakers in the Federal Government with For a pilot operational systemwe do not have to the design of systems for deliveringthese services in the U.S. have a dedicated satellite just foreducation. As you In order to insure that the studytakes will see in the later part of this into account all systems report, there have aspects - political, social, been a number of experimental systems,and you organizational, administrative,as well as econom- ical and technical could use some of the packageson the Advanced - the work has been undertaken by Technology Satellite to test out an interdisciplinary group of research some of the concepts. personnel, This, in fact, has been done, and in 1973,people representing a broad range of disciplinesand skills. will be looking at testing Most of our group is dominated by more advanced concepts. economists as Eventually, we will have gainedsome experience with well as political and straight types.The program directly relates to the the pilot systems. We would then tryto redefine our purposes of the nation for needs and objectives, and eventually focusing upon the potential development our new experi- and appli- ence, our new R&D would again enhance the tech-- cation of space technology to help meetthe needs _ of society in the fields of education. nological involvement, and the cyclewould continue, I think that we that is the approach that we have takenor the user haw. taken a systems approach.Some people may say it is the user-oriented approach, and approach, you might say. The basicquestion is, many other how do you define educational needsand objectives? people could put it in differentways. The basic This is not simple; it is not a meteorological thing ig to define what the U.S. satellite, educational-needs where you could go to people andsay, "OK, why do 453 you need that information?" Everyone has a for that kind of environment. We will try to define different philosophy for education. Everybody has conditions for achieving various utilization levels, a different vision of the role that technology is going and the impact of those utilization levels on to play in education. By technology, I do not mean education. satellite technology.Satellites are nothing but a delivery mechanism. We have to go to the basic There will also be background studies on such level of technologry, such as television, computers, problems as what people in this domain could accom- data, and other things; 'the basic thing that is plish with satellites, satellite-based delivery, and delivered, and there is no consensus. So what we networking system. Estimates for satellite utiliza- have done in this area is that we have been trying tion have to be developed, but before we go to to create a dialogue with the users, but not just estimates, I would like to go back and discuss what mere dialogue, and not with a layman-type attitude. some of the basic services are that a satellite could We have been trying to look into the economics of deliver. You could have two different types of various services through satellites and trying to satellites for education: one would be a dedicated provide the users with some decisionmaking, with educational satellite, a satellite completely devoted some groundwork on which he could base his deci- to education, and the other method would be to lease sions; what he could do with certain types of satel- channels on a commer satellite. As you know, lite technology, where satellites are going to be the FCC has some eight domestic satellite filings useful and where not, and what the future roles of under consideration. Various applicants a number satellites are in this country. of aerospace companies as well as common carriers, have proposed using communication satellite!: for These needs and objectives could be divided various things. The primary use is for point-to- into a couple of categories. As you know, the point communication. We have here two options. public 4.elevision in this country is a part of educa- Fixed satellite service is the service that we have tion, a broad educational segment. Those people seen in the international domain.It is point-to- know ,.vhat their needs are today, how many stations point service; that is, service between relatively that they want to link, but they have not been able large, high-cost earth terminals, for point-to-point to do it because of the cost of the current facilities. communication. However, there are two other types They are extremely interested. They could tell you of services. One is a Broadcasting Satellite Service the solution pattern they want, where they wanted to which would be capable of delivering television, originate their programs from, the states that they radio, and other programs; primarily a one-way wanted to link, how they want to feed the television service to community installations. The cable to the stations but for instructional purposes, this television head-end that you encounter would be a is a very tough job. -community installation.Satellites will be able to bring a large number of channels directly to your The first thing to do-is to conduct studies of the cable television (CATV) head-end and to your homes. various technologies and media, such as television This is something that cannot be done with the broad- and computer area instruction and their facsimiles, casting system, because of the limited frequency and automated information retrieval for the libraries. limitability problem. This is a service people will The study should look at the current developments, use in the early eighties or mid-eighties, where status problems, and future potentials.It should satellites would offer an opportunity to bring the also look into what the problems have been and try signal directly to the home. You have your television to forecast sonic demands for the future technology set, a special antenna, and a special attachment. and media utilization in education.It must be All you have to do is to plug in that attachment be- defined as to what would be the keys to technology tween the television set and the antenna, and you will utilization in education.It will not be fair to say, be capable of receiving directly front satellites. "In this field and time, this is the range of utiliza- tion that we are going to have." The particular The current designs for this system have already range will depend on what happened between then been demonstrated.If we are going to build sonic and now, on what kinds of major decisions have been 10 000 receivers per year for a single channel, the made on the federal level and state level, and what unit cost of the attachment between television set and kinds of new forcing functions are given these. So antenna would be $40, and if we made some 100 000, there would be certain keys to technology utilization, the cost would be something like $25 per unit.All and you would build up a case; e.g., that range of these units have been demonstrated and built by utilization, that range of delivery that will be needed Stanford University, NASA-Lewis, and by General 454 Electric. You will also need a receivingantenna, Delivery of computer. area instructions a dish-type structure which you can build with to small remote institutions, particularly those70 or 80 miles chicken mesh very cheap. The cost would depend away from a major metropolitan on how big the dish is. area, is another service. The satellite service, basedon a small terminal operation, has shown that When the domestic satellite proposals we could offer were substantial benefits for thesepurposes if we go to invited by the FCC, the FCC said that all the high-powered satellites. Domestic satellites, applicants should state very clearly what services which are relatively low-powered and multipurpose,are would be offered to the educational broadcasting not capable of offering this service economically. people and to the educational community. Of eight Then you go the the computerresources, and one of applicants, seven have very nicely defined their the best things in this area is that services as either ycs or no for the edueLtional there is a tremen- dous mismatch between theusers and the computer broadcasting community. Only one filing has resources. There are sonic segments of ventured into the area of instruction. AT&T/ users, such as large institutions that have substantialre- COMSAT is saying, "We will not offer anything sources, but some 45 percent of this country's in- specific for educational broadcasters butwe are stitutions of higher education do not have willing to discuss the term, and if the commiss;on any com- puting available to their students, forany purpose. thinks that providing free service to broadcasters A goal established by the Princeton Science is a public dividend, we will accept that Advisory position; Committee, in 1967, was that in 1971, they would we will provide them free service, but we will put like !o see some 20 min of basiccomputer processing the cost of that service on otherusers of the time available to every undergraduate system." It is not free; somebody has to student in this pay for 4 country. We are nowhere near it; that service we do not even other users of the service will have wave 5 min for all students in higher. to pay. Also, a major question for the FCC education. The is, ones who are suffering are the 40 percent of small what is a public dividend? Is it providingfree institutions; sonic of them are private, and service to a specific community of most of users, or is it them cannot afford to justifya dedicated computer providing cheaper service to allusers of that system for their own use. But linked with communi- system? It is one of the burning questions.. There cation linesthey could justify a remote, centralized are varied opinions. Thbre has been a letter some computing facility that they could share. Sowe have time ago, by Mr. T. Whitehead of thePresident's a number of users. Multiaccess, interactive Office of Telecommunications Policy, com- questioning puting, and batch processing is nothing buta delivery the whole approach of providinga public dividend of our computing power to those schools. based on just for educational broadcasters. Computer interconnection is a new thing.It has been develop- ing, and it is between thecomputers; that is, between So, there have been a number of offerings, very specialized computers offering very specialized which I will not cover in detail. The onlyones who services.It has all ready been implemented using have come forward with something specific are terrestrial networks by the AdvancedResearch Proj- Fairchild-Hiller, who have made substantial offer- ects Agency (ARPA) of the Department ings, and MCl/Lockheed. There of Defense. arc also filings by It has been established in 20 institutions;a good Western Telecommunications and Western Union. many of them are educational institutions. The They do not offer anything at all like AT&T, and basic problem is the high cost of communication Western Union is very much the same case. lines and their inappropriateness ofcarrying digital data. These communication lineswere designed We have primarily defined the role of the satel- primarily for carrying voice communication. lite in the instructional area. All the For instructional subsequent improvements have been on that basic television, the main role will be direct deliveryto fundamental. schools, to broadcaster stations for redistribution, and to Instructional Television Fixed ServiceOM/. The Corporation of Public Broadcasting, NASA, Alabama is one of the finest in this service, and they and the Health, Education, and WelfareDepartment have a number of installations in the state;ITFS experiment is new. Educational interest has head-ends and cable television head-ends for further been excited about this whole opportunity.People got redistribution. The satellite deliversa large num- together and decided that they had to do something ber of channels to various centralized points and in this country, too. They have been thinkingabout it, from there to cable and other broadcastingstations but they have to do sonic experiments. The for redistributing; it is atvne of networking. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare andthe 455 4 Corporation of Public Broadcasting united in the last One of the major opportunities that is awaiting 6 or 7 months and made the proposal to NASA. As people is that sometime in 1975, they will put up an an experiment, NASA put a special package on an ATS-G satellite with very high power broadcasting Applications Technology Satellite (ATS). They have capabilities. They have not decided at this time not decided where the experiment is going to be what the shape of the experiment will be; at this performed, but the prospective areas are Alaska, time, users are working to define their experiment, the Rocky Mountains, and maybe the Appalachian but no decision has been made regarding ATS-G, to part of the country. The Rocky Mountains seem to date. So far, most of the interest has just been in be an especially good site to conduct these experi- the delivery of television and radio programs. ments. There will be three components of this Stanford University has been a pioneer; they have, experiment:(1) there would be satellite educational for the first time, investigated the feasibility of television (ETV) transmissions of public programs delivery of computer-aided instruction to remote to television stations, (2) there would be delivery and isolated institutions.Professor Jamison did of programs to cable-television head-ends, and this in May 1971, and he is in the process of doing (3) delivery of programs to schools by rooftop in- it again in the near future. stallations. The whole concept will be tested in the summer of 1973. Transcribed from tape ) 456 SPACE BENEFITS TO MANKIND AS SEEN FROM A FRENCH POINT OF VIEW By Jean-Pierre M. Pujes Scientific Attache Embassy of France Washington, D.C. Being an aerospace engineer, I feel deeplycon- These balloons fly at a constant altitude andarc cerned about the attacks against space research com- pushed away by the winds. Theyare located and ing from the general public; i.e., students and poll- interrogated by the satellite to which they give the ticIans, as well as the man in the street. values of the temperature and pressure of the at- mosphere around them. Then the satellite sends I would like to show what benefits space has al- back that information to the nearest groundsta- ready brought to mankind and those tocome in the tion. The interest of using a satellite is to know, future. simultaneously, the characteristics of the atmos- phere at very distant points over deserts and I will choose the French space program,as an oceans, where no meteorological stations exist on example. the ground. From the positions of the balloons, meteorolo- The French Space Program gists will derive the directions of the winds, and using the telemetered informations, should be able In France, like in most other countries, the to predict the evolution of the numerical parameters space program started as a military effort in the of the atmosphere. This is important because, late fifties. At the beginning of the sixties,a com- until now, the photographs taken by the former plete series of rocket engines were available sat- as a ellites gave only a qualitative and nota quantitative result of the first phase of the "Force de Frappe" idea of the atmosphere: (the French deterrent) development.But in 1962, though a certain number of rockets had been launched This satellite is an example of what France in- for scientific purposes, civilian space researchhad tends to do in space during the comingyears. The yet to be fully organized on ^ national basis. purely French national program will consist of only a few small satellites, either technological or The French Government then created the Centre scientific. Their number will be limited to the National d' Etudes Spatiales; i.e., NationalCenter for minimum necessary to maintain the high level of Space Studies (CNES), the Frenchspace agency. knowledge of the space industry and research labo- One of the first tasks of the CNESwas to control the ratories. The most important efforts will be di- development of the French satellite launch-vehicle rected toward applications, and they will bemade DIAMANT. From 1966 up to now, seven satellites in cooperation with other countries eitheron a bi- have been launched by DIAMANT (six French satel- lateral basis or through multinational organizations. lites and a German one, DIAL). In addition, two French satellites were launched by U.S. Scout rock- ets as a result of a joint Franco-Americanprogram. International Cooperation The first DIAMANT-launched satellitewas purely technological. The following ones were merelyas- _ _ France is already involved in many international signed to scientific research. However, thelast programs: French satellite, launched by a NASA Scoutrocket from Wallops Island, Va., in August 1971, was al- 1.With Germany and Belgium, France is build- ready an applications satellite.This satellite is part ing a telecommunications satellite systdm, Sym- of a multinational meteorologicalprogram, EOLE. phonie. According to this program a few hundred balloons have been launched by the French from Argentina., 2. The Russians are to launch a French 457 technolou satellite before the end of the year; also than 0.4 percent), the results achieved have been they plan to use the Guiana equatorial launch site great. for some of their sounding rockets. Space research is no longer a way to gain pres- 3.India, as well as Pakistan, is building tige only for the French Government. Nor is 'it a French sounding rockets under license. means to improve technology in other fields of activ- ity, except, perhaps, for some cases (participation 4. France is also one of the most affluent mem- in the post-Apollo Shuttle program might be justified bers of such European organizations as the European by its consequence for the French aeronautical Launcher Development Organization ( ELDO) , which industry). is building launch vehicles, and the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) , which is making The direct benefits are by far the most impor- satellites. tant ones. 5.Last but not least, France and the United Scientific satellites help increase our knowledge States have cooperated since the beginning of space of thO universe. Astronomers can look at the stars research on many projects, and thc cooperation still from a satellite, for instance, without being ham- continues. This cooperation is considered so im- pered by atmospheric radiation absorption. Space as- portant that France has a permanent representative tronomy is particularly important. Though sonic in Washington, who is in charge of space problems. scientists do not accept the idea, it can be confessed As far as scientific research is concerned, French that one of the reasons why space astronomy experi- scientific experiments will be flown on two Ameri- ments are financed is that the results may help un- can satellites, the Orbiting Solar Observatory derstand the process or energy being produced by (OS0-1) and the High Energy Astronomy Observa- nuclear fission. Such an energy production exists tory ( IlEAO-B). On the other hand, U.S. sounding in stars, whereas on earth, the only way of produc- rockets are to be launched from thc French Kergue- ing nuclear fission energy is still the, hydrogen lamb, len Islands, close to the Antarctic. Furthermore, which is not of a very convenient use. French scientists arc studying lunar samples and they are, after Great Britain, the most important Solar observation satellites are useful, too, national group outside the United States to do so. since the sun is by far our most important source of energy and as the weather is dependent on solar On applications programs, apart from the Inter- activity. As a matter of fact, solar observation national Telecommunications Satellite Consortium, satellites are, in the long run, meteorological satel- INTELSAT, France has an agreement with the United lites.However, direct application satellites will States regarding the ECOLE project mentioned above, soon bring benefits to mankind.Meteorological ap- and collaboration on a future data collection satellite. plication satellites have proved useful saving many The Television Infrared Operational Satellite lives forecasting hurricanes. New developments, (TIROS-N) is on its way. The AcroSat systems like EOLE, will help much more to accurately fore- project of air traffic control over the oceans, which cast the weather. Data collection systems, inspired was initially a French project in relation with the by the EOLE technology, will authorize collection of Concorde supersonic airplane, is now a joint U. S. - data coming from very remote areas on the oceans European program. MeteoSat is also a joint pro- as well as on earth. One can expect to get a better p.m, which was at the beginning a French- knowledge of the streams by replacing EOLE bal- American meteorological project.Filially, France loons, for instance, by buoys. This could be useful is looking forward to participating in the post- Apollo to the meteorologists, as well as to the oceanogra- program (Space Shuttle and Station), if the condi- phers or the sailors. tions are acceptable.All this cooperation has proved useful, as it has considerably lowered, for Communication satellites are, of course, such each nation, the cost of space projects involved. a convenient solution to communication problems, particularly across the oceans, that within 20 years the cable industry will encounter a lot of difficulties if Space Benefits to Mankind it does not react rapidly. Though the part of the French gross national Navigation satellites will help programming air- prodect given to space activities is very small (less craft landing and will save passengers time, permit 458 Av. better air traffic control and better communications example, which were believed to be sow!, proved_ between airports and airplanes, and increase the to be completely infested. This fact would not have airlines' efficiency and help reduce the fares. been easily known through conventional means. Satellites, at least, will help to obtain a better knowledge of earth resources through remote sens- Conclusion ing. The United Nations is sponsoring an action on this subject. France has already done some pre- Space research has been very useful.Direct liminary work with aircraft and balloons, showing benefits have already proved very important and how much better results are when increasing the more are coming.In addition, space research has altitude from which observations are made. Until helped develop cooperation between nations, thus now, some forests in the south of France, for preparing a better world to live in. 459 FORUM DISCUSSION SPACE PROGRAM BENEFITS AND THE PROBLEM OF TECHNOLOGY /USER LINKAGE MODERATOR:Jesco von Puttkamer President, HATS PANE LISTS; Dr. Franco E. Fiorio Italian Embassy, Washington, D.C. Chairman, U.N. Working Group on Remote Sensing of the Earth Jean-Pierre M. Pujes Scientific Attache, Embassy of France Washington, D.C. Dr. John Hanessian, Jr. Director, International Studies Group George Washington University Earl Hubbard Special Advisor, Committee for the Future Lakeville, Conn. William Hamilton Manager, Space Shuttle Program The BilrnigC,Impany, Seattle, Wash. Woodrow W, Diehl Board of Directors, National Corn Growers Association Des Moines, Iowa Dr. Krafft A. Ehricke Chief Scientific Advisor North American Rockwell Space Division Jesco von Puttkamer because it is communication within communication. The [ ogress of mankind is linked to the possibility The forum discussion is intended to give the of communicating to others, the understanding with audience a good chance to ask all those questions each other, and the only way to do it is to talk to uhich they may have developed in the course of each other, not to mention the advantage of the coni- this Conference, or in the course of this morning's mercial and industrial nature of exchanging data and session,. to openly discuss certain points with the information and bargaining on an instant basis. personalities exposed here to the public. Each of our panelists is going to speak about 5 to 10 min Now, the question of the link between the space on his view with regards to, first, the general area experts and the; public has been raised here. There of space applications or space benefits, and pos- are many links. The first link, speaking on an sibly also to those two major problems which we international basis, is between the space-deVeloped have unearthed in the last few days, and which were or developing nations and the space-undeveloped discussed here: The first problem is, who should ones: here the first step is to convince the leaders. be the one to provide the link, or who should be the If the leaders of the developing countri.:.r. in the linker between the quite complex technology area space realm are not convinced that space might and the user sideShould it he the universities, offer sonic practical benefits, even of political if the private citizens, or the gc 'ern:tient (in this not economical nature, then nothing will happen in case, NASA) who really should train, spoasor, con- that country. That link is supplied by the United trol, and direct the linker? The second problem is Nations bodies, both the Committee for Peaceful that there are definitely some technology areas Use of Our Space and the Economic and Social which seem too complex to be suitably related to the Council. There are many bodies in the United public, even by a good linker. These two problems Nations which are concerned with space, indirect were mentioned here and discussed, and maybe all and direct, and those are the ones who can convince of our panel speakers can address these points and the leaders, provided the action is properly offer their views. coordinated. As far as the link in each country is concerned, Franco E. Florio I would not take any position to say that it is the leading space agency's responsibility or the public's I will start with a brief comment on space responebility. But I believe that one of the most benefits. Space benefits are very difficult to assess. important roles to be played in that field is the role There are benefits flowing from many different of the press the technical press especially to parts of the space program. There are the direct disseminatelheinformation, to supply the public benefits, such as communication systems, then with the data, and to explain to the public what it is, the indirect benefits, such as for advanced techaol- in terms so that the public can understand. Of. ea, and sonic still more indirect benefits, like course, we have a built-in problem here. At this medical advances because of space research. moment in the U.S. ,for instance, the technical- press is dying for the lack of advertising, because One of the most visible benefits, of course, is of lack of money for the space program.It is a kind communication as we have it now.I am not refer- of vicious circle the more the public is willing to ring to the future educational systems, which will support the program, the more money the govern- provide tremendous benefits, but the benefits we mea is willing to allocate. The more money is have now in time and money, as a result of develop- availatile to the industry for advertising, the more ing the global system.I remember 4 or 5 years ago, the press is able to break the bread of the informa- when I wanted to speak to Rome on the phone I had tion there is.The press and all information media, to wait about a couple of hours and spent about $10 like television and radio, that is the real link that a minute. Now the time is reduced to zero; I can is where the link is. just lift the phone and speak to Rome immediately, and the cost has gone down to $5 a minute and it In closing, I would like to comment briefly on will be $ 3 a minute starting January 1.It will go the earth resources satellites and the broadcasting down to $1 a minute, and the final and ultimate aim problem. The situation of broadcasting is that of the high-power satellites of the future will prob- discussions in the United Nations are temporarily ably be to be able to dial any place in the world with halted because of the uncertainties that he mentioned just a 50-cent coin. This is a tremendous benefit about the programs. Although there is an easy 462 solution in that the country which does not want to With an overproduction, prices arc low, and the receive certain programs might prescribe certain government is obliged to pay the farmers to provide specifications for their receivers typical of a concessions to them.If the satellites could help dictatorial type country specifying what kind of getting better crops, we would get an even greater a receiver with fixed frequency to be used. Those overproduction, and the prices would get lower and frequencies would then be the only ones that can lower. Thus, while space surveys, in the long run, receive anything.This would prevent them from undoubtedly will be of great benefits to mankind, in receiving unwanted propaganda. Of course, even the short run you really will have an agricultural on a simple frequency there can be some jamming problem the problem of farmers having a lot of and overlapping that could not be avoided.In any crops without blowing what to do with them.If we case, in its last session the United Nations refused want to provide the farmers with a meteorological to reopen discussion of the broadcasting satellite satellite, we will also have to make an economical working group, for reasons of4hese uncertainties. plan to help the farmers during the first 2 or 3 years. This decision was supported by the two major It is not enough to deal with technological matters; powers. we also have to deal with economies and economic problems. As far as the earth resourea satellites are concerned, the field is completely open. The The second example that I want to discuss is-on various problems that Dr. Hancssian mentioned political problems. We have, or had, a program in ar _at our table. --We have a Working Group that France where we wanted to use a Symphonic tele- I ;,.ave had the privilege of chairing, and it will communications satellite for educatiun in Africa. meet in May 1972,*probably one single meeting, to In a large part of Africa the population either speaks organize the work. There is a definite need to French nr has a knowledge of the French language. assess all the social, political, and technical We intended to broadcast educational.prograins on implication of this brand-new area very carefully Africa, but we ran into a political problem because before proceeding with any kind of proposals. This each African country wants to have its own program. view has been shared, practically, by all members It is almost impossible since there arc so many of of the group. them. You cannot have one satellite and 10 or 15 television broadcast channels; technoloa at the present is just not ready for this. So we had to drop Jean-Pierre M. Pules the project,-for the moment. Earlier, In my paper, I presented an optimistic A third problem that web-Mk:10 fife-c-is purely view of the matter of space benefits. As a forum financial.In France, the budget for space, as I lb a place of discussion, I would now 'Hie to brink have said earlier, is about 0.36 percent of the gross _ up some of the problems that we will_be facing in national product, and it is going to stay at that level. that area. And I would like to illustrate them with If we intend to participate in a large international some examples. program, like the post-Apollo Program, for instance, we arc faced with this problem: either we have a As we have a farmer here on the panel, I will very small share of the program and it is not worth- relate something concerning agriculture, that while to participate, or the program has to be happened in France recently. We had a discussion limited. Any French participatiol, as the program is of how satellite surveys could be helpful to agricul- now viewed, would only be a few percent, 1 or 2 per- ture and ended up with an economical problem which cent, perhaps not even that. We cannot increase the appeared to be very difficult to solve. Some coun- amount of money that we can give to this program, tries, like the U.S. or France, have an over- so the program hag to get even smaller. One of the production of agricultural products, such as ways could be to lengthen the program and have the corn, wheat, and the like.If we had a satellite per-year amount of money spent become smaller. which could tell the farmer about everything that is So this is a purely financial problem, and there are going to happen from a meteorological point of view, many of these problems in the political, economical he could get long-range forecasts with which he and administratiVe areas. A lot of people will be could do a lot of things. He could have perfect needed to solve these problems, whereas most tech- crops and could so it seemsbecome rich. That nical problems have been solved already or are going would happen in the long run but I ant not so sure to be solved. For these reasons, people working that it would be as simple as that in the short term. with space have now to apply their capabilities, not tifMlbrowl, 463 1.111M to solve technical problems but to try to solve can we do research, for example, that is going to these kinds of problems.I really think that half of benefit a particular division, within a the NASA people would have to work on this prob- bureau, within a particular agency? It has become lem if they really want it to be solved. The real very difficult. When 'Av, for example, put on the Problem is to convince the government that this is kind of symposium where we bring together govern- what has to be done.I do not }mow if it is possible. ment people, university people and the public, it comes out of our own'pockets; we have te pay for it. John Hanessian This gets us back to a central question. If the universities arc so worried about existing and about We have problems: As you know, we have had educating students, what can our role be in the future many campus problems in the last few years. It in this particular context of linking or otherwise seems this year that the students have other things standing between the government and public, or to do.I might add, they are primarily worrier' between the government and other sections of the about what job they are going to get when they finish. informed public? I do not know. You can do very, But more and more it seems that we have the same very little without money, I can tell you that and - problem that the government tg. France has we do not have any money. Columbia University money. Let me explain its relevance to the point in the last 3 yirers has suffered a deficit of41 million. in question. For a number of years, as you know, They have got money now, but one of these e sus the Federal Government has provided a considerable they are going to run out of money. We are alreauj amount of money in the form of scholarahips, seeing things that we would have never imagined. fellowships, or research grants, etc., to enable There are universities that arc actually, closing their universities to develop and further their graduate doors. They are going broke.dm of the things that careers particularly in science, engineering, and this government, and 1 mead-OW-administration, has related fields, The government has played a very got to realize pretty soon, is dett you cannot with- important role in this ;-ccause universities just-do draw public support front tutivecsitie6 and still not have the kind of money that is necessary to do expect them to pay their bills the way they have to this. At my university the tuition for 1 year is $ 2100.these days. at costs us $4000 per year to ediwate each student that passes through our university. *Where is the The linking is a very difficult kind of problem, other $1900 coming from? Sometimes we ourselves and I do feel that universities and university do not know the answer to That.Last year we had net can play an extremely important role.I have a $95 million budget- and ended up on June 30 with graduate students who want to do their graduate work a $1473 surplus. We did not run a deficit, but We on policy problems related to space; they want -10 came that cies° to it.I do not know what is going work on some of the things that we have talked about to happen this year. With these kinds of financial here. We have to pay them a certain amount of problems, there is obviously limited money that money to keep them in the university, or they have we have available to give to students to do their to go out. They have to eat; they have to live. We graduate work. So we keep looking at the Federal do not have that kind of money anymore. The zavern- Government for continued support. ment has takcii it away from us. We cannot bring students here le work on these kind of problems un- Unfortunately, the Federal Government in the less it is of particular relevance to a particular last few years has just gone in the opposite direc- Bureau of a particular agency. tion. They have reduced funds, withdrawn, and r..4.1d from education.It seems they are,noilonger I guess you might interpret what I MU saying as ,ted in helping education per se. When we a public appeal, but I am really talking to you as . o the National Science Foundation or other taxpayers. We can play a role, a very important agencies along the lines which are relevant here, role, -ad university people have one great we always get the same answer, "We do not have advantage they are objective. We are not govern- this kind of money for education anymore. We will ment workers, we are taxpayers and we caa play a only support the research that you do, and you have role here in this game, between the public, the to proveto us that the research that you are doing government, the4techniealwad_the internationid is ping to tie of benefit to the U. iGovernment and, community. But without money; I can telling you mare precisely, that it is going to benefit our we are going to do very, very little in the next ragencty,is Well, that is a'pretty tough problem. How 10 years. 464 a Earl Hubbard If we, as we approach 1976, declare the need for a new right, the right of mankind to have a future, We are in an age of "Why." You just heard we can invite the free world and all who would be the statement that professors have to eat. There free to join us in signing this declaration. Within is a story told about Frank Lloyd Wright, the this declaration there is the option of a new con- famous architect. A young architect came to him stitutional convention for a world nation dedicated and said that he could not do the pure, beautiful to giving mankind a future. You people, mostly, design he wanted to do because he had to eat. And_ are "How" people, and I expect you will work out Frank Lloyd Wright said "Why?" And that is what how this can be done.But I think the first task is is being asked of you, on every level. This is an for you to start asking yourself, "What will happen age of -"Why." if we stay on this earth?" Run this through your computers, because all that you are doing with your There is a credibility gap dividing the people benefits for mankind is to accelerate growth, aspira- and the so-called technologists. This credibility tion, and spiritual growth. You are, in other words, gap exists on the question of "Why." The issuc is accelerating mankind's suicide unless you know and not, what is the future of the space program? The can tell all that you know that the need now is for issue is not, what is the future of this earth? The new worlds. issue is, what is the future of mankind? That issue depends on mankind's awareness that he is now outgrowing this earth. William Hamilton What links all peoples of this earth is the need I would like to address the first subject that the for new worlds. The issue of cost which has been Chairman commented on, namely, the question of discussed here often is the issue of, can mankind the link between the technical community and the afford to survive? The only cause on earth that public, or the technical community and _the govern- _ needs people and the'best that people have to give ment.I believe there is a real need for communica- is the cause of the need for new worlds. All other tion and I agree with Dr. Fiorio that Cite real link causes deny the need for man. Consider the causes is the mediathe press, television, and radio, if we have today. There is overpopulation; if you go you will because that is the source of information to the people and say, "Join in that cause," you that the public uses, and the public_ influences the have to realize that they, are the population you wish government, especially in the U.S. to control.If the cause is pollution and you go to the people of the world, you have to realize that There is no question in my mind that space, thus they are the pollutants. There are too many of far, has provided significant benefits for man. I them for this world to sustain.If you go to the think it will continue to provide more benefits for people of this world and say, "We need you for war man. From the technical side, we know how to control," you have to realize that in a world without adapt satellites both near earth and farther out a future, people would rather die fighting than die technical explorations to benefit man. And we have as a vegetable. And if you go to the people of this done that with reasonably costly vehicles.I believe world and say, "Join us in fighting drug addiction," the next step is to devise means for doing those you have to realize that in a world without a future, things for fewer dollars, or to do more for the same man is not needed at all.Not to be needed is very dollars.I am proud to be associated with the Shuttle painful not to be needed for your capacity to Program and to be working with the NASA people on conceive children, not to be needed for your capacity that, because I believe that is a step in that direc- to work, not to be needed for your capacity to create tion.It is aimed at reducing the cost of putting pay- is irabearable. loads in orbit by a factornf 10, and I think that is worthwhile. We do need easier and more economical The issue that we are discussing here is the access to space, and I believe when we do get that, issue that all mankind must discuss. That issue is there will be many more improvements that will come whether mankind desires to have a future or not. to mankind, both for the whole world and this nation, You here in NASA are building mankind's only hope the U.S. for a future because you are building the only public stairway to the stars for all mankind. There has I am thinking of many of the developments that been discussion here about "international." We are we just do not see today. As individuals, as humans, one licitly.There is no "international" in this body. and especially as the technical community, which 465 many of us here are from, we are usually a little Woodrow W. Diehl optimistic in the short term and very pessimistic in the long term. We do not have the vision to see The first thought that comes to me is, do you what is over the horizon. One of the developments, remember a few years ago when Governor Holum:: for example, that I have been involved in, has been went to Saigon and when he came home, made the the jet transport. In 1951, 20 years ago, when such statement, "I guess they brainwashed me"? Well, studies were made by the Boeing Compariy and by I am certain that I have been brainwashed here in the Douglas Company, most of the experts in the, the last few days, because you people certainly country said that jet transports were impractical; have sold me on space.I am so fully convinced of they had insufficient range, insufficient payload, this, that it seems that practically every answer to and they were too costly to operate and too danger- all our problems is going to be provided by the space ous. Many noble and conscientious people made program. Pollution ... you name itPerhaps, very moving speeches on this subject, and they someday we could have heaven on earth. Of course could prove to you mathematically that there was there is one thing that is bothering me a little bit no sense in working on that. They said that in at my age.I would like to have you fellows hurry a 1970, even if it were prattical, there would only little faster, because I sure would like to enjoy a be a market for 100 to 200 jet aircraft, at the most. little heaven. In 1971, the 707, DC-8,- and 747 all have ranges in _excess of 6000 mi, and the cost to transport a A number of times I have been a little embar- passenger has dropped to between one-half and two- rassed, with all you gentlemen here. As we look at thirds of what it was with the DC-7 type aircraft at the name cards, you say, "Who are you?" Well, I that time, even though the employees of the airlines an an Iowa farmer. Then, I say, "What are you? are paid more than twice as much per hour, on the Who are you? What do you do?" And before I know average. As far as the market is concerned, the it, the pedigree gets longer and longer and I wind up Boeing Company sold over 2000 jet transports and with what I call a dumb farmer complex. So I have the Douglas Company sold over 1000 jet transports, decided to do something. Most of you have your .and there will be more sold because they are an calling card or name card. Well, I have never economical and efficient means of transportation. carried a calling card or name card in my life. Lo and behold, that is one thing that a farmer does The dollars spent in the space effort, I believe, not need. After he has been on the farm and goes will bring forth benefits and gtowth, additional into town, there is no problem in knowing who he is. capability to the country and to the people, that we But maybe I will be invited to something like this cannot envision at this moment. Of all the dollars again, and I am going to have a -calling card. When that we spend in the space program, the vast someone asks me, "What do you do?" I am going ,to majority are spent in the U.S. They go for wages tell them that I am the chairman of the board and and salaries, just as the money spent in anything executive officer of a corporation.If they press me else in the economy. In addition, they do provide a little further, i am going to say, "Well, we have a direct benefit for mankind, and they do provide the Cattle Feeding Division, a Cow-Calf Division, and a knowledge on which to build the future, from a sizable Hog Division, and then we have an overall scientific and industrial standpoint. They also im- General Farming Division that produces all the food prove our position in the community of states in the and-roughage for these animals." But here is what has world, both from a prestige and a technical got me worried.If they-press me any farther, well, standpoint. then I will just have to tell them that I am an old Iowa . farmer. There has been a lot of tail; about the value of international cooperation. Cooperation is a desirable Last week I was in Washington, to appear befote thing; however, I think there is a real value in com- a Senate subcommittee in support of a strategic grain petition, and if you have no competition, things lend reserve bill. Maybe I should back up a little bit. A to stagnate. The comment made by one Russian year ago everyone heard of the corn blight. But did scientist to this effect is probably reasonably true, you know that we had raised enough corn for everyone, being that if there was one world space program with that there was no shortage, and that we still had plenty all nations participating in it, there would be, in the of corn left over? There was a lot of concern about long run, far less space exploration than if there was the blight, so this spring before planting time a competition between nations to achieve or to out- the Departmerit of Agriculture and those that are achieve the other side. supposed to know, decided to play it safe about the 460 blight and told us that we should plant a little more Krafft A. Ehricke corn. Do you know what happened? We raised a billion bushels more than we needed 1 billion One thing that struck me in listening to a number bushels'. For domestic use and export it takes of talks and also in listening to a number of comments about 4.6 billion, and we produced over 5.5 billion I have heard here today_ on the panel is howmuch bushels: And the price has dropped; everyone is emphasis is put on near-earth, and how much it is talking about having no money well, here comes taken for granted that the things that we can do in my pitch. Corn was $1.35 to $1.45 all last year. near-earth space resources satellites, communica- Now it is down to 93 to 95 cents a bushel, and they tion satellites, and so forth are good for mankind. tell me it cost $1 a bushel to raise it.With the At the same time, I am thinking back to the large crop we had a year ago, the net return will be many, budget battles that we presently have to fight to get many times more than our crop this year of an people to accept the nonrelevance of a probe to Mars,' extra billion bushels. So that was why some of us to Jupiter, or the continuation of the lunar program. went to Washington to see if we could not get this I have to think back about 20 years ago when I heard bill through, whereby the government would establish these same stories that I an hearing now about this strategic reserve and take a few hundred mil- lunar or planetary operations. When I hear these lion bushels for this reserve off the market and off stories about near-earth operations, it occurs to inc our hands, and then maybe we could get a $1.10 a how well have we actually sold space. We. have sold bushel for the rest of it.There were four or five it so well that everybody is getting stuck in near- Senators of the subcommittee group sitting around earth space and does not recognize that this whole the table, listening. As the day went on, one was spaceflight is one integrated complex, that you can gone, another was gone, and toward the evening not have utilization without exploration, and that the when the turn came for me to get up and speak my very arguments that are today very often used in piece, one Senator sat there, and he was nodding. order to put down an Apollo mission or in order to- I do not think that we are going to get anywhere: put down our beautiful flight of Mariner IX to Mars, So we are all in the same boat, are we not? have been used 20 years ago with respect to near-earth space.I was actively involved at that time and I also There is one thing, one thought that I would got some arguments which I ani ashamed to repeat, like to make. We all go around tooting our'horns because they were so stupid. Or let us say, at least and trying to promote what we believe in, but about they were lacking any foresight or imagination. 0.9 of our tooting is among ourselves. The right That underlines also the fact that looking a little bit people do not hear, and it seems in this modern, ahead, beyond what is immediately necessary, is fast living society-everyone of us finds himself in paying off in a great way. Ever since the Renaissance, the minority.I do not know any other way out. We Western civilization has clone it. We do want to had better start listening to one another's problems exploit the opportunities that near-earth space gives and paying attention and start helping one another. us, but we have got to keep also the long -range oscillations in mind that affect our progress_ beyond I have thought a thousand times in the last week this. that I have spent here, "If I just had -a thousand farmers that could sit in and listen in on this:" All Right now we are fighting for the Shuttle in order this information, it is fantastic; I cannot even to exploit near-earth space better, to explore distant- scratch the surface and try to distribute -this.I am earth space also more economically, and to acceler- going to do all I can but it takes a lot of people and ate the process of returns on the investment a little a lot of doing. When I get home, you 'mow what I bit better. All this is part of science and technology, am going to do? When I get home, I am going to go a creative activity, which should be part of our out and walk around my cattle and hogs and my boys civilization.It is amazing to find in a civilization, and I ani going to tell them this, "Do you know where that is techno-scientifically oriented to the core, such I was last week?" No. Then I will tell them when a negative reaction to science and technology and such I talk my chest is going to get bigger and bigger and a shallowness in the face of past human experiences, the buttons are going to fly that I was down in such as some of the remedies that are offered by those Huntsville and rubbed shoulders with the smartest people who believe the* we can get along very well with men in all the world, because they were the ones a secondhand future, returning to an outworn past. that put man on the moon the greatest thing that has ever-happened.I am mighty proud to have been That reminds me of a little story about a business- here with you fellows. man who used to travel regularly by airplane from 467 riew.s.r New York to California on business. But when which is impossible for man to do.This may be bomb explosions in airplanes increased in number, his cross or his crown, whichever way you want to he stopped flying and took the train. He explained look at it. to his business partner that he did not dare ride planes anymore because there was just too high a probability something like 1 in 1000 or 1 in 500 The basic aspect of the extraterrestrial impera- that there might be a. bomb aboard, and he did not tive is astro-ecology and geo-ecology. The astro- want to take that risk.But one day he came flying ecological promises are the broadening of mankind's in again by plane and his business partner said to resource base, the development of advanced tech- him, "How come you are flying in by plane?' nologies in the service of mankind, free of biospheric "Well," he said. "Look, the probability that one constraintsand free of so-MI-Implications and corn- bomb is onboard a plane is about 1 to 500 or 1 to plications which-we are encountering increasingly, 1000, but the probability that there are two bombs because man no longer can be forced into a still- onboard is of the order of 1 in 1 million.Ever closer living-together with technology, and because since that time I carry a bomb in my suitcase, yott technology disrupts the longer term need of man for see." That is about the logic of some of the rem- time the grace period that he needs to evolve as a edies that we are getting these days.So we have civilized being. This is the humanization of man in to keep in mind that we have to recognize the short- contrast to the homonization_of man where he range as well as the long-range situation. develops the maturity, the social structures, and all-the other attribltes moral and ethic that The extraterrestrial imperative has two major makeThim the higher ethical being that he dreams of objectives.One, and the main one, is the main- being. The present pressure of survival that re- tenance and continuance of hunian civilization. We quires an ever more stringent technology is inter- had 5000 centuries of culture, in which the cunning, fcring with this development. For this rcason effective, efficient, and ruthless beast that -pre- the despair of many people, also of many environ- served itself against nature emerged, and about 50 mentalists and of many of those that try to listen to centuries of civilization in which we are now start- the subtler ;Ind longer-range frequencies of human ing to selectively promote some characteristics development, is understandable. What they do not and suppress others. The momentum of 5000 know is that shaking off the technology and in other centuries cannot be wiped out by 50 centuries; it words backing off into a secondhand future, is not is too much. We need thousands of years of civil- the solution, but breaking through the bottleneck into ization. We cannot have it with a mankind that has the greater future is the clear answer. Astro- cosmic powers but is sentenced to solitary con- ecology also provides us with the possibility and the finement on one planet.It is just not possible, and option of separating geo-incompatible production it is not reasonable. The second,, equally important processes from earth. These are the types of factor is the restoration of equilibrium between this processes that cannot be properly integrated as such life form operating on information metabolism, and into the biosphere and into the great physical, chem- a planet whose biosphere is not geared to take into ical, and biological cycles of earth. The separation account the effects of information metabolism, of of production and consumption is the core require- tremendous industrialization, and of tremendous ment for the maintenance of human civilization, processing of energy and matter any more than earth because we cannot maintain human civilization with- Number One was capable of caring for life on a out human consumption, which means living stand- planetogenic basis.It took the chlorophyll molecule ards.,We cannot have consumption without produc- development-for life to broaden its basis and include tion. We cannot have production without pollution a cosmic resource, namely, the sun, and thereby, without gradually expanding into space with our pro- put that particular life on a permanent basis on this ductive facilities.This is a process that will take planet.Just as the chlorophyll molecule is the on the order of 100 yr, but it begins with a number of center and the motor of the biosphere, so the brain near-term goals. From this umbrella-type, metagoal is the center and the motor of the androsphere a specification, we can now work backward into new and dynamic equilibrium-type sphere of activity specific goals. In MeT: words, we are now like a that encompasses many environments. In between man in New York who has at last made up his mild the chlorophyll molecule and the human brain, whether he is going to Miami and therefore should everything else is basically transition, for the map his first step out to Atlantic City, or if he goes reasons that I pointed out in my earlier talk, to Los Angeles and therefore maybe he should namely, submission to existing conditions. , map his first step in the direction of Buffalo. Geo-ecologiCally, the exterrestrial imperative time, if we cannot tell them how theycan participate promises the integration of geo-compatible industrial in it how they can participate in a global develop- processes into the terrestrial cycles, as mentioned ment program that will not destroy.all of us because before.This is a benign indUstrial revolution, it overloads this planet then we will have again an minimizing pollutive and biocidal side effects and outbreak of hatred, envy, and misunderstanding. requiring global management, which is not possible without the extensive use of satellites and space Another very important factor of communication stations. Out of this arises the great new opportu- is telemanipulation; it is not the possibility of trans- nity for environmental specifications and environ- ferring yourself through a radiation beam or elec- mental compatibility for doing those things that trical current, like Captain Kirk in "Star Trek" need to be done to sustain human civilization in those (this would be beautiful but it has its problems). environments where they are least interfering, Rather it is the capability of transmitting your least interceding, and least pollutive. A pile of dexterity. Imagine that people down here have a job cow dung on the moon is typical of a pollutant, not in a factory in space, not because that space factory a nuclear detonation. A nuclear detonation on earth is run by robots (which it would not be) but it is typical of a pollutant. And a pile of cow dung is would be run by teleoperators, telemanipulated not typical of a pollutant on earth. You have teleoperators people whose dexterity here is being specialized environments and you have things that transmitted by light velocity into the factory in space you do with minimum environmental interference in or into the particular process in orbit or even on mind. The environmental compatibility principle, the moon. If you go farther out, the communication thus, is a very important factor in sustaining human distance begins to cause a problem. Telemanipula- civilization. tion will also play an important role here on earth. Ultimately, it will be possible for a surgeon who The geo-ecological component aims basically at sits somewhere in a hospital, with the aid of laser an integration to the extent in which man's activities holographs, through communication satellites, and continue to go on here on earth an integration with the aid of a teleoperator at the destination point between the biosphere and the more cyborgian (say, a ship or some isolated island) to conduct civilization of man, the teChno:scientific civilization. by remote control a surgical operation, by having In other words, you create a gigantic geo-cyborg the-body-in threecdimensions on his operating table whose brain ganglia, in part, would be our communi- and carrying out everything that needs to be done, as cation satellites, while the big eyes that are needed if the body were there. His dexterity is transmitted for this kind of geo-cyborg would be the surveillance through the teleoperator.So, through satellites, we satellite, the resources satellite, and all the remote have the possibility of man's dexterity to reach out. sensor satellites.- Here is the immediate tie-in in We have possibilities to apply this to many industrial near-term, practical connections. processes, thereby cutting down on pollution and thereby allowing the more isolated and autonomous Communication is also important from the stand- systems within the environment, where we have them point of education.I was very impressed by what was autonomous not because as in space the environ- said by many speakers here, to the effect that educa- ment is hostile, but because the environment is so tion is so vitally important because communication beautiful and must not be spoiled.These are some is a dangerous thing if it is the wrong communication fantastic possibilities of communication of which the or if it is wrongly understood communication, ever normal context of our communications satellite since Marconi somewhat simplistically tied the systems is merely the.beginning. capability of communicating together with betterment of the world.But it did nct happen. We had war Fundamentally; the space program is in the after war. We had envy, hatred, misunderstandings, same boat as the developing countries. There is a and discriminations as neger before in the history of demand for benefits just as in the developing coun- the world.If the tremendous communication explosion tries; there is a demand for better agricultural that will come to us in the next 10 or 15 years is not means, for industrialization.But there is no capital; accompanied by an equally vigorous educational there is either the unwillingness or the incapability explosion, we may have a repetition of these things of providing capital.You see, we have a vast amount all over again. This is especially true since in the of capital in a country like the U.S. on any European developing countries the knowledge of what represents country which is being reinvested all the time. The healthy, good, and safe life will become evermore bootstrap operation suffers from the fact that the apparent as communication goes on. At the same service needs that grow to the developing countries , 469 cannbe compensated to the extent required. That you heartily and totally disagree with further cutting is the re on for the massive global aid-,TP;e1 that the space program. In fact,. you demand an increase the space prog am must be a part of the glolvi of the space program." I wonder, for example, if it development proire4 pure and simple a part of could help us to get a little bit closer to one partic- the global developmenlwogram to which the nations ular Senator.I am sure we would have a very great of the world contribute. inare is no question that advantage. There are Senators who really, honestly the highly industrialized nationg-have to contribute believe that the space program and the whole tech- a greater share than the others, because that is nology that goes with it is totally irrelevant or where most of the knowledge and most of the capital partially irrelevant.It depends exactly on the lies.But in contributing to these things they per- support by the public by writing to Congress, since form a form of foreip aid, of an astronautical that is the only type of communication that counts. Marshall plan which, I believe, is far more efficient Every time there is a real wave of letters, you get than the old type of Marshall plan, because it en- a change in Congress. This, I think, and an in- courages the advanced elements in those countries. creasingly large and liberal education of the general It encourages the countries' capability of self- public and communication between the public and us improvement and of progressing and thereby in- are the two things that will accelerate it.How fast creases the share that these countries will be able it goes or how fast we will be back to a bigger budget to contribute. will depend on the success with which these two things are carried out.But the pressure of the We need a critical mass of the space program. illogic of the direction in which we are moving will With this I mean enough capital to make this program presently become quite apparent in the next few socially, economically, and ecologically critically years.I am sure by 1980 we will have a much bigger relevant. You cannot do that with $2 billion; we have space program, but by that time it may be too late. to have a bigger space program because space is SO I do not know when the earliest time is, it is un- relevant, no less than to the extent of the continua- predictable at this time. tion of the human civilization. Donald J. Frederick: One of the speakers brought up a very dramatic point,. namely, that space Open Discussion can provide information on earth resources that will enable the corn producers to take care of such things JJescovon Puttkamer: The floor is now open for as knowing where corn blight is going to be and questions from the audience. thereby anticipating and winding up producing a billion bushels of corn more than what is going to be Jack Hartsfield; 'Dr. Ehricke, you mentioned utilized in this country and in export.But at the the need for a bigger space program. Do you foresee same time, it is also known, that there are hundreds or would you care to make any predictions on how of thousands or even millions of people starving in long it might be before the space program could get various countries. So it seems that we have the back to a $5 billion level? problem of distribution of the benefits of space to certain segments of mankind that are not receiving Krafft Ehricke: Let me give you a practical or a them. Do you foresee any way in which these bene- pragmatic or empirical answer.I think it is going fits of space might be more adequately distributed to be directly proportional to the amount of pressure to the segments which really need them? that an enlighted public exerts on Congress. You have, very clearly, in Congress the feeling that you W. W. Diehl: I will give you a thought or two of can cut on the space program, and not only will you my own on this.Few people have any idea of the not get any political backlash from it, but also you tremendous productive capacity of the American will get the hearty endorsement of all those pes- farmer.Yet, we cannot feed the world and we simistic people and doomsday prophets who say, cannot distribute all this wealth. We have the "Well, we have already done too much in space." wealth, for example this billion bushel corn crop The Congressman reads the Harris Poll which asks that I mentioned, and we know that there are people the question in the following impossible way, "What that can use it. We are mighty big, but we cannot is more important, rebuilding our' cities or exploring do that. The thing that we have got to do and can do Mars?" The answer is obvious.I finish all my talks is to give them education, technology, and the know- by telling people, "The best thing that you can do for how. To me that is the only answer for the starving spaceflight is writeto your Congressman and say that people of the world.I was on the National Food and 470 Fiber Commission back in 1966, and we studied all the problem of raising an extra billion bushel ofcrop these things. There was a 'general thinking at that would not exist because it could have been found out time that it would be just a matter of time, a few rather quickly that the blight was not so severe as years, that it would be a problem to raise enough expected. Thus, it was just a matter of interpreta- food.I think that I am farther out on this than most tion and of timely communication to the farmers. everyone else, but there are enough resources here Therefore, I believe that these problen1s, high- in this world to feed all the people that are going to lighted by Mr. Pujes and Mr. Diehl, are justgrow- be here even if the population explosion continues, ing pains and that they probably can be solved in the which I do not think it will, if we just can pass the future.by more rational utilization of space technology on and teach them how.I have often techniques. thought that there are only two reasons for people to starve to death, as far as I can see, and that is John Hanessian:I want to respond to a point that ignorance and poverty.But that is like the chicken Krafft Ehricke made. You have always taken it as and the egg, I do not know which comes first.So it an article of faith that space programs are worth- is a matter of education and of passing this technology while, that they are good and shoulci be funded and on. supported.I would like td put this to you: I do not think that you people have convinced the American F. E. Fiorio; I have some pertinent observations public of this. What I want to suggest is this: You to the same question which stein from the fact that said very truthfully that until there is public support last week I was in Rome discussing exactly this and public pressure on Congress, you are not going matter with the director for Agriculture Activities to get back a $5 billion space budget. I would put it in the Food and Agriculture' Organization of the in a different way. You have to show the public that United Nations (FAO), which has its headquarters they should do that, and I do not think that you have in Rome. We from the Space Committee of the convinced them yet.Going to the moon and spending United Nations, 2 years ago, demanded of -the FAO to $25 billion is not the only thing that you should have get interested in and examine the program of utilizing been going this past 10 years in terms of convincing the remote sensing for general planning. The problem publie that space support is a good thing. When it of having a billion bushels in the United States and comes to this whole area of technology transfer and 10 billion bushels of deficit In Africa or somewhere technolou utilization, what do the people hear? They else is a global problem. It has to be approached hcar about Teflon, new brassieres that have been from a global, point of view, arid that is exactly what invented, and so forth.. I suggest that this is not the FAO has been created for. They are now working enough. The only thing that I see which is directly On conventional systems, that is, ground surveys. relevant and pressing home on the consumer that They recently graduated on airplane services in space is doing something for him, is when I see a order to know where the crops are, how the crops television broadcast and at the bottom of the screen are growing, and so on.But it is just in the embry- it says "Relayed by Satellite." That means some- onic stage nowHowever, they are beginning to thing to him, he knows that certain program is realize th4 space techniques like remote sensing coining to him because of a satellite; otherwise he in the agriculture field, which has been pioneered would not get it.What I am saying is, until you by Purdue University, incidentally could be a intrude on his everyday life and show him that space great help. The other thing is that they are still is meaningful to him, you are not going to get him to groping around to see how it can be done. Tomorrow write letters to his Congressman. there might be a possibility by which these tech- niques can be developed;, in general, the development Krafft Ehricke: Let me add another 30 sec to is much faster than anticipated. You are planning this.I could not agree more! You are discussing for 10 years hence, and then you are finding out all of this problem with one who has represented that line a sudden 5 years later that things are moving much of thought. The official line of NASA is, of course, faster than expected.It might be that there will be by necessity somewhat different because the pro- a global planning, and this type of problem of excess grams are set by the government. And for the production in one place and less production in another individual to bring out a somewhat broader aspect it will be corrected by rational planning.Incidentally, is very difficult, especially in view of the fact that coming back to the corn blight; NASA ran a project those people that are taking the emotionally more of looking at the corn blight, and recently Isaw pleasing solutions in the population and antitechnolou pictures of corn-blighted crops and unblighted crops. areas ands fArth are actually automatically getting If the techniques had been as it could be in the future, much greater coverage with television and the media 471 than anybody else.If you would see my publica- Earl Hubbard: The argument that I gave this tions all the way back into the fifties, I have morning was as abstract as survival. We are out- emphasized that it is necessary to answer the growing this earth. Every problem we have has one question, "What is in that for me?" I have long common characteristic: Growth population size, ago proposed that we actually make the statement, pollution, drug, war, all of these. Therefore, in "Space is a business of experts but the affair of all terms of survival, man has only one choice new people," a kind of slogan.It has not been done.I worlds. To reject this is to accept on this earth was appalled by some of the statements regarding dictatorship, devolution, and death.In a closed man's flight to Mars that were made on the occasion system without a future, the only way to monitor of Apollo XI, rather than certain other things to be the resources of this earth would be with total con- said.I agree with you 100 percent.I think that the trol.If you go to the people of this earth and ask total space community here has to turn around a them to comply voluntarily, you have to trade for little bit and-give more emphasis to things that are their self-restraint a future.If you have no future important to people. to trade, you have to impose your restraints.1he means of imposition would be a dictatorship, and Jai P. Singh: I am a part of the space program the method would be devolution.Because no police but, I think, there is no doubt that the space pro- force could hope to do it, you would put tran- gram has many segments in it.It all depends on quilizers and sterilization chemicals into the water which one you put emphasis. Maybe in the past we system; you would carry pacification programs over have emphasized only one great part of it and we your communication.If you do not choose to go to have not been showing to the public other things new worlds, you have only one choice, that is, to that are involved in it.These are certain things maintain a dying species on a dying planet. That is which -nave overshadowed some of the other how abstract my argument was this morning. important things that could be delivered to the society as such.I think this separation about the In terms of the value of man-, you are right. We space program is correct. Maybe what we have to are moving into an age which wall be basically do at this stage is to take a hard look at the past theological, because the issue Is whether yca can to see why this backlash has been produced. We think of man as a constant or v'hether you think he is have not talked about this backlash this anti- a part of an evolving purposes That issue, I think, technology that Dr. Ehricke called backlash.I do is going to be where the battle is fought.But I was not think it is an antitechnology backlash; I think attempting here to deal with what is called prag- it is a backlash for social direction in the matics. Certainly, one of the major problems that technology %Oat is relevant and what is irrelevant you face is in the very title "Space Program." and how you tie that relevancy to people.I do not Nobody wants to put money into space._ But if you think there is anything that you can call The space go to people and say, "Do you want to buy a new program.It has parts in it You just cannot ask world?" you can tell them that they will get the for- a blanket assignment of money for The ...pace greatest bargain ever, as Dr. Ehricke has said program. You have to justify each and every they can get two new worlds for the price of one, and segment to the people. that is the only way they will get either one.In learning to live on the moon and taking on that Unidentified Participant from Floor: I have a challenge, you are saying that you need everyone. question for Mr. Hubbard.I did not see any hope You need new political concepts, new economic in your argument that man is the problem in pollu- concepts, new methods of manufacturing, and the tion, and that man is the problem:in all these other kind of manufacturing that is evolutionary is the kind issues that we are talking about.Yet, is it not the that needs people, because on this earth, only people same,man that is the problem in conceptualizing can do what has never been done before. With this idea of what the future is? So we are back to cybernation and automation there is a declining need the same sort of basic element and problem,It for man to do the repetitive act.Therefore, there seems to me that you just moved the discussica out is a declining need for pan, period. of the specifics of pollution, drugs, war, and these sorts of things, into a -more abstract or more If we take on this challenge of new worlds, we- general discussion.I wonder if you would elaborate will have the motivation for self-restraint on this on that. earth- to clean it up; Why? Because we have to be 472 the healthiest possible race. As it is now, there is x.rticular context, have actually been out there no possible reason for this. You get up every working in this kind of thing. They go to school, morning, do pushups, eat fresh fruit and cereals, they go to graduate school, they teach, they really and at some point it is going to cross your mind, do not know what it takes to dump Johnson or Nixon. "Why be healthy?" That is precisely what is Because of the pressure from the students, more crossing the minds of the youth in this nation. The and more of us are getting out into the real world. only answer that we have for them in our educational I think that if more professors had one foot out there system is, "Because we are attempting to produce and one foot in here, so to speak, we would be better a consumer." In a world with too many people, that teachers, and we would better perform the tasks the answer is not good enough;' it has never been good students want us to do. enoug'i. And one thing that is running through this conference is the estimation of man as a consumer. A couple of days ago, I had lunch with a friend He is not: He is more than that', of mine in the State Department. He is in the Bureau of International Organization Affairs, and it George von Pragenau: I would like to ask Dr. was just one of those crazy coincidences his Hanessian, is there not a certain development going various fields of activity happen to parallel mine. on in the human race? We have farmers, engineers, He is an international lawyer, works on outer-space and scientists who are heavily engaged in feeling affairs, on sea-bed affairs, and so on. We were nature, in talking to nature, not in words, but in talking, "Would it not be nice if we could switch jobs feeling it.Then there is another group which are for a couple of years?" We started to think about the talkers: the lawyers and the philosophers.I this.It turned out that he could teach all the classes wonder, -is there not a communicati 'n -gap between that I teach, and it just so happened that I had been the ones who feel the nature, the ones who have the working in areas that ;ere very relevant to his job urge to go to other worlds, and the ones who seem there. So we thought, "What would be involved? to be slower on the uptake or do not completely What would be the problem?" I said, "Well, all that understand this urgent human need, this basic I have to do is take a 2-year leave of absence. What human need, and interpret it wrongly as consumer do you have to do?" He thought about it and answered, needs, for example, that we have to sell space? "Well, the first thing that we have to do is get you a Do you sense something like this on the campuses? security clearance:" You can see the kinds of prob- lems.It is not that easy to transfer and link and go John Hanessian: We do have a growing move- across.Fortunately, I am in Washington; our offices ment on the part of the students to make education are four blocks apart and we can get together and "relevant." You know, there was a time when have lunch. To the extent that that linkage is worth- universities were called Ivory Towers. You had while in your context, fines But I do not know how professors and a few administrators; now we have this is going to help my colleagues in St. Louis, too many. The whole idea was to think, to write, Iowa, or elsewhere. to teach, and the point was that you could best do this outside the context of the environment around Unidentified Participant from Floor:I am you.. In other words, you had to withdraw a little wondering if maybe the wrong people are selling the bit, so that you could think and cogitate about it and program? I wonder of anyone on the panel would like teach. The students are rejecting this today. They to make a comment about this. You know, that since are saying, "We do not want you to teach us only the we are in the program we are Gelling from the inside science of politics. We want you to show us how out. We are trying to sell the public on it, but we you can dump Nixon, Johnson, or whoever." That are the poorest people in the world to sell something is a very direct, relevant purpose. Now we tell like that.Is it necessary to create a religion out of them, "We cannot tell you how to dump Nixon or it, hire an advertising agency, or do something like dump Johnson, but we try to show you not only the that to sell it? abstract, the philosophical, the theoretical approach in politics, but we are now going to start talking to William Hamilton: I agree with you, there is a you about the real world, a little bit about what real problem. I have attended many technical really makes politics tick.After we skOw you a meetings where a lot of people got together and they little bit of that, then if you want to go out and dump told each other the same story, the same facts, and Johnson or elect Johnson, that is your business." they cannot understand why the rest of the world does But the biggest problem that we have is that so very not understand.- The real problem is communication few of our political science professors, in this with the public, the voting public, -the large element of the public, I believe.I think it does take a be planted. Well, could they tell, say by data from dedication of effort and the realization that an satellites? Could you get this information? Also, important part of any program is to communicate the late planters, they would know that too much the value of the program to those people who control corn had been planted and would switch to beans, the money, the budget, the Congress, what have would they not? you but basically, it is the public.It has to be sold, and I think a major part of the effort or a W. W. Diehl: Now you are getting into remarks -significant tart has to be devoted to that, with smart that I should have made in my 10-min talk. Well, I people trained in that area. ant perhaps_ the only farmer here.I ant over 30 mi away from home, so you know what I aman expert Ruth von Saurma: Are we not maybe ignoring I was hoping that someone would ask me to explain how much the consumer is willing to buy of whatwe the farm problem in layman's language. Nowyou are trying to sell? The need of the consumer, I are getting into that area, you see, but we would mean. Do we overe timate the need of the consumer, have to continue this Congress for another 5 days to maybe, in trying to sell too much? go into this and to lay out the farm problem to some- one who does not quite understand. The basic thing John ilanessian:Well, you know, it is sort of a is that agriculture is unique in this way; namely, "Chicken and Egg." Do you create a new need and the more efficient we get the poorer we get.I am then inform the consumer that he has a new need? trying to say that in industry they produce exactly That is what people did when they invented electric what they think they can-iellr--They can guess it toothbrushes.I did not know that I needed an -elec- very close, and then they put a price on it.But tric toothbrush until they invented it.I still do not you cannot turn 2 million farmers loose, without have one. Or, this is the point that I really want any overall supervision, and do that._ So there is to make, do you do something with the space program only ot.z answer to the farmer's problem and that that the consumers already realize that they need, is, controlled production. Now the big question and and bring that to their attention? I would say the the big problem is, how do you control production? latter. Do not create an artificial need, I mean. That has been the argument through the years. You know, Teflon frying pans are very nice, but we did lots of good cooking before without them.I Al Reisi:If you planted too much corn and not ant sure that the new brassieres are very fine, but enough beans, could you not get this information and the ladies were perfectly fine before. Hit some- plant more beans than corn in the late season? thing that tho%really need, such as this business with corn blight and so on: If you can show a farmer W. W. Diehl: As an individual farmer? in Iowa that the space satellite up there is going to help him plant his crops better next year I mean, Reisz: Yes. really show him and demonstratehe will write to his Congressman. You do not have to worry about W. W. Diehl: No. him. But do not, for heavens sake; go to that farmer in Iowa and suddenly tell him he needs a- F. I. Ordway: Can you predict the crop early new kind of Teflon frying pan that is only going to be in the season, after you planted it? This may be given to hint by aerospace technology.I just do not part of the question. think that is going to work. W. W. Diehl: No. Al Reisz:I have a question for Mr. Diehl con- cerning the overproduction of corn and the use of --F:r.-0-srdway: You cannot predict how much satellites.I was wondering, since the planting of a crop you are going to get that early? season for corn, soybeans, and so forth is mostly sometime in April to late June, if it would be pos- W. W. Diehl: No. sible, by using the satellite, for farmers to know what corn or how much earn has been planted? As F. I. Ordway: So there is no predictive value, you mentioned, this year, for example, we had an whereas General Electric predicts how many Iight bu overproduction of corn and its price is down to about they are going to put out. $1 a bushel, whereas beans are up to $3, over $3a bushel. We had too much corn planted but a lot of W. W. Diehl: Let me elaborate ou that. farmers were waiting to see how much was going to General Electric, when theY build the light bulb, 474 probably know right down to a hundredth of a cent our children-to-study and learn? They are deceiving. what that Het bulb costs, too, do they not? They I have heard in this country, for example, both on know how many they are going to build, by a survey radio and television, this slogan, "To Get A Good and their records of how many they sold before. Job Get A Good Education." This, of course, is not When I plant my corn, I do not have any idea of true.A have met with people who were element:1'y whether it is going to cost me $.50 or $1.50 a and high-school dropouts and who are making bushel to raise that corn, until it is raised and in $40 000 to $45 000 more a year than some of the the bin. best professors in the country. Paul Harvey said that plumber in California "makes more salary ct- Jesco von Puttkamer: I think what we are per year than 27 governors of the U.S." Now if this pursuing here is that we have 2.5 million farmers, is true, I said to myself, the average governor is 2.5 million individuals, each one planting their corn expected to at least have some sort of college at their own good time. And now the satellite pro- schooling. Maybe he has a Bachelor, or Master. vides a possibility for those 2.5 million farmers, We are now moving from an education fer nationalism assuming that you can get them all under one hat, to an education I\internationality. This will be to take a look at those pictures and find out what eventually the emphasis of the 21st century, where their neighbors are doing and at what times. we emphasize education for internationality. But if we are the pioneers of the twenty-first century, W. W. Diehl: We do it all at the same time.It then we have to find ways to meet these educational is estimated that somewhere around 1.5 million needs and change that slogan, "To Get A Good Job, farmers raise corn. Well, I look at the picture; we Get A Good Education," which is based purely en the all have the same information.I see in the picture egotistical assumption that if I want to make more that we are going to have too much corn, .so I plant money I must get a good education. That is whit beans.If you were looking at the same picture and education means for me, just making money for you were a farmer, you would do the same thing, myself. Therefore, we have to formulate some would you not? What would we wind up with? other slogan, where emphasis is placed on riot just to get a good education, but to do, say, a :,00d job Unidentified Participant from Floor: I have and life. One needs to get out himself and do some- lived a couple of years on the farm, and 1 think what thing beneficial for the community, the state, the we have here is a discussion related to dollars. country but we have to formulate this slogan Your whole Congress relates to the good of mankind. properly. Now I would like someone here to tell us But the availability of food and dollars are not what we could do to try to take seriously this kind necessarily related, because yoti have starving of approach of rebuilding a'new educational system, people by the millions and you have an excess of what can we do as the first step? The second ques- food in one country. That really means that you do tion is, what kind of slogans could we put forth In not have too much food from a mankind viewpoint, order to make this public affair a matter of fact? but you would not make any money for that farmer if he sold it or gave it away. So what we are really John tianessian: I do not know; you pose a very talking about, in one case, is sheer economics from difficult problem. It is somehow related to the dis- the farmer's standpoint and, In the other case, a cussion going on in this country about foreign aid. philosophical viewpoint.I want to emphasize this: / will go back tomy lawyer training now. We have it is sheer philosophy. They do not relate at all: a very unfortunate thing in this world and that is*that the "raison d' etre" of most of the countries today Charles Mercieca: Dr. Ehricke said that space -seems to b3 state nationalism. In this country we is the business of experts but also the affairs of all are constantly thinking about what is best for people.I personally agree with that 100 percent. America; the Frenchmen are certainly always If it is the affair of all people, how can we reach all th:mking about what is best for France. But the same people? it seems to me that we can reach them thing is true elsewhere. You go to Zambia, you go most effectively through some type of educational to Brazil Brazil if really turning inward, because approach.If this is true, then we have to think they have their own problems, very big problems. seriously of how we can reevaluate our educational Wherever you go, it is a nation state, it is state systems in terms of priorities, of emphasis and sovereignty. "We have got to take care of our- school curriculums. One of the things that we also selves." Yet, as I have said before, simultaneously have to keep in mind is,_what are the slogans that the fact of our interdependency is growing constantly, we have formulated so far in education, to stimulate If we do not have a Supersonic Transport (SST) today, 475 we are going to have a Hypersonic Transport in a it is the most fortunate thing that could havepos- few years. You are going to get from here to New sibly happened, because exploration ofspace or Zealand and back for lunch, so why are we in- reaching other bodies would have been vastlymore creasing interdependence? The state is continuing difficult if there had been air. Now thatwe get to on stronger and stronger than ever. I do not law our celestial bodies, we hear the same talk all over the answer to this.Until we somehow find the again, "Well, it is too bad that these other worlds way to knock down the barriers between states and are deserts, forbidding things= dead worlds:" thereby nationalism among people and replace it Everything bad is being said; the fact is being with a bit of universalism, we are not going to get lamented that they are not other earths.In reality, anywhere. I am not optimistic about this, not at if they were other earths, then presumably there all. As I have said before, we nowhaves13Icoun- were other mankinds and we would really be fenced tries as members of the United Nations. Weare in. You see, the point is, there are not other earths; going to have 150 and 160 before long; there is going these worlds complement earth! They are not "dead" to be a further fracturing of nation states.It is worlds; they just do not have the types of cycles that going to.be one long cold day before we turn that into characterize our biosphere. Therefore,we can do universalism. Perhaps, if we. send Mr. Hubbard things on them and provide materials and supplies around, Mr. Diehl and a few people, maybe it would through them for which the earth is too good to be help. But I am not very optimistic. used. There are certain things that you do not do in your good living room because it is a place of Nicholas C. Costes: I have a question addressed comfort and recreation and, at the same time, to both Mr. Hubbard and Dr. Ehricke. When Mr. imposes certain constraints on you. That is why Hubbard was finishing up his commentary, he said your wife is probably going to make you walk the Bog- as I understood it -= that unless man tries to go out- or make you get the wood for the fireplace somewhere side the realm of the terrestrial environment we are else, rather than from the furniture of the good living accelerating our doom. On the other hand, Dr. room. So what these worlds, these "deed" worlds, Ehricke has suggested that, if given sufficient time are providing us are those things for which earth is and sufficient funding, there is a possibility that we not uniquemetals, metallic minerals that are very may be able to inhabit other planets, find other important because we live in an era- of high-quality ways of life, and try to find a solution to what Mr. steel, got just an iron age, and we are runnineout of Hubbard alluded to. Now suppose the two are not some of the materials that are needed to sustain our synchronized? In other words, it takes muchmore civilization. There are possibilities of applying time to try to acclimate ourselves to another planet nuclear energy to generate power and beam it onto or to try to find some other form of way of living in et rth. There are ultimately even possibilities of the space environment, and So forth. First of all, generating new, small bioepheres on those other should there be a control in trying to improve our- celestial bodies, starting off with a nuclear detona- selves- on the planet earth? In other words, should tion, which is a very interesting parallel or analogy we control our productivity or our improvement? of the way our whole universe started with one big In the second situation, suppose that, indeed, outer bang. If you have one underground detonation an the space is a dead space. The first remark that we moon of i kt, TNT, you get tens of thousands pounds had on Apollo VIII going around the moon was that this of oxygen right out of the r Then, if you fill was a dead planet. What then? How do you convince that cavity up with hydrogen t, 4etonate another the public that there is a certainty that, if they 1 or 2 kt bombridiculously, U quantities of dumped money into outer space, we have a solution? energy as compared to the quantities we hold at bay Do you do that in this kind of a prospect, or because to throw at ourselves and each other then you get we have no other alternative but to turn to space, thousands and thousands of pounds of water right then no matter what may happen? and there, because you get more oxygen out of the rock which reacts with the hydrogen in the cavity, Krafft Ehricke: The remarks of the lunar and it comes out in the form of water. Ho you can circumnavigating Apollo crew were very unfortunate, create many things on these other celestial bodies. because they met a public that was not prepared to understand what actually the significance of the moon The point that I was trying to make wass: is. When! was a boy, I read very often that "If The earth is a central planet for-Mtinlffild foes( long space were only filled with air, then we could fly time to come, and there is no question about that. with our aircraft somewhere else but the terrible The central characteristic of the *stet earth Is the thing is that space Is a vacuum." We know today that biosphere. The biosphere is too good to be exploited 476 and ruined for - sustaining man with things that we computers; there is no credibility gap about your can get somewhere else, and can get economically. capacity to come up with the facts. Hun through Economically, in the sense that it is more econom- those computers models of what will happen if man ical to pay a slightly higher initial price for trans- continues to live on this earth, and run through them portation, even though it is not nearly as high as what will happen if you take on new worlds. Then people in the average think it will be, rather than run ads, all of you, as one campaign, on the needs incur the long-range debt of ruining our biosphere. of new worlds, and use split-page pictures above: The latter is the much more costly situation; it is a the virgin territories of the moon, below: the unique thing. We would have to go to another stellar turbulence of an overpopulated world that is be- system before we might find anything like this again. coming increasingly irrelevant and meaningless,' So we are interested in those so- called "dead" and across the center have the phrase "The need worlds, precisely because we want to assure the for new worlds." It was mentioned earlier that survival of the living world. there was a difference between the philosophy and what is called prapnatics. This is true. We are F. I. Ordway: With what probability, at this moving into a new economy, we backed into the stage of the game, will we find resources there? industrial revolution thinking it was a craft age. Do we know? We are moving now into an evolutionary industrial age, and we do not know that either, therefore, Krafft Ehricke: Oh, yes, we do know! We haVe we have to take on new worlds first, since philoa- lunar samples in hand. We know they are bursting ophy only mans a sense of direction.If we say with oxygen. There are metals and rare earths; we are going to new worlds, we have a set of values. for example, they have a higher concentration of It is the same thing as if you go out into the desert titanium, at Tranquility Base, than anything found where you set a very high value on'water but you on earth. There are other ways in which we can place a low value on a rowboat. Now, if we take determine some of these things. on new worlds, then we can establish a set of priorities, a set of values.If you present the facts Earl Hubbard: I think that the problem that the to the public that there is a declining need for man aerospace industry is facing is that they think they on this earth, they will accept this and, I-believe, - are selling a product, but they are producing a react in a very positive fashion. future. This, I suppose, could be called a philo- sophical point.I think the problem or the respon- Jose° von Puttkamer: I would like to thank our sibility that aerospace industries have is to forget distinguished panel and also the audience for raising the idea of selling and to start thinking in tern. s of such interesting questions. This brings our Forum telling the American public the truth. You have and Congress to a close. Thank you all very much. Transcribed from tape ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Editor and Publication Director wish to express their sincere appreciation of the valuable support and contributions of the following ind.viduals without whose assistance the HATS Space Congress Proceedings volume as well as its previous preliminaiy issue could not have been prepared: Col. E. D. 5Ioh lere, Victor C. Sorensen, J. W. Herring, Ira Renter, William Ziak, Dr. Daniel P. Hale, James Ledbetter, Claude K. lirown, Laurence Campbell, Rex L. Davis, Billy Ziegler, James E. O'Neal, W. A. Chandler, E. D. Cagle, R. Mancini, Mrs. L. Smith,'as. M. A. Howard, Bob Carlin, Lake Riddle, Don Eggler, Jody Blake, Bob Jones, Bob Ray, Verlon Crawford, Sam Sims, Travis Tidmore, Wayne Usery, Ken Barnett, Dwight Couch, Harry Melson, Daniel Wise, Clint Core, Bonnie Coleman, Dan Akens, Randy Propst, D. Thomas, Jerry Thrasher, Vivian Owensby, Mart Hargrove, A. R. Eidson, Oscar Hobson, Billy Stisher, Illy Lemieux, Verbon Rives, Roy Smith and his staff, Larry S. Macrae, James Neal, Sam F. Kennedy. B.A. Reymann, and C. Graham. 479 etofArPrivenkttibes MON1410.441,ALASAMA ....C. 90 0. 1.1100 Eitsolittion N.J.!. 62 SysMr. Melo _ mown*COMMENDING 711E NUNTSVILLA ASSOCIATION Or T1CNNICAL SOCIETIES PONsrousnetmo'A MACE CONGRESS FOR Tat NON-ASNOSPACt FOPLIC.* MAGMAS. The Neatemillo Asseciatien of Technical Societies. ),lady with the wojer-Technicel *minis* of Nuntevillo. Alebena. the City of Huntsville and the State of Alabama. propose to ironer within the City of Mentsville. A'abons. Merest. 15-11. 1971. °A-3PACE_CONOMAII FOR TNE NON-ASNOSFACtramws and IINERIAS. The those of sell evogrom, will be 'Stag FOR NANRIND'S *RESIT% and will be on sites,' at developing se interpretation of the practical &erects of the, ipso. program to ' Muter lopgwegm end senvoying it to the /Alin and NMENRAS. The Neneroble, Spiro Agnew Vie, Frooldeot of the Melted State. of Asorica. Ms been InviEed to attend and address the colorises and war" The cooferenoe rill INTOStigie4 the brood range of- 'mere'', benefit* to nanbind which Ms revolted frets the space (alert givingtheWale an opportunity to-shore the evidence of the'praettcol benefit, from 11111tel sad The prograw_vIli provide May sulotaadsi eatlem- ally Menu *maker, is the Mien* Wise of'discusolone and will %clues Immures. luadmons. basosolo. sod the, ollumr, .r pews M the suject in out-epociallet pepular longueSi and *ARIAS. It is the jodgmem and opieleet of the Alabama togiolature that the program planned by ths Nantovills Meech- tion of Technical Societies viii provide benefit, to the, situates .f Nantovillo and to the Stet. *CA , TNIREFORE. IC ITU:MIMEDITma EONS* OF-RRFSE- SSITATIVES. INC MATE CONCURRING. That we de hereby connend the Nuntovillo Association of Technical Sosiotios for their ingenuity end wisdom of forethought is powering such moves& end that we do hereby endorse the proprd apses seogrosst sad IT MITI* MOLTED. That- eery of Otis reaslution be sent to the Nuatevillo Ammeelation of Technical Sovietise end to each participating technical society of Nuatovillo. Thereby certify that tho above nmelstlen who adopted by the Legislature folabama A June )0. 1971. Clerk NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON. D.C. 20546 POSTAGE AND FEES PAW. ------NATIONA4 AERONAUTICS AND OFFICIAL BUSINESS SPACE ADMINISTRATION PENAI.TY FOR PRIVATE USE $300 FIRST CLASS MAIL 451 1/11NS.SALSANAK...M.111 roirrusliiTEK : Ponta)"""de"ver3bIP Manual) (Sec"unDo Not Rehm.: 158 The aeronomical and space activitks of the United States shall be cord:wed to as to contribute. .. to the expansion of brows knowl- edge of phenomena ix the atmosphere and space. 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