Space Resources : Social Concerns / Editors, Mary Fae Mckay, David S

Home , Animals in space, Champollion (crater), Colonization of the Moon, Colony in Space, Elmer (crater), Gene Cernan

Frontispiece

Advanced Lunar Base In this panorama of an advanced lunar base, the main habitation modules in the background to the right are shown being covered by lunar soil for radiation protection. The modules on the far right are reactors in which lunar soil is being processed to provide oxygen. Each reactor is heated by a solar mirror. The vehicle near them is collecting liquid oxygen from the reactor complex and will transport it to the launch pad in the background, where a tanker is just lifting off. The mining pits are shown just behind the foreground figure on the left. The geologists in the foreground are looking for richer ores to mine. Artist: Dennis Davidson

NASA SP-509, vol. 4

Space Resources

Social Concerns

Editors

Mary Fae McKay, David S. McKay, and Michael B. Duke Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas

1992

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Scientific and Technical Information Program Washington, DC 1992

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328 ISBN 0-16-038062-6

Technical papers derived from a NASA-ASEE summer study held at the California Space Institute in 1984.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Space resources : social concerns / editors, Mary Fae McKay, David S. McKay, and Michael B. Duke.

xii, 302 p. : ill. ; 28 cm.—(NASA SP ; 509 : vol. 4) 1. Outer space—Exploration—United States. 2. Natural resources. 3. Space industrialization—United States. I. McKay, Mary Fae. II. McKay, David S. III. Duke, Michael B. IV. United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Scientific and Technical Information Program. V. Series. TL789.8.U5S595 1992 92-4468 333.7’0999—dc20

Preface

Space resources must be used to by the California Space Institute support life on the Moon and and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space exploration of Mars. Just as the Center, under the direction of pioneers applied the tools they the Office of Aeronautics and brought with them to resources they Space Technology (OAST) at found along the way rather than NASA Headquarters. The study trying to haul all their needs over participants (listed in the a long supply line, so too must addendum) included a group of space travelers apply their high 18 university teachers and technology tools to local resources. researchers (faculty fellows) who were present for the entire The pioneers refilled their water 10-week period and a larger barrels at each river they forded; group of attendees from moonbase inhabitants may use universities, Government, and chemical reactors to combine industry who came for a series of hydrogen brought from Earth with four 1-week workshops. oxygen found in lunar soil to make their water. The pioneers sought The organization of this report temporary shelter under trees or in follows that of the summer study. the lee of a cliff and built sod Space Resources consists of a houses as their first homes on the brief overview and four detailed new land; settlers of the Moon may technical volumes: (1) Scenarios; seek out lava tubes for their shelter (2) Energy, Power, and Transport; or cover space station modules (3) Materials; (4) Social Concerns. with lunar regolith for radiation Although many of the included protection. The pioneers moved papers got their impetus from further west from their first workshop discussions, most have settlements, using wagons they been written since then, thus had built from local wood allowing the authors to base new and pack animals they had raised; applications on established space explorers may use propellant information and tested technology. made at a lunar base to take them All these papers have been on to Mars. updated to include the authors’ current work. The concept for this report was developed at a NASA-sponsored This volume—Social Concerns— summer study in 1984. The covers some of the most important program was held on the Scripps issues which must be addressed in campus of the University of any major program for the human California at San Diego (UCSD), exploration of space. The volume under the auspices of the American begins with a consideration of the Society for Engineering Education economics and management of (ASEE). It was jointly managed large-scale space activities. Then

the legal aspects of these activities and America’s Future in Space, are discussed, particularly the also emphasize expansion of the interpretation of treaty law with space infrastructure; more detailed respect to mining the Moon and exploration of the Moon, Mars, asteroids. The social and cultural and asteroids; an early start issues of moving people into space on the development of the are considered in some detail, and technology necessary for using the eventual emergence of a space space resources; and systematic culture different from our existing development of the skills necessary culture is envisioned. The for long-term human presence environmental issues raised by the in space. development of space settlements are faced. Finally, the authors of Our report does not represent any this volume, which concludes the Government-authorized view or report Space Resources, propose official NASA policy. NASA’s some innovative approaches to official response to these space communities and habitats and challenging opportunities must be consider self-sufficiency and human found in the reports of its Office of safety at a lunar base or outpost. Exploration, which was established in 1987. That office’s report, This is certainly not the first report released in November 1989, of a to urge the utilization of space 90-day study of possible plans for resources in the development of human exploration of the Moon space activities. In fact, Space and Mars is NASA’s response to Resources may be seen as the the new initiative proposed by third of a trilogy of NASA Special President Bush on July 20, 1989, Publications reporting such ideas the 20th anniversary of the arising from similar studies. It has Apollo 11 landing on the Moon: been preceded by Space “First, for the coming decade, for Settlements: A Design Study the 1990s, Space Station Freedom, (NASA SP-413) and Space our critical next step in all our Resources and Space Settlements space endeavors. And next, for the (NASA SP-428). new century, back to the Moon, back to the future, and this time, And other, contemporaneous back to stay. And then a journey reports have responded to the same into tomorrow, a journey to another themes. The National Commission planet, a manned mission to Mars.” on Space, led by Thomas Paine, in This report, Space Resources, Pioneering the Space Frontier, offers substantiation for NASA’s bid and the NASA task force led by to carry out that new initiative. astronaut Sally Ride, in Leadership

Contents

I. SYNTHESIS OF SPACE ACTIVITIES 1985-2010 ...... 1 by Philip R. Harris et al. Economics and System Tradeoffs ...... 6 Management and Structure ...... 9 Legal, Political, Social, and Environmental Issues ...... 9 Overall Desirabilities and Probabilities ...... 11 Conclusions ...... 15

II. NEW SPACE MANAGEMENT AND STRUCTURE

NASA in the 21st Century: A Vision of Greatness ...... 16 by Kathleen J. Murphy Section 1: Defining a Worthy Vision ...... 18 Notions of Greatness ...... 18 The Kennedy Vision: Establish U.S. technological supremacy in the world...... 19 The Nixon Vision: Provide economical access to space for military and commercial purposes. ... 22 The Reagan Vision: Foster a private-sector space industry...... 23 The Bush Vision: Establish the United States as the preeminent spacefaring nation...... 24 Alternate: The Havel Vision: Uncover the secrets of the universe...... 25 Expected Values ...... 26 Develop products and services with clear economic advantages...... 27 Uncover facts through the scientific method...... 27 Uplift mankind...... 28 Establish and sustain U.S. technological leadership...... 28 Provide a religious or peak experience...... 28

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Elements of Excellent Execution ...... 30 The Skilled Professional ...... 30 The Pivotal Job ...... 32 The Focused Team ...... 32 The Coordination of Complexity ...... 34 The Brilliant Achievement ...... 34 Section 2: Scoping a Strategically Significant Mission Agenda ...... 36 Consumer-Driven Innovation: The Business of Protecting Planet Earth ...... 38 Market Research: Point the way to save the planet...... 40 Technical Design: Define environmentally safe products and processes...... 42 Sourcing/Manufacturing/Distribution: Spearhead global industrial restructuring...... 46 Capability-Driven Innovation: The Process of Engineering Critical Technological Advances ...... 47 Getting Into Space: Propulsion ...... 55 Living Healthily in Space: Full functioning ...... 63 Producing in Space: Commercialization ...... 68 Destination-Driven Innovation: The Evolution of Major Resource Development Projects ...... 78 Exploring Uncharted Courses ...... 81 Developing the Project Concept ...... 88 Negotiating Risk Allocation ...... 93 Managing Project Construction and Startup ...... 98 Section 3: Sourcing—and Sustaining— Optimum Financing ...... 103 Potential Sources of Funds ...... 106 The National Space Agencies ...... 106 Major Corporations and Minor Entrepreneurial Companies ...... 106 Private Investors ...... 106 The Users of Catastrophic Pollution-Causing Products or Processes ...... 106 National/State/City Infrastructure Agencies and International Development Agencies ...... 106

viii

Opportunities for Sustainable Collaboration ...... 107 Planet Earth Protection Consortium ...... 108 Technology Development Consortium ...... 109 Space Exploration Consortium ...... 109 Infrastructure Development Consortium ...... 109 Resource Development Consortium ...... 109 Life Cycle of NASA’s Funding Responsibility ...... 110 Phase I (1990-2000): Seed multi-pronged mission initiatives...... 110 Phase II (2000-2010): Develop an infrastructure support system and do intensive planning...... 110 Phase III (2010-2020): Establish colonies on other planets...... 111 References ...... 113

The Future of Management: The NASA Paradigm ...... 120 by Philip R. Harris Management Challenges From a New Space Era ...... 120 The Apollo Heritage in Innovative Management ...... 121 The Impact of Organizational Culture ...... 127 New Roles for Earth- and Space-Based Managers ...... 131 Macromanagement in Space ...... 135 Conclusions ...... 140 References ...... 141

III. LEGAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES

Space Law and Space Resources ...... 143 by Nathan C. Goldman The Treaties ...... 144 Treaty Issues ...... 147 International Cooperation ...... 147 Mining ...... 150 Liability and Responsibility ...... 152 Environmental Impact ...... 152 Conclusions ...... 153 References ...... 153

Strategies for Broadening Public Involvement in Space Developments ...... 154 by Philip R. Harris et al. Rationale ...... 154 Economic ...... 154 Political ...... 154 Institutional ...... 158 International ...... 162 Managerial ...... 162

IV. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES

Space Migrations: Anthropology and the Humanization of Space ...... 164 by Ben R. Finney An Anthropological Vision ...... 165 Cultural Analysis ...... 166 Cross-Cultural Relations ...... 170 Cultural Resources ...... 172 New Cultures, New Societies ...... 173 Role of Anthropology ...... 179 If We Are Not Alone ...... 182 References ...... 186

The Influence of Culture on Space Developments ..... 189 by Philip R. Harris Culture—A Coping Strategy ...... 189 Organizational Culture in NASA and the Aerospace Industry ...... 193 Emergence of a New Space Culture ...... 198 Space Personnel Deployment System ...... 208 Assessment ...... 210 Orientation ...... 212 Onsite Support and Monitoring ...... 213 Reintegration ...... 215 Conclusion ...... 216 References ...... 217

V. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Future Space Development Scenarios: Environmental Considerations ...... 220 by Richard Tangum Introduction ...... 220 Potential Research ...... 224 An Illustration of the Problem ...... 225 Conclusion ...... 229 References ...... 229

VI. INCREASING SUCCESS PROBABILITIES: ISSUES OF SPACE COMMUNITIES AND HABITATS

Applications of Living Systems Theory to Life in Space ...... 231 by James Grief Miller Introduction ...... 231 Synopsis of Living Systems Theory ...... 235 Compartmentalization of Science ...... 236 Inductive General Theory ...... 236 Common Dimensions ...... 237 Coexistence of Structure and Process ...... 238 Biosocial Evolution ...... 239 Emergents ...... 241 The Subsystems of Living Systems ...... 241 Adjustment Processes ...... 246 Cross-Level Research ...... 246 LST Research Strategy ...... 247 Validation of LST ...... 248 Applications of Living Systems Theory ...... 249 A Proposed LST Space Research Project ...... 251 Data Collection ...... 251 Conclusion ...... 256 References ...... 256

Life Support and Self-Sufficiency in Space Communities ...... 260 by Karl R. Johansson Lunar Characteristics ...... 260 Chemistry and Nutrition ...... 261 Radiation ...... 263 Temperature ...... 263 Energy for Life ...... 264 Gravity ...... 266 Selection of Species for an Ecosystem ...... 267 Some Special Aspects of Life in the CELSS ...... 268 Bibliography ...... 269

Human Safety in the Lunar Environment ...... 272 by Robert H. Lewis The Lunar Environment ...... 272 The Human Factor ...... 276 Strategies for Surface Operations ...... 286 References ...... 293

VII. SUMMER STUDY POSTSCRIPT: A 1986 PERSPECTIVE ...... 295 by Philip R. Harris et al. A National Lottery for Space Enterprises ...... 295 A White House Conference on Space Enterprise ...... 297 Reorganization of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ...... 298

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Synthesis of Space Activities 1985-2010*

The next 25 years will bring a The extension of human new era in space development. capabilities on the space frontier Presidential policy confirms that the can be accomplished through a United States of America through combination of human and its National Aeronautics and Space automated activities. That is, by Administration is committed to the the extended presence of humans establishment of a permanent on a space station, by the use of human presence in space. robots at a manned lunar outpost, by automated and manned Space-based resources offer new exploration of Mars, and by opportunities to make that goal unmanned probes into the solar achievable. Research into and system. Such activities by 2010 development of space-based provide a necessary springboard resources will give the nation for further exploration and additional scientific and economic exploitation of space resources, leverage, while the involvement such as on the asteroids and on of more people in such space Mars. operations will improve human performance aloft and the quality of life on Earth.

*This statement was prepared by faculty fellows Philip R. Harris, Carolyn Dry, Nathan C. Goldman, Karl R. Johansson, Jesa Kreiner, Robert H. Lewis, and James Grier Miller, assisted by workshop participants Ben R. Finney, Ronald Maehl, Kathleen J. Murphy, Namika Raby, Michael C. Simon, Richard Tangum, and J. Peter Vajk and consultants David G. Brin and Elie Shneour. These observations were made in 1984. Subsequent events, especially the reports in 1986 of the National Commission on Space (Pioneering the Space Frontier) and the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, seem to confirm their relevance.

A Combination of Human and Automated Activities Secured to a strut of Space Station Freedom, a robotic construction vehicle maneuvers a sheet of thermal insulating foil at the command of an astronaut inside. The pressurized vehicle (which on dangerous missions need not be piloted) will be able to build large structures as well as perform delicate microelectronic repairs. Computers, communications equipment, lights, and cameras will be housed in its upper section; the lower portion will hold life support and electrical systems. Such a robot, piloted or teleoperated, represents the combination of human and automated activities that our group thinks will best accomplish the goals of assembling a space station, building a base on the Moon, and mounting an expedition to Mars. Courtesy of the artist, Paul Hudson, and of the spacecraft designer, Brand Griffin © All rights reserved.

To stay on the “high ground,” pursue the opportunities for space beginning with utilization of near- industrialization provided by a Earth resources, requires a long- permanent space station and term view of the benefits to platform, as well as to develop the humankind. Furthermore, an necessary technology and plans for expanded infrastructure needs to a lunar outpost and possibly for an be developed both on Earth and in asteroid expedition. In this space, first in low Earth orbit (LEO) process, it is vital that support be and then in geosynchronous orbit given to research into ecological life (GEO). To achieve such objectives support systems and ergonomics in will require the development of space. bases at multiple locations in space, with more complexity and Over the long term—25–100 years— greater numbers and varieties of strategic planning should include people on them. taking advantage of the resources on the asteroids and on Mars, as Therefore, NASA should be well as unmanned exploration of encouraged in the short term to other suitable locations in the cosmos.

Phobos This is the first Viking Orbiter 1 picture of Phobos, one of the two moons of Mars. The irregularly shaped satellite is thought by many to be a captured asteroid. North is at the top of the picture, while the point of Phobos which always points towards Mars is at the lower left. The large crater near the north pole is approximately 5 km across. The diameter of Phobos when viewed from this angle is about 22 km. Only about half of the surface of Phobos facing the camera was illuminated. The low density and dark albedo of Phobos make some scientists suspect that it has the composition of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. If so, chemically bound water should be plentiful.

Mars This mosaic, composed of 102 Viking Orbiter images, covers nearly a full hemisphere of Mars (the smallest observable feature is about 1 km across). The center of the scene shows the entire Valles Marineris canyon, over 3000 km long (about 10 times as long as Earth’s Grand Canyon) and up to 8 km deep. A bright patch of white material in the eastern extremity of the canyon may consist of carbonates deposited in an ancient lake. Water appears to have flowed from east to west through the Valles Marineris and from south to north up the bright Kasei Vallis (not surficially connected to Valles Marineris) to the dark basin called the Acidalia Planitia at the top of this picture. The dark spots to the west are the three Tharsis volcanoes, each about 25 km high (twice as high as Mount Everest). When these images were acquired by Viking Orbiter 1 in 1980, the atmosphere was relatively dust-free. The white streaks, best seen in the lower left quadrant, and the hazes elsewhere are clouds, which probably consist of water ice. The resources suggested by the interpretation of this photomosaic— carbonates, volcanic gases, water ice— will be important in the development of a colony on Mars. Photo: U.S. Geological Survey NASA photo: S87-31707

The justifications for such space on the Moon or lunar polar ice, activities are more than economic, and of new uses for strategic They include areas, such as Lagrangian points (see box) • Maintaining American security, leadership, and technological • Technology transfer to benefit excellence global society, particularly the peoples of the Third World • The possible discovery of new resources, such as an ore body

Lagrangian Points There are five positions of equilibrium Aeneas). (Because of naming errors, in the gravitational field of an isolated there is at least one “spy” in each camp: two-body system. (The example shown Achilles’ friend Patroclus is in the Trojan fully in the figure is the Earth-Moon camp, and Hector, the greatest of the system; the L1 and L2 points of the Trojan heroes, who killed Patroclus and Sun-Earth system are also shown; and a was killed by Achilles, is in the Greek third example would be the Sun-Jupiter camp.) system.) As shown by the French This natural example and our mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange understanding of the balance of forces in 1772, these “libration points” have at these locations lead us to consider the interesting property that, if a third, the Lagrangian points as good places to very small body were placed at one of put “stationary” satellites. Although the them with the proper velocity, the three collinear points are inherently centripetal acceleration of the third unstable and the two triangular points body would be perfectly balanced are only quasi-stable, the station-keeping by the gravitational attractions of the cost to maintain a spacecraft at or near two primary bodies. Three of the one of these points for a long time is Lagrangian points are situated on a line very small. A space station located at joining the two attracting bodies, while either L4 or L5 in the Earth-Moon system the other two form equilateral triangles would require almost no fuel to keep it with these bodies. in place. And communication satellites The so-called “Trojan asteroids” have located at L1 and L2 in the same system been captured in the L4 and L5 points would require only small amounts of fuel for station-keeping. in the Sun-Jupiter system. The group of asteroids orbiting the Sun 60 degrees Taken from Robert Farquhar and David ahead of Jupiter have been named Dunham. 1986. Libration-Point Staging after Greek warriors (including Concepts for Earth-Mars Transportation, Odysseus), and the group trailing in vol. 1 of Manned Mars Missions Jupiter by 60 degrees have been Working Group Papers, NASA M002, named after warriors of Troy (including June, pp. 66–77.

Economics and System in the communications industry. Tradeoffs A case for investment in space industrialization has already The immediate rationale for been made by the success of extending human presence into commercial satellites and sensors. space is primarily noneconomic— From parametric sensitivity analysis the human and scientific returns of the benefits vs. the costs of to be gained by such endeavors. using space, it seems that Having said that, we recognize a information resources will have the viable market for the use of space most payback in the near term.

A Case for Investment in Space Industrialization The Indonesian Palapa B communications satellite is just about to clear the vertical stabilizer of the Space Shuttle Challenger as it moves toward its Earth-orbiting destination. The noneconomic benefits of such devices, making communication possible across undeveloped stretches of the Earth’s surface, are readily apparent. So, too, are the economic benefits to the space industry which develops them. In the near term, such information resources will probably have the most payback. In the long term, the commercial prospects of energy and material resources may grow large. NASA photo: S83-35764

By the turn of the century, growth Since NASA is not an ordinary industries may emerge in space business but an R&D organization for materials processing, then engaged in high-risk, high- eventually for manufacturing and technology, large-scale endeavors, mining, solar power, and other the agency requires large amounts applications (see fig. 1). The Moon of up-front capital. Its financial may prove to be economically requests should be evaluated by attractive when production of criteria that go beyond mere oxygen, propellants, and bulk cost/benefit ratios. Although its shielding materials is undertaken. ventures involve much risk, The growth of human activities in exposing national prestige as space will continue to be limited by well as capital, NASA’s space economic constraints, such as the programs also require boldness high cost of transportation and of because of the possible economic life support, both of which initially and other rewards to be gained by involve replenishment of supplies the country and the world. from Earth.

Figure 1

Growth Path for a Power Beaming Industry Developing the capacity to beam power generated in space (from photovoltaic cells on an orbiting platform or at a lunar base) to other locations for use might become a growth industry. The power would first be beamed to space facilities only short distances from where it is generated. Later it might be beamed back to Earth or on to spacecraft moving farther out into the solar system. Taken from Arthur D. Little, 1989, Report of NASA Lunar Energy Enterprise Case Study Task Force, NASA TM-101652, July, p. 82.

The principal system tradeoffs Congress for greater public identified for the next 25 years financial participation in space are choices among (a) space endeavors that will spread the transportation systems; (b) power risks, such as through a national systems in space and on the lottery, Government bonds, stock Moon; and (c) automation, human investments, or limited partnership presence, or a combination of both. opportunities. In such ways, the In attempting to develop cost fifty existing space advocacy projections for such purposes, organizations might be mobilized, NASA would be well advised to so that their collective membership utilize now parametric models, of 300 000 and their aggregate such as the sensitivity analysis annual budget of $30.5 million* demonstrated in the 1984 summer would have greater impact on study; it offers a method for space development. testing and quantifying differing assumptions about space While NASA should be urged to resources. pursue innovative ways to reduce the costs of its space transportation However, to create the necessary system and other operations, its economic infrastructure for these budget should be increased to space undertakings, new sources cover both operational commitments of income that go beyond the and new developments. Other Federal budgeting of NASA financial benefits might come from requests are essential. New developing technological systems financial participation may come that are more generic or building from tax incentives and other reservoirs of consumables onsite in encouragements of space space, using nonterrestrial materials entrepreneurs and technological when possible. Savings might venturing. New legislation is be further effected by designing desirable which facilitates space support systems that permit commerce and involves business recycling and accept substitute on a broader basis than does the sources or even substitute aerospace industry, while improving chemicals. Creative funding may the insurance situation for space involve the privatization of many activities. Furthermore, new space activities, so that the options should be carefully NASA budget can focus on evaluated by the President and research and development.

*M. A. Michaud, 1987, Reaching for the High Frontier: The American Space Movement, 1972–84 (New York: Praeger).

Management and Structure Legal, Political, Social, and Environmental Issues The next stage of space development poses a challenge Technological excellence in space for the management of large-scale will not only serve the needs of technical enterprises, such as a national pride, defense, and space station and a lunar outpost. growth but also ensure America’s In this regard, we recommend that leadership, especially in high the nation’s political leadership technology and its applications. To consider giving NASA a new energize the nation’s will toward charter—one that would allow it space development requires greater autonomy and flexibility (like the creation of mechanisms the Tennessee Valley Authority). such as the following, which we Perhaps all NASA’s research recommend to the nation’s leaders functions should be concentrated for consideration: into a National Institute of Space. • Foster a national consensus on In this postindustrial information our space goals by encouraging society, human systems like NASA greater public involvement. are expected to go through a The means might be a White process of organizational renewal. House conference on space Since NASA made management industrialization, town meetings innovations during the Apollo or teleconferences, interagency period, it can capitalize on this forums on Government and heritage to meet the challenges of military activities in space, a change in organizational culture space congress of trade and and in the role of management, professional associations on their especially as a result of advances roles in space, a convocation of in management information space organizations and interest systems (MIS). More behavioral groups on NASA’s needs and science management research is plans, space conferences for also needed on (1) the role of, media representatives, a NASA problems faced by, and skills summer study for artists and required of space project leaders dramatists, and more educational (both those who manage space programs on human migration resource undertakings from into space. The International Earth and those who lead space Space Year of 1992, the programs onsite) and on (2) the 500th anniversary of Columbus’ macromanagement approaches landing in the Americas, might required for effective administration prove a suitable focus for such of large-scale technological projects citizen participation in our in space. country’s space program.

• Foster the legislative • Foster international environment and incentives that opportunities by NASA for joint would encourage the private endeavors with other national sector in space commercial space agencies, both with allies enterprises. The means might and possibly with the U.S.S.R. be joint ventures with NASA, The Apollo-Soyuz mission (see corporate consortia for space fig. 2) offers a precedent for projects, Federal space creating peaceful space insurance, and contracting synergy. Much yet remains to outreach beyond the aerospace be done in the utilization of companies (e.g., into the space resources both for robotics and automation and healthy competition and for other high-technology international cooperation. industries). Perhaps we should consider participating in an international mission to Mars.

Figure 2

Crewmembers of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Visit With President Gerald R. Ford President Ford holds the Soyuz part of a model depicting the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, an Earth orbital docking and rendezvous mission in which Americans and Soviets cooperated. With the President are Vladimir A. Shatalov, cosmonaut training chief; Valeriy N. Kubasov, flight engineer; Aleksey A. Leonov, crew commander; and Thomas P. Stafford, crew commander; Donald K. Slayton, docking module pilot; Vance D. Brand, command module pilot. Dr. George M. Low, NASA’s Deputy Administrator, is behind President Ford. NASA photo: S74-29892

Overall Desirabilities and • Design and construction at both Probabilities the space station and a lunar base of a laboratory for the Space is a place to motivate new medical, chemical, biological, modes of human cooperation. and psychological monitoring of [The National Commission on the human inhabitants. A data Space (1986) offered specific bank could be developed for recommendations in this regard.] analysis of information on the human condition in long-term An imaginative plan for a lunar base space living. might inspire the next generation to turn outward in pursuit of • Space ergonomics to obtain challenges on the next frontier. human factor data and designs Space resources are vital for the that will enhance the quality development of human habitats and of life in a confined space factories, be they on the Moon, on environment and will reduce asteroids, or on Mars. discomfort while people are engaged in space travel. In the long run, human migration Special attention should be into space will not only alter our directed to the human/machine own human culture on Earth but interface and to the prolonged also result in the creation of a new use of life support or safety culture adapted to the realities to systems. space living. Apollo 11 broke our perceptual blinders that we were • Space habitat architecture Earthbound and opened up to us that requires new concepts the possibilities for exploring and and materials. The latter will utilizing the universe. To prepare involve availability, end use, for the ever-expanding human dual utilization, recycling, and presence in space, we need more substitutions. New processing study of techniques will be created that are suitable for the space • Space ecological and life environment. support systems by biochemists, microbiologists, • General living systems theory research physicians, and other and planning that can scientists. New policies will be contribute to the mapping out needed on space ecology and of human activities on the the use of resources on the space station and on a lunar “high frontier.” base, as well as provide continuous measures of major processes and energy flows.

The Crew Crowds Into the Command Module as They Simulate Their Apollo 16 Mission The simulator shows how cramped the Apollo 16 crew must have been in their command module. Command module pilot Thomas K. Mattingly, II, faces the camera. John W. Young, mission commander, faces away. The helmet of lunar module pilot Charles M. Duke, Jr., can just be seen behind Mattingly’s. Such tight constraints could only be endured on a relatively short mission. The Space Shuttle has provided a “shirt-sleeve” environment for astronauts to work in. For longer stays on Space Station Freedom, at a lunar base, or on a mission to Mars, even more attention will have to be paid to the comfort of spacefarers. NASA photo: S72-31047

Lunar Base Architecture 20 years. With a permanent base on the One concept for a habitat at a Moon base Moon, such a substitute for the lunar is this inflatable structure, protected from environment would not be necessary. radiation by a continuous coiled bag A more desirable procedure would be containing lunar soil. Its construction to take a small piece of a rock into the crew lived in the simpler structure to the habitat atmosphere to study, throwing it right, to which are attached a thermal away afterward, leaving the rest of the rock in place. radiator and solar power panels. The habitat, 16 meters in diameter, is A problem not dealt with on the short designed to house 12 astronauts. Apollo missions but critical to a It includes a gymnasium, which both permanently inhabited lunar base is that makes use of the Moon’s low gravity and of contamination by lunar dust. When the counters its effects on the astronaut’s surveyors in the foreground return to the physical condition; a control room; habitat, they will first pass through laboratories; a hydroponic garden, to electrostatic wickets (seen on the left), provide fresh vegetables and to recycle which cause most of the dust to fall exhaled carbon dioxide into inhalable through the grate of this porch; they then oxygen; a wardroom for meals and remove their white coveralls, which meetings; and private compartments, protect the precision joints of the space located below the surface for extra suits from the gritty dust, and take an air radiation protection. shower in the dust lock; and finally they pass into the airlock to remove their suits. This painting shows a glove cabinet for handling lunar samples in a nitrogen These details show how a new atmosphere, as the Apollo samples have environment requires innovative thinking. been handled on Earth for the past NASA photo: S89-20084

The next 25 years offer lead time psychologists on such relocation to plan for the more mature space issues as communities to come. To cope with the unique conditions of life • Crew selection and management aloft, such as weightlessness and for the space station and a lunar perpetual reliance on machinery, base. Increasingly heterogeneous humans will adapt and acculturate, and multicultural in composition, thus altering behavior. New living these crews will begin to stay in themes and patterns will change space for 180 days or more. our sense of self, communication, Matters of personnel rotation, dress, food, time, relationships, interpersonal and group values, beliefs, mental processes, dynamics, leadership and team and work habits. To prepare for building, in addition to the use of such revolutionary changes in local space resources, demand the human condition, we need more study now if such people immediate research by cultural are to work together efficiently, anthropologists and cross-cultural safely, and congenially.

An Early Concept of Life Onboard a Space Station in Low Earth Orbit The selection and management of the increasingly heterogeneous crews who will live together under the stressful conditions of a space station or a planetary base are matters that demand more study now to ensure that such people will work together safely, efficiently, and congenially. Artist: Jerry Elmore NASA photo: S78-10345

• Space personnel deployment sciences on issues of life support, systems that would provide a safety, ergonomics, habitats, comprehensive acculturation communities, and relocation of program for life in space. people, as well as the ecology of Such a system might entail space resources. The situation (a) recruitment and assessment, would seem to warrant a more (b) orientation and training comprehensive, systematic before departure, (c) onsite approach to such planning. support and monitoring, and (d) reintegration upon return The human race is in transition to Earth. from an Earth-based to a space- based culture. Although this “passover” may take centuries, Conclusions we are now taking the first revolutionary steps toward the The increased number and time when we can regularly, diversity of people going into economically, and safely extend space beginning in the next out from low Earth orbit to the orbit 25 years requires research and of the Moon. Perhaps there we development into more areas humans will really mature and than just transportation, energy, achieve potential as we move out and materials. It necessitates into the universe and a new state expansion of studies in the human of being.

NASA photo: S77-22763

NASA in the 21st Century: A Vision of Greatness

Kathleen J. Murphy

Abstract

We in the United States face an awesome challenge: NASA’s role well into the next millennium must be decided now. The project goals to be achieved over the next quarter century need to be set in order now. Our scarce financial resources need to be allocated now to those projects that will maximize our long-term productivity.

NASA’s course must be worthy, its execution impeccable, and its understanding of (and tolerance for) risk tailored to the unique developmental requirements of each situation.

• Defining a worthy vision for the NASA organization

The first section of this paper discusses notions of greatness that have guided NASA in the past, presents values that might be delivered by NASA in the future, and examines the skills required for NASA to execute a vision of greatness.

• Scoping a strategically significant mission agenda

The second section reviews three possible patterns of space development by NASA: (1) a mission to protect the ecology of the Earth, (2) the engineering of the technologies critical to space transportation and a healthy, productive life in space, and (3) the management of a major nonterrestrial resource project.

• Sourcing—and sustaining—optimum financing

The paper’s third section discusses potential sources of funds, opportunities for sustainable collaboration, and the life cycle of NASA’s funding responsibility for its space development program.

Alternatives are abundant. The key to success, however, is our willingness as a nation to commit to a shared notion of greatness. Only steeled by such a commitment can we hope to make the wealth-creating technological advances and significant scientific discoveries to sustain our leadership into the 21st century.

A lot has happened since the 1984 that in this short time peace would NASA summer study, and even break out all over: that urgent since the 1989 declaration by longings for democracy would President Bush—on the occasion thrust China into a massive internal of the 20th anniversary of the rebellion; that the yearnings of landing on the Moon—that the U.S. Eastern Europeans would thrash space program will be redirected the Berlin Wall to dust; that in the toward sustained exploration of space of a few weeks skeptical space. Who would have imagined Romanian and Czechoslovakian

people would shake off their In November 1989, NASA laid out totalitarian systems in completely five approaches to going to the decent and peaceful ways. The Moon and Mars using techniques surprising occurrence of these and technologies the agency had monumental events fills one with studied for years and sometimes awe and wonder at the changes decades. Implementation would that lie ahead as we near the take more than a quarter of a end of a millennium. One can century at a cost of $400 billion. only imagine the truths we have That is regarded by the current yet to discover, the many realities Administration as simply too long yet to unfold. and too much (Hilts 1990b). Eager to arrive at a realizable Full of hopes, dreams, visions of agenda, the Bush Administration where these blossomings may has commissioned exhaustive lead us as a global community, we brainstorming to refocus and are at the same time crushed by redirect the U.S. space program, alarming realities at home— under the guidance of the National weighed down by our massive Space Council and its head, Vice budget deficit, surprised at the President Dan Quayle. How can growing political irrelevance the “Bush vision” be molded into and eroding commercial a challenging, yet realizable, competitiveness of the United program supported by adequate, States in the world, and shattered consistent funding? How can and saddened by the problems NASA best prepare itself to bring plaguing the former hallmark of the Bush Administration’s our technological prowess, the redirection to fruition? This National Aeronautics and Space paper assesses NASA from Administration, in the aftershock organizational, strategic, and from the Space Shuttle Challenger financial perspectives to determine disaster—the January 1986 if it is well positioned to meet the explosion that thrust the challenges of space exploration organization into a massive and development on into the next reevaluation. And now an agenda millennium: is under consideration that is so broad, so costly, and so far • Defining a worthy vision for beyond the scope of human the NASA organization experience to date that the risks are extraordinary. It is only with • Scoping a strategically courage and humility that cost significant mission agenda estimates of these yet uncharted courses can even be attempted, • Sourcing—and sustaining— as the potential for unpredicted optimum financing events is enormous.

Section 1: in technology has disappeared” Defining a Worthy Vision (Hilts 1990b). Such a perceived crisis of direction cannot be Leaders, through their visionary tolerated for long, because NASA, grasp of the possible, energize our spearhead of technological their followers and marshal them innovation, has a responsibility of toward fulfillment of the goal. A critical strategic significance to our vision is an energizing view of nation. To ensure that NASA is the future role or function of an on a worthy course, a vision of organization, including its distinctive NASA’s future greatness must be values, skills, and operating style. clearly defined, the value to be As a coherent directive, a vision delivered by NASA must be fully statement provides focus: it understood, and the skills and style provides a context for evaluating required to execute the vision must the appropriateness of potential be specifically identified. missions and objectives; it suggests criteria for distinctive Notions of Greatness performance; and it empowers decision-makers throughout the The directive to explore and organization to raise issues, assess develop space is a boundless options, and make choices. Always undertaking that is not likely to articulating the value to be reach fruition in our lifetime (unless, delivered to those having a stake of course, our technological in an organization, the vision breakthroughs advance at an statement further provides a exponential rate, or unless we have standard against which to evaluate the good fortune to come to know external competitive positioning of other intelligence in the universe the organization over the long term. that has already figured everything out). The Bush Administration perceives that there is a crisis of vision. In contrast, the U.S. space program Vice President Dan Quayle has appears to have undergone commented that “Despite our short-term eras of leadership, continued scientific and demarcated by changes in technological preeminence, our President. The U.S. space Government has not done as well program, framed by the President’s as it could have in marshaling the vision perhaps more than any resources and the leadership other program because of its necessary to keep us ahead in discretionary financing, is space. Our competitive advantage often planned in terms of

accomplishments realizable during The Kennedy Vision: Establish U.S. that President’s term in office. The technological supremacy in the implemented program is the result world. of an iterative process: The vision set by the President is constrained President John F. Kennedy by the financial resources allocated launched the space program with by Congress, delimited by the a bold vision and a determined technological capabilities held in foresight that have not been hand by NASA (and other U.S. enjoyed since. Envisioning the academic, commercial, and U.S. space program as the engineering institutions), and establisher of U.S. technological dependent on the willingness of the supremacy in the world, he chose American people to sustain support as the focused mission objective a over the project lifetime. There is race to place a man on the Moon an expense involved in this iterative and return him safely to the Earth process: Each change of vision before the end of the decade. The creates new issues, alters priorities, entire program was a masterful and redefines standards. It is far demonstration of management more cost-effective to develop a efficiency and control, as the strategy for human exploration of mission, relying on hundreds of the solar system that can endure thousands of subcontractors, was for at least 20 years, longer than completed on time and on budget. the term of any one President, The Apollo Program achieved the most members of Congress, or the desired technology goals, as it average NASA manager (Aaron et reawakened interest in science and al. 1989). engineering, enhanced international competitiveness, preserved high- NASA has had at least three technology industrial skills, and distinct directives since its marshaled major advances in inception in the 1960s, not counting computers and micro-miniaturization the redirection under way since the (Sawyer 1989). The program was Bush Administration took office awe-inspiring, enjoyed enormous (see table 1). A brief review of funding support, and established a these “strategic eras” reputation for NASA that was to demonstrates the impact of endure until it blew up with the Presidential vision on the Space Shuttle Challenger in organization up to now and January 1986. suggests parameters for the most effective vision statement for the 1990s and beyond.

TABLE 1. The U.S. Manned Space Program, 1960–2000: Strategic Eras and Program Effectiveness

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Characteristics Kennedy Nixon Reagan Bush Initiative Compromise Commercialization Redirection Vision Establish Provide Foster a Establish U.S. economical pnvate-sector U.S. as technological access to space industry preeminent supremacy space for spacefaring military & nation commercial purposes Mission Place a man Create a Build a Establish a on the Moon reusable space station permanent & return him transport to develop entity in safely to the vehicle: commercial space; begin Earth capture products sustained 75% of manned commercial exploration payloads of solar worldwide system Budget $ billion/yr $ billion/yr $ billion/yr $ billion/yr 3.25 3.0 7.5 13 est. (26/8) as of ’74 (400/30) Performance On time, Late, Late, Taking a on budget over budget over budget, fresh new (one-time (missed redefined several look event) economic times, objective) uncertain NASA Masterful Ineffective Confused Potential management resurgence NASA bargaining Strong: Moderate: Weak: Potential leverage generous constant constant improvement support & renegotiation budget- funding to increase cutting & funding rescoping Public esteem High, Neutral Seriously Potential inspired eroded renaissance

Sources: Banks 1988, Chandler 1989, Chandler and Mashek 1989, Sawyer 1989, Steacy 1989.

Apollo 14 Rollout, Nov. 9, 1970 NASA photo: S70-54119

The Nixon Vision: Provide commercial payloads worldwide. economical access to space for While a reusable Space Shuttle has military and commercial purposes. been developed and put into operation, it has never achieved the President Richard M. Nixon chose economic objectives which were an a very specific vision which, if essential component of the vision. successful, would have provided The Shuttle will simply never be important commercial benefits to able to provide the cheap, versatile, the United States and, if realized and reliable access to space it during his term in office, would was supposed to, because it is a have been a credit to his complex and sophisticated administration. He envisioned vehicle—a Ferrari, not a truck NASA as providing economical (Budiansky 1987–88). Nevertheless access to space for military as well the National Academy of Sciences as commercial purposes. The has noted that the Space Shuttle mission which was specifically engine was the only significant articulated, was to create a development in space propulsion reusable transport vehicle that technology in the past 20 years. could capture 75 percent of the

Lift-Off of STS-1, April 12, 1981 NASA photo: S81-30500

The Reagan Vision: Foster a obviously been grossly overstated, private-sector space industry. as companies have backed off space manufacturing since The directive to establish a solutions have already been permanently manned space station developed on Earth. Furthermore, was a subsidiary mission in the such a mission had been rejected Reagan era, subordinate to his in favor of the lunar mission by vision of a Strategic Defense President Kennedy in 1961, a Initiative (SDI). However, to be space station not being considered worth $30 billion, the space bold enough for the 1960s (Del station should really serve some Guidice 1989) (although Skylab worthwhile national purpose. was built, flown, and manned three Commercial applications have times in the 1970s).

Concept of Space Station Freedom Artist: Al Chinchar NASA photo: S88-35821

The Bush Vision: Establish the Administrator, Richard H. Truly, United States as the preeminent ensure that our space exploration spacefaring nation. program is benefiting from a broad range of ideas about different President George H. W. Bush’s architectures, new system concepts, tentative vision for the U.S. space and promising technologies, as well program is of “spacefarer,” as opportunities to cut costs through suggesting a navigator, one who expanding international cooperation. sets or charts a course. His He asked Truly to query the best priority missions are to establish a and most innovative minds in the permanent entity in space and country—in universities, at Federal begin sustained manned exploration research centers, within our of the solar system. At this writing, aerospace industry, and elsewhere. the mission agenda of the Bush NASA will take the lead in the Administration has not been search and will be responsible for finalized. Vice President Quayle evaluating ideas (Broad 1990a). has requested that the NASA

Concept of a Lunar Base, Featuring the Radiator of Its Nuclear Power Plant NASA photo: S90-27793

Alternate: The Havel Vision: articulated his vision of the role of Uncover the secrets of the intellectuals in shaping the new universe. Europe—which can be compared to the role of space technology In a 1990 interview,* Vaclav Havel, and science in clearing the path President of the Czechoslovak for the space age: “The salvation Socialist Republic, stated that we of this human world lies nowhere still have a long way to go in our else than in the human heart, in development, as we still have not the human power to reflect, in yet “uncovered the secrets of the human meekness, and in human universe.” It is interesting to select responsibility. The only genuine such an idea as an alternate vision, backbone of our actions—if they as a “control” to assess whether are to be moral—is responsibility. President Bush’s notion of Responsibility to something higher greatness goes far enough and is than my family, my country, my sustainable over the long term. firm, my success” (quoted by Effectively, the difference between Friedman 1990). “spacefaring” and “secret uncovering” is that between the Recognizing that everything we means and the end, the journey know of any importance about the and the arrival. universe we’ve found out in the last 50 years or so (Wilford 1990a), Vaclav Havel, a former political it would not be unrealistic to expect prisoner and a playwright, has great truths to be unfolded in the demonstrated a clarity and a 50 years to come. Numerous profundity in his political statements projects on NASA’s drawing boards at Czechoslovakia’s helm that today promise to unlock important are truly visionary and thought- secrets in the near future. For provoking. On the occasion of his example, it is hard to imagine a visit to the U.S. Congress in more exciting secret than whether February 1990, he articulated the or not there is other intelligent life pace of change: “The human face in the universe. The Search for of the world is changing so rapidly Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), that none of the familiar political a proposed $100 million, 10-year speedometers are adequate. We project, funded by NASA but playwrights, who have to cram a operated by an independent whole human life or an entire nonprofit group, plans to build a historical era into a two-hour play, highly advanced radio receiver that can scarcely understand this will simultaneously scan 14 million rapidity ourselves.” And he channels of radio waves from

*With Barbara Walters on the ABC television program 20/20.

existing radio telescopes around for its shareholders. As a the world. The National Academy Government-sponsored institution, of Sciences has stated that it is NASA has a value to its hard to imagine a discovery that shareholders—the U.S. taxpayers— would have greater impact on that is much broader and more human perceptions than the complex. detection of extraterrestrial intelligence (Broad 1990b). A review of the literature reveals a broad range of opinions held by the Expected Values public regarding what NASA’s value is. Probably the lively debate over The vision statement conveys the efficacy of the space program standards of excellence: “Be a exists precisely because of this technology leader.” “Provide wide disagreement. The composite transportation economically.” list of “values” that NASA “should” “Be an explorer, a navigator, a be delivering, which follows, seems spacefarer.” It determines which remarkably similar to Maslow’s values are given precedence, thus hierarchy of needs (fig. 3), from the providing a standard by which to most basic physiological need for determine relative degrees of survival (deriving economic “bread” excellence, usefulness, or worth from commercial activities), through of tasks performed within the safety, social, and esteem needs, organization. Each value to be and finally to the peak experience delivered targets a potential of creativity and self-actualization. competitive advantage or some Maslow’s theory postulates that the economic leverage to be derived most basic needs must be satisfied Figure 3 from realization of the vision. before higher needs can be addressed. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and The purpose of a commercial Opinions About NASA’s Value organization is to create wealth A leader of the humanistic psychology movement, Abraham Maslow was concerned primarily with the fullest development of human potential; thus, his burning interest was the study of superior people. His theory of human personality has become probably the most influential conceptual basis for employee motivation to be found in modern industry. The needs occur in the order in which they are presented, physiological first. Until one level of need is fairly well satisfied, the next higher need does not even emerge. Once a particular set of needs is fulfilled, it no longer motivates. Source: Rush 1976.

Develop products and services engineering feats of space with clear economic advantages. exploration and adding to our scientific understanding of the Many look to NASA as a solar system. This view suggests wellspring of new product and an approach to space exploration service innovations that are that minimizes threats of loss of expected to keep the U.S. life or health, a highly disciplined economy competitive in the world. approach grounded in the scientific This economic focus expects a method. Indeed, with the exception perfectly managed program (on of the race to put the first man on the order of the Apollo days) with the Moon, NASA has approached only outstanding economic results. solar system exploration in a step- Any news about the difficulties of by-step fashion. And remarkable engineering the highly complex engineering and scientific technologies of today is not accomplishments have been made welcome. NASA is given causal by NASA’s missions to the Moon responsibility for ensuring U.S. (Ranger, Surveyor, Apollo) and to competitiveness in the world: the planets (Mariner, Pioneer, “Space leadership and Viking, Voyager). Scientist technological leadership are tied astronaut Sally Ride thinks NASA together. Just as technological should continue in this tradition. leadership and American She has stated that NASA should competitiveness are tied together” avoid a spectacular “race to Mars” (Anderson 1988). Furthermore, and establish a lunar outpost as NASA is expected to fuel as well part of a measured exploration of as fully interact with the private the solar system. “We should sector in their joint development adopt a strategy to continue an and spinoff efforts. “In the orderly expansion outward from the vastness of technology, mutual Earth…a strategy of evolution dependence between government and natural progression” (quoted and the private sector nourishes by Broad 1989). Other space both”—Thomas G. Pownall, experts would like NASA’s scientific Chairman, Martin Marietta focus to be inward toward the (Rappleye 1986). Earth. “We’d better pursue the

things that work in space, like Uncover facts through the surveying the Earth’s resources, scientific method. weather patterns, climatic change— Others see NASA as a herald of things of direct and daily human science: both putting scientific importance” (Brown 1989). knowledge to work in the

Uplift mankind. is humanity’s destiny to strive, to seek, to find…it is America’s There are more emotionally destiny to lead” (Rosenthal 1989). motivated constituents who value Essentially, “we must either NASA not for what it does reaffirm U.S. preeminence in space scientifically but for the social, or permit other nations to catch cultural, or political impact it has up or surpass us at the crucial on our collective consciousness, juncture” (Gorton 1986). Under whether national or global. The this value system, leadership can be success of the space program as dangerously misconstrued to mean “a cultural evolution may open “pay for everything.” True many new options, including opportunities for differentiated, opportunities to ease global tensions, competitive leadership need to be help the developing understood and aggressively world, and create a new culture pursued; however, the basis of off our planet” (Lawler 1985). “The world esteem for our space program U.S. will again lead the world in should be authentic technological developing space for the benefit of achievement and its citizens and future generations not simply financial daring. throughout the world” (Rockwell 1986). “Going to Mars is an international endeavor. Political Provide a religious or peak benefits can be derived immediately— experience. not 30 years from now but every year, through a joint project with Finally, there is a profoundly other countries, and the Soviet Union fulfilling dimension to truly in particular” (Del Guidice 1989). marvelous achievements and truly Perhaps the most shining example of humbling failures. “There is this ability of the space program to something almost religious about uplift and unite is the phenomenon of man in space. The human more than 600 million people who exploration of the solar system gathered appears quasi-religious, while at their local television sets around automated exploration is ‘pure the world in July 1969 to witness science’” (Brown 1989). the U.S. landing on the Moon 241 500 miles away. Space exploration has a profound moral dimension that cannot be Establish and sustain U.S. transgressed. The natural law, technological leadership. when followed, leads on to fulfillment of the mission but, when Others view NASA as the violated, leads to difficulties and determinant of our technological even death. In these days of leadership in the world and avarice and deception that seem to therefore a source of esteem. “It escape the heavy hand of justice,

the joys and sorrows of space laborious undertakings, into a exploration are tied to a morality constant renewal of ideas, into that does not play favorites. an austere detachment. Compare the infamous Wall Street (de Chardin 1972, p. 23) “junk bond” crisis or the savings and loan debacle, engineered by One might wonder how a those who made their own rules Government-sponsored research and used the system for personal agency could possibly fulfill this gain, violating all standards of fair broad range of expectations. In fact, play, to space explorers, who are excellent performance of the task obliged to uncover “the” rule and which NASA does best—advancing advance strictly within its limits. technology and science—will provide In spite of the wonderful heroism both practical and ennobling results. of the seven astronauts who rode the Challenger to its demise, the …if some observer were to violation of the temperature limits come to us from one of the of the “O” rings led to immediate stars what would he chiefly ruin. It is the very discovery of the notice? rule—how things work—that Without question, two major makes the quantum leap possible. phenomena: Effective communication of this “truth” and “honor” of technological the first, that in the course of and scientific exploration is sure to half a century, technology has shift prestige away from Wall Street advanced with incredible and draw career candidates into rapidity, an advance not just of engineering and science. scattered, localized technical developments but of a real Space exploration will entail geotechnology which spreads extraordinary adventure and out the close-woven network of discovery, but also enormous risk its interdependent enterprises and personal sacrifice. The deep over the totality of the earth; personal commitment that will be the second, that in the same required to depart on the long period, at the same pace and journey replicates the religious on the same scale of planetary motif of death and resurrection: cooperation and achievement science has transformed in I shall stretch out my hand every direction—from the unhesitatingly towards the fiery infinitesimal to the immense bread.…To take it is and to the immensely …to surrender myself to complex—our common vision forces which will tear me away of the world and our common painfully from myself in order to power of action. (de Chardin drive me into danger, into 1972, p. 119)

It is the almost instantaneous leadership, and ethical and moral globalization of technological fortitude. innovations and the transformative impact on quality of life of scientific Excellence, grace, skill in execution breakthroughs that contributes, conveys an organization’s essence day by day, to the emergence of a or style. But NASA does many vision of one citizenry, one planet. things. NASA is not a single business unit, but a broad, rich If this set of expected values is organization with activities under held up to the Bush and Havel way on many levels. What does visions, we see that the Bush NASA do? NASA is a problem- vision may influence technology solver, trying to diagnose the development and require the startling environmental symptoms advancement of science to steer occurring on Planet Earth; the course; the Bush journey may NASA is an innovative engineer establish our leadership position— of technological advances; if we are the first to make it; the NASA is a conceiver, designer, journey may require courage and implementer of “big science” thus be inspiring. But Bush’s experiments and exploration vision does not have the closure projects; NASA is the developer that Havel’s vision has. If we make of the Space Shuffle and Space the journey in order to uncover the Station Freedom and would like to secrets of the universe and if we be the developer of colonies on succeed in realizing that vision, the Moon and Mars; and NASA is it is certain that a peak experience the operator of the Space Shuttle, filled with awe and wonder will be although operations are clearly an integral part of “truth’s” not within its charter. Each set unfolding. of functional tasks requires a different set of skills and styles of Elements of Excellent Execution management as well as distinctive guidelines and criteria for measuring A worthy vision, excellently results and assessing whether executed, reaps outstanding they are appropriately aligned with results. Skills form the bridge the overall vision. It is the vision, between strategy and execution. however, that pulls all of these The expected values determine the incongruous tasks together and kind of skills needed. American weaves their diverse contributions taxpayers look to their national into a single recognizable space exploration and development achievement. program for highly competitive new products and services, scientific However, the vision must be decided facts, an uplifting perspective, upon: Which vision, “spacefarer” or preeminent technological “secret uncoverer,” best focuses

the NASA organization on worthy innovate, experiment, create will be accomplishments over the next the most critical skills required. 20 to 30 years? My purpose here is not to promote one visionary The skilled professional may be concept over another but rather to homegrown or hired with the demonstrate the role and function appropriate experience or of a vision in coloring the entire contracted to fill a short-term decision-making process within need. But we will apply different an organization. evaluation criteria in searching for a “spacefarer” than in searching The Skilled Professional for a “secret uncoverer.” To realize the “spacefarer” vision, we Excellent performance of NASA’s would look for the characteristics of multitude of tasks requires a rich an explorer, an adventurer, a risk- array of the very best skills taker. To accomplish the “secret available in America today. uncoverer” vision, we would need Nothing less than the very best a more rigorous expertise based minds should be brought to bear on proven results in innovating, on this major potential to revitalize discovering, inventing. The first our nation. The critical skills suggests a fortitude in facing the essential to executing NASA’s unknown. The second suggests numerous tasks include facing the unknown, wrestling the unknown to the ground, and rising • Visionary leadership victorious with insight into its parts • Technical competence and how the parts relate to each • Entrepreneurial judgment other to create the whole. The • Problem-solving ability criteria for selection become • Project management expertise more rigorous; the measures of • The ability to innovate/ successful performance, more experiment/create precise. • Navigational skills The only way to reduce the The notion of vision ranks these timeframe and cost of research and critical skills and determines who will experimentation and maximize implement the vision. If we want effectiveness is to bring the best to be the preeminent spacefarers, minds to bear on critical problems. then perhaps navigational skills Even if a premium must be paid and entrepreneurial judgment over industry rates to attract such will be the critical skills required talent, the resulting maximization by the organization. However, if of NASA’s output with respect the pursuit is of truths about the to its vision would more than universe, then perhaps the ability compensate for the increased to solve problems and the ability to investment in human capital.

To be able to respond agilely to • The project manager, who problems and projects as they shepherds the contributions of arise, NASA should be exempt thousands of specialists within from certain Civil Service the “real-world” parameters of regulations and be given flexibility schedule and budget in personnel hiring, advancement, retirement, and the assembling • The communicator or and disbanding of teams, as well brainstormer, who constantly as the resources to reward truly stirs up, tears apart, refreshes, significant, ground-breaking, revitalizes the organization wealth-creating contributions. The astronaut, who navigates • the spacecraft, who braves the

The Pivotal Job unknown, and who will explore,

develop, and inhabit space The pivotal jobs are those that beyond our Planet Earth are critical to demonstrating the

vision. Those holding such jobs If we are to be a nation of are effectively the delegated vision spacefarers, it is the astronaut actualizers who, given sufficient who holds the pivotal job of leeway, exercise their judgment, demonstrating to the American intuition, and responsibility in people that we are indeed venturing service of the vision. out into space, navigating beyond

Planet Earth. However, if we are to Jobs are considered pivotal if they uncover the secrets of the universe, are essential to convincing the the engineer, the scientist, the American taxpayer that NASA is brainstormer or communicator might producing the desired result or hold the pivotal job, as such tasks achieving the desired strategic embody the exhaustive search for objective. They demonstrate that unnoticed relationships and their the vision is becoming actualized. significance. Pivotal jobs might include

• The visionary leader, who The Focused Team can see, smell, taste, feel the fruition of the project The projects on NASA’s drawing board are beyond the ability of any • The engineer, who ushers in single organization to implement, technological breakthroughs let alone single individuals. So, although it is critical that each • The entrepreneur, who spins individual represent the very best them off human potential our country has to offer, each must also have the The scientist, who • uncanny ability to enrich, nourish, methodically unfolds and apply that expertise in pursuit discoveries

of a common goal, through highly team representing all functional focused teamwork. The end- areas held weekly meetings to product parameters must be clearly ensure that, among other things, defined, and the accumulating all members had a stake in every insight must be continuously shared step and it was a team project among team members. (Kleinfield 1990).

An individual professional’s skill Staying centered on the creative permits ready execution of a task process and remaining always fresh at a high level of competence. An and innovative requires the ability issue of concern is the potential to focus. The Bureau d’Economie dichotomy between the highly Theorique et Appliquee (BETA) specialized professional and the research group believes that highly synergistic team. Each innovation is, above all, a process. specialist has his own vision of BETA has conducted four large quality achievement and his own research programs in the past sphere of personal interests. Only 10 years, including a study of through an over-articulated, single the space program to illustrate noble vision can sufficient energy technological learning or change be unleashed to inspire all toward within an industrial network. They a common goal. Such approaches have concluded that innovation is as establishing broad spheres an evolutionary phenomenon of responsibility, using teams rather than a sudden happening extensively, and searching for job (Zuscovitch, Heraud, and rotation opportunities continuously Cohendet 1988). can nourish an ability to see connections and implications and A compromising environment may foster more efficient, decentralized get the journey under way, but it decision-making. will not lead to the fullness of “truth.” Such pressures as As an example, Ingersoll-Rand scoring achievements within a collapsed the design cycle of a new term-in-office timeframe; restricting handtool to 1 year—one-third the a project to certain cost limits normal development time—by dictated by the national debt; breaking down the barriers within establishing premature international the entrepreneurial team and collaboration simply because we allowing sales, marketing, are broke; sticking to known and engineering, and manufacturing established technologies no matter to work in unison; i.e., getting how inapplicable they may be; everyone to “play in the same readily accepting unproven sandbox.” To avoid the “not- technologies because they’re invented-here” syndrome, a core supposed to be cheaper—all

these pressures constrain the unique competitive advantage to investigative process and lead to our nation. half-baked results. If we are going to conduct an exploration program, The Brilliant Achievement we should provide the time and money to do the job right. What makes an achievement stand out in our mind as brilliant Where does one begin? How to is colored by our vision. The achieve change, how to start the Apollo landing on the Moon is change process, how to assess an example of an impeccable whether members of the journey. The project was perfectly organization are prepared for timed, sequenced, and costed change, how to handle obstacles out to run like clockwork. In to progress—these are all issues contrast, the Hubble Space of concern, yet they are all Telescope (fig. 4) has had a surmountable. The important point sporadic history—on again, off to keep in mind is that again—over a period of 40 years. organizations change all the time. It was championed by one person, Change readiness can be assessed Dr. Lyman Spitzer, from 1940 to at all levels of the organization, jobs 1950. Project Stratosphere, a can be redesigned, skills can be prototype 12-inch telescope built, and any vision, eagerly carried by balloon, was launched embraced, can be brought to in the 1950s. NASA took over in fruition. the 1960s and successfully launched two precursor The Coordination of Complexity observation launches. Finally completed and launched in April The most significant feature of the 1990 at the cost of $1.5 billion, NASA space program, as compared more than three times the original to all the other programs on Earth projected cost of $435 million, the today, is the enormous complexity Hubble telescope has been of each individual project and the riddled with difficulties, including cumulative complexity of the the discovery that one of the program in its entirety. The simple mirrors was apparently ground to experience of engaging our minds the wrong curvature. Yet the in the mastery of such mega-scale vision remained the same products, processes, and projects throughout (Wilford 1990c). creates an expertise that serves us well in all aspects of our economic Dr. Lyman Spitzer, now 75, wrote endeavors and in our global in his first proposal for a space competitive positioning. In telescope over 40 years ago that, other words, this managerial “The chief contribution of such a experience—in itself—provides a

radically new and more powerful terrible. The project was subject instrument would be, not to to numerous postponements, supplement our present ideas of overruns, and delays, and it still the universe we live in, but rather (1990) has serious problems even to uncover new phenomena not yet after launch. Yet when the first imagined, and perhaps to modify insightful photograph returns from profoundly our basic concepts of the telescope, if one of the answers space and time” (Wilford 1990c). to the three key questions—How fast is the universe expanding? Under the vision of spacefaring, How old is the universe? What is this project might be regarded as the fate of the universe?—is a disaster, because the spacefaring disclosed, then, under the secret- vision focuses on the quality of the uncovering vision, this project will journey. In fact, the journey was have been a tremendous success.

Figure 4

The Hubble Space Telescope NASA photo: S80-40781

Section 2: Scoping a large-scale project management Strategically Significant expertise, long-lasting unmanned Mission Agenda planetary exploration, a deep institutional experience base in The space program promises to NASA, and unparalleled aerospace provide a chance to restore Planet leadership—all decisive competitive Earth to abundant health, a running advantages that have benefited start on technology leaps beyond commercial, as well as public our imagination, and access to endeavors. boundless resources. However, 20 to 30 years ago, The U.S. space program is space exploration and development not the only driver of U.S. programs were narrowly focused. technology…but [it] is a The science and engineering direct and major driver of problems faced today, such as those kinds of technologies alloys, fuels, distances, are much that will drive the world more complex than those wrestled market of the next century. with during the Apollo Program. A (Anderson 1988) strategy needs to be formulated that effectively allocates finite The Space Industry will be a resources among carefully selected leading indicator of all other objectives in a sequence that industries in the future— maximizes results. Important Yukiko Minato, Ministry of strategic insights can be derived International Trade and from examining several potential Industry, Japan. (Buell 1987) mission scenarios for NASA.

In the long term, a key to Remarkably, a close examination humanity’s continued of NASA demonstrates that the evolution will be the agency has been active in penetration of space and promoting and nurturing initiatives the economic and scientific across the board—in every exploitation of the solar strategic space development system’s inexhaustible segment. President Bush seems resources and unique physical to want to continue a tradition of characteristics. (Glaser 1989) independent, full-scale initiatives. While the notion of international The United States has been a participation was not entirely absent trailblazer in space development. from Bush’s July 20, 1989, speech, Since the heady days of Apollo, it was heavily overshadowed by a the United States has enjoyed a nationalistic message: “What reputation for unprecedented Americans dream Americans

can do.” We should pursue these 2. Capability-driven innovation: goals “because it is America’s There are specific gaps in our destiny to lead.” This phrasing tools, products, and processes suggests that America is going to that prevent prompt exploitation pay the first 100 percent, and, if of space. Nothing short of major others want to add on top of that, technological leaps must be they can (Chandler 1989). Such a masterminded. The originators of posture needs careful evaluation. such technological breakthroughs have typically seen them spin off This paper reviews three into lucrative commercial segmentations of the space ventures. development arena to demonstrate potential areas of strategic leverage 3. Destination-driven for NASA, as the agency seeks to innovation: The prospect of clarify its role and function within setting up colonies on such the global space development forbidding planetary bodies as the industry: Moon and Mars makes sense only when the colony is viewed as a base 1. Consumer-driven innovation: from which to exploit resources. To The entrepreneurial traits of access the rich resources of our customer-driven innovation neighboring planets, to capitalize and incessant scrutiny of the on manufacturing breakthroughs marketplace are essential achieved only in low gravity components of effective market- conditions, to test the possibility focused strategy development. of transferring some of our heavily The only real “consumers” of the polluting industries off Planet Earth space program are the citizens of (taking care not to pollute our Planet Earth. It is eminently wise neighboring planets)—these tasks to focus on their needs as buyers— require a supporting infrastructure their higher needs for a healthy that includes the advancement planet for their children and their of megaproject management children’s children. The ability to expertise. The colonization of scrutinize profoundly the resource the Moon and Mars effectively components of Planet Earth and to requires the creation of entirely begin to understand the interaction new industry and infrastructure of economic and natural variables sectors, which will invariably have promises to provide a contribution a profound impact on our lifestyle by NASA and other national space and business approaches on agencies around the world that is Earth. unprecedented.

In 1988 the National Academy Consumer-Driven Innovation: of Sciences recommended that The Business of Protecting the United States undertake a Planet Earth multibillion-dollar space science initiative that would redirect the The “Planet Earth” consumer is U.S. space program in the early literally consuming the planet: 21st century. They recommended that Consider the situation we face on the eve of the 1990s: 1. An intense, continuous We are generating waste, program be established to both solid and hazardous, monitor Earth’s climate, at a rate far exceeding our resources, and numerous ability to dispose of it; global other factors important to the temperatures are inching planet’s health. upwards; our protective shield of ozone is disappearing at 2. A search for planets in distant the same time as the solar systems be given a high earthbound, harmful ozone priority. continues to exceed safe levels in many of our cities; 3. A number of sample-return acid rain is killing much of our missions be sent to nearby aquatic flora and fauna and space bodies. damaging many of our forests; and the world population 4. Many new missions in space has reached 5 billion and biology and medicine be continues to climb rapidly. undertaken. (Glass 1989)

The first recommendation supports More alarmingly, further growth is the Mission to Planet Earth, the essential: A fivefold to tenfold second and third support increase in economic activity is exploration efforts which are required over the next 50 years to preliminary to selecting a meet the needs and aspirations of destination, and the fourth the world population and reduce recommendation encourages poverty. This will place a colossal regenerative life support new burden on the ecosphere technology—a capability to be (MacNeil 1989). developed. These proposals, in the report “Space Science in the Space science has already proven 21st Century—Imperatives for that it can contribute substantially Decades 1995–2015,” would to our understanding of Earth’s require NASA’s budget to grow problems: the greenhouse effect significantly (Covault 1988). on Venus and ozone depletion on

Mars provided insights that alerted us to potential dangers in our own atmosphere. Imagine how potent direct focus by the international space establishment on Planet Earth promises to be. The Apollo 8 photo of our planet afloat in space showed us that, as Buckminster Fuller put it, we are passengers on Spaceship Earth. The Earth is all we’ve got—at least for now.

NASA photo: AS08-16-2593

All products brought to market on • Participate in policy Planet Earth follow a similar activity formulation efforts intended flow from analyzing the market and to promote global industrial customer need, through designing restructuring—including the product, purchasing or consideration of transferring sourcing the raw materials, and the most polluting industrial manufacturing, to distributing and activities to off-planet selling the product (see table 2). locations. There are three critical roles that NASA could play in the United Market Research: Point the way States, other national space to save the planet agencies could play in their respective countries, and all these Growth must be structured in ways agencies could play jointly on that keep its enormous potential for Planet Earth to align business environmental transformation within activities with ecology-preserving safe limits—limits which are yet to systems: be determined. Clearly defining the parameters within which Planet • Provide an information base Earth can be restored to health can for delimiting constructive and provide powerful directives. For destructive use of resources example, one author states that to on Planet Earth. stabilize concentrations of carbon dioxide at present levels, an • Provide technology design immediate reduction in global initiatives that demonstrate manmade emissions—chiefly from regard for ecological the burning of such fossil fuels as limitations. coal and oil—by 60 to 80 percent would be necessary (Shabecoff 1990a).

TABLE 2. The Business System for Bringing a Product to Market on Planet Earth

Define Design Deliver

NASA has a project under way principal components of life—as which may identify just such well as carbon dioxide, methane, degrees of tolerance: The and nitrous oxide (More than Mission to Planet Earth is a “global 70 000 chemicals synthesized habitability mission” (Brown 1989) by humans affect the global involving a very substantial purely environment.); and processes of scientific component directed evaporation and precipitation, toward real human problems. It is runoff and circulation (Clark 1989). intended to point the way to save the planet. Also referred to as The end product of this Earth Observing System (EOS), international undertaking will be an it is an international initiative information base for decision- consisting of five giant orbiting making—the findings of scientific platforms [two from NASA, two research and planetary monitoring. from the European Space Agency It is hoped that the environmental (ESA), and one from the National impact of business decisions will be Space Development Agency demonstrated in a fact-based (NASDA) of Japan], each carrying manner. The real environmental the largest and most sophisticated costs of human activities have not array of remote-sensing instruments been isolated to date; thus, ever assembled. The mission calculations of business efficiencies will begin a 15-year period of have been skewed in favor of the observation in the mid-1990s. This convenient. The dilemma involved will become one of the largest space in choosing process technologies, science projects ever, costing the governed as they are now by United States $1 billion per year private, generally short-term, profit- (Cook 1989). maximizing responses to market forces rather than long-term The list of critical processes that concerns about environmental impact Planet Earth’s ecological quality, could more effectively be system and must be monitored is resolved with the data base that extensive, including changes in Mission to Planet Earth promises concentrations of greenhouse to assemble. gases and their impact on temperature; the effect of ocean President Bush has expressed his circulation on the timing and willingness to prevent compromise distribution of climatic changes; the while appreciating the need to role of vegetation in regulating the redefine business standards in the flux of water between land and marketplace: “To those who atmosphere; global circulation and suggest we’re only trying to processing of major chemical balance economic growth and elements such as carbon, oxygen, environmental protection, I say they nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur— miss the point. We are calling for

an entirely new way of thinking, to at the environmental issues ahead achieve both while compromising of hardware issues, they have neither, by applying the power of even gone one step further: the marketplace in the service of they have resolved not to develop the environment” (Shabecoff the product or process if the 1990b). environment is compromised (Leary 1990). In the case in Technical Design: Define point—development of a high- environmentally safe products speed passenger plane—walking and processes away would be enormously difficult, as competition stands in the wings: Technologies that can be utilized Aerospatiale, the French aircraft on the scale necessary to support company, is studying the next- sustainable economic development generation supersonic transport must be resource-conserving, to replace the Concorde; the pollution-preventing, and Japanese government has begun environment-restoring, and serious research; and the Soviet themselves economically Union has begun studies on a supportable. Sheer invention is transport plane that could fly at the only effective way out of our 5 times the speed of sound major ecological problems, as the (Leary 1990). very technological foundations of our economy need to be totally Preliminary studies commissioned revised. What we need is an by NASA indicate that building such economy that will not consume an aircraft is possible. However, scarce resources and will not current aircraft technology, generate pollution. including the best materials and engines, could not produce an Begin with the environmental acceptable aircraft, according to constraints and then design the Boeing. The Lawrence Livermore product: NASA is initiating a National Laboratory concurs, process that it believes may serve having calculated that a fleet of as a model for government, 500 supersonic airliners using industry, and environmental existing engine technology would groups. Its cornerstone is getting seriously deplete the ozone layer together before a technology is by 15 to 20 percent, almost developed to determine what 3 times the damage from technological advances must be chlorofluorocarbons. NASA plans made to render a product or to spend $284 million over the next process environmentally and 5 years to find out whether the economically acceptable. Looking required technological advances to

develop an environmentally safe to simulate life in a space high-speed plane can be achieved. colony, beginning in The program will center initially on September 1990 (Dawson airport noise, sonic booms, and 1989). Biosphere II is a engine emissions that could private, profit-oriented reduce the atmosphere’s project operated by Space protective ozone layer (Leary Biospheres Ventures. Most 1990). of the $37 million for the 4-year-old enterprise has Experiment with new processes been donated by Texas that will protect the environment: multimillionaire Edward Bass (Steacy 1988). The intent is • Ecologically safe life support to restore environmentally is being pioneered in the damaged areas on Planet Biosphere II Project, a Earth as well as advance complete environment NASA’s exploratory contained under 3 acres of programs. Techniques glass (see fig. 5). Billed as under development include the most exciting scientific chemical-free farming, natural experiment since the lunar pest-removers, crop rotation, landing, the airtight structure and new ways to recycle will contain 20 000 square nutrients through the soil feet of farm, where all the and purify both air and water. food will be grown. There The entrepreneurs believe will also be a desert, ocean, that an ecological industry marsh, savannah, and can turn a profit and that rainforest (with 3800 species working with the flow of from ladybugs and shrimp to nature should cost less in the fowl and deer), laboratory, long run. They expect to library, and apartments. market the new methods Eight scientists will spend and equipment they are 2 uninterrupted years inside developing. the project, which is designed

Figure 5

Biosphere II This huge terrarium was built near Tucson with private financing in 1989 and will be occupied by a collection of 3800 species (including eight Homo sapiens) for an uninterrupted 2-year period starting in 1990.

The 3-acre, airtight, glass and frame structure includes five wilderness biomes. From a mountain in the center of the rainforest, a stream cascades down a waterfall and across the forest floor. It Behind the wilderness biomes in this view because the unit is not large enough to flows along a savannah, at the top of the are the 24 000-square-foot intensive generate weather processes. rock cliffs, through fresh- and saltwater agriculture biome and the six-story, Its developers believe that not only is such marshes to a 25-foot-deep ocean, which domed human habitat biome. The natural a controlled ecological life support system encompasses a coral reef. A thornscrub processes in Biosphere II will be artificially applicable to future space colonies but forest makes the transition between the assisted by two “lungs,” to accommodate also the techniques developed such as savannah and a desert, the biome that warm air expansion, which would otherwise chemical-free farming may be useful in most nearly matches the external blow out glass panes or break the seals, restoring to environmental health parts of environment. and by air and water circulation systems, Biosphere I—our Planet Earth.

• Ecologically safe power applications of technology generation can be achieved developed by NASA, by generating power via transferred the first Planet satellites for use on the Earth application of the ground as well as in space. artificial marsh filtering system The feasibility of new solar (intended to treat wastewater power technologies to collect in space colonies—research and beam power between began in 1971) to a local objects in space and the municipality in Haughton, Earth needs to be tested. It Louisiana, in 1986. An is not yet clear which orbits 11-acre lagoon and a 70- by and which portions of the 900-foot gravel bed with electromagnetic spectrum rooted aquatic plants were would best be used to set up (see fig. 6). Highly transmit energy to Earth from effective (bacterial levels space (Glaser 1989). were far below permitted limits), the process was also • Ecologically safe waste found to be highly cost- treatment can be achieved effective (only a fraction of through transfer of a NASA- the cost of the conventional developed technology to approach). Presently 15 to Planet Earth municipalities. 20 systems are on-line The NASA Technology or in the design phase Utilization Office, which throughout the United encourages non-space States (Dawson 1989). Figure 6

Natural Wastewater Treatment At Haughton, Louisiana, town officials installed a second-generation version of NASA’s natural wastewater treatment system. The raw wastewater is pumped into the lagoon, where floating water hyacinths digest enormous amounts of pollutants. Then the water flows over a rock bed populated by microbes that cleanse the water further. Aquatic plants growing in the gravel bed—bulrushes in the foreground and canna lilies in the background—absorb more pollutants and help deodorize the sewage. Although water hyacinths are limited to warm climates and fresh water, bulrushes and canna lilies can tolerate both cold and salt water. NASA photo: S89-32722

It is important to note that a rash of Replace environmentally assaulting new product innovations could production technologies with foster economic growth at levels inherently pollution-free processes: unseen to date. Ecologically and economically sound technologies do exist. Sourcing/Manufacturing/ Distribution: Spearhead global • If farmers would shift to industrial restructuring organic agriculture, the rising tide of agricultural chemicals All of our activities have that now pollute water environmental consequences, supplies would be reversed and all of our activities must be and food would be free of changed rapidly if our rendezvous pesticide-derived with disaster is to be halted. carcinogens.

The challenge facing humanity • If automobiles were powered in the ’90s is to reverse the by stratified-charge engines, environmental degradation of which sharply reduce nitrogen the planet before it leads to oxide emissions, the urban economic decline.…Meeting pall of photochemical smog this challenge requires more and ozone—which is triggered than fine-tuning; it will take a by nitrogen oxides—would be fundamental restructuring of lifted. the global economy. (Brown 1990) • If electricity were produced by photovoltaic cells, directly Any blueprint for an environmentally from sunlight, the air could be sustainable global economy would freed of the noxious pollutants require the following. generated by conventional power plants. Eliminate sources of pollution: Some pollutants have been • If the use of plastics were successfully removed from the limited to those products for atmosphere. In each case—lead, which they are essential, DDT, PCBs, strontium 90— we could push back the substantial improvement was petrochemical industry’s toxic achieved not by tacking a control invasion of the environment. device onto the process that (Commoner 1990) generates the pollutant but by eliminating the pollutant from the production process itself (Commoner 1990).

Consider transferring the major managerial activities pertaining eroders of Planet Earth off planet: to ecologically safe industrial The components of growth and restructuring. Local development globalization of human activity that actions have cumulative results on have had the greatest impact on the global environment that are the environment from 1850 to the difficult to communicate, short of present are agriculture, the demonstrating them from a dominant agent of global land vantage point in low Earth orbit. transformation—9 million square Science can help, but it is efforts kilometers of surface has been that go beyond science to converted to cropland; energy, formulating adaptive policies that which has risen by a factor of 80; encompass environmental manufacturing, which has surprises which will ultimately increased a hundredfold in determine our effectiveness as 100 years; and basic metals, managers of Planet Earth. which has experienced a long- term growth greater than 3 percent Capability-Driven Innovation: per year. Each of these could The Process of Engineering conceivably be transferred off Critical Technological Planet Earth: agriculture, using Advances biosphere or hydroponic techniques; energy, using solar Science seemed at its birth to power transmission to the Earth; be but superfluity and fantasy, manufacturing, possibly using the product of an exuberant robots on the Moon; and mining overflow of inward activity of basic metals on the Moon, beyond the sphere of the asteroids, or Mars. What better material necessities of life, the justification for going to the Moon fruit of the curiosity of dreamers or Mars than to make life better for and idlers. Then, little by little, the Planet Earth consumer! it achieved an importance and an effectiveness.…We who Eliminate indifferent public live in a world which it policies: Current public policies revolutionized acknowledge have been found to actively its social significance and encourage deforestation, sometimes even make it the desertification, destruction of object of a cult. Nevertheless habitat and species, and decline of we still leave it to grow as best air and water quality (Clark 1989). it can, hardly tending to it at all, Mechanisms, both national and like those wild plants whose international, need to be fruits are plucked by primitive developed to coordinate peoples in their forests. (de Chardin 1972, p. 129)

Our technological capabilities extended period of time, let alone have not yet reached a level that return to Earth without having been facilitates realization of our debilitated in some way. The most loftiest goals. And the level of critical impediments to space technological capability determines exploration are the lack of cost- the effectiveness of our efforts and effective means to leave the pull of their cost efficiencies. We cannot the Earth’s gravity, the availability mobilize a program to colonize the of only a rudimentary controlled Moon or Mars within the next ecological life support system, and 3–5 years, for example, precisely the inability to conduct research on because our current technology space phenomena in enough depth makes it economically infeasible. to develop innovative products and Getting materials and people into processes (table 3). These are space simply costs too much; we effectively the independent don’t know what’s there—except variables—or the problems whose on a superficial level—or how it can resolution will facilitate a broad be used; and we are not sure that range of subsequent projects and we can remain alive for any programs.

TABLE 3. Priority Issues in a Space Technology Development Program

Independent variables Dependent variables

Getting into space: Vehicle size launch vehicle economics Cargo capacity (highly competitive) Fuel type

Living healthily in space: Length of stay in space sustainable life support systems Distance travelable

Working productively in space: Development of new products & facility in which to experiment processes for commercial (ex., space station) manufacturing Renewable power supply

Intervening variables (could significantly change the game rules)

Discovery of other life in the universe, perhaps more intelligent (and therefore having many capabilities already in hand) or distant (thus changing our target destination) Major breakthroughs in speed of travel, perhaps rendering Mars less interesting (because we can go farther) or more interesting (because we can get there faster) Inability to sustain life on a long-term basis outside of Earth’s atmosphere, or prohibitive hardship in doing so

The National Research Council, program requires (Sawyer 1989). an arm of the congressionally To respond to existing technology chartered National Academy of constraints, to be able to break Sciences, believes that it is vital through the current quality/cost that Moon-Mars missions have “the parameters, we need to develop a capability to send humans into targeted, thoughtful technology space, maintain them in a physical advancement program. A condition that permits them to work segmentation based on capabilities productively, and return them to in hand, and capabilities required, Earth in good health.” It has not brings to the surface the major been demonstrated that after long- technology gaps to be bridged duration space flight individuals can (table 4). Mastery of these readjust rapidly to gravity without technologies is most likely to open serious physiological up space activities to the broadest consequences (“U.S. Panel” 1990). possible constituency. When the costs of getting into space, One way to ensure that the effort is surviving in space, and producing sustained is to make sure that the in space are sufficiently reduced, basics are in place: to focus for a an infrastructure can be built to time on technology development, nurture the wealth-generating to reduce the operational costs of efforts of small entrepreneurs spacefaring and to establish the and independent individuals, as facilities and systems—the well as major corporations and infrastructure—that a serious governmental agencies.

TABLE 4. U.S. Mission Scenarios: Capability-Driven Innovation

Capability Technological impediments Proposed projects/requirements

Space Economic access to space • Shuttle C unmanned cargo version transpor- of Space Shuttle tation • New generation heavy-lift rocket, to lift 300 000 Ib + • Aerospace plane—advanced propulsion, horizontal take-off • Civil Space Technology Institute (CSTI), to increase operating margins of propulsion hardware Maneuverability in orbit • Exploration Technologies R&D Program, to develop technology for operations beyond Earth orbit • Develop two orbital vehicles • Develop in-space assembly capability • Develop system for storing propellants in Earth orbit for later use • Develop small, reusable moonship that separates into lander and orbiting module • Develop accurate and safe autonomous landing, rendezvous, and docking and sample retrieval Deep space travel • Develop a rocket powerful enough to reach Mars Advanced Sufficient power supply • Construct energy forms to technology beam power to Earth (NASA Lewis/Harris solar concentrator) • Develop space-based nuclear reactors (JPL SP-100; Westinghouse Multimegawatt Space Nuclear Power Supply) • Mine the Moon for alternative energy sources • Develop advanced chemical propulsion Automation and robotics • Develop advanced “intelligent breakthroughs systems” technology to reduce cost of unmanned probes Advanced data and • Develop advanced computer computer system technology to reduce breakthroughs cost of unmanned probes

TABLE 4 (concluded).

Capability Technological impediments Proposed projects/requirements

Life Substitute gravity • Modify the impact of microgravity sciences on human systems by exercise, artificial gravity, autogenic feedback trainlng, and nutrition (NASA Ames) • Understand interdependence of musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems in low and artificial gravity (Space Station Freedom) • Determine the effects of extended weightlessness on humans Sustainable food supply • Experiment with hydroponics space farm that uses nutrient-rich solutions instead of soil • Develop self-sustaining system from growing fruits and vegetables in space Closed water/waste • Biosphere II, a complete environment treatment system under 3 acres of glass • Controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) • Bioregenerative life support to generate oxygen, supply fresh food, remove excess carbon dioxide Shelter • Develop building materials and alloys from lunar ore • Test use of spherical inflatable housing structure made of Kevlar (Lawrence Livermore Natl. Lab) Oxygen • Extract oxygen from lunar materials for use in life support systems and as propellant Remote health care • Develop clinical health maintenance facility

Sources: Berry 1989; Covault 1989d; “Gardens in Space,” Los Angeles Times 4-2-89; Harford 1989; Henderson 1989; Sawyer 1989; Westinghouse 1989.

The funding requirements to “technological leap” projects achieve such technological cannot even guarantee that advances are difficult to estimate: success will be attained, they are A dichotomy exists between the by definition high-risk. However, cost to make the leap and the achievement of the breakthrough cost savings achieved as a provides enormous rewards to the result of the leap. Since the technology owner and breakthrough has not yet been permanently redefines the achieved, it is impossible to competitive arena to the predict how many false starts advantage of the breakthrough must be surmounted in the innovator. Because the efforts are struggle up the learning curve often very expensive, they are to success (table 5). Such increasingly undertaken on an development does not necessarily industry-wide basis; because the follow a straight line; it is often a results can be very lucrative, they series of iterations, evolutionary in are often kept secret from other its unfolding. Because these nations—guarded like the national treasures they are.

TABLE 5. The Life Cycle of a Technological Breakthrough

Phases

Experimental Developmental Operational

Cost exposure can be reduced while the United States is through partnerships among launching initiatives in a broad government agencies, industry, range of arenas (manned and academia, and entrepreneurs unmanned), most of the other from the same country—or via major participants, with the international partnerships. When exception of the Soviet Union, a government participates in a have restricted their immediate project, supported by public goals to profitable commercial financing, the results of the applications while seeking activity are typically in the independence in space as a public domain. Alternatively, long-term objective (table 6). government agencies may fund This suggests that European, corporations and entrepreneurial Japanese, and other participants companies conducting research are viewing space development and developing products, often from a highly competitive, with the understanding that what commercial vantage point. While they learn in the process can be they are seeking full autonomy in privately held and spun off into space, they are willing to joint commercial products. venture in the short term (they say) in order to catch up. Overall, A review of the national space space is viewed as a terrain in development strategies of which major technological leads selected countries reveals that can be developed and sustained.

TABLE 6. National Space Development Strategies: A Comparison

Country/agency Focus Philosophy Strengths/weaknesses U.S A./NASA Unmanned Massive Bush commitment to exploration technological take a fresh look Manned leaps in R&D Continually changing spacefaring objectives vision/funding

U.S.S.R. Put man on Gradual Management sharply Mars within development criticized next 25 years of space capabilities

Europe/ESA Propulsion Full autonomy Reluctant to commit technologies in space by financing year 2000 Has technical ability to be a major space power but seems to lack political will required to achieve most cost-effective results

Japan/NASDA Commercial- Good space Heavily subsidized by ($1.1 billion) ization science doesn't Japanese private Institute of Space need to be companies & Astronautical expensive A late start because Sciences no military expenditure, ($114 million) but reshaping program for 1990s

Canada/Canadian Robotics Cooperate to Robotics a Canadian Space Agency ($1 participate in strength billion + ) new technology Target strategic development technologies that make possible the mission-critical mobile servicing system

India/Indian Commercial- Attract industry Guarantees 15% profit Space Research ization through margin on projects Organization divesting Encourages honing (ISRO) management & technical skills technical Deemed “export,” operation of entitles suppliers to selected huge tax concessions facilities to industry

Sources: Bennett 1987; De Cotret 1988; Gibson 1984; Kapur 1987; Lenorovitz 1988a, b, c; “Soviets Put Craft,” New York Times 1-30-89.

This focus on capability Getting Into Space: Propulsion development may appear low-key to the general public when The single most frustrating problem compared to more visible Moon related to space development is or Mars projects, because it is the prohibitive cost of getting technology-centered and forces vehicles, materials, and people repetitive iterations to uncover the into space. Once out of Earth’s product or process dynamics in gravity field, there are additional enough depth to engineer a major issues regarding maneuverability innovation. However, our success and propulsion through deep in advancing our capabilities will space. The pace of ensure the smooth implementation commercialization, however, of those more visible, destination- depends on the pace focused projects. of the launching business.

Concept for a Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle Derived from the Space Shuttle By replacing the Shuttle’s manned orbiter with a cargo carrier, the payload capacity of the space transportation system can be increased by 2–3 times over current capacity per launch. Costs should also be lower. NASA photo: S79-35471

Figure 7 Experimental—skills beyond a as well as a tremendous impact on single organization: The most American competitiveness in the Concept for the National Aerospace Plane impressive propulsion project aerospace field, which is our being developed today is the number 1 export category. A direct Technologies developed for the national aerospace plane (and spinoffs from that national aerospace plane (see counter to similar efforts under way technology development) would greatly fig. 7). Regarded as of profound by the Europeans, the Japanese, improve the competitive position of the strategic urgency, it is expected to and the Soviets, it is expected to United States in the aerospace field. This have a major effect on the course be completed by 1997 (3 to 5 years revolutionary class of vehicles would be of U.S. space and aeronautics ahead of the others). able to take off and land horizontally on standard runways like a conventional development into the 21st century airplane, cruise in the upper atmosphere at hypersonic speed, or fly directly into Earth orbit.

Its “scramjet” engines would burn a mixture of hydrogen and air, thus obviating the need to carry liquid oxygen. Its horizontal takeoff and landing (HOTOL) capability would eliminate the need for vertical launch facilities currently required for the Space Shuttle and unmanned boosters. These two capabilities should allow the spaceplane to deliver payloads to orbit at a fraction of today’s cost.

The technologies are applicable to supersonic (above Mach 2, or 1300 mph) military transports and hypersonic (above 4000 mph) civil planes that could fly passengers from the United States to Japan in 2 hours.

The phase of the joint Department of Defense/NASA effort which began in 1986 involves development of key technologies in propulsion, aerodynamics, advanced structures, high-temperature materials, and computational fluid dynamics. Computer simulation is used to “fly” mathematical models of the national aerospace plane, which must attain 17 000 mph (Mach 25) to escape Earth’s gravity and reach orbit. Artist: Stan H. Stokes (NASA Art Program Collection) NASA photo: S89-32598

Particle Tracings Over the Space Shuttle Imaged by NASA’s Numerical Aerodynamic Simulator The effect of hypersonic airflow upon such vehicles cannot be tested in wind tunnels, which go no higher than Mach 8. NASA’s Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation Facility, located at Ames Research Center, is using Cray supercomputers to build to an eventual capability of 10 billion calculations per second. Such computational capability will not only provide enormous impetus to aerospace development but also permit major advances in other structural design, materials research, chemistry, and meteorology.

A team of private industry contractors is sharing development costs with the Government and operating as a noncompetitive consortium to share research data, keep costs down, and quicken the pace of technology. NASA photo: S88-47746

The national aerospace plane is • Determine the effect of sure to be a major technological hypersonic atmospheric leap if achieved, because never chemistry (Lavin 1989) before has an experimental aircraft been designed to fly so much Clear standards of cost- faster and higher than any other effectiveness have been defined plane (Covault 1989a). Its design for the national aerospace plane: parameters are to • Must be cheaper to operate • Achieved a speed of than the Shuttle and require 17 000 mph to escape less manpower Earth’s gravitational pull • Must be able to use any and reach orbit. standard airport in the world • Circle the globe in (Lavin 1989) 90 minutes • Withstand a temperature of 3000 °F • Have engines designed to gulp oxygen from the air

What is remarkable about this under way regarding ways to program is the extent of national- collaborate in building the plane level, industry-wide collaboration itself (Lavin 1989). focused on this critical technological breakthrough. What is alarming is that our Truly the best skills have been leadership in this area is not brought to bear on the task. The secured, and major competitors project team includes NASA, the have set their sights on the same Pentagon, and five U.S. aerospace goals. The European Space companies led by the Air Force Agency, representing 13 European (three airframe manufacturers and countries, has a three-pronged two engine manufacturers). In space program that includes a fifth- effect, all of the major competitors generation Ariane heavy lift rocket, in the aerospace industry have a module of Space Station been invited to participate equally— Freedom, and three versions of the on a level playing field. Take the horizontal take-off and landing development work for the heat- aircraft (table 7). This horizontal resistant material: None of the take-off technology is regarded as companies could afford to do all so critical that the Europeans the research alone, so each has cannot agree on who should lead specialized in one type of material, the project, where it should be sharing the results with all headquartered, or how it should be competitors. Discussions are engineered.

TABLE 7. European Space Agency: Three-Pronged Space Program*

Program Scope Participants Est. budget

Ariane V Liquid hydrogen & France 45% $3.5 billion heavy lift oxygen fuel W. Germany 22% rocket Max. load 100 000 kg Italy 15% Will double launch Others 18% capability Hermes Target launch 1996–7 Avions Dassault-Breguet $4.4 billion piloted (engineering) spaceplane Aerospatiale (coordination) (45% French funding)

“HOTOL” U.K. alternative Upgraded version of British Aerospace (Horizontal Concorde: horizontal Take-Off take-off, air-breathing & Landing) engines to boost to (three near vertical trajectory, alternatives) horizontal return

Sanger A small reusable W. German (W. German spacecraft launched aerospace alternative) from back of aircraft, companies reaching orbit on own power, then gliding back to Earth Columbus Part of U.S.A.-led 13 member $3.7 billion Space int. space station states Module project

*ESA is reluctant to commit to all three key space projects. Sources: Dickson 1986, 1987; Mordoff 1988.

Developmental—synergies and “microspace” (that is, smaller and interfaces: The United States is more affordable rockets and ahead in low-cost rockets for small satellites), it is intended to launch payloads, thanks to Orbital and “lightsats,” a new class of satellites. other small entrepreneurial The objective of this highly focused organizations. Orbital Sciences development strategy was to Corporation developed a 50-foot, provide space-oriented products winged rocket, the Pegasus, and and services that appeal to a wider launched it from a B-52 flying over group of governments, companies, the Pacific Ocean. (See figure 8.) and entrepreneurial consumers. Pegasus’ winged design is a first This down-sizing effectively reduces for unmanned rockets, giving the the cost per pound of payloads in vehicle the extra lift it needs to orbit, a critical factor in developing head toward orbit most efficiently a broader based commercial space from a horizontal airborne launch. industry. Developed to address the needs of

Figure 8

The Pegasus Rocket Designed and built by Orbital Sciences Corporation and Hercules Aerospace Company and sponsored by NASA and DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), this 50-foot-long, winged rocket is carried aloft by a B-52 before the first of its three motors is ignited. Its down-sizing is intended to offer much lower cost for the delivery to orbit of lightweight satellites.

Once Orbital’s rocket is made There have been two keys to operational, the company expects success in operating a launch to sell commercial launches for business: $6–7 million or $6000 per pound of payload (versus $20 000 per pound • The right product for small satellites carried by other lightweight payload rockets, such Europeans believed that unmanned as the Scout rocket by LTV launchers such as Ariane would Corporation). It is important to continue to offer the better solution observe the amount of Government for launching satellites that do not support required for such require the presence of astronauts. entrepreneurial efforts: The The primary goal of Arianespace Pentagon’s Defense Advanced was to give Europe an independent Research Projects Agency launch capability for its own (DARPA) paid $6.5 million to Orbital satellites (Dickson 1986), but the for the launching, making the result has been to provide a project economically feasible, and competitive advantage in the NASA provided the B-52 for the international marketplace launch, effectively establishing the (Lenorovitz 1988a, b, c). Ariane of credibility of the provider. NASA Arianespace has averaged about and DARPA are considered to be a 50-percent share of the global anchor customers—the largest and launch market, also taking a share most sophisticated consumers of from the Space Shuttle after the space products, consumers whose Challenger disaster. Forty-three needs create the demand for, and satellites were launched between define the parameters of, new the beginning of Ariane’s products and processes to be commercial program, in 1981, and developed (Stevenson 1990). 1990. More than 32 launches are scheduled, as of February 1990, at Operational—indicators of success: a value of $2.36 billion. Launches The unmanned vertical rocket have been suspended twice: once launch business is an established in May 1986 and again in February technology, in an established 1990, both times to allow for industry, with heavy global inquiries into explosions of rockets competition. A $2 billion worldwide in flight, destroying their satellite industry, the commercial launch of cargoes (“Panel To Examine” satellites is forecast to continue to 1990). Ariane must adhere to a grow through the 1990s. As rapid and sustained launch rate if it communications networks are is to fulfill the orders currently on being privatized and deregulated its books and to compete for new worldwide, even more activity can business. be expected (Cook and Lewis 1988).

• The right price in salaries (10 000 people are required at Cape Kennedy to The Space Shuttle, a manned launch it). At only eight or ten vertical launch vehicle, was flights a year, the cost is at least expected to command 75 percent $300 million per flight (Brown of the global launch business 1989). After the Challenger when envisioned by Nixon in the accident, President Reagan 1970s. We were first in a market determined that private companies that was wide open—but with the would handle all commercial wrong price parameters. The launches (Peterson and Schares lower the launch cost, the broader 1988). the customer base. However, we somehow got locked into a Three U.S. companies (McDonnell technology that is not cost- Douglas, Martin Marietta, and effective. Although it has been a General Dynamics) are going head superb research vehicle and it has to head with companies abroad for taught us how to design a reusable business (see table 8) and have reentry vehicle that could bring occasionally enjoyed a cost material back from space, the advantage depending on the overriding reason it was built was to changing value of the dollar. lower costs. Reusable has turned Ariane is considered to be an equal out to mean “uncorrectable.” The competitor with the United States in Shuttle’s overhead cost is $3 billion heavy-launching capacity, and the a year, excluding the hidden costs Japanese are catching up fast.

TABLE 8. Worldwide Commercial Launch Market, a $2 Billion Space Transportation Industry

Company Rocket Payload capacity, Cost/launch, Success rate, Ib (kg) $ million %

McDonnell Douglas Delta II 4 000 (1800) 50 98 Martin Marietta Titan III 10 000 (4500) 110 96 General Dynamics Atlas-Centaur 5 200 (2400) 59 95 Ariane IV 9 200 (4200) 85 80 China Long March 3 4 000 (1800) 35 U.S.S.R. Proton 4 800 (2200) 36 Japan (Will begin competing in 1993)

Sources: Cook and Lewis 1988, Feder 1900, Peterson and Schares 1988.

Price competition is stiff. For and food without regeneration example, China typically beats because of the short timeframes of Ariane’s satellite launch price by the missions undertaken. Since several million dollars and usually resupply would be impossible at agrees to underwrite $30–60 million a location like Mars, which is insurance on the launch for a 2–3 years away from Earth, premium 15 to 20 percent below resources would have to be world rates (Peterson and Schares reclaimed and reused more and 1988) as a way of buying a larger more, or else mined, grown, or share of the market. otherwise produced onsite. Work is under way on a partially closed Living Healthily in Space: Full air and water system for the space functioning station, which may be sufficient for initial trips to the Moon and Mars. Human spacefaring is only It may be desirable to extend the worthwhile if it is a peak system to a self-monitored and experience—that is, if really self-controlled ecological life challenging and creative work can support system that turns metabolic be done in space. For humans to and other waste into food, potable be as productive in space as they water, and a breathable atmosphere are on Earth, their life support by integrating biological, physical, system must be totally integrated, and chemical processes (Aaron et leaving individuals whole and al. 1989). intact, so that their functions are not in any way impaired. A controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) program was Life Sciences received only initiated by NASA in the late $124 million of NASA’s 1970s. The long-term goal is to $13.3 billion budget for fiscal year devise a bioregenerative support 1990. Without understanding the system to generate oxygen, supply scope of research required to fresh food, and remove excessive resolve the critical issues, it is carbon dioxide from the station. difficult to say whether that is too By reducing the amount of little or too much. At first glance, expendables that must be however, it appears that life carried into space, the system is support research is less advanced expected to lower operating costs. than other areas of space Essentially, CELSS uses biological engineering and science. systems to recycle air, water, and waste products (Hubbard 1989). A Life support: To date, it has physical/chemical version of this been possible to send astronauts system is planned for Space into space with a full stock of Station Freedom. This system will expendables such as air, water, recycle the water and air supply

using nonbiological technology. to provide psychological comfort as A more advanced system which well as supply fresh food to crews incorporates plants and food who are isolated from the Earth for production is being explored for a long time. Research continues Moon and Mars missions. on recycling, system stability, and food production (Hubbard 1989). Initial cost in terms of mass lifted NASA has awarded grants to into orbit will be high; but, since it universities and research centers is expected to function indefinitely to experiment with growing such and since it will pay for itself (that crops as wheat, lettuce, white is, generate food and oxygen potatoes, sweet potatoes, equal in mass to the mass of the soybeans, sugar beets, and system) in 5–7 years, the system is peanuts under weightless expected to have minimal costs conditions and under different over its lifetime. A benefit of a types of artificial light (“NASA bioregenerative system is its ability Seeks” 1988).

Lunar Greenhouse Such a bioregenerative life support system might provide psychological comfort, as well as fresh food, water, and air, to crews isolated from the Earth for a long time. Courtesy of the artist: Robert McCall NASA photo: S89-25241

Gravity: Only one man, Yuri changes that can cause astronauts Romanenko, a Soviet cosmonaut, to suffer temporary disorientation has ever been in orbit for close to a and sickness during a mission, year: He took a 326-day mission in there are more serious 1987. His condition upon return musculoskeletal and cardiovascular was quite alarming. He had effects such as loss of muscle significant loss of skeletal bone; he mass, bone decalcification, and lost 15 percent of muscle volume in blood pooling that can cause his legs—enough to require him to problems in flight and after the relearn to walk—despite exercise; astronauts return to gravity. and there are serious concerns Exposure to space produces about his heart. biochemical and physiological changes in plants and animals from Although the human body responds the cellular level to the whole to microgravity with neurovestibular organism.

Bone Densitometer This total body bone densitometer measures the total calcium in the human body. Loss of calcium has been seen in astronauts and cosmonauts who have experienced weightlessness for more than a few days. Such a loss has also been observed in subjects in bed rest studies (the conditions of which may more nearly resemble the reduced gravity of the Moon). The Medical Sciences Division at the Johnson Space Center is studying ways to reduce the calcium loss in space by giving subjects exercises to perform or medication or both. NASA photo: S88-33953

Space Station Freedom will have a of data reveals an interdependence life science research facility that will among the musculoskeletal, include a centrifuge system (1.8– cardiovascular, and endocrine 2.5 meters in diameter) that systems. There is an emerging produces an environment with interdisciplinary approach at gravity levels of 0.01–2.0 g. This Ames which recognizes the is a first step in a program that interrelationship of physical forces, requires acceleration devices in gene expression, metabolic order to analyze the effects of processes, and hormonal activity. microgravity and varying levels Biomedical research, human and exposure times of linear performance, and life support acceleration on biological systems systems form the core of the Ames (Hubbard 1989). program. How the effect of microgravity on human systems There are now serious doubts that can be modified by exercise, humans can work effectively or artificial gravity, autogenic feedback efficiently in weightlessness for training, and nutrition is under longer than 4 to 5 months. study (Hubbard 1989). Humans cannot stay weightless in space more than about 12 months The space station’s clinical health without risking permanent physical maintenance facility includes basic damage (Banks 1989). Since diagnostic and therapeutic the shortest Mars trip will take equipment both for use in near- 14–17 months, and the more Earth orbit and for gauging the efficient trips will take 3 years, more demanding medical advanced countermeasures are a implications of exploration must. They will probably include missions (Aaron et al. 1989). artificial gravity created by rotating the entire vehicle or by using a Shelter: Shielding systems must local centrifuge. Areas of further be developed for flight as well as at study on artificial gravity include the destination points. Travelers to temporary versus constant Mars would face ionizing radiation, exposure, radius and rates of mostly galactic cosmic rays in rotation, and the associated g interplanetary space, and might loadings, side effects, and experience severe proton flux from problems of transition between occasional solar particle events. nonrotating and rotating Shielding must protect the crew in environments (Aaron et al. 1989). flight, whereas burrowing or placing bags of soil atop habitats will A goal of NASA’s Ames Research probably protect explorers on the Center is to extend the presence of martian or lunar surfaces (Aaron et humans in space. A growing body al. 1989).

Options for Habitat Radiation Shielding

Dr. Lowell W. Wood and his group these systems would be used at Lawrence Livermore National without testing in space and thus Laboratory suggest building the risks to the crew would be inflatable spacecraft for space much higher. stations and a Mars probe instead of the rigid metal variety now Producing in Space: planned. The use of inflatables Commercialization accounts for part of the cost savings asserted by the LLNL The U.S. Commerce Department proposal. The drawback is that projects that space venture

Lunar Outpost In this artist’s concept of the lunar outpost described in NASA’s 90-Day Study, the construction shack (foreground right) has been used as the initial habitat while the larger inflatable dome habitat was put into 1. The inflatable habitat place, inflated, outfitted, covered with 2. The construction shack regolith for radiation shielding, and 3. Connecting tunnel 4. Continuous, coiled regolith bags for provided with solar power. In the concept radiation protection proposed by Lowell Wood and his group at 5. Regolith bagging machine, coiling bags Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, around the habitat while bulldozer by contrast, the inflatable comes with all scrapes loose regolith into its path its contents already inside. It inflates 6. Thermal radiator for shack automatically, and all the interior structure 7. Solar panel for shack simply unfolds to provide rooms, plumbing, 8. Experimental six-legged walker electrical circuitry, and furniture. 9. Solar power system for the outpost 10. Road to landing pad Artist: John Michael Stovall 11. Solar power system for the lunar NASA photo: S89-26097 oxygen pilot plant

revenues will be about $3.3 billion insurance costs, safety, and per year, with a real growth of competition from the commercial 10 percent per year. Except interest of other space programs, for communication satellites such as ESA’s Ariane (Lamontague and possibly launch vehicles, 1986). commercial space development is expected to be further down The Reagan Administration the road. The Japanese project designated commercialization a a similar market size in the near basic element of the U.S. space term; they believe that the market program. A major administrative for made-in-space semiconductors, concern was to create mechanisms alloys, glass, ceramics, and for ensuring fairness for companies, biomedicines will top $3.5 billion users, and consumers who will be per year. But they foresee entering the space business in the considerable growth by the year future. To foster a new private- 2000, perhaps even hitting sector space industry, such policy $24 billion (Buell 1987). approaches as privatization, marketing of privately owned It doesn’t make sense to explore technology currently used space with manned missions exclusively by the Government, unless those missions hold an private development of new ultimate possibility of becoming technology with major assistance wealth-creating. The space from the Government, and private industry, as an infant industry, is development of new products extraordinarily high in risk and low and services without major in short-term return. NASA has governmental assistance were taken important steps to nurture introduced (Levine 1985). commercial interest in the program. This is essential to converting Entrepreneurial seeding: U.S. technological insights into spinoff business had been confined to the products and processes, as well as role of Government contractor from having the network in place to NASA’s inception until 1984, when support future development and the Office of Commercial Programs expansion. was formed. Since then, more than half of the 50 largest U.S. industrial Policy formulation: NASA corporations have been participating introduced its Commercial Space in NASA-sponsored commercial Policy (CSP) in 1982 to reduce the space activities. NASA has also risks of doing business in space established an enormous and to establish new links with the technology transfer network and private sector in order to increase developed numerous joint development. Concerns addressed contractual arrangements that offer by the policy included rising flight time for applied industrial

research and development (Switzer commercialization of space more and Rae 1989). This vital role attractive, longer range projects played by NASA in partnership with are also planned in areas that the private sector has enabled the businesses need, such as creating U.S. program to keep ahead. vacuums and growing crystals (Feder 1990). The NASA Center for Advanced Space Propulsion at the University The United States is not alone in of Tennessee Space Institute near stimulating private participation: Tullahoma is one of 16 proposed The Europeans and the Japanese research centers to receive are aggressively seeking $5 million per year from NASA for opportunities to develop and 5 years as startup capital, after provide products and processes which the centers are to be to the global space industry. financially self-sufficient. Initially focusing on studying access to Intospace GMBH (Hanover, West space, the U.T. consortium Germany), the most active and includes important of European space companies, is a consortium of • Auburn University 94 European industrial investors, • Princeton University mainly German giants such as • University of Alabama, Krupp, Hoechst, and Daimler-Benz. Huntsville This consortium has $3 billion • Air Force’s Arnold Engineering to spend on commercializing Development Center microgravity research (Peterson • Boeing Aerospace Co. and Schares 1988). Intospace is • Calspan Corp. evaluating participation in the • Rocketdyne Cosima flights’ protein crystal • Saturn Corp. growth missions, as well as two • Symbolics, Inc. other research missions— • Technion, Inc. Suleika (space processing of superconductive materials in The objective of these planned microgravity) and Casimer (catalyst consortia is to boost the United materials) (Mordoff 1988). States into a competitive posture in the commercial use of space in Nippon Electric Company, the next century (Mordoff 1988). Mitsubishi Electric, and Toshiba, The early years are expected to be each a $15 billion plus company more research than and a vertically integrated maker manufacturing, with new products of microelectronics, computers, and processes needed for private telecommunications equipment, ventures in space expected to and other high technology evolve from these research efforts. products, previously relied on To make

government contracts and U.S. modules, support structures, solar technology to expand their satellite- panels, station equipment, and related business. Now they are supplies into orbit, will begin using their own capital and forming assembly in 1995, with completion partnerships to develop their own expected in 1999. Five times the products (Davis 1989). length of the Soviet Mir station, it is a spacecraft, a work station, and an Access: Although only in low Earth experimental prototype to research orbit, a network of space stations is products and processes. “It’s the emerging that will enable live first time anything of this magnitude testing of experimental material and has been attempted by the human technologies, hopefully enabling race”—Dr. William F. Fisher, definitive progress in the critical astronaut (Broad 1990c). It will technology areas blocking our house astronauts doing scientific advancement in space. Space experiments (serving as a research Station Freedom, a $30 billion, laboratory) and it is currently being 500-foot U.S. craft consisting of regarded as a way station for nine pressurized modules and voyages to the Moon and Mars requiring 31 shuttle flights to loft (serving as a transportation node).

Space Stations

Skylab, launched May 14, 1973; occupied three times during 1973 and 1974; fell back into the atmosphere July 11, 1979 NASA photo: SL2-7-615 Salyut, wlth a Soyuz spacecraft docked on its left

NASA photo: S86-33100

Mir, with a Soyuz spacecraft docked Freedom below it Artist: Vincent di Fate (NASA Art Program Collection) Photo: Novosti Press Agency NASA photo: S88-27194

The near-zero-gravity environment The Soviet Mir space station, a aboard the Space Shuttle and at 100-foot-long flying laboratory, is the space station was expected nearing completion of the first to lure producers of chemicals, phase of construction of a 20-ton semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, module (Broad 1990). Mir has a metals, and many other products readily accessible lab, available to sign up or begin negotiating on a rental basis to foreign research agreements (“The astronauts and scientists as an $30 Billion Potential” 1984). Such orbiting factory, observatory, basic research interests have not and observation post from which materialized to date. However, Earth’s changing environment as the space industry in general can be studied. The Soviets have begins to evolve, economic demonstrated the ability of humans rationale for such basic research to live and work in orbit for up to might still develop. 7 months. The Soviets have more in-space experience than any other The United States has gotten nation (see table 10); however, leverage from the Space Shuttle their program has some serious and the space station to date on coordination problems. The intergovernmental levels. For Soviets have underestimated the example, the Japanese space complexity of the job. On-orbit agency, NASDA, and NASA are assembly has been harder than sharing the cost of equipment expected. Half of their instruments and have agreed to share data are not yet operational and have obtained from an International not been fully tested (Broad Microgravity Lab (IML-1) to be 1990c). Crews lose time on flown on the Space Shuttle repairs and technical work, and Columbia in early 1991. The series Mir is too small, as it is stuffed with of cooperative experiments includes equipment. Nevertheless, of all developing a new conductive participants in the space industry, material and investigating potential the Soviets share our vision of use of microgravity in making moving beyond low Earth orbit new alloys, semiconductors, and and have the stature, in terms of pharmaceutical products not in-hand technology, to do so. manufactured on Earth (see table 9 for other examples).

TABLE 9. U.S. Leverage Derived From Infrastructure Development: International Cooperative Efforts

Project/ Participants Scope Leverage for launch U.S.A.

Int. Micro- NASA, U.S.A. Series of cooperative Share cost of gravity Lab NASDA, Japan experiments to develop equipment, (IML-1) new conductive material: share data Early 1991 Investigate potential obtained use of microgravity in making new alloys, semiconductors, & pharmaceutical products not manufactured on Earth

Spacelab NASA, U.S.A. Use Spacelab Equipment sharing ESA, Europe free of charge provided by others, Australia Non-U.S. provide share data Canada equipment for obtained Israel experiments (invited by NASA)

Japanese NASDA, Japan Largest joint U.S. technology Satellite NASA, U.S.A. U.S./Japanese & facilities in Geotail space program: exchange for Launch at 80% Japan, 20% U.S.A. Japanese Kennedy To measure the Sun’s financing Space energy flow in the & assembly Center Earth’s magnetic field (1992)

Space NASA, U.S.A. Build orbiting Build larger Station ESA, Europe S.S. Freedom facility than Freedom Canadian possible (1995) Space Agency independently, NASDA, Japan share data

Sources: Moosa 1989, NASA 1988.

TABLE 10. Soviet Union Space Development Program: Strengths and Weaknesses

Areas of strength: in-space experience

• The U.S.S.R. launches 90 to 100 spacecraft yearly, on a regular basis. • 80% of the active satellites orbiting Earth belong to the U.S.S.R. • Soviet cosmonauts have flown in space more than twice the hours of American astronauts and hold the record for human endurance in space. • Space Station Mir, while smaller than Space Station Freedom, is in orbit already, and occupied. The U.S. space station will be functional in 8–10 years. • The Soviets launched Energia, a new heavy lift vehicle, in May 1987, a significant technological step. The Energia is capable of launching 100 tons into Earth orbit—4 times the Space Shuttle payload and 5 times the U.S. rocket payload. • The U.S.S.R. launched 200 payloads into space between 1985 and 1987— 10 times the number of the U.S.A.

Areas of weakness: program coordination

• The 1990 mission with the Energia launcher has been cancelled, creating a gap of more than 2 years between heavy lift vehicle flights. It has been rescheduled for 1991. • The aerospace industry is so decentralized that scientists and other space mission planners are excluded from participation in critical spacecraft development. • The Soviet 1994 Mars lander-balloon mission is 5 years away from launch but still has not been fully defined. • Two Phobos Mars missions failed. • Changes have to be made in the design, software, and quality control of the dominant unmanned segment of the program to overcome the delays and failures of the last 2 years. • Shuttle development took expertise away from the rest of the program. • The U.S.S.R. space program employs over one million scientists and engineers, but there has been little substantial output. Risk taking is discouraged; thus, there has been only gradual development of simple systems and a lack of good instrumentation.

Sources: Anderson 1988; Budiansky 1987–88; Covault 1989a; DeAngelo and Borbely 1989; Lavone 1985, “Soviet Technology,” Aviation Week 3-20-89.

Access to space does not belong satellite programs, a robotic exclusively to national governments program, and a space factory for and their space agencies. Several drugs and semiconductors, and private companies have developed infrastructural projects, including space station concepts on their the construction of four platforms, own, including Space Industries, an orbital maneuvering vehicle, Boeing, and Westinghouse, which and an inter-orbit transport space are designing a $500 million vehicle, as well as participation Industrial Space Facility in Webster, in the U.S. space station and Texas, for completion in the early construction of their own dedicated 1990s, and General Electric, which Japanese space station (by 2008). is designing an unmanned, free- These projects are in addition to flying minilab. the HOPE spaceplane development project (see table 11). If all of The Japanese have been rather these activities are realized, the reticent to date regarding Japanese will have a significant participation in the space industry; base from which to develop however, they initiated a $43 billion products and processes to meet space development program for the needs of the space industry as the period 1989–2006, which it grows, as well as to create new is composed of a series of product concepts for Planet Earth commercial projects, including consumers.

TABLE 11. Japanese Space Commercialization Program, $43 Billion, 1989–2006

Proposed project Est. cost, Timetable billions of dollars

Development of spaceplane “HOPE” (H-2 Orbiting Plane), 15.86 1989–2006 with H-2 rocket booster

Participation in U.S. Space Station Freedom (space-processing module) 2.23 1987–1995 Polar-orbit platform 1.24 1988–2006 Station common orbiting platform 3.31 1989–2010* Orbital maneuvering vehicle 0.82 1991–1995 Inter-orbit transport space vehicle 6.21 1992–2000 Geosynchronous orbit platform 2.48 1995–2008* Manned platform 3.31 1996–2001 Dedicated Japanese station 7.31 2001–2008* Satellite programs (+ H-2 booster) 20.5 1989–2004 (incl. communications, broadcasting, weather) Robotic space research program 2.4 Early 2000s* “ADEOS” (Advanced Earth Observation 1.2 1994+ Satellite) (precursor to participation in int. Mission to Planet Earth)

Space factory for drugs Mid-2000s* & semiconductors No budget yet

*Not included in the $43 billion commercial program. Sources: Buell 1987; “Japanese Commission,” Aviation Week 7-13-87.

Destination-Driven Innovation: on Mars, might just reveal to us a The Evolution of Major Resource methodology for terraforming Development Projects Mars—delivering to us yet another entire planet to inhabit. …the empty fragility of even the noblest theorizings as We have a knowledge base compared with the definitive developed during the Apollo days plenitude of the smallest fact that can be readily applied to a grasped in its total, concrete return mission to the Moon or to reality. new ventures outward in the solar (de Chardin 1972, p. 62) system to Mars. However, more than 20 years have passed since Colonizing the Moon or Mars the landing of Apollo on the Moon, seems almost frivolous when markedly diminishing the pool of placed against the backdrop of experts with hands-on experience. problems, concerns, crises near at We are fast approaching a point hand on Planet Earth. However, where it will become necessary to there are realities taking shape reinvent the wheel. that may make such projects real lifesavers: Our planet is simply More than the expertise to be lost exploding with people; our by not moving toward settlement of supplies of raw materials and a particular destination is the resources are being drained; expertise to be gained from the continued pollution of the synergy required to plan, develop, environment by manufacturing and operate such a project. Solar plants and the burning of fossil scientists and electrical engineers, fuels is endangering the long-term for example, tend to keep their own sustainability of our ecosystem. company in planning, designing, And the relationships between and prototyping solar energy atmosphere and climate uncovered systems and equipment. However, in the examination of the when the discussion changes to greenhouse effect on Planet establishing a colony on the Moon, Earth, combined with further a whole range of very tangible examination of existing conditions problems and issues become

immediately relevant: dealing with proven. It is simply not feasible to the long days and nights; providing move workers out to construct a energy for residential, commercial, work camp with an unproven power and manufacturing support; source or oxygen supply. Thus, providing sufficient backup to destination focused innovation is sustain life in the face of any and subsequent to development of the all calamities. Many insights will vital technological capabilities, but come from the interface of the destination people can and prospective corporate users, certainly should have input into the astronauts, scientists, and capability development process. engineers. Once exploration of potential sites Finally, the timing of such a is completed, a destination is magnificently difficult undertaking selected, and colonization has been is critical. The vital capabilities decided on, the major resource must be in place before site development project begins to development planning begins. evolve (see table 12), following a It is simply not possible to begin very clear and well-tested path to design an industrial city that from concept development, through includes technologies that are still negotiation and contract letting, to being developed. All systems, construction and finally startup (see processes, technologies used must table 13), each of which will be have achieved closure: they must examined in one of the following be fully developed, tested, and sections.

TABLE 12. U.S. Mission Scenarios: Destination-Driven Innovation

Destination Proposed Scope Est. Est. project(s) budget schedule Moon As observatory Sporadic missions to (proposed) conduct scientific experiments; or unmanned astronomical observatory As base colony Live off the land, free (no Mars) of logistical support from Earth As milestone to Manned lunar outpost: $33 2019 on Mars Multiple science billion Mars operations /year Develop experience Staging area for Mars expedition Mars Exploration Exploration, operations (proposed) Technologies humans-in-space R&D vehicle technology research to get to Mars at a reasonable cost Mars Rover 10 unmanned precursor $40 10 years Sample Return sampling missions to billion (MRSR) photograph, return rock & soil samples, meteorological data, water content, mineral composition of soil Mars via Moon (see Moon) Mars direct Single expedition $36 2019 billion /year (peak) Manned outpost/ no lunar base Manned outpost prior to lunar base Phobos & Moons of Mars Deimos Universe 35 missions Extraordinary $18 1990–95 (under way) planned cosmological billion discoveries expected that could revolutionize major areas of science, especially physics (unmanned)

Sources: Broad 1989, 1990a, b, d; Cook 1989; Covault 1988, 1989b, c, d; Del Guidice 1989; Lane 1989; “Mars, the Morning After,” Christian Science Monitor 7-27-89.

TABLE 13. Life Cycle of a Major Resource Development Project

Development of a particular technology already existed and just destination in space is not free needed to be adapted to the from the need to innovate and expanded scale. Many, however, advance. We have no experience introduced completely new in establishing large communities technology. We may have already that are completely dependent on zeroed in on the two or three best their infrastructure for oxygen. materials for use in space, but it is We have not yet developed another issue altogether to produce construction techniques for enough and work with it in the connecting materials that will amounts required to establish an endure in space and provide industrial city. sufficient protection against radiation. Our entire body of Exploring Uncharted Courses materials, construction techniques, logistical concerns, and supply Before we can reach out to space, networks must be experimented master the abundance of its with and established. Our notions resources, and make it truly ours, of project management must be we must understand what is there, revised—perhaps even to include how it is laid out, and how the “breakthrough” management—so various components interact. This that, as the project unfolds, requires developing and operating innovative solutions can be sighted, instruments to measure, define, experimented with, and efficiently bring back samples, map, integrated. photograph, and provide high- resolution imaging. We are not completely in the dark in this regard. All of the very Unmanned planetary probes have largest scale development projects proven to be efficient, exciting, and installed on Earth have had some scientifically rewarding. Voyager 2, ground-breaking technology for example, was launched component. In most cases the 12 years ago and is still functioning

flawlessly. In fact we are the only strategic niche in which we have spacefaring nation that has had faced little competition to date— Figure 9 the confidence and ability to send perhaps because the payback from Voyager at Neptune machines on long, intricate such activities is not immediately journeys to the giant outer planets apparent. Spacecraft, NASA photo: S79-31146 (see fig. 9). This is an exclusive This Voyager 2 picture of Neptune, taken in August 1989, is one of the best full-disk views of that planet. Neptune, 30 000 miles in diameter, is the smallest of the big gaseous outer planets. The small white features are high clouds of condensed methane, which cast shadows on the top of the denser atmosphere below. The two larger, dark features are the Great Dark Spot and Small Dark Spot. They are the upper expression of giant storms in the atmosphere of Neptune and appear to be similar to the Giant Red Spot on Jupiter. Neptune, NASA photo: S89-43301

This view of Triton is a mosaic of a number of closeup photographs taken on August 25, 1989, during the closest encounter of Voyager 2 with the satellite of Neptune. Triton has a complex surface, with a few craters, probably made by comets. Triton probably has a silicate core about 1250 miles in diameter covered by a crust of water ice about 200 miles thick. A thin layer of nitrogen ice may overlay part or all of the water ice. Some of the complex morphology is caused by the fracturing of these icy mantles and the outflowing of liquid water at some time in the past. The temperature at the surface of Triton was measured by Voyager 2 at 38 K, making it one of the coldest surfaces in the solar system. Methane frost is also likely present, and the reddish color of some regions may be caused by sunlight UV radiation reacting with the frozen methane. Triton, NASA photo: S89-44234

A balanced approach is a basic nature (Lederman 1990) (see tenet of NASA’s current space table 14, which accompanied a science strategic plan, which New York Times article on the includes a mix of moderate Hubble Space Telescope). The and major missions totaling Hubble Space Telescope, the most six launches a year in the early expensive unmanned scientific 1990s (Smith 1989). A major new spacecraft ever built by the United science mission is planned every States and the most difficult to year through the turn of the operate, was developed by century. Over the next 5 years, 60 scientists from 38 institutions the United States has a firm selected by NASA and involved schedule to put up 35 scientific nearly every sector of the space flights, a rate 6 times as great as agency. A $1.5 billion effort, during the past decade and equal with an operating budget of to that of the 1960s (Cook 1989). $200 million/year, it is a product of such U.S. organizations as the The task of developing an Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which instrument with which to explore developed the wide-field camera; the universe is getting to be a Lockheed Missiles and Space highly collaborative effort. “Big Company, which built the science”—a term coined by Alvin spacecraft; and Perkin-Elmer Weinberg in the 1960s when he Corporation, which devised the was director of the Oak Ridge electro-optical system. Critical National Laboratory in Tennessee— help was also provided by the involves the collaboration of teams 13-nation European Space Agency, of researchers, technicians, which provided 15 percent of the Government officials, university funds and supplied some of administrators, and industrial the equipment in return for an contractors and large sums of equivalent amount of observing money to produce new instruments time by its scientists (see table 15) to advance our understanding of (Wilford 1990a, b).

TABLE 14. The High Price of Future Scientific Progress Federal science projects to be carried out in the 1990’s whose construction costs are $100 million or more

Category Project Expected Cost Completion Life To Build

Space Station 1999 30 $30 An orbiting outpost from which astronauts are to conduct a years billion variety of scientific experiments and possibly set up a forward base for the manned exploration of the Moon and Mars.

Human Genome Project 2005 -- $3 The largest basic biology project ever undertaken, seeking to billion delineate the entire human genetic code, consisting of three billion subunits of DNA that influence human development.

Cassini Saturn Probe 1996 12 $800 Unmanned craft to examine the giant planet’s atmosphere, years million rings and moons Comet Rendezvous and Asteroid Flyby 1995 12 $800 Unmanned craft to rendezvous with comet Kopff for three years million years of study Mars Observer 1992 3 $500 Unmanned craft to orbit planet for observation of surface, years million atmosphere and gravitational fields

Earth Observation System 2000 15 $17 Orbiting satellites to obtain wide array of data on environ- years billion mental changes Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 1991 3 $740 Satellite to gather data on earth’s ozone loss and other years million chemical trends Ocean Topography Experiment 1992 3 $480 Satellite to map ocean circulation and its interaction with years million atmosphere

Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory 1997 15 $1.6 Satellite to investigate black holes, dark matter, age of years billion universe Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 1991 2.5 $200 Satellite to map sky in unusual region of electromagnetic years million spectrum Gravitational Wave Observatory 1995 20 $190 Two ground-based instruments to try to detect gravity waves years million 8-Meter Optical Telescopes 2000 30 $170 Two ground-based instruments for general study of years million stars and planets

Superconducting Supercollider 1999 30 $8 54-mile instrument to study elementary particles and forces years billion Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 1997 20 $400 2.5-mile atom smasher to probe structure of atomic nucleus years million Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator 1994 20 $265 1-mile instrument to probe same structure in different way years million

Advanced Photon Source 1997 30 $455 Light-generating ring to probe matter’s structure years million High Magnetic Field Laboratory 1995 30 $110 Facility for study of magnetic phenomena and materials years million Advanced Light Source 1993 20 $100 Small light-generating ring to study atomic structure of matter years million $64.8 BILLION TOTAL

Taken from William J. Broad, 1990d, “Heavy Costs of Major Projects Pose a Threat to Basic Science,” New York Times, May 27, sec. A, pp. 1, 20. The Times’ sources: NASA, Department of Energy, National Science Foundation. Illustrations by Seth Feaster.

TABLE 15. The Hubble Space Telescope

Vision: Revolutionize mankind’s understanding of the universe

Mission: Determine • How fast the universe is expanding • How old the universe is • What the fate of the universe is

Scope: Focus on visible and ultraviolet light from all classes of heavenly bodies

Sponsors: Johns Hopkins University Space Telescope Science Institute NASA

Operation: Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, a consortium of 20 institutions

Design/ 60 scientists from 38 institutions (selected by NASA) development:

Equipment • Wide-field camera—Jet Propulsion Laboratory development: • Faint-object camera—European Space Agency • Spacecraft—Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. • Electro-optical system—Perkin-Elmer Corp. • Glass plates—Coming Glass Works

Development $1.5 billion, with a final cost of $2.1 billion including $600 million budget: in ground support facilities to test and operate the telescope and process data from it

Operational $200 million/year budget:

Maintenance: Serviced by Shuttle astronauts every 2 years; returned to Earth every 5 years for a complete overhaul

Planned 1500 astronomers in 30 countries submitted a total of observations: 600 proposals for observations, in five categories: • Planets in the solar system and search for planetary systems around other stars • Stars and stellar systems • Areas between stars • Galaxies • Quasars Source: Wilford 1990b.

Projects such as the proposed soil (fig. 10) are just some of the Exploration Technologies (formerly exploratory support systems

Pathfinder) R&D to develop essential to determining whether Figure 10 exploration, operations, and piloted a particular destination is worth space vehicle technology to get to developing. Mars Rover Sample Return Mars at a reasonable cost and the Robotic collection and return to Earth of Mars Rover Sample Return The two major destinations martian geologic samples would greatly (MRSR), a set of 10 unmanned under serious discussion are increase our understanding of the history precursor sampling missions to Mars (6 to 12 months away) and of Mars and would help us make workable plans for human exploration of Mars. photograph, return rock and soil the Moon (3 days away). Many Analysis of the samples would help samples, and gather meteorological questions must be answered establish how recently volcanoes have data in order to determine the before a development location is been active, what might have happened to water and mineral content of the targeted and detailed planning an earlier, more Earth-like atmosphere, can begin. and whether surface conditions were ever hospitable to living organisms. In addition to high scientific value in its own right, such knowledge would enable astronaut crews to focus on the most important locations and scientific issues during their later exploration of the Mars surface.

Sample return in advance of human explorers would require either autonomous or remotely operated vehicles that could collect and package samples of rocks, soil, and atmosphere and launch them from the Mars surface to Mars orbit and on to Earth. A roving vehicle (foreground) is one attractive option for collecting the desired samples. Whether the rover moves on wheels (as shown), tracks, or legs, it will have to navigate around surface hazards and deliver the samples to the stationary launch vehicle (background). Current planning suggests that each such rover/launcher combination would be capable of returning about 5 kilograms (11 pounds) of samples to Earth. Artist: John Frassanito NASA photo: S88-53404

Men on the Moon—the First and Last (So Far) Both Apollo 11 moonwalkers can be seen in the photo above: Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin is the subject of photographer Neil Armstrong, who can be seen reflected in Aldrin’s visor. Apollo 17 photographer Gene Cernan was not so lucky when he snapped the photo below; his subject, geologist Harrison “Jack” Schmitt, was concentrating on taking a sample of “House Rock.” NASA photos: AS11-40-5903 and AS17-140-21496

The following is one of a series of 5-minute For Mars, we need to know: Is Developing the Project Concept radio programs. Entitled The Engines of there any way to add significant Our Ingenuity, the series is written by oxygen to the atmosphere and Assuming that a location has been mechanical engineer John H. Lienhard and identified which provides sufficient presented by the University of Houston’s make the planet livable? Was College of Engineering. there ever life there? Was there resources to reduce or eliminate running water? How can the dependence on supplies from severe temperatures be withstood? Planet Earth and does not appear to Mining the Moon Are the moons of Mars similar to be life threatening, the next step is For 20 years, I’ve wondered why we lost our planet’s Moon, or different? to scope out a project concept. interest in the Moon so quickly after we This is a critical event requiring first walked on it. Maybe it was because enormous thought, as the format we looked over the astronauts’ shoulders For the Moon, we need to know: and saw only a great slag heap. Now Does water exist at the poles? decided on can prepare the way geologist Donald Burt* asks if it’s only that Can we manufacture it from lunar for effective cooperation and or more. Does the Moon hold riches, or is resources? What kind of shelter resourcefulness, or it can establish it just a scabrous wasteland? is required to protect against an arena of intensive competition and friction. We know a lot about the Moon today. It’s radiation? Should we walk away rich in aluminum, calcium, iron, titanium, from development as it is just a and magnesium. There’s also plenty of heap of stones, or would use of Lunar or martian communities could oxygen on the Moon, but it’s all bound up such techniques as a glass be company-owned towns (like in compounds that are hard to break down. enclosure (Biosphere II) allow the mining towns in Australia), country- You can get at it, but it’ll take a lot of owned towns (similar to the early processing. Maybe we can pull some re-creation of Earth’s atmosphere? hydrogen and helium-3 out of the rocks as settlements in the United States), well. As exploration passes from just a or possibly international towns, cursory look to indepth analysis the heart of which would be an What’s absolutely missing on the Moon is of resources available and internationally consistent anything volatile. There’s no water—no infrastructure provided by a loose gas or liquid of any kind. The assessment of feasibility and costs vacuum on the Moon is more perfect than to exploit, the risks and stakes consortium of participating national any we’ve ever created on Earth. become higher and the need to space agencies to foster and share risks becomes essential. facilitate residency and participation So can we go after minerals on the Moon? NASA’s role here should be to by entrepreneurs, transient workers, Before we do, let’s think about mining and and a full melting pot of Earthlings smelting on Earth. We use huge amounts develop the approaches and of water—huge amounts of power. We techniques for getting to the of all races, nationalities, and consume oxygen and we put out great resource bases and to develop the backgrounds. clouds of gas. But there is no water on the instruments to measure ore quality. Moon, nothing to burn, and no power until Having done so, the agency should The critical decisions pertain to we put it there. allocating ownership and project attract resource development Without water, the Moon hasn’t been companies or entrepreneurs to management responsibility among shaped the way Earth has, with alluvial assume the responsibilities of the industrial and infrastructure strata and deposits. Many of its riches more detailed risk assessment, components of the development are all mixed together in the surface extraction, and development. project under each scenario.

(continued)

*Donald M. Burt, 1989, “Mining the Moon,” American Scientist, Nov.-Dec., pp. 574–579.

The company-owned spacetown: of transplanting a complete Mining the Moon (concluded) A large resource development communal system. The isolation, layer of dust. We’ll probably begin by company (such as an oil extraction the feelings of hardship, and the surface mining for oxygen to sustain our and hydrocarbon processing, a social conflicts of workers operating outposts in space. Metals will be useful byproducts. metal mining and processing, or a under such stressful conditions add pulp and paper company on Earth) dimensions to the management task Pollution would be a terrible problem if we usually decides to set up camp in a that are perhaps the most complex. mined the Moon the way we do Earth. The remote location because there are It appears that technologically we Moon’s near-perfect vacuum is going to resources to be extracted and are capable of bringing enormous be useful in all kinds of processing. If we dumped gases on the Moon, the way we processed and there is a clear resources to bear on a problem. do on Earth, we’d ruin that perfection. profit advantage to assuming the Risks and exposure can be reduced risks associated with life in a to tolerable levels via joint ventures You see, most gas molecules move more forbidding environment. If the and multicompany consortia. We slowly than the lunar escape velocity. location is far from civilization, the have expertise in managing in Only the fastest ones get away. Now and then, slower ones are sped up as they resource development company remote locations and marshaling collide with each other. Then they also takes responsibility not just to the very best talent for a particular can escape. Over the years, the Moon supply the tools, techniques, task. The real block to smooth loses any gas released on its surface, but processes, and people to perform performance has proven to be not right away. So we have to invent the profit-generating task but also the human element. Planners completely closed processes to take the Moon’s wealth. That way we’ll protect one to provide the life support frequently overlook the of the Moon’s greatest resources—its components usually supplied by environmental, social, and political perfect vacuum. governmental agencies in more issues involved in creating a civilized areas—such as water, company town here on Earth— The Moon is a rich place, but we must put food, electricity, transportation an oversight which may, in fact, our minds in a wholly different space to claim its riches. The Moon will reclaim vehicles and networks, education, account for the most costly budget our interest as we learn to see more than and health care. overruns and schedule delays. a slag heap. The Moon has held our imagination for millennia, but in a different From our experience with company It should be noted that the cost way each time our knowledge of it has towns on Earth, it is clear that they of these large infrastructure changed. Today, our vision of the Moon is on the threshold of changing yet again—as are homogeneous (even if the components raises the break-even we learn to look at it with a process project sponsors are joint-venture point of the project, thereby engineer’s eyes. partners—everyone is working in requiring that the productive the same place). Problems faced output be raised. Infrastructure by resource developers responsible development also increases project for establishing a company town complexity, as responsibilities that are monumental, encompassing usually belong to local governments issues far beyond business fall to the project sponsors. And management and profit generation. the more complex the project, the Besides the logistical problems more difficult and dangerous the common to all such mega-scale management and coordination task. undertakings, there is the problem

The country-owned spacetown: medical, educational, athletic, We could go to the Moon or Mars, and other such facilities that plant our flag, and plot out our promote the general well-being territory (though we cannot claim of the population. The scope of the territory; see Goldman’s paper space infrastructure will certainly on international law) much as the be larger than the King Abdulaziz early settlers did in America in the International Airport in Saudi Arabia 1600s. We would create a rapport (fig. 11), the largest airport in the within the town but might recreate world, which was built in the middle the conflict and friction between of the desert at a cost of $4.5 billion towns owned by different countries by 10 000 workers (at the peak of which has occurred on Earth. construction). It is a self-contained city that includes a desalination The governmental body, possibly plant to get drinking water out NASA, would have an important of sea water, a hospital, and its role to play: There are certain own telephone system. It was facilities which are funded, constructed to provide adequate installed, and managed by shelter, eating facilities, and governmental authorities in restroom accommodations for communities around the world; 80 000 travelers expected during these include power, transportation the 36-hour period of the hajj, the systems, water annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. and waste treatment systems, and

Figure 11

South Terminal of the King Abdulaziz International Airport in Saudi Arabia Courtesy of the Information Office of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia

The advantage of governmental community development as we development and management of know it today and establish a supporting infrastructure is that it true international—or citizen of provides access to life-sustaining Planet Earth—community. A facilities to small as well as large consortium of national space enterprises and to individuals of all agencies could jointly plan, design, economic levels, enabling them to and install an infrastructure network undertake entrepreneurial as well to support a broad diversity of as corporate economic activities. economic activity in space. Technical, financial, and market Governmental involvement in these supply and demand benefits sectors encourages the most could be derived from this global broad-based development scenario. cooperative effort. It is essential Since these projects do not that technological compatibility necessarily generate a profit, the and interchangeability be achieved go/no-go decision is typically based so that products and processes on cost/benefit analysis: How will be transferable to and usable many people will be serviced by a by all. Standards for gravity, particular infrastructure facility and oxygen, food quality, screw how much economic activity can be sizes, shielding densities, and stimulated in return for the costs maintenance requirements assumed? Government initiation is need to be set. Space medical not intended to create a welfare standards and practices must state but rather to foster economic be established. The costs of activity, support diversified growth, setting up life in such remote and above all create taxpayers who locations will be enormous. It will will pay off the debt incurred in be wise to share fully the costs establishing the infrastructure, of infrastructure development, cover its operating costs, and undertaken in cooperation. Again, support infrastructure expansion. the goal is to create a community NASA could seed the growth of the of economically productive initial community and then sell the taxpayers, who will begin to infrastructure to the community, reimburse the national space once a sufficient economic base agencies for their design and was created. development efforts (funds which could then be used to move to a The international spacetown: The subsequent planet and begin the opportunity exists to go beyond same seeding process).

The ultimate objective of the In an environment where there international spacetown, however is probably will not be curtains at the to create a thriving self-governing windows and paintings on the walls metropolis that is democratic and for some time, it is important that full of opportunity for individual individual creativity and ingenuity entrepreneurs as well as large, be highly respected and given established global corporations. broad leeway to realize itself.

Spacelab 1, an Example of International Development of Space Infrastructure NASA photo: S83-41072

Negotiating Risk Allocation mega-scale project parameters. In addition, abundant transfers of At the very largest, megaproject proven technological processes scale of development, no single and secured market demand for organization has yet been able to the output are required to attain finance, provide the technology economic feasibility. The project for, or market the output of the requirements define the extent and completed facilities alone. A nature of the inter-organizational broad array of technologies, both collaborations needed to bring the infrastructural and industrial, are project to fruition. See table 16. required in large volumes to attain

TABLE 16. Project Requirements and Consortia Formation

Requirements and consortia contract types Type of project Project requirements Capital sourcing Technology transfer Market access

High risk Custom-tailored Critical to economic viability

Resource • Equity • Construction • Buyers’ consortium development • Loan and repayment management • Production sharing project in output • Design/construct • Long-term purchase • Suppliers’ credits • Consortium of agreements contractors • Coproduction (or barter or payment in kind)

Turnkey Low risk Off-the-shelf Not critical manufacturing • Suppliers’ credits • Turnkey contract facility tied to turnkey • Turnkey contractor’s contract consortium • Possibly some equity, but not necessary

Low-high risk Generally custom- Cost/benefit Infrastructure (depending on type) tailored calculation development project • Concessionary • Construction financing management • Equity usually held • Design/construct by governmental • Consortium of ministries contractors

Commercial resource development different goals for the project) as to projects are undertaken because of logistical and other difficulties a clearly visible opportunity to intrinsic to the project itself. make a profit in the face of clearly high risks. The extraction and Some commercial projects are processing of fuels and minerals, “turnkey” projects, in which a and in certain cases the harnessing factory can literally be transplanted of power sources, come under to the site. These might be this heading. In the developing manufacturing facilities, hydroponic world, these projects are usually food farms, and other types of sponsored by publicly owned processing plants that are corporations or state-owned self-contained—perhaps even a enterprises and depend on private factory to extract liquid oxygen equity capital in addition to any from regolith on the Moon (fig. 12). public loans or grants the project Turnkey projects are lower risk and Figure 12 might be eligible for. Overruns are typically supported by export and delays during project financing from the home country of A Turnkey Factory on the Moon implementation can as frequently the technology process owner, in Development of lunar resources may turn be attributed to the partners addition to equity capital provided out to be a commercial enterprise. In this artist’s illustration, a fictitious company, the selected (too many, in conflict, by the plant owners. Extraterrestrial Development Corporation (EDC), has installed an oxygen plant on the lunar surface and is operating it and selling the oxygen produced to NASA and possibly other customers. The fluidized bed reactor in the background uses ilmenite concentrated from lunar soil as feedstock. Oxygen is extracted from this ilmenite by hot hydrogen gas, making water vapor. The water is electrolyzed, the oxygen is captured and stored as a cryogenic liquid, and the hydrogen is recycled back into the reactor. The power for the plant comes from the large solar collectors on either side of the reactor. Artist: Mark Dowman NASA photo: S89-25055

The final class of projects is be formed to insulate any one infrastructure development projects, participant from potentially which provide life-sustaining needs devastating financial consequences, to a community, enabling its should the project fail. I am members to carry out productive, consciously substituting the term wealth-generating activities. Such “consortium” for the expression a project is often owned and “joint venture,” because it operated by a governmental agency suggests a more pragmatic basis and, once operational, supported for collaboration and for sharing by taxes and user fees. The initial risks, negotiating responsibilities, installation of these infrastructural and determining the split of profits, facilities, such as water supply, if the project succeeds. The waste treatment, power supply, parties involved in a consortium public housing, sports and contract among themselves to recreational facilities, as well as specify the responsibilities of transportation and communication each. The common features of a networks and public administration consortium are that buildings, is typically financed by loans provided by international • It is task-based. Participants development agencies or capital are selected on the basis of raised from the public in the form which project requirements of bonds. A core infrastructural (capital sourcing, technology network can be established at the transfer, or market access) start of human settlement on other they are capable of satisfying, planets and expanded as the rather than on who they are or human base it supports is extended. how large their organization is.

In my experience of megaprojects • It involves risk-sharing. All developed on Planet Earth, in members assume some particular in remote locations in measure of risk. Each developing countries (Murphy member’s reward is tied to 1983), I have seen effective the level of risk assumed, multicompany efforts to stabilize the with the payback period being project parameters through clearly delimited. consortia negotiation and inter- organizational contracting. • There is some competitive advantage. Typically, a What a consortium is: In general, member is selected because as the level of risk increases, it can offer to the combination so does the likelihood that a of participants one or more consortium of companies will competitive advantages.

The decision to form a resource • For metal and petrochemical consortium appears to be more processing projects, consortia related to the level of project risk enable companies to than to the level of sophistication eliminate the threat of price of the capabilities of the players fluctuations on the output involved, as these collaborative by establishing long-term arrangements can be found purchase agreements with throughout the developing world buyers, while at the same in all industry sectors and have time hedging their risks over involved most of the leading several projects by taking a organizations of the world. low equity share in each.

How project needs are met: These • For liquefied natural gas collaborative undertakings provide (LNG) projects, consortia are an effective way to satisfy the formed to establish a long- enormous capital sourcing, term purchase agreement technology transfer, and market with a guaranteed buyer who access requirements common to all must also build a tailormade megaprojects by ensuring that the receiving terminal to unload critical drivers of economic viability the output. Unless this are satisfied. However, the crucial requirement is met, contributions of such consortia to the construction of the enhanced effectiveness may vary production facility—typically by industry sector: ranging from 500 million to several billion dollars—cannot • For metal mining projects, be justified. consortia make it possible to increase the scale of a project • Oil refineries, by comparison, beyond the financial abilities seem to have little problem of a single company in order in finding buyers for their to cover infrastructure products; thus, the need to development costs form a consortium to build (sometimes up to 60 percent one has been less common. of total investment) and meet economic criteria. These Not only does the resource requirements have been more consortium provide an important intense of late, as most of the vehicle for controlling some of the Earth’s remaining metal external risks of a project which are reserves are in relatively beyond the sponsor’s ability to inaccessible locations. manage alone, but also, depending

on the expertise of the partners, • A national resource the consortium may bring together development consortium is sponsors whose technology and composed entirely of managerial assistance can companies from the same enhance control of the internal country; it is composed of all risk factors of the megaproject companies in a particular at the same time. On the other industry at a very low equity hand, if managerial expertise is share per company, with a lacking, contracts for project or substantial portion of the construction management can be capital loaned to the project established with organizations by agencies of their skilled in the weak areas. government. The net effect of such a consortium is to How participant risks are minimized: equalize the risks and Capital funding and market access stabilize supply sources, as are often secured for the project well as the cost of those raw through multi-organization materials, across an entire consortia, involving a share of the industry within a country. project equity while minimizing Thus, a country like Japan, risk exposure for the respective which depends on imports participants: for 90 percent of its raw materials, can marshal • A multinational resource industry-wide support for any development consortium raw material acquisition the is typically composed of national government would shareholder corporations like to make. Furthermore, from many countries, it shifts competition between each holding a very low companies from obtaining the percentage of equity, best price for raw materials to combined with long-term such downstream advantages purchase agreements for as more efficient processing access to the raw materials or manufacturing facilities output by the project. By and more focused marketing taking a low equity interest in or distribution networks. the project, each corporation is able to syndicate its It is becoming easier to put investment risks over a large together consortia, as the key number of projects and players have built up an thereby stabilize its raw experience base with respect to material supplies. inter-organizational collaboration. As industries have evolved over

the last two decades, the ground an airplane ride away; and Federal rules for collaboration among Express or UPS will probably not international developers have have offices in the closest city. changed from nationalistic to global strategic perspectives and Several decisions can affect how dimensions. Joint technology roughly or smoothly the construction and marketing ventures among and startup will go. companies that have traditionally been competitors have become Integrated or phased: Megaprojects, common. whether resource or infrastructure development, are brought to fruition Managing Project Construction and under management scenarios Startup that best meet the needs of the participants, the capital constraints, As complex as construction and the level of technology in hand, startup are in the most remote of and the demand for the output. locations on Earth, they will be Projects can be developed in an orders of magnitude more complex integrated manner, installing all on another planet. If handtools or components at the same time. An screws are forgotten, it will be a example is the $20 billion Al Jubail long way back to get them; Industrial Complex in Saudi Arabia replacement parts will not be (fig. 13). Expected to take 20 years

Figure 13

Seaport of Al Jubail Industrial Complex in Saudi Arabia Courtesy of the Information Office of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia

to develop, with a completion date as a resort, including a new city, at set for 1997, it includes three a cost of $10–15 billion. petrochemical plants, an oil refinery, steel and aluminum plants, Each approach has benefits and water and waste treatment facilities, risks, which are summarized in a desalination plant, housing, a table 17. An integrated approach training center, a seaport, and an puts stress on the internal aspects international airport—all of which of the project, making procurement, were planned and developed under logistics, and labor management one, integrated project concept. more complex. However, there are external advantages to coming Projects can also be developed in a onstream earlier, such as a shorter phased manner. One facility can period for borrowing capital and a be installed which then provides quicker payback. the base from which additional facilities can be built. An example Phased development stretches out is the development of the Bintula the completion date of the fully area in Malaysia. First a $5 billion integrated project, thus allowing liquid natural gas facility was competitive inroads, but permits installed, supported by a basic greater control over each section. work camp and infrastructure. Procurement is phased, there are A subsequent project is being fewer players involved at one time, planned to develop the entire area and adjustments are smoother.

TABLE 17. Economics and Project Sequencing

Approach Risks Benefits

Integrated development Overload (internal) Online sooner (external) • More complex • Shorter demand for capital • More procurement, • Quicker return logistics problems • Labor management • Cultural conflicts Phased development Competitive threats/ Able to test out one step before inroads (external) moving on to another (internal) • Competitive moves • Simpler • Inflation in cost • Phased procurement • Other variances in • Fewer players at one time demand estimates • Smoother adjustments and interface

For NASA, the issue is whether it therefore managerial synergy is is better to develop a work camp critical: (1) from one stage to on the Moon only, or on the Moon another, (2) among processes and on Mars, or on the Moon installed, and (3) between the goals first and then on Mars. Should of the sponsors and the services of a small outpost be developed, the technology providers. Attention or an entire community? What must be paid as much to the functions will the base serve? Is it transition points of a megaproject an observation post from which to as to performance within each conduct science, or is it a resource component. Unbudgeted costs development base for mineral have often been incurred at these extraction, or is it an infrastructure critical transition points, where base from which to explore and leadership responsibility has not experiment in search of wealth- been clearly defined. generating activities? The ability to answer these questions will be Unique megaproject management determined by the findings from expertise: Companies which have various exploratory missions. The been successful providers of ability to respond to those findings project management expertise in will depend on the extent of the developing world have relied technological breakthrough on their strong reputations and achieved in our capabilities. expertise from their home countries as their entree into the megaproject Achieving synergy: The most arena. Since companies are not important opportunity for awarded contracts to experiment capitalizing on cost-reduction with or diversify their services but opportunities, not to mention rather to deliver proven expertise, actively preventing overruns, lies U.S. firms have been the companies in maximizing efficiencies during of choice because of their track the construction phase; that is, record of fully implemented mega- the period during which most of scale projects that have been the capital is spent. The ability to developed at home. All projects of recognize and take immediate $1 billion or more in the developing advantage of the tradeoffs world requiring project management that must be made daily can capabilities (such as oil refineries, provide significant cost savings. gas processing facilities, and Megaprojects often entail several transportation infrastructure) have kinds of construction by multiple been awarded exclusively to U.S. contractors simultaneously; design/construction firms.

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The most complex megaprojects Options for a project sponsor: have been designed, engineered, The project sponsor’s objective constructed, and managed by the is to establish an organizational U.S. design/constructors Bechtel, framework that lets each participant Fluor, and Ralph M. Parsons. know what to expect from the These three companies are others; how to handle changes superior in their ability to deal with in cost, schedule, or tradeoff complexity through sophisticated opportunities; how to reach project management systems and decisions; how to keep the project worldwide procurement networks. moving. An effective network of This suggests that NASA’s project intelligence and a spirit of continued attention to megaproject “mega-cooperation” must be management innovation will ensure achieved. Decision-making must that this U.S. tradition of being the be done swiftly and surely, giving preeminent providers of complex prime consideration to the status of project management services the project rather than to the status worldwide—a critical national of the person who sits across the competitive advantage—will be table. sustained. A review of existing megaprojects The consortium is also a common indicates that there are three approach used by small or generic ways in which owners or medium sized design, engineering, sponsors structure their projects. construction, or manufacturing A sponsor’s level of involvement is companies to achieve the scale a function of that firm’s in-house required to bid on one of these project management competence. jobs. Consortia and independent A sponsor can turnkey contracts are generally written on a fixed-fee basis, with • Actively manage. Manage the the contractor absorbing most of project directly—either as an the risks associated with delays or independent owner or as a overruns. There are numerous partner in a joint venture. variables that go into determining the optimum contractual formula. • Direct and control. Contract In general, the purpose of these out the project preparation packages is to take risk away from to consulting engineers the sponsors, while at the same and the construction work time removing day-to-day to contractors or both, managerial control of construction maintaining responsibility from the sponsor. for day-to-day coordination and management.

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• Review and approve. Contract out the complete job to a project manager, a turnkey contractor, or a contractors’ consortium. Project management contracts are usually cost plus, while turnkey projects (which delegate managerial or supervisory control to the contractor) are fixed fee, thereby transferring risk to the contractor. In this case, a large contingency fee is commonly added to the price to cover potential risks.

As NASA gets closer to launching the most complex megaprojects of all time, it is important to recognize that sufficient capital, technology, and market access can be pooled from a global network of corporations and financial institutions without compromising NASA’s role as the energizing leader with the ennobling vision.

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Section 3: Sourcing— Admiral Richard Truly, NASA and Sustaining— Administrator, concurs. He believes that no space program Optimum Financing on Earth today has the kind of technology and capability that Thanks to our discoveries ours does. Our space program and our methods of research, is an integral part of American something of enormous education, our competitiveness, import has been born in the and the growth of U.S. technology. universe, something, I am Compared with other forms of convinced, will never be investment, the return is stopped. But while we outstanding: A payback of $7 or exhaust research and profit 8 for every $1 invested over a from it, with…what paltry period of a decade or so has been means, what disorderly calculated for the Apollo Program, methods, do we still today which at its peak accounted for a pursue our research. mere 4 percent of the Federal (de Chardin 1972, p. 137) budget. It has been further estimated that, because of the In words President George Bush potential for technology transfer quoted from a news magazine, and spinoff industries, every $1 the Apollo Program was “the best spent on basic research in space return on investment since today will generate $40 worth of Leonardo da Vinci bought himself economic growth on Earth. a sketchpad” (Chandler 1989).

Spinoffs Spinoffs from NASA’s development of space technology not only provide products and services to the society but also are a significant boon to the American economy. Among the hundreds of examples are this sensor for measuring the power of a karate kick and this thermoelectric assembly for a compact refrigerator that can deliver precise temperatures with very low power input. Estimates of the return on investment in the space program range from $7 for every $1 spent on the Apollo Program to $40 for every $1 spent on space development today. NASA photos: S89-32688 and S89-32683

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The critical factor driving overwhelmed by our national debt, productivity growth is technology. our decaying infrastructure, and The percentage of our national the savings and loan bailout, which income that we invest in research alone is expected to cost the and development is similar to the Government $300–500 billion, percentages invested by Europe possibly more. To pay these and Japan; however, since our debts would cost each and every economy is so much bigger, the American taxpayer between $1000 absolute level of our research and and $5000, and this is a payment development effort, measured in that will not enhance national purchasing power or scientific security, promote economic personnel, is far greater than growth, or improve public welfare Europe’s or Japan’s (Passell (Rosenbaum 1990). This obligation 1990). But our ability to sustain an is orders of magnitude greater than appropriate level of investment in the commitments U.S. citizens R&D is being threatened. We are have made to their space program.

TABLE 18. Expenditures per Year by U.S. Citizens, Selected Examples

Expenditure item Amount per capita

Space station funding, 1990 budget $23.68

Entire space program, 1990 budget $55 (approx.)

Apollo Program at peak $70.00 (1988 dollars)

Beer $109.00

Legal gambling $800.00

Source: Sawyer 1989

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We have a military budget of GNP, but it pays for the services $300 billion (compared to of 25 to 30 percent of all of our $200 billion per year spent on nation’s engineers and scientists legal gambling), yet we are too and accounts for 70 percent of all broke to do anything (Baker 1990). Federal research and development Further, our return on investment money, $41 billion in 1988 in research and development is not (Melman 1989). as effective as it once was. It is possible that military spending is A “peace dividend” is in prospect, draining critical research efforts; if Congress will cut military it may be that the American spending. A peace dividend offers emphasis on basic research has an opportunity for a political leader freed Japanese scientists to skip to capture attention and resources the gritty groundwork and focus on and do great good. The total commercial applications; or is it dividend through the year 2000 that American corporations may not could be as much as $351.4 billion be good at turning research and (Zelnick 1990). How the peace development into marketable dividend should be spent calls products? (Passell 1990). into play one’s values. Many alternatives are mentioned (the Half of all Federal tax dollars go savings and loan bailout, for to the Pentagon. These large instance), but NASA is never expenditures have hurt the mentioned as an option. competitive position of the United States and have kept the level of Under this scenario of declining investment in the civilian economy, technological edge, constrained as a share of gross national financial resources, and a product, lower than in Europe or budgeting process that subjects Japan. For example, in 1983, for approved financing to annual every $100 we spent on civilian revisions and potential cuts, how capital formation, including new can NASA adequately source—and factories, machines, and tools, we sustain—optimum financing? spent another $40 on the military. In West Germany, for every $100 • Potential sources of funds spent on civilian investment, the military received only an additional • Opportunities for sustainable $13. And in Japan, for every $100 collaboration spent on civilian investment, a mere $3 was spent on the military. • Life cycle of NASA’s funding Military spending is 6 percent of responsibility

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Potential Sources of Funds • Major corporations and minor entrepreneurial companies The traditional source of financing have a new product or for any nation’s space program is process development government financing of the budget or an exploration national space agency. But budget that is allocated for government financing alone has high-risk, wealth-creating proven to be inconsistent and innovative activities. unreliable in the long term, as the space program is forced to • Private investors, whether compete with other national individuals or pension funds, priorities. Furthermore, as the have a portion of their savings scale and scope of space projects portfolio dedicated to high- increase, it becomes beyond the risk, potentially high-return capabilities of a single national investments in stocks—and government to assume the risks even some bonds (i.e., junk). alone—it is effectively wagering national wealth on projects of • The users of catastrophic varying levels of risk. pollution causing products or processes are recklessly The stakeholders in the various risking the health of our planet space development activities can in our lifetime—and we are and increasingly should be called not sure that the damage is upon to participate in the financial reversible. Such reckless risks and enormous potential users could be assessed a rewards of innovation that is driven pollution surcharge to fund by the “consumers” of Planet breakthrough research on Earth, our need for advanced nonpolluting new product and technological capabilities, and processing technologies. our desire to develop livable destinations in space. These • National/state/city stakeholders include infrastructure agencies and international development • The national space agencies agencies receive funding to of leading industrialized provide particular life support (and some other) countries basics, such as water, power, around the world typically waste disposal, and schools, have a space exploration to their communities or and development budget developing nations. A representing about well-honed, functional 1–6 percent of their GNP. infrastructure maximizes

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productivity, enabling the of our nation’s infrastructure, and creation of wealth by its that our automobiles and roadways residents. Elimination should be redesigned to achieve a of overlap of effort and major technological advancement, global coordination could such an agenda could not be free up massive amounts of decided on by General Motors investment money to achieve alone or the U.S. Department of more effective results. Transportation alone. Technological advancements of such scale, and If these capital reserves were more importantly of such global added up per stakeholder significance, need to be mounted category, sources of funds for under leadership so engaging and Planet Earth problem-solving and with a vision so encompassing space development could readily as to ensure that all the key be uncovered in abundance. players involved make their capital resources, technological expertise, Opportunities for and access to market demand Sustainable Collaboration available to the project.

Examining how these capital To take the discussion of our resources are allocated, we can transportation networks one step readily see that there are billions of further, the facts make it clear dollars being invested in research, that the need for technological design, development, and innovation is not hypothetical improvement efforts which overlap but quite real: and duplicate each other among organizations in the United States, • Our national transportation as well as around the world. Many infrastructure has gravely efforts fail to achieve any significant deteriorated, requiring technological advancement $3–5 trillion to reconstruct. precisely because funds are not adequate or scope of authority is • Our auto industry has lost its not sufficient to make any competitiveness—at home and significant change. abroad, and we are struggling For example, if it were decided that to regain a reputation for automobiles were too heavy, quality that remains elusive. causing the serious deterioration

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• The outlook for transportation a problem, whether pertaining vehicles’ being able to move to elimination of pollution or about our cities and suburbs development of technology, at the local speed limit is infrastructure, or resources. dimming, as roads are Shared risk and responsibility can becoming increasingly be established through negotiation clogged and overburdened. and cross-contracting to define Such approaches as the vision, pool capital, share computerized traffic control technology, and create market screens within vehicles are demand of sufficient magnitude being tested. to bring such megaprojects to fruition. • The carbon monoxide released from combustion Since all prospective players are engines in autos and their currently citizens of Planet Earth, petroleum-based fuels is the scope of their consortium presenting a grave hazard to collaboration can be international the global ecosphere. as well as national. The scope is determined by the scale of • And numerous projects are explanatory causes to be uncovered on the drawing boards around or effects to be achieved through the world to break through our project development. Consortia can current propulsion barriers, be assembled to achieve five preparing the way to travel possible purposes: at higher rates of speed. • Planet Earth protection The key players responsible for consortium: A global R&D shepherding such events include fund could be established, the national, state, and city supported by taxes assessed transportation agencies, auto on users of pollution-causing manufacturers, oil production and products or processes. The retail companies, propulsion- funds could be used to focused R&D groups, and identify causes of pollution automobile buyers and drivers. (thereby further increasing Their diversity of interest and the funding base) or to seed scope of responsibility and the lack technology innovation that of a single shared vision bodes would provide the same poorly for formulating an imperative effect while preserving the solution to this global time bomb. environment (i.e., government-sponsored An inter-organizational consortium technological leaps. can be formed to address such

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• Technology development • Infrastructure development consortium: A mix of consortium: It is important designers, manufacturers, that the water, food, power, and prospective users of a waste, oxygen, and technology should be gravitational systems be assembled early on to get compatible in space—to allow the design criteria correct. for maximum interchange and Seed money could be a cooperation among players mixture of government and from diverse nations who private capital. The intent might be colonizing space. of this consortium would be Agreement on standards is to involve the companies critical to interchangeability which would be most likely to of goods and services among develop the spinoff products participants from different early, so that their design nations. Once standards are requirements and insights are set, a vast array of players fully considered and taken can begin to develop and into account. A spinoff market their products and surcharge or tax could be services. assessed as a means of funding the seeding of • Resource development subsequent generations of consortium: Consortia of research and development. resource extraction, processing, and manufacturing • Space exploration consortium: companies; contractors; Exploration is extremely costly builders; equipment suppliers; and high risk. In the oil insurers; and so forth would business, those who explore need to be marshaled to and find oil then achieve achieve the scale and scope lucrative payback from either of people and resources extracting and selling the oil required to implement the themselves or selling rights to establishment of a resource- the field. Exploratory based colony in space. missions to neighboring Agreements to fund the costs planets could involve a of installation with loans consortium of resource to be paid back by users or development companies residents of the facility would who would be interested in off-load the burden from the undertaking some of the national space agencies to the enormously high risks in global business community. exchange for enormously high potential paybacks.

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Life Cycle of NASA’s be targeted for the Moon and Funding Responsibility Mars; heavy funding of the national aerospace plane The financing required to realize and controlled ecological the full array of missions currently life support systems will be on NASA’s plate is truly provided; and syndication of monumental. The exploration ownership to enlarge the projects alone are expected to sphere of producers in space require more than $60 billion, with will be promoted. more than $100 billion required to operate the various exploratory • Phase II (2000–2010): instruments in space (see table 14) Develop an infrastructure (Broad 1990d). support system and do intensive planning. While If NASA’s leadership role is to be some of the initiatives the exclusive herald of the vision, launched in phase I will if its financing role is limited to continue (e.g., Mars sampling research and development, and if missions, capability-driven its charter is clearly defined as research), closure on the syndicating involvement in space techniques to be used to exploration and development support life in space should activities with the private sector, a be achieved. Closure will more realizable long-term agenda enable manufacturing emerges (see fig. 14): companies to begin to produce and market products • Phase I (1990–2000): Seed needed to support humans multi-pronged mission in space. If these companies initiatives. This phase requires were effectively integrated the greatest amount of into the early R&D, NASA independent funding from should begin to collect royalty NASA, but it plants the seeds fees from spinoffs to finance for user fees and spinoff fees subsequent seed to begin to return in phase II. technologies requiring During the next 10 years Government-funded nurturing. Planet Earth monitoring will be initiated; our basic Once the infrastructure exploration projects will be technologies and exploration under way, including the investigations reach closure, Hubble Space Telescope; mega-planning can begin for more sampling missions will colonization of the Moon and

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Mars. It will take years to infrastructure—if it is not develop detailed designs; an integral part of the project. negotiate the sharing of risk, As colonization begins, responsibility, and rewards; products and services—on and let contracts. This Earth and in space—should process may require oversight be completely revolutionized, by NASA, but fees can be leading to a planetary charged for bid packages wealth beyond our wildest and other services to allay imagination: There will be an some of the costs. abundance of resources available from space, new • Phase III (2010–2020): products developed to Establish colonies on other exploit space, and an planets. This phase should abundance of demands that be largely funded by can be met here on Earth as Figure 14 participants, with funds a result of the expanded Life Cycle of NASA’s Funding flowing back to the owners resource base. Responsibility and providers of the

Phase I: Mega-financing Phase II: Fees and paybacks Phase III: Delegated financing Seeding multi-pronged Developing infrastructural Establishing nonterrestrial initiatives systems and mega-planning colonies

1990 ↑ 2000 2010 2020 Consumer- Mission to ↑_Technological innovations ↑_Completion of Mission driven Planet Earth tied to protecting Planet Earth to Planet Earth innovation in orbit Capability- ↑ ↑ ↑_Completion of driven Completion of | | regenerative life support system innovation national |_Space Station | aerospace plane Freedom open for |_Propulsion technology finalized business Destination- ↑ ↑ ↑↑_Outpost established ↑ ↑ driven MRSR vehicle | |_ Sites chosen |_Construction begun | innovation developed | | ↑ Wealth-__| |_All planetary | | generating sensing tools | |_All deals |closed, designing begun space in place |_Bidding colony opened

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We stand at the base of a learning success as our specific curve that extends to the end of achievements. How business time. The expertise we hold in systems can be redefined to hand is equivalent to our very first protect the planet, how steps, and the targets of our technologies can be pushed to shuffling are most undaring—our their highest performance levels, closest neighboring planets. how new technologies can be Our notions of “high tech” living created, how sites can be are being edited daily, as our developed in a more humane planetary civilization rushes toward fashion, how a massive multi- its rendezvous with destiny. organizational endeavor can be coordinated as if it were a single There is new expertise to be body, these are the methodologies honed, new products to be we are in search of perfecting, invented, new processes to be equal in importance to the truths engineered. The reality of we are striving to uncover. geotechnology, “which spreads out the close-woven network of its Less than microscopic creatures independent enterprises over the from the vantage point of the totality of the earth” (de Chardin Moon, totally dependent on our 1972, p. 119), suggests that there 1-pound brains and less-than- is not much point to going it alone— 1-pound hearts to navigate us technology is meant to spread like toward the unknown and decipher wildfire. its messages, we human Earthlings have no more powerful resource at The specific mission objectives hand than our ability to visualize, sketched out in this paper may commit, lead, and actualize—truly not endure; the objectives may incredible abilities that effectively change, or from the resulting create our future. Our willingness innovations may come small steps to center ourselves in a common that lead to a higher insight. vision—a shared notion of Advances in our ability to move greatness—will abundantly energize swiftly and surely up the learning us toward fulfillment of even our curve are as critical to our future most elusive goals.

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Switzer, Susan M., and Thom Rae. ______. 1990c. For a Space 1989. A Space Odyssey. Visionary, Persistence Nears World 23 (2—Spring): 6–8. Payoff. New York Times, Apr. 10, sec. C, pp. 1, 8. The $30 Billion Potential for Making Chemicals in Space. 1984. ZeInick, C. Robert. 1990. We Chemical Week 135 (16—Oct. 17): Could Easily Save $350 Billion. 44–52. New York Times, Feb. 19, editorial page. U.S. Panel Cites Risk in NASA Space Plan. 1990. New York Zuscovitch, Ehud; Jean-Alain Times, Mar. 6, sec. C, p. 15. Heraud; and Patrick Cohendet. 1988. Innovation Diffusion From a Westinghouse To Develop Qualitative Standpoint. Futures 20 Multimegawatt Space Nuclear (3—June): 266–306. Power Supply. 1989. PR Newswire [via Lexis Nexis], July 17.

Wilford, John Noble. 1990a. The Search for the Beginning of Time. New York Times Magazine, Feb. 11, pp. 28–33, 56–59.

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The Future of Management: The NASA Paradigm

Philip R. Harris

Management Challenges The challenges will be not just

From a New Space Era in terms of technology and its

management but also human and

The prototypes of 21st century cultural in dimension (see my paper

management, particularly for large- “The Influence of Culture on Space

scale enterprises, may well be found Developments” in this volume). A

within the aerospace industry. The recent NASA study, Living Aloft,

space era inaugurated a number begins to describe the human

of projects of such scope and requirements for extended space

magnitude that another type of flight involving diverse spacefarers

management had to be created to (Connors, Harrison, and Akins 1985).

ensure successful achievement. The In an article on extraterrestrial society

pushing out of the space (1985), William MacDaniel, professor

frontier may prove to be a emeritus, Niagara University, aptly powerful catalyst not only for the described the multiple challenges in development of new technologies but terms of just one undertaking of the also for the emergence of next decade—a space station: macromanagement. Any way that we look at it… With further extension of human NASA will be confronted with presence into space during the management problems that will next 25 years, new opportunities will be totally unique. Space station be offered to those responsible for management is going to be an such projects, whether in the public entirely new ball game, requiring or in the private sector. Satellite new and imaginative approaches expansion, a space station, and if serious problems are to be possibly a lunar outpost will require resolved and conflict avoided. new technologies and systems for more complex missions that involve MacDaniel, a sociologist and multiple locations and greater cofounder of the Space Settlement numbers and varieties of personnel. Studies Project (3SP) at his Whether in activities of the National university, then analyzed one Aeronautics and Space people management dimension Administration, the Department that results from the sociocultural of Defense or military branches, mix of international scientific and the aerospace industry or new engineering teams and onboard commercial enterprises, there will space crews. The multicultural be a passage from the way space inhabitants of the space station operations have been managed will have to cope with many for the first quarter century of practical aspects of their cultural development to the way they must differences—differences that alter be led and administered in the their perceptions and ways of decades ahead. functioning relative to everything

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from communication and problem the inauguration of the space solving to spatial needs and diet. program by NASA around 1960. Whether the orbiting of increased NASA, in conjunction with its numbers of people for longer partners in the aerospace business, periods of time is done by the innovated in more than space U.S.A. or the U.S.S.R., Japan or technology. Because of the very Europe, project leaders will have complexity of the Apollo lunar to include managing cultural mission, NASA also invented new differences and promoting synergy ways of organizing and managing. among their priorities (Moran and Harris 1982). The Apollo project which landed a team of American In any event, futurists, students of astronauts on the Moon is management, and those concerned generally considered as one of with technological administration the greatest technological would do well to review the endeavors in the history of literature of emerging space mankind. But in order to management for its wider achieve this, a managerial implications. NASA offers a effort, no less prodigious than paradigm, or demonstrated model, the technological one, was of future trends in the field of required. management at large. (Seamans and Ordway 1977)

It is my contention that much The Apollo Heritage in of what is currently being Innovative Management characterized as the “new management” is partially the A transformation is under way from heritage of that space effort, industrial designs of organization a harbinger of tomorrow’s and styles of management to a new management. This idea is work culture (Harris 1983 and especially pertinent to the building 1985a). In an AT&T report on of large-scale technological emerging issues, the term projects, whether on this planet metaindustrial was used to or in space. Those engaged in designate the new management complex endeavors that involve and the approach to human many systems, disciplines, systems that is evolving (Coleman institutions, and even nations will 1980). One catalyst for this have to apply in even more creative transition may very well have been ways the legacy that the Apollo

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program gave to management as meaning “postindustrial (Levine 1982). Investigations management,” while I understand should be directed to what it to refer to “the management of constitutes macromanagement. macroprojects” (see fig. 15). McFarland (1985) sees this term

Figure 15

Macromanagement of Large-Scale Enterprises The management of long-term projects costing $100 million or more will have many aspects. Examples of such “macroprojects” are rebuilding American infrastructure and building a space infrastructure.

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In the inaugural issue of New Dr. O’Toole was later (1985) to Management, the editor listed elaborate on this theme in a book 10 orientations that lead to entitled Vanguard Management. organizational excellence today (O’Toole 1983). An organization An examination of the history of can excel if it is oriented toward the Apollo Program indicates that

1. Tomorrow—attuned to the NASA leaders followed such long-term future principles. A possible exception is the third item, which does not quite 2. People—developing human apply to a public agency, but resources leaders among the aerospace 3. Product—committed to the contractors must have had this consumer market concern for the consumer (in this case NASA itself) or the Moon 4. Technology—employing the mission would not have been so most advanced tools successful. NASA, over two 5. Quality—emphasizing decades ago, anticipated the excellence, service, and emergence of metaindustrial competence management. The very scope and complexity of putting humans on 6. External environment— the lunar surface forced such concerned for all innovations. stakeholders

7. Free-market competition— Among the many management imbued with the spirit of innovations to come out of the risk-taking capitalism space program was the matrix 8. Continuing examination and organization, with its emphasis on revision of organizational team management. The values, compensation, complexity of the Apollo rewards, and incentives undertaking necessitated its creation because traditional 9. Basic management management approaches proved concerns—making and inadequate. Among the many selling products or providing space contractors, TRW Systems services in Redondo Beach, California, was 10. Innovation and openness to a leader in this process, which was new ideas—nurturing and eventually to become a chief encouraging those who feature of the “new” management question organizational two decades later. Their vice assumptions and propose president at the time, Sheldon bold changes Davis, pioneered team building as a means to help technical people

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work together to reach a common Today a profile of a metaindustrial goal (Harris 1985a). Other organization would include these contractors used the project characteristics (Harris 1983 and management and team strategy as 1985a): a form of ad hoc organization for Use of state-of-the-art new starts. General Dynamics, for • technology, ranging from instance, could quickly assemble microcomputers to robotics experienced team members for its Shuttle-Centaur project from • Flexibility in management previous work groups that had policies, procedures, and developed the Atlas-Centaur priorities, continuously rocket. adapting to the market—a norm of ultrastability (that is, A principal exponent of the matrix building continuous change as a way of managing complex into the system) space projects was Hughes Autonomy and decentralization, Aircraft. One of its executives, • so that people have more Jack Baugh, did a doctoral control over their own work dissertation in 1981 on how space and are responsible decision-making is accomplished for decisions yet work under through a matrix organization. integrating controls His thesis was that matrix management is essential to • Open, circular communication an aerospace project when with emphasis on rapid simultaneous decisions are needed feedback, relevant information in a situation of great uncertainty exchange at all locations, generated by high information- networking, and the use of processing requirements; when multimedia financial and human resources Participation and involvement are strongly constrained; when • of personnel encouraged, the decision-making process especially through team, must be speeded up; and when project, or matrix management the quantity of data, products, and services would otherwise • Work relations that are be overwhelming. Obviously, informal and interdependent, managers outside the space cooperative and mutually fraternity agreed, adopting the respectful, adaptive and method. cross-functional

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• Organizational norms that Because those in the management support competence, high of research and development, performance, professionalism, especially those coming from innovation, and risk-taking, engineering and technological even to making allowance for fields, may have some failure occasionally misconceptions about the management process, I have A creative work environment • included figure 16. This paradigm that energizes people and by R. Alec Mackenzie (1969) enhances the quality of illustrates the comprehensiveness worklife, so that it is more of management activity. The meaningful conceptual model is a • A research and development multidimensional approach to the orientation that continually art and science of managing both seeks to identify the best human and material resources people, processes, products, effectively. It highlights, among its markets, services, so as to central facets, the management of achieve the mission change and differences. This paradigm still seems relevant for It is interesting that many of managing large-scale undertakings, these qualities were identified whether on Earth or in orbit. From 15 years ago as essential to the my viewpoint as a management interdisciplinary character of large- psychologist who has served as a scale endeavors (Sayles and NASA consultant, it would appear Chandler 1971). These were that the main difficulties facing also the characteristics practiced, space management in the future to a great extent, by NASA will be found on the right side, management in the Apollo era in the people dimensions. (Levine 1982). They are Unfortunately, this opinion was considered essential for confirmed by the Presidential organizational excellence now Commission on the Space Shuttle and in the future, particularly Challenger Accident, which for large-scale programs such concluded that there had been as renewing the American a human systems failure infrastructure or developing a within NASA and its contractors, permanent presence in space. particularly in regard to information flow and decision-making.

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Figure 16

The Management Process From R. Alec Mackenzie, 1969, “The Management Process in 3-D,” Harvard Business Review 47 (6—Nov.-Dec.): 80–87.

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Perhaps the origins of many mechanism for conveying— 21st century management styles explicitly, ambiguously, or may be traced someday to the implicitly—the values, norms, and 20th century management of assumptions of the institution. research and development Organizational culture is embedded institutions. Mark and Levine and transmitted through (1984) make a case for such a Formal statements of thesis by pointing to the Federal • philosophy or mission, Government laboratories that charters, creeds, published promoted the technology materials for recruitment or development that resulted in personnel macroprograms like the Manhattan Project, the Apollo missions, and • Design of physical spaces, the Space Shuttle. They facades, buildings document both technical and Leader role modeling, managerial innovations produced • training, coaching, or by bringing together advanced assessing R&D people in relatively small, quasi-independent groups dubbed • Explicit reward and status “skunkworks.” Such groups system, promotion criteria produced some of the most Organizational fit— successful modern aircraft. • recruitment, selection, That form of management was career development, eventually popularized by Tom retirement, or Peters (1982, 1985) as a central “excommunication” theme of the new management leadership. • Stories, legends, myths, parables about key people and events

The Impact of • Leader reactions to or coping Organizational Culture with organizational crises and critical situations The work culture affects Design, structure, and organizational planning, decisions, • systems of the organization and behavior. MIT professor Edgar Schein (1985) maintains • Policies, procedures, and that the work culture is the processes

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In another paper in this volume organizations manifest strong (“The Influence of Culture on functional cultures, NASA obviously Space Developments”), I analyze did this during its Apollo period. the effect of the organizational Has it been doing so in the Space culture on NASA and the Shuttle phase of its development? aerospace industry. Figure 17 is a The 1986 setbacks and subsequent diagram of space organizational investigations would indicate a culture, which illustrates the many negative response. One outcome dimensions of a system’s of current reorganization needs to expression of identity. Since be a strengthened NASA culture. research indicates that excellent

Figure 17

Space Organizational Culture

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In 1984, our study team people. In order for NASA and its considering space management corporate aerospace partners to concluded that a survey and develop space vigorously in the next analysis of NASA organizational 25 years, they must confront the culture from its headquarters to the following cultural issues. field centers would facilitate change and renewal as further space (1) The mind-set of the engineer development is planned. If plans and technologist requires for a lunar base are to be expansion to include effectively implemented, then a generalist thinking. Too transformation in management often present approaches attitudes, styles, strategies, and exclude consideration operations at NASA may also be of human issues, and necessary. In the post-Apollo era, the contribution of the NASA and its contractors drifted managerial and behavioral back into an industrial, more sciences to planning and bureaucratic style. The work decision-making are culture, whether of NASA as an downplayed. organizational system or of its aerospace contract partners, (2) More synergistic relationships must shift from this industrial or in space endeavors should bureaucratic mode back to the replace obsolete competitive mode of enterprises characterized postures by individual as metaindustrial. Only then, it companies. The tasks of seems to me, will the main exploiting space resources actors in the space business be are so immense that global positioned to take advantage of space agencies need to the vast resources on the “high collaborate more effectively. frontier” (O’Neill 1977). Inside NASA, the power games between headquarters Management consultants see and its centers must give organizations as energy exchange way to mutual cooperation. systems. Institutional culture can Archaic antitrust regulations encourage use of the psychic and must be gotten around to physical energies of its people in permit aerospace companies achieving organizational goals. to work together to solve This is the lesson of the Apollo common problems, be they Moon project. On the other hand, matters of quality control institutional culture can undermine on launch pads and space or dissipate the efforts of its vehicles or greater sharing of

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research and development (4) Technology development knowledge. The large timespans have been space corporations can do lengthened, rather than more for the nation’s space shortened, because those program by joint venturing in the space arena have and sharing than by become more bureaucratic, competitive duplication. less entrepreneurial and Furthermore, new ways for innovative. From goal- synergistic inclusion of setting to implementation, university and Government Apollo’s mission was research laboratories accomplished in less than should be explored—again a decade. Now NASA as in the Apollo era (Levine planners use a 12-to-15- 1982). Perhaps the model year timeframe from currently being developed inception to completion by the European Space of a new technology. Agency is worthy of Meanwhile, the growing emulation in North America; high technology industry it involves cooperation (an industry that is a both between nations and direct spinoff of space between institutions. technology) has shortened its development timeframe. (3) As space endeavors reach With due regard to spacefarer out to include business safety, perhaps the time has participation beyond that of come to reexamine the the aerospace companies, cultural assumptions by attitudes toward and which the practices of regulations of contractors redundancy, over-design, deserve revision. Perhaps over-preparation, over-study, the NASA tradition of and excessive timidity partnership with its suppliers become embedded habits is more appropriate than the and traditions. Certainly, Department of Defense such cultural proclivities are mentality of seeing its less justified in unmanned contractors as “users.” missions and nontechnical Space enterprises would areas, like conference benefit from marketplace management and reporting. concerns for satisfying There is reasonable and clients and customers acceptable risk in the (Webb 1985). experimental situation of

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space flight. What seems Space Institute and sponsored by more important is effective the NASA-related University Space management of quality Research Association, business control on equipment and and academic researchers applying parts that go into space automation and robotics to the transportation systems and space station and other ventures habitats. on the high frontier have combined their brain power and established a (5) Organizational renewal joint data bank (see, for example, implies a continuing C-STAR Study Group 1988). process of clarification of roles, relationships, and The experience with the Shuttle missions. It requires would seem to confirm that NASA change from the ways moved the project too quickly we always did it to the from research and development adaptations and inventions into operations. In the transition necessary to remain a to 21st century space player in the emerging management, the private sector 21st century “space may dominate the space game.” Perhaps the transportation business and habitat modules of space commercial launches, leaving stations and lunar outposts NASA to pursue a technological would be better designed and scientific research role. by architects and hotel chains than by traditional These are but a few of the issues aerospace vehicle that deserve consideration by designers. Perhaps the management leaders in the space functions of such space community who would revitalize facilities should be their organizational cultures and privatized, so that the design a management strategy NASA centers can take a attuned to future demands. role more supervisory than operational, thus freeing them for more basic space New Roles for Earth- and research and development. Space-Based Managers

A case relative to cultural issue 2, The five issues just listed are on synergistic relationships, is the basically cultural and point up the industry-university Consortium for need for planned changes. At our Space and Terrestrial Automation summer study, resource speakers and Robotics (C-STAR). Led by provided numerous suggestions for David Criswell of the California renewing the American space program and bringing it to new

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levels of achievement. Several of operations on the station, the more telling comments relate each “feeding” on the other’s to our topic. needs, is not only stimulating to thought but also changes the • William E. Wright, Defense roles and relationships of public Advanced Research Projects and private participants in Agency, said that the space undertakings. aerospace industry culture is extraordinarily conservative. • Peter Vajk, now an independent It suffers from a syndrome: space consultant, also cited “If it hasn’t been done for examples of new, more the last 20 years, forget it.” sophisticated management The industry and NASA are information systems that can not bold enough in their alter the role of space project planning and requests for managers. New computer funding. A major program tools, such as relational data comes into being because base management systems, someone champions it (puts give managers a better his reputation on the line and capability to search the helps bring it into being). literature, while new software like “Hypertext” from Xanadu • Peter Vajk, SAI, and Michael Corporation (Menlo Park, CA) Simon, General Dynamics, provides greater access to presented a “stock documentation. prospectus” for the establishment of a fictional • Ronald Maehl, RCA, pointed corporation, “Consolidated out that management issues Space Enterprises.” It related to a space station and envisioned nine companies lunar base represent a that could profit by serving departure from traditional customer needs and NASA management practices. functions on the space First, there is the matter of station. Four were providers managing the development of such space services as of such projects and precursor transport, repair, research, missions; then there is and products; three were the issue of operational housekeeping companies management of a space that would provide hotel, facility when it is functioning. power, and communication There are precedents in the services; two were support experience of the National companies providing special Oceanic and Atmospheric space services and fuel. Administration (NOAA) and The concept of commercial commercial operators with

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meteorological and time” (signal delays between communication satellites. operator command and machine There are new challenges response and between machine relative to man/machine response and verification or receipt interactions, operational cost of data). The management of containment, and private automation and robotics in space participation in such space was the subject of another activities. California Space Institute study for NASA (Automation and Robotics These four inputs of experts Panel 1985). are but indications of new developments related to the As more manned space operations management of tomorrow’s space occur at more locations, we will enterprises—developments that need a new infrastructure on this warrant more research and call planet to support them. Instead of for policy changes by NASA a single mission control center, headquarters and its centers. there may be regional support Organizational energy and centers—some under Government resources directed to such issues, or military auspices and some run particularly that of the differences by private corporations. For the between developmental and next 50 years, we are likely to operational management, would experiment with a variety of Earth- have greater payoff than the based management plans for internal struggles of NASA centers space activities, beginning with the to control future programs. space station and a lunar base.

Analysis must be made of the Even more interesting will be expertise and skills needed by management in space of either Earth-based managers of projects manned or unmanned ventures. that are hundreds or thousands of People onsite at a lunar outpost miles away from them. New space will require more freedom for project managers have much to decision-making and creative learn in this regard from previous problem-solving than the project managers of unmanned astronauts currently enjoy with probes by spacecraft, such as mission control in Houston. Voyager and Viking, Pioneer and Decentralized, onsite space Mariner. The tasks range from management will come into limited controls to teleoperations, prominence with the building of the or the control on Earth by an space station. Now is the time to operator of a machine that is begin planning for the practical at a remote location such as in matters to be faced by station space. Management problems managers, especially when the experienced include “queuing personnel and organizational

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components come from various selling shares or bonds in space sources beyond NASA itself. In technological venturing, and regard to an operational lunar other forms of public financial base, research is needed now on participation beyond annual such management concerns as congressional appropriations. communications and leadership The commercialization of space and how these functions should will be a profound force in be divided between the Earth altering the management of and the Moon. space projects (Webb 1985).

Mixed crews (men and women, As the crews in tomorrow’s space military and civilian, public and habitations increase in size and private sector workers, Americans heterogeneity, as well as in length and other nationalities, scientists of stay away from this planet, and other professionals) will invoke planners must expect more stress more complex management and strain and must provide space challenges and responses. inhabitants with more autonomy, The people who, in increasing reminds Ben Finney, a University numbers, visit a space station or of Hawaii anthropologist, later in lunar outpost by 2025 will include this volume. To maximize safe, more than astronauts or even effective, congenial performance “astrotechnicians.” They will by such pioneers, new programs include a broad segment of Earth’s in behavioral science should be society, from politicians to tourists. instituted. Studies should be made of team development and In past colonial explorations, trading group dynamics, new leadership companies were formed to manage training and responsibilities, and operations in new, remote environs. even wellness programs in space Perhaps this previous solution communities. Such a program could be replicated in a Space should be part of a planned Trading Company. If the bold plan “space deployment system” I am for future space developments proposing to facilitate acculturation outlined by the National Commission in a strange, alien, sometimes on Space (Paine 1986) is to be hostile space environment (Harris implemented, then more innovative 1985b). ways for funding and managing space projects will have to be For multicultural crews to function invented. Whether it is financing a well in space, participants must fourth orbiter or building a space be able to deal with remoteness, station, there are historical they must be self-sufficient and precedents for national lotteries, multiskilled, and they must be

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sensitive to other people and programs require a new type of respect the norm of competence. macromanagement, whether to Because space stations in both rebuild this planet’s infrastructure low and geosynchronous Earth or to create a space infrastructure. orbit and a lunar or a martian base Figure 15 offers an illustration of are such costly, risky, and long- the scope of such an undertaking term programs, they will require from a management perspective. new management mechanisms Long-term projects costing that can provide continuity and $100 million or more require the consistency regardless of application of administrative skills personnel changes. across a range of activities that begins with strategic planning and Another management concern to extends to global or interplanetary be addressed more vigorously is management of material and that of multipurpose missions, human resources. such as one involving both civilian and military payloads (Brooks Macro-engineering projects have 1983). Economies of scale and shaped our past and may well piggybacking to contain costs are shape our future (Davidson 1983). arguments for combined missions. Space programs, like Apollo and Technical and management the Shuttle, have advanced the complexity and the issues of field and may be the force behind secrecy, foreign policy, and growth in an allied discipline— international cooperation may macromanagement. Most space prove stronger cases for keeping programs are macroscopic commercial and defense space because they share these activities separate. characteristics:

Space management would seem (1) They involve difficult, an ideal subject on which the complex engineering and Academy of Management and management problems other scholars should focus their which must be resolved research and conferences. before the program is completed.

Macromanagement (2) They require significant in Space public and private sector resources that must be As has already been indicated, committed over long large-scale and complex technical timeframes.

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(3) They include scientific and by 2010, it will not only have to use technical problems of macromanagement strategies, it unusual complexity, size, may also pioneer in the process. or circumstances, and the As more corporations participate in solutions often involve space ventures rather than just previously unknown those in the aerospace industry, technologies or resources. NASA will face a new set of interface challenges with these (4) They have profound impacts new stakeholders. Already space on the environment, legal entrepreneurs expect to launch and regulatory situation, satellites and a variety of other economics, and politics of commercial space ventures that the societies that develop require creating synergy with NASA them. (Webb 1985). Some of these space enterprises will necessitate (Davidson, Meador, and Salkeld the adoption of macromanagement 1980) methods.

Project management of large- Research funding should be scale enterprises has benefited directed into matters of from such new tools as the macromanagement by NASA, program evaluation and review global corporations, universities, technique (PERT), the critical path and others because it demands a method (CPM), and project new type of management thinking, management space systems style, and skills. For example, (PMSS) modeling. Developments macroprojects, whether on Earth in the supercomputer, software or in space, stand in need of packages, and management leadership capable of information systems have made macroprojects more feasible and • Synergy—facilitating manageable. Many of these cooperation and collaboration management innovations owe their in bringing together diverse origins and refinements to the elements, so as to produce Department of Defense and more than the sum of the NASA. parts

Macromanagement of large-scale • Intercultural skill—overcoming enterprises may very well become differences between peoples, a dominant theme in 21st century groups, and nations, management practice (McFarland particularly through effective 1985). As NASA seeks to cross-cultural communication implement plans for a space station and negotiation in the 1990s and a lunar outpost

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• Political savvy—gaining together. Certainly, a traditionally agreement and support for educated engineer is not likely project goals from the to possess many of these skills. various political or Research on the education of governmental entities, as macro-engineers has been under well as from the public if way at MIT under the conduct their support is essential of Frank Davidson, and it is beginning at the University of • Financial competence— Texas’ Large-Scale Programs understanding the economic Institute under the direction of realities of a long-term George Kozmetsky. Publications project and capable of such as Technology Review, puffing together the published by MIT Press, are necessary funding to also addressing these concerns. complete the undertaking, These efforts should be expanded while containing excessive to include macromanagement expenditures as a subject of study. Kozmetsky (1985) calls for transformational • Interface management— management strategies, thus taking the lead in bringing indicating that macromanagement together on time the various may be one of the central issues resources (human, of 21st century management. informational, technical, material) required to achieve During our summer study, two project goals resource speakers pointed out existing management models • Cosmopolitanism—sensitive worthy of further analysis by to global and interplanetary space planners. To create the issues affecting the project, necessary infrastructures for such as legal, ecological, tomorrow’s space programs, environmental, and human consultant Kathleen Murphy concerns, and able to cope (1983) proposed that we could with such issues from an learn from large development international rather than a projects around the world. national perspective (See her paper in this volume.) Such major “greensite” These are but a sampling of projects have already resolved the qualities that are desirable in problems between owners the new macroproject executive and contractors—developing or manager. Perhaps no one techniques of conflict resolution person possesses all of them, and negotiation and making but a management team may reward and penalty provisions. exercise such competencies And they have tested financial

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arrangements that might prove nonterrestrial resources can feasible for space development— operate like these Earth-based including new financing models, analogs: “Space is just a different joint ventures, consortia, R&D place to do the same kinds of shared between Government and things we do on this planet.” industry, and national bank syndicate investments. But space is a place for large-scale endeavors of a peaceful and The other input came from commercial nature. It opens consulting engineer Peter Vajk, opportunities for human institutions who observed that global projects and governments to produce concerned with new terrestrial synergy, not war. It requires not materials may offer insights into only new mindsets but new the exploration for and exploitation management. Over a decade ago, of space resources. Like NASA a classic work provided us with a projects, these projects are high- charter for that purpose. In risk and capital-intensive. They Managing Large Systems: involve very large costs for research Organizations for the Future and development, startup, and (1971), Sayles and Chandler operations. They are beginning to reminded us that such enterprises use a macromanagement approach are interdisciplinary in character in which a corporate headquarters and integrate an array of scientific, sets general policy, negotiates major technological, social, political, and contracts, and keeps accounting and other personalities and resources. systems records, while subsidiary This charter describes the large- facilities operate under distributed scale programs of NASA, as was or semiautonomous management. well understood by the key Projects in new terrestrial materials, administrators of the Apollo being technology- and skill-intensive, Program. involve macro-engineering. They own, lease, or hire their In 1986 the National Commission transportation. They operate on Space, appointed by the distribution centers, retail outlets, President, issued a report, and sales offices. Their programs Pioneering the Space Frontier. It are extended in time and space recommends spending $700 billion throughout the deployment and on the U.S. space program for operation phases. Their activities manned settlements on the Moon are transnational. They use within 30 years; a new generation sophisticated computer information of spacecraft that could voyage to networks involving high-rate data the Moon, Mars, and beyond; and a transfer. Vajk believes that new space infrastructure for macroprojects to develop interplanetary factories, spaceports,

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and communities to accommodate Space management in the future eventually one million space will necessitate crossing traditional travelers a day. Macroprojects, academic disciplines and industrial such as will be undertaken in space fields, as this quotation of Frank by the turn of this century, need Davidson (1983) so succinctly more than bold vision; they need implies: a system for managing continuity over long periods, despite Space development is a fluctuations in personnel, policy, critical case-in-point, because government administrations, it will test the ability of our and finances. Gaining a national diverse, rather relaxed consensus to support new space society to set long-range ventures is a cultural problem. goals, to hue [sic ] the line Implementing plans for that purpose despite disappointments implies innovative approaches to and setbacks, and to devise space management, such as have institutional arrangements been discussed here. that will assure continuity.… Low-cost approaches are For existing space organizations, indispensable, because an such as NASA and its aerospace increasingly educated public partners, reeducation of personnel will rightly insist on [a] return is in order to prepare for the future on investment.…Now is demands of space management in the time, therefore, for the general and macromanagement in aerospace community to particular. New executive and reach out to the mining management development industry, the heavy programs should be designed to construction industry, and deal with these considerations. the ground transportation Technology or R&D managers need industry, so that joint ventures to become more general in their on land and sea, as well as outlook, more open to new ideas “up there” may set a pattern outside their own fields and of partnership and a network industries, more competent in of personal relationships management skills. For this to which will benefit all systems happen, schools of engineering engineering programs that are and business will have to design so necessary for the future joint curricula, while corporate health, safety, and prosperity specialists in human resources and of the Republic. development will have to cooperate with R&D professionals to create more appropriate in-house training.

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Conclusions organizational culture, so as to ascertain what changes are Under the leadership of NASA, necessary for future space plans are being made for space management. For NASA, the developments in the next 25 years. management changes involve new At a minimum, the program will relationships with the military and include space and lunar stations the private sector, as well as with that will be complicated to international space consortia and construct and manage, require a possibly some new entities, such new generation of technology, and as a global space agency. cost billions of dollars. From these bases in space, planners envision Obviously, the next 25 years in mining the Moon, possibly mining space will also alter the way we an asteroid, and eventually manage enterprises in space. launching manned missions to Mars Initially, we need more research (maybe a joint mission with the on issues of leadership for Earth- Soviets). Such developments will based projects in space and space- require an organizational based programs with managers transformation of the National there. The days of the traditional Aeronautics and Space “mission control” may be waning. Administration. This may involve Second, we need to realize that structural changes that give the large-scale technical enterprises, agency more autonomy and such as are undertaken in space, flexibility, especially long-term require a new form of management. financing. Certainly, it should Therefore, NASA and other include planned organization responsible agencies are urged renewal so that NASA builds on the to study excellence in space technological and management macromanagement, including the innovations of its Apollo heritage. necessary multidisciplinary skills. If the national decision is to go to Two recommended targets are Mars jointly with the Soviets, then the application of general living the challenge will be the integration systems theory (Miller 1978; see of the two countries’ space also his paper in this volume) and management systems. macromanagement concepts (McFarland 1985) for development To become and remain fully and operation of a space station metaindustrial, NASA and its in the 1990s. Such management aerospace partners will have to models may supply the positive create a new work culture. For that orientation now needed in planning purpose, I have proposed a survey America’s aerospace future. and assessment of their current

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References Davidson, F. P.; C. L. Meador; and R. Salkeld, eds. 1980. How Big Automation and Robotics Panel. and Still Beautiful? Macro- 1985. Automation and Robotics for Engineering Revisited. Boulder, the National Space Program. CO: Westview Press/AAAS. Report on NASA grant NAGW-629. LaJolla, CA: Calif. Space Davidson, Frank Paul. 1983. Inst./Univ. of Calif.—San Diego. Macro: A Clear Vision of How Science and Technology Can Baugh, J. G. 1981. A Study of Shape Our Future. New York: Decision Making Within Matrix William Morrow & Co. Organizations, unpublished doctoral dissertation, U.S. Int. Univ., Harris, P. R. 1983. New Worlds, San Diego, CA (available from New Ways, New Management. Univ. Microfilms Int., Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor: Masterico Press/ MI). AMACOM.

Brooks, Harvey. 1983. Managing Harris, P. R. 1985a. Management the Enterprise in Space, in Transition. San Francisco: Technology Review 86 (3—April): Jossey-Bass. 38–47. Harris, P. R. 1985b. Living on the Coleman, E. R., ed. 1980. Moon: Will Humans Develop an Information and Society: Labor Unearthly Culture? The Futurist, Issues of the 80s. Basking Ridge, April, pp. 30–35; Up Front: Space NJ: AT&T Corporate Planning/ Deployment Systems, Space Emerging Issues Group. World, April, p. 2; Continuum: Space Pets, Omni, Oct., p. 41. Connors, M. M.; A. A. Harrison; and F. R. Akins, eds. 1985. Living Kozmetsky, George. 1985. Aloft: Human Requirements for Transformational Management. Extended Space Flight. NASA Cambridge, MA: Ballinger/Harper SP-483. & Row.

C-STAR Study Group. 1988. Levine, Arnold S. 1982. Managing Critical Issues in Robot-Human NASA in the Apollo Era. NASA Operations During the Early Phases SP-4102. of the Space Station Program. Report on a cooperative project of MacDaniel, W. E. 1985. Intellectual four C-STAR universities delivered Stimulant, Extraterrestrial Society to NASA Goddard Space Flight Newsletter 7 (2—Fall): 5; Free Fall Center (NASA grant NAG5-939). Culture, Space World, Aug., p. 12.

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Mark, H., and A. Levine. 1984. Paine, Thomas O., et al. 1986. The Management of Research Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Institutions: A Look at Government Report of the National Commission Laboratories. NASA SP-481. on Space. New York: Bantam Books. McFarland, D. E. 1985. Managerial Imperative: Age of Peters, T. J., and R. H. Waterman. Macromanagement. Cambridge, 1982. In Search of Excellence. MA: Ballinger/Harper & Row. New York: Harper & Row.

Miller, James Grier. 1978. Living Peters, T. J., and N. Austin. 1985. Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. Passion for Excellence. New York: Random House. Moran, R. T., and P. R. Harris. 1982. Managing Cultural Synergy. Sayles, L. R., and M. K. Chandler. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. 1971. Managing Large Systems: Organizations for the Future. Murphy, Kathleen J. 1983. New York: Harper & Row. Macroproject Development in the Third World: An Analysis of Schein, E. H. 1985. Transnational Partnerships. Organizational Culture and Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. O’Neill, Gerard K. 1977. The High Frontier: Human Colonies Seamans, R. C., and F. I. Ordway. in Space. New York: William 1977. The Apollo Tradition: An Morrow & Co. Object Lesson for the Management of Large-scale Technological O’Toole, J. 1983. New Endeavors. Interdisciplinary Management 1 (1—Spring): 3. Science Reviews 2 (4): 270–303. Center for Futures Research, Univ. of Southern Calif., Los Webb, D. C. 1985. A Current Angeles, CA; now published Perspective on Space by Wilson Learning Corp., Commercialization. Washington, 6950 Washington Ave. So., DC: Aerospace Research Center/ Eden Prairie, MN 55344. Aerospace Assn. of America, April.

O’Toole, James. 1985. Vanguard Management: Redesigning the Corporate Future. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

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Space Law and Space Resources

Nathan C. Goldman

Law is not immutable; it responds Space industrialization is to the needs of society. Since confronting space law with World War II, humanity has moved problems that are changing old increasingly into outer space, and shaping new legal principles. encountering new conditions and Manufacturing in space and new needs along the way. The exploiting nonterrestrial resources law of outer space has addressed pose economic and political issues the new political, economic, and that the nations must address. technical needs that accompany Space exploration has been this transit of human society conducted in the names of peace into space. Space law has and humanity; yet, the increasing been expressed in broad, vague awareness of the value of space principles that have permitted exploration and space applications the maximum flexibility necessary dictates a new consideration of the for exploratory space activities. merits of international competition But, as exploration gives way to and international cooperation in settlement, this predominantly space. international law lacks the specificity and legal certainty necessary for mature commercial activity.

Space Manufacturing a. Latex beads produced in the microgravity of space NASA photo: S86-32185

b. Latex beads produced in Earth’s gravity NASA photo: S86-32184

In the microgravity of low Earth orbit, perfectly uniform spheres of latex can be manufactured. Compare these produced on the Space Shuttle (a) with those produced on Earth (b). Note that the products influenced by gravity are of different sizes and sometimes deformed. (a) (b)

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Shipping Lunar Oxygen In this concept, based on a model by Hubert Davis of Eagle Engineering, a lunar lighter is delivering oxygen produced on the Moon to the LUNOX propellant storage depot in lunar orbit. A lunar freighter, equipped with an aerobraking heat shield, is leaving the storage depot carrying oxygen to low Earth orbit for use as propellant on outward bound journeys. On the other end of the storage depot are two larger tanks of hydrogen for use in the manufacture and shipment of lunar oxygen. In orbit with the LUNOX platform is a small space station providing support to lunar astronauts. Artist: Pat Rawlings NASA photo: S83-28321

It is given that nations must pursue in any given situation, either their national interests. The cooperation or competition may policymakers in the United States better serve the national interest. have not always considered well the national interest in space. This lack of policy sophistication The Treaties resulted in part from arrogance over the American lead in space The U.N. Committee on the and in part from ignorance of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space importance of space in the future (UNCOPUOS) is responsible for balance of power. Today, with the major portion of international our dwindling lead and with the space law. It has negotiated five growing importance of space, the treaties. The first four, from 1967 United States must negotiate its to 1976, have been ratified by the international space agreements with United States, the Soviet Union, the same concern for national and many other nations, active and priorities that it has in any other inactive in space. The fifth treaty, international arena. Of course, the Moon Treaty, was ratified by

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the U.N. in 1979 but has been to explore space in peace and ratified by only seven nations, none for the benefit of all humanity. of whom has an active space The second, 1968 treaty— program. the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of The first treaty, called the Outer Astronauts, and the Return of Space Treaty or Principles Treaty, Objects Launched Into Outer has been ratified or acceded to Space—expands on the 1967 by almost 100 nations. Its broad principle that astronauts are the principles provide the foundation “envoys” of humanity who should and the philosophy for activities in be honored and assisted in every outer space—that is, a commitment respect (U.S. Senate 1978).

Space Station Emergency Rescue Vehicle This design is one of several being considered to provide a safe and reliable emergency return from the space station. The Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV) would be based at the space station and use deorbit engines to return to Earth.

Rescue capability would be offered to astronauts of any nation, as in September of 1988 the United States offered tracking and recovery help to the Soviets when their cosmonauts, Russian pilot Lyakhov and Afghani copilot Mohmand, had difficulty returning from the Mir space station in a Soyuz spacecraft. Artist: David Russell NASA photo: S88-25388

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Ratified in 1973, the Convention on Into Outer Space, expands on the International Liability for Damage 1967 principle that nations retain Caused by Space Objects spells jurisdiction over and responsibility out many of the liabilities and duties for their facilities and objects in of spacefarers and describes a space. It mandates that a nation procedure to enforce these register its launch with a U.N. obligations. The final major treaty, Registry, and thereby legitimate the 1976 Convention on the that nation’s jurisdiction over the Registration of Objects Launched vessel or facility.

Skylab Is Falling! Lou Pare, flight controller, marks an area in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the final “footprint” of Skylab, as Gene Kranz, deputy director of flight operations at the Johnson Space Center, looks on. Skylab, America’s first space station, was launched in 1973 and served as home for three crews, during 1-month, 2-month, and 3-month stays in 1973 and 1974. The spacecraft (which was not designed to be restocked) was turned off, its orbit decayed, and it broke up as it reentered the atmosphere July 11, 1979. Most of its pieces burned up in the atmosphere. Of the pieces that survived the heat of reentry, most fell into the ocean. Only a few fell on land (some were recovered in Australia); none caused any damage.

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The 1979 Moon Treaty builds on diplomats and international another 1967 principle, space for lawyers need to consider. This the benefit of mankind, to dictate section identifies only four of an international regime that will these issues: (1) international be established at a future date competition and cooperation, to regulate space resources (2) property rights and “in place,” declared now the nonterrestrial mining, (3) legal “common heritage of mankind.” liability and responsibility, and Neither the United States nor the (4) environmental impact. Soviet Union is likely to sign this treaty. Nor is the treaty likely to International Cooperation gain wide acceptance, authority, or standing as law. Nevertheless, International cooperation is a the treaty does represent the most theme that pervades the legal complete international effort to regime of space. According to the date to deal with the legal and 1967 Outer Space Treaty, space public questions of colonizing is to be used for “the benefit of and exploiting space. mankind” (Article I). Nations cannot annex or appropriate outer This thumbnail sketch of space law space or the celestial bodies has been neither comprehensive (Article II). The United States has nor detailed, but it provides a always balanced these more background suggesting serious altruistic principles against a legal-political problems that will second theme: nations are confront the first efforts to mine permitted by the treaty to “use” and use the resources of the and exploit space. As participant Moon and other celestial bodies in the negotiations and ever since, (Goldman 1988). the United States has always argued that nations can mine and claim resources “in place” even Treaty Issues under the 1979 Moon Treaty (Christol 1982, pp. 293-296). The utilization of space resources will raise many issues that

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Photo (just after the start of the run into the Cherokee Outlet, September 16, 1893): L. D. Hodges

Provided by the courtesy of the Archives & Manuscripts Division of the Oklahoma Historical Society.

Oklahoma Land Rush On April 22, 1889 (some a little sooner), 15 000 settlers from 32 states lined up to make a run into the unassigned lands of the Oklahoma Indian Territory and stake claims to homesteads. Within 5 days a tent city had sprung up on the prairie at Guthrie. International law prohibits the staking of claims to lunar territory, but nations who can get there can use the resources onsite. The United States has always maintained that under the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which it signed along with almost 100 other nations, and even under the 1979 Moon Treaty, which it has not signed (nor has the Soviet Union), lunar settlers would be able to mine and claim the resources at a lunar base. Provided by the courtesy of the Western History Collections, University of Oklahoma.

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Of course, separate from the the Third World. Cooperation legal issue, the United States will spreads the risks and the cost of need to make a political decision the program; all partners gain whether to proceed alone or in from the expertise of the others. consortium with other nations. Then, the partners can share the Such cooperation may offset technical and financial riches of opposition to its activities from so momentous an undertaking. many governments, especially in

International Cooperation in Space Station Freedom Cooperating with the United States in the construction and use of Space Station Freedom will be Canada, Japan, and the nations of Europe. The U.S.A. will supply the habitat module and one laboratory module; the European Space Agency (ESA) will supply a second laboratory module; the Japanese, a third. Canada will supply a mobile servicing center, which will include an improved version of the remote manipulator arm currently in use on the Space Shuttle. It will help assemble the space station and will provide grappling capability thereafter. Such international cooperation spreads both the costs and the benefits of space development. All the partners gain from the expertise of the others. Artist: Paul Fjeld NASA photo: S88-27160

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Mining space under any claim of national sovereignty; (4) nevertheless, that According to present space law, all nations are free to explore and mining in space—lunar, asteroidal, “use” outer space. The official or planetary—is treated alike. The position of the United States, operative treaty provisions are clearly enunciated in the debates (1) that space is reserved for the of UNCOPUOS, interprets these benefit and is the province of all provisions to permit any nation or mankind; (2) that every nation shall corporation to mine and otherwise have equal access to outer space; use the resources of outer space. (3) that nations cannot appropriate

Lunar Mining and Processing Though international law prohibits the annexation of any part of the Moon, it would allow the use of raw materials mined at a lunar base. In this concept, based on a model by Hubert Davis of Eagle Engineering, bulk soil from a strip mine is delivered by front-end loaders to an automated processing facility. The oxygen won from the process is liquefied and piped to the storage tanks on the right. One filled tank is being loaded now, perhaps to be used at the lunar base, perhaps to be shipped to orbit. The slag is carried by conveyor belt to a dump in the background to the left. Near it, a lunar lighter can be seen landing. The tanks stacked to the right of the buried habitat module contain hydrogen for use in the process and as propellant. Power lines stretch over the ridge to a power station, possibly a nuclear reactor. Artist: Pat Rawlings NASA photo: S83-28324

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Even under the rather anticapitalist transfers technology and proceeds Moon Treaty, the official position from the resource developer to of the U.S. negotiators in nonparticipants), the regime for UNCOPUOS has been that the space has been vilified by many treaty permitted companies and writers and politicians, and this was nations to mine the Moon. For a major issue in the defeat of the instance, light elements—hydrogen, treaty. The interpretations of the nitrogen, and carbon—exist in U.S. negotiators evoke alternative limited quantities in the lunar soil, regimes, including an international and frozen water may exist in larger investment organization which amounts at the lunar poles. Under nations could join if they desired. the longstanding U.S. legal Intelsat, the International interpretation, the nation finding Telecommunications Satellite these resources will be able to Consortium, is such a model. mine them. The nation will not own the site, but its labor will attach Although much of the world will ownership to the ore (Christol object, the legal bottom line on 1982, pp. 39–43). American legal mining nonterrestrial resources is and political planners need to that the United States, the Soviet consider the scenario in which Union, or any other nation that can spacefarers from another nation go get there can mine the Moon and to the Moon and find a singular other celestial bodies. deposit of volatiles. The case of the near-Earth American negotiators of the Moon asteroids, however, raises a trickier Treaty have argued that the treaty legal issue. Although a nation language prohibiting ownership of cannot appropriate a celestial body, space resources “in place” means it can use the resources. If space that when the resources have been mining basically consumes an removed from “in place,” personal entire, small near-Earth asteroid, labor attaches and the mining has the “use,” become an concern would own the extracted “appropriation” of the celestial materials. The treaty also body? This situation appears to envisions that the signatory nations be another example in which the would “undertake” to establish an technologies have rendered international regime when utilization the treaties obsolete. Perhaps of space resources becomes an the diplomats need to amend active possibility. By analogy to the the treaties to redefine these international regime described in smaller asteroids as a different the Law of the Sea Treaty (which class of celestial bodies.

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Liability and Responsibility apportion liability and provide a mechanism for settling disputes, According to the 1967 Treaty, the bottom line remains that one nations are responsible for the nation may be held liable for the space activities of their nationals entire accident. (Article IV). The Liability Convention in 1973, moreover, Environmental Impact established an absolute liability for damages on Earth caused by Two broad concerns for space space activities. Liability based on resources and environmental fault is authorized for damage in impact raise treaty issues: space (Article II). Therefore, if the (1) back-contamination of Earth United States decides to take in and (2) environmental protection private industry as a partner in of the celestial bodies. The Outer transporting or mining, the U.S. Space Treaty requires consultation Government would have to about the environmental issues monitor these partners closely. (Article IX). The Moon was seen as sterile, and the rules for back- The Liability Convention also contamination were not as strict as provides that nations are jointly many scientists wanted. Mars and and severally liable for damages other celestial bodies may require caused by their cooperative a different set of regulations. The space effort (Articles IV and V). unratified Moon Treaty suggests Although the memorandums of that nonterrestrial sites of scientific understanding or treaties among interest should remain pristine. these national partners will

Should the Moon Remain Pristine? “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind,” said Neil Armstrong as he set foot on the surface of the Moon July 20, 1969. His footprints, those of fellow explorer Buzz Aldrin, and the footprints of the 10 other Apollo astronauts to walk on the Moon remain clear and sharp on this windless satellite, despite the passage of 20 years. In fact, the footprints of these astronauts will likely last about 1 million years before they are eroded away by micrometeorite impacts. Development of such nonterrestrial sites will create further disruptions. Where should the line be drawn between protecting the environment and developing the resources? NASA photo: AS11-40-5878

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Conclusions References

The return to the Moon, the next Christol, Carl Q. 1982. The logical step beyond the space Modern International Law of Outer station, will establish a permanent Space. New York: Pergamon human presence there. Science Press. and engineering, manufacturing and mining will involve the Goldman, Nathan C. 1988. astronauts in the settlement of the American Space Law: Domestic solar system. These pioneers, and International. Ames, Iowa: eventually from many nations, will Iowa State Univ. Press. need a legal, political, and social framework to structure their lives Moon Treaty. 1979. Agreement and interactions. International and Governing the Activities of States even domestic space law are only on the Moon and Other Celestial the beginning of this framework. Bodies, Dec. 5. Dispute resolution and simple experience will be needed in order U.S. Senate, Committee on to develop, over time, a new social Commerce, Science, and system for the new regime of Transportation. 1978. Space space. Law: Selected Basic Documents, 2nd ed.

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Strategies for Broadening Public Involvement in Space Developments

Philip R. Harris et al.

Rationale (3) A stock investment plan

There is widespread public interest (4) Limited partnership in and goodwill toward the space opportunities for space program. For NASA’s plans for the technology next 25 years to be achieved, this public reservoir of support needs to (5) Joint ventures by NASA be tapped and channeled. NASA with other national endeavors have to reach out space agencies or with beyond the scientific, technological, multinational corporations and aerospace communities to foster wider participation in space exploration and exploitation. To Political broaden NASA support and spread out the financing of space activities, To create a national consensus and we offer these recommendations ethos for space development in the for consideration. next 25 years, NASA should exercise vigorous leadership on behalf of its intended missions. For Economic this purpose, the following program is recommended to educate For anticipated space missions to politicians, as well as the public, in be carried out, new sources of the scope, necessity, and value of income and financial participation space plans. should be sought. NASA can no longer operate merely on the basis NASA needs to decide among the of annual Federal appropriations. alternative scenarios for space A national commission of financial development up to 2010. A plan experts and venture capitalists with specific goals, time targets, might be established to analyze and estimated costs, including the alternatives, recommend to locations in space and required the President and Congress technology, should be summarized policies and procedures for the in a case for investment, which is public sector, and propose space then communicated to all NASA investments for the private sector. constituencies through a variety These are a few of the options to of modern media. Using the be analyzed: journalistic who, what, when, where, why, and how as a (1) A national or international framework, this case could be put lottery forth in publications, films, videos, and public presentations. To carry (2) A national bond issue this message to the point where

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public support is transformed into workshops might be held for the financial contributions, we members of the House and Senate recommend that NASA focus on and their staffs, the media and the space station, a lunar base, business leaders. Emphasis Mars Rover Sample Return and unmanned explorations, should be on the commercial Just as the Apollo lunar samples have especially of Mars, for the next promise of space. been the cornerstones of our knowledge quarter century. Special briefing base for planning human habitation and exploitation of the Moon, so martian samples should greatly enhance our ability to plan for exploration of Mars. Analysis of martian rocks and soils would help determine what chemical resources (water-bearing minerals?) are available and what scientific questions human explorers should be prepared to investigate. Plans are currently being made to send robotic sample collectors to several spots on Mars. In this concept, a six-wheeled rover collects and packages samples and delivers them to the launch vehicle in the background which will return them to Earth. Each rover/launcher combination could probably provide about 5 kilograms (11 pounds) of samples. Sample returns from various sites on Mars could help select the sites that could be explored with the greatest benefit. In particular, knowledge about martian rocks and soils could help us prepare the tools and techniques to search for evidence of past life on Mars. Artist: Ken Hodges NASA photo: S87-35313

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The following means or sources of their support for the assistance should be examined: NASA plan and to obtain recommendations for private (1) A White House conference sector involvement in space on space enterprise, called developments. In addition by the President at the to gathering their delegates request of Congress, to (for example, in conjunction consider how to implement with a Shuttle launch), there the 1986 recommendations might be a teleconference to of the National Commission include their memberships. on Space. The provisions of the Space Settlements Act (3) An artists’ and writers’ tour (H.R. 4218) might be added of space opportunities. to the agenda for discussion. Artists, dramatists, and film The proceedings could be and television producers televised by the Public would be invited to visit key Broadcasting System and NASA installations and later published in book form projects to examine the for wider dissemination. possibilities for collaboration on media projects about (2) A national convocation space themes, especially by NASA of all space those dealing with human organizations, associations, migration and communities and societies to enlist on the high frontier.

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An Artists’ and Writers’ Tour of Space Opportunities Robert McCall, NASA-commissioned artist, touches up the middle of a giant mural at the Johnson Space Center’s Teague Auditorium. That mural is seen in the background as tourists consider the lunar module test article. Perhaps other artists and writers, including film and video producers, could tour NASA installations to get content for their visualizations of life on the “high frontier.” Indeed, Dennis Davidson, art director for the LaJolla summer study and this publication, has made such a tour of the Johnson Space Center with his colleagues in the International Association of Astronomical Artists. NASA photos: S79-34217 and S86-37740

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(4) A global space congress on as a replacement for the the future of humankind in summer study approach, space, possibly under the NASA might provide grants auspices of the United for specific research it needs Nations or an appropriate to have undertaken on space international agency. The technology, management, International Space Year culture, health, and 1992 might be a good community development. opportunity to focus papers The purpose of this new and discussions on the kind grant or contract program of space culture we wish to would be to involve more create on the high frontier academic disciplines, such and whether a global space as behavioral and health agency should be formed by sciences, in space planning the end of this century. and to foster doctoral level studies and publications that We assume that the proceedings of focus on space systems and all the above events would be communities as well as on recorded and published for wider space technology. Schools distribution, especially by satellite of education and human video. services, for example, might be asked to analyze curriculum changes related Institutional to space age developments.

In order to widen institutional (2) NASA should also reach out support beyond space scientists to international and national and engineers, these steps trade associations and might be considered to enlist professional societies to professionals and academics in involve them in space the process of planning space planning. They could be communities: encouraged to conduct conferences, field trips, (1) A university presidents’ and even action research conference might be held on the applications of their to announce new NASA fields to space development. strategies to strengthen For example, medical the synergy between the organizations could examine agency and the academic space health technology community. For example, and needs.

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Similarly, architectural and elementary and secondary construction firms, hotel schools. With imagination, groups, and travel agents whole new constituencies could undertake studies of could be created in this space tourism. Teachers’ manner, ranging from law to organizations might focus dentistry. on space studies for

Action Research on Space Health Technology Skylab astronaut Joseph P. Kerwin, M.D., serves as a test subject for the Lower Body Negative Pressure Experiment. Astronaut Paul J. Weitz, Skylab 2 pilot and experiment monitor, assists with the blood pressure cuff while Kerwin is in the lower body negative pressure device. The purpose of the experiment, which measures blood pressure, heart rate, the heart’s electrical activity, body temperature, leg volume changes, and body weight as well as the pressure produced by the device, is to determine cardiovascular adaptation during a mission in weightlessness, to predict the degree of orthostatic intolerance to be expected upon return to Earth’s gravity, and to estimate the ameliorative effect of the device. Such action research is supported by health experts and technology producers on the ground. NASA photo: SL2-2-180

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Artemis, a Senior Architectural Design Project The hub of a lunar settlement is laid out in Shakespeare Crater. Vera Rodriguez designed this part of a 21st century community for 3000 inhabitants. She and five other students (Carol Haywood, Ruby Macias, Jorge Maldonado, Larry Ratcliff, and Kerry Steen) in the architecture program at the University of Texas at San Antonio researched, developed, and designed the lunar community as a senior design project under the direction of Dr. Richard Tangum. They were assisted in their research by NASA employees at the Johnson Space Center.

Although designed for the well-being, comfort, and enjoyment of lunar inhabitants, many facilities, such as the observation tower, museum (featuring the history of the lunar settlement), library (in the center of the school), and theater would be of interest to visitors staying in the 100-room hotel, which is expected to be one of the largest profit-making parts of the lunar establishment.

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Space Studies A teacher helps students try on space helmets at an exhibit at the Johnson Space Center. Teacher organizations might be involved in the planning of space communities, thereby enlarging NASA’s constituency beyond scientists and engineers. Indeed, Pat Sumi, a teacher in the Gifted and Talented Program of the San Diego Unified School District, involved herself in the 1984 summer study of space resources. NASA photo: S82-25183

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International Managerial

To build on those results of the To meet the challenge of a foregoing efforts that have postindustrial society and work international dimensions, NASA culture, NASA needs to plan should seek specific joint change in its structure, endeavor agreements with organizational models, and counterpart space agencies and management policies. We their governments in Japan, recommend that a task force be Europe, the U.S.S.R., and such established to examine the matters Third World countries as China of organizational renewal and and India. Regional economic development of a metaindustrial associations or multinational work culture. Examples of the corporations (some of which are issues that might be addressed by headquartered in the Third World) this group, with the counsel of might prove suitable for such external consultants, are partnerships. To proceed with this globalization of the space program (1) Modernizing and might require some changes decentralizing operational within NASA, such as centers and mission control

(1) Creating in NASA (2) Developing a headquarters a structure for macromanagement approach this purpose with to large-scale programs, representation in all NASA such as building a space centers station or a lunar base

(2) Recruiting and training (3) Fostering a more specialists with cross- autonomous, innovative, and cultural negotiation and entrepreneurial spirit or communication skills who culture within NASA can effectively manage such international projects Thus can NASA and its management transform itself! (3) Identifying ventures in which the complexity of the technology or financing makes an international partner desirable

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NASA Transformed In 1975 the official symbol of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration changed from the insignia on the left to the logo on the right. Though many NASA employees feel affection for the old “meatball” and its symbolism (and the official seal of the agency still bears a resemblance to it), even the most conservative can recognize in the new “worm” a positive change of image. The serif type and boundedness of the old circular symbol have changed to the uniform lines of the new, more open symbol and the vertical thrust of its uncrossed A’s. This new image represents a streamlined purposefulness in NASA, an organization in the vertical business of launching space enterprises.

Many of the participants in the 1984 summer study at LaJolla advocated more than symbolic renewal for NASA, to energize the organization as it moves out into the solar system. NASA photos: S63-12359 and S75-31690

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Space Migrations: Anthropology and the Humanization of Space*

Ben R. Finney

Abstract

Because of its broad evolutionary perspective and its focus on both technology and culture, anthropology offers a unique view of why we are going into space and what leaving Earth will mean for humanity. In addition, anthropology could help in the humanization of space through (1) overcoming sociocultural barriers to working and living in space, (2) designing societies appropriate for permanent space settlement, (3) promoting understanding among differentiated branches of humankind scattered through space, (4) deciphering the cultural systems of any extraterrestrial civilizations contacted.

Space is being humanized. We are international relations and law, learning to live and work in orbit; philosophy, political science, the era of the actual settlement of psychology, sociology, and future the Moon, Mars, and other portions studies, but not on anthropology of our solar system seems almost (Cheston, Chafer, and Chafer at hand; and talk of eventually 1984). That omission is perhaps migrating to other star systems is understandable, because growing. My task here is to anthropologists have typically consider what role the discipline of focused on the long past of anthropology might play in humanity rather than on its future understanding and in facilitating this and, when they have studied living process of humanizing space.1 peoples, they have usually worked with small tribal or peasant groups At first glance, anthropology might rather than with large industrial not seem to have much to societies. Yet, despite this contribute to such a highly seeming fascination with the technical and futuristic enterprise archaic and the small-scale, the as expanding into space. For perspective of anthropology applied example, a recent NASA to space can help us comprehend publication entitled Social Sciences the human implications of leaving and Space Exploration includes Earth and can facilitate that chapters on economics, history, process.

______*This is a revised version of a copyrighted 1987 article with this subtitle as its title which appeared in Acta Astronautica 15:189–194. Used with permission.

1A separate paper could be devoted to how remote sensing from space is being used by anthropologists to search for buried or otherwise obscured archaeological sites (see “NASA…” 1985), to survey land use patterns of living peoples, and even to track reconstructed voyaging canoes as they are being sailed over the Pacific navigated by Polynesian non-instrument methods (Finney et al. 1986).

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An Anthropological Vision may be immensely more complicated than anything First, and most important, heretofore developed on Earth. anthropology offers a perspective But, in voyaging into space and on humankind that extends back attempting to live there, we are some five million years to the doing what comes naturally to us appearance of the first hominids, as an expansionary, technological but it does not end with the species. evolution of modern human beings and the development of the current high-technology society. Anthropology can help us think about where we are going as well Figure 1 as where we have been. From the perspective of anthropology, we The Beginnings of Technology can view our species as an Through the development of technology, our distant ancestors were able to spread exploring, colonizing animal which out of East Africa over the entire globe has learned to develop the and to thrive in harsh environments for technology to migrate to, and which we, as basically hairless, tropical flourish in, environments for which animals, are not biologically adapted. we are not biologically adapted The invention of the shaped chopping tool some two million years ago was a (Finney and Jones 1985). This major benchmark in this process of process began when our distant technological development. By hitting ancestors developed those first one rock against another so as to chip off tools for hunting and gathering (see a series of flakes, one can make a crude fig. 1), and there is no end in sight. tool to use in many tasks, such as slicing meat, working hides, and shaping wood Settling the Moon, Mars, or even and bone into new tools. more distant bodies represents Artist: Biruta Akerbergs an extension of our terrestrial Taken from Jolly and Plog 1986, p. 275. behavior, not a departure from it. Reproduced with permission of McGraw- The technology of space travel, Hill, Inc. artificial biospheres, and the like

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Yet, settling in space will be a barriers to be overcome in the revolutionary act, because leaving humanization of space. Earth to colonize new worlds will change humankind utterly and Coping with isolation from Earth, irreversibly. Anthropologists focus family, and friends and with the on technological revolutions and cramped confines of a space their social consequences. The module or station has been enough original technological revolution, of a challenge for carefully selected that of tool-making, made us and highly trained spacefarers of human. The agricultural revolution the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. As led to the development of villages, those cosmonauts who have been cities, and civilization. The “pushing the endurance envelope” industrial revolution and more the farthest attest, staying longer recent developments have fostered and longer in space provokes the current global economy and severe psychological strain (Bluth society. Now, this same 1981; Grigoriev, Kozerenko, and anthropological perspective tells us Myasnikov 1985; Oberg 1985, that the space revolution is p. 21). Now life in space is inevitably leading humanity into an becoming even more complicated entirely new and uncharted social as “guest cosmonauts” from many realm. nations join Soviet and American crews; as women join men; and as physicians, physicists, engineers, Cultural Analysis and other specialists routinely work alongside traditional cosmonauts Speculation about revolutionary and astronauts of the “right stuff” developments is not, however, (see fig. 2). How will all these immediately relevant to a most different kinds of people get along pressing question about human in the space stations of the next adaptation to space: How can decade and the lunar bases and groups of people live and work martian outposts which are to together without psychological follow? What measures can impairment or the breakdown of be taken which would reduce social order in the space stations, stress and make it easier for lunar bases, and Mars expeditions heterogeneous groups of people now being planned? Psychological to work efficiently and safely and and social problems in space living to live together amicably for months constitute, as both Soviet and or even years in these space American space veterans attest habitats? (Bluth 1981, Carr 1981), major

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Figure 2

Space Shuttle Mission 51D, Crewed by K. J. “Bo” Bobko, Dave Griggs, Don Williams, Charlie Walker, Rhea Seddon E. J. “Jake” Garn, and Jeff Hoffman Space crews are becoming larger and more heterogeneous. Where once space was virtually the sole preserve of military test pilots from just two of Earth’s nations now women, “guest cosmonauts” from a wide range of countries, and physicians, scientists, engineers, and other specialists routinely join traditional astronauts and cosmonauts in space flight.

This trend can be seen in many of the Space Shuttle crews. In this case, Commander Karol J. “Bo” Bobko (Colone USAF) and Pilot Don E. Williams (Captain USN) were joined in their flight, April 12– 19, 1985, by Mission Specialists S. David Griggs (another test pilot, with an M.S. in administration), Jeffrey A. Hoffman (Ph.D astrophysics), and M. Rhea Seddon (M.D.) and Payload Specialists Charles D. Walker, representing McDonnell Douglas Among social scientists it has who are intensely interested in Corporation, and E. J. “Jake” Garn, been primarily the psychologists interpersonal relations and small representing the U.S. Senate.

(Helmreich 1983), with a few group behavior, it should not be In the coming era of international space jurists, sociologists, and political surprising that anthropologists stations, and one day on lunar bases and scientists joining in, who have might also be attracted to work in missions to Mars, a major challenge will tried to address these problems this field. Interestingly, some be how to structure crew relations so that of space living. However, recent recruits come from men and women of many nations, cultures, and occupational specialties can live and inasmuch as among the diverse maritime anthropology, where they work together synergistically in space. lot of people who call themselves have worked on the dynamics of NASA photo: S85-28647 anthropologists there are those small-boat fishing crews.

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Figure 3 These and other anthropologists description, which might usefully interested in space can bring to supplement the more clinical and American Station at the South Pole the field a degree of “hands-on” experimental approaches used by This station provides one of the closest experience in working with “real” psychologists and other social analogs we have on Earth to a rudimentary small groups—be they fishing science researchers. Beyond this, base on another planet, in terms of both living conditions and dependence on crews, Antarctic scientists (see moreover, anthropologists can supplies from outside. The station fig. 3), or hunting and gathering bring a needed cultural perspective consists of several buildings— bands (see fig. 4). And they to this pioneering phase of space laboratories, service structures, and bring a tradition of nonintrusive living. habitation modules—within a geodesic ethnographic observation and dome approximately 100 meters in diameter. The South Pole station is continuously inhabited. Crewmembers arrive and depart by air during the summer, but during the long Antarctic winter the dozen or so scientists and support staff live completely isolated from the rest of the world—almost as though they actually were on the Moon.

While the occupants can venture outside with protective clothing (“space suits”) during the winter, they are mostly dependent on the shelter provided by the geodesic dome and the buildings within the dome, much as they would be at a Moon or Mars base. Most of the supplies must be brought in by air, but some use is made of local resources. Local ice is used for water, and, of course, local oxygen is used for breathing and as an oxidizer for combustion, including operation of internal combustion engines. Photo: Michael E. Zolensky

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It is through the concept of such as NASA. One can now read “culture” that anthropology has books extolling the “culture” of this made perhaps its greatest or that successful corporation, and contribution to the formal I have heard NASA managers understanding of human life. In explain differences between the this context, anthropologists mean Johnson Space Center and other by culture those patterns of beliefs, NASA centers as being “cultural” practices, and institutions shared in nature. Here I wish to suggest by a particular ethnic population, a two specific areas in which this profession, a religion, or another cultural perspective of anthropology grouping. This concept has could be useful: (1) in addressing diffused beyond the social sciences the problems of cross-cultural and, in the United States, has relations among heterogeneous become a common tool for thinking space crews and societies and Figure 4 about problems within our (2) in the application of cultural Agta Men Burning Hair and Dirt From multicultural society. It has even resources to develop models for the Skin of a Wild Pig crossed the threshold into big space living. Here, watched by helpers and children business and government agencies in front of a residential lean-to at Disabungan, Icabela, the Philippines, an Agta man performs the first step in the butchering of a wild pig. He burns the hair and outer skin, which he will then scrape off. After this, the hunter will cut the pig into shares to be distributed among the band members, and sometimes offered for sale to loggers, farmers, and fishermen who have moved into the area.

Before the invention of agriculture, all of our ancestors lived by gathering wild plant food, hunting wild animals, and fishing. The Agta are representative of the few hunter-gatherer groups still found in the humid tropics of Southeast Asia, Central Africa, and South America. The Agta live in small bands of from 15 to 30 family members along the coast and in the mountains of eastern Luzon Island in the Philippines. They hunt wild pig, deer, and monkey, and they also fish, gather wild plant foods, and plant small gardens of root crops, rice, or maize. Photo: P. Bion Griffin

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Guest Astronauts and Cosmonauts Cross-Cultural Relations and reared in diverse terrestrial Foreign Payload Specialists on the Space cultures, we cannot ignore cultural Shuttle First, consider the issue of cross- differences and their potential for Ulf Merbold, West Germany, Spacelab 1, cultural personal relations on generating problems during November 28–December 8, 1983 international space missions. international missions. Marc Garneau, Canada, Canadian Space is no longer an arena for Experiment (CANEX), October 5–13, 1984 just two nations. More and more Cultural misunderstandings, Patrick Baudry, France, Echocardiograph citizens from a growing number of stemming from a difference in Experiment and Postural Experiment, and countries are joining their Soviet interpretation of a command or Sultan Salman Abdelazize Al-Saud, Saudi Arabia, Arabsat-A, June 17–24, 1985 and American colleagues in space comment or from a clash in Reinhard Furrer and Ernst Messerschmid, (see list). If this trend continues, it behavioral styles, might be deemed West Germany, and Wubbo Ockels, the would be easy to imagine a time trivial and passed over in a Netherlands, Spacelab 4, October 30– when crews aboard permanent terrestrial setting. But they could November 6, 1985 space stations or the inhabitants of become greatly magnified on a Rodolfo Neri Vela, Mexico, Morelos a lunar base would in effect form hazardous mission where people Experiments, November 26–December 3, miniature multicultural societies. must put up with one another in 1985 cramped quarters (see fig. 5) for It could be argued that the highly months, or perhaps even years, at Cosmonauts From Outside the Soviet trained and motivated persons who a time. The Soviets, who have Union* would participate in such future had the most experience with Vladimir Remek, Czechoslovakia, 1978 missions would share a common international spacefaring, have Miroslaw Hermaszewsk, Poland, 1978 high-technology space culture that admitted to cultural difficulties— Sigmund Jaehn, East Germany, 1978 would submerge local cultural even though their guests may Georgiy Ivanov, Bulgaria, 1979 differences and any problems that speak Russian and share a Bertalan Farkas, Hungary, 1980 might arise from these. That might common ideology with their hosts. Pham Tuan, North Vietnam, 1980 describe some future situation As Vladimir Remek, a guest Arnaldo Tamayo, Cuba, 1980 wherein crewmembers grow up in a cosmonaut from Czechoslovakia, Jugderdemidyan Gurragcha, Mongolia, common space culture and thereby puts it, unique cultural “mental 1981 share common experiences, features” can “disrupt the harmony Dumitru Prunariu, Romania, 1981 expectations, and values. However, among crew members” (Bluth Jean-Loup Chrétien, France, 1982 and as long as crewmembers are born 1981, p. 34). 1988 Rakesh Sharma, India, 1984 Muhammad Faris, Syria, 1987 Aleksandr Aleksandrov, Bulgaria, 1988 Abdul Ah a d Mohmand, Afghanistan, 1988 _____

*List compiled by James E. Oberg, space researcher and author.

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Figure 5

Cramped Quarters Cosmonauts Valeriy N. Kubasov and Aleksey A. Leonov are seen in the Soyuz orbital module during the joint U.S A.- U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking in Earth orbit. This photograph was taken by one of the three American astronauts on the mission—Thomas P. Stafford, crew commander; Donald K. Slayton, docking module pilot; or Vance D. Brand, command module pilot. The American and Soviet spacecraft were joined together in space for 47 hours, July 17–19, 1975.

The 47-hour ASTP rendezvous was a success both technologically and culturally, but the cramped quarters of the Soyuz spacecraft [the Apollo spacecraft was equally cramped (see the photo on p. 12)] and the differences in national styles demonstrate the potential for cultural clashes on longer missions with mixed crews. NASA photo: AST-5-307

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One prerequisite for group environment, where facial harmony is good interpersonal expressions are made even communication. Basic to that more difficult to read because communication is what the of the puffiness of the face anthropological linguist Edward from fluid pooling in the head), Hall calls the “silent language” and you have a recipe for 2 of facial expression, gesture, cultural misunderstanding. body posture, and interpersonal spacing (Hall 1959). Members Cultural Resources of the same culture tend not to perceive how much is Cultural factors should not, communicated nonverbally, however, be viewed solely in terms because their shared ways of of impediments to successful space gesturing and moving their bodies living, for they may also constitute may be so culturally ingrained as valuable human resources to be to be virtually unconscious. They tapped in adapting to space. In can therefore be greatly taken addition to seeking to promote aback when confronted with cultural harmony among members of another culture who heterogeneous space crews, we gesture or use their bodies might also seek out, from the differently. Americans, for multitude of cultural traditions example, commonly experience a among the Earth’s societies, those bewildering sense of discomfort practices and institutions which when conversing with Middle could best promote harmonious Easterners, who habitually stand and productive life in space. closer to their conversational partner than the American norm. As an example, consider Conversely, Middle Easterners interpersonal problems in a space may interpret Americans’ greater habitat. J. Henry Glazer, an conversational distance as a sign attorney who has pioneered the of coldness or dislike. Take study of “astrolaw,” warns against conversational distance and all the exporting to space communities the other elements of the “silent adversarial approach to dispute language,” mix well with an resolution based on “medieval international crew in a crowded systems of courtroom combat” space habitat (especially one (Glazer 1985, p. 16). In small located in a microgravity space habitats, where people

______2For another perspective on cross-cultural relations in space, see Tanner (1985).

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cannot escape from one another distant future of large space but must work out ways of settlements, we also examine interacting peacefully and major contemporary societies in productively, adversarial which harmony and cooperation is proceedings would irritate an stressed. The example of Japan, already sensitive social field. And with its low crime rate and relative how could the winners and losers paucity of lawyers, comes to of bitter courtroom battles live and mind—although its utility as a work with each other afterwards? model for international efforts may be limited in that Japan is such an One obvious suggestion is that ethnically homogeneous society systems which are designed to (Krauss, Rohlen, and Steinhoff 3 detect interpersonal problems early 1984; Vogel 1979). and head them off through mediation should be considered for space living. Glazer, for example, New Cultures, New calls for a new kind of legal Societies specialist—not an adversarial advocate, but someone who Once we have learned how to live settles disputes on behalf of the together amicably in space and to interests of all spacefarers on a work safely and efficiently there, mission. He draws his model from once we have developed ways of the Tabula de Amalfa, the maritime avoiding the health problems of code of the once powerful ionizing radiation, microgravity, and Mediterranean naval power of other hazards of nonterrestrial Amalfi. Their code provided for a environments, and once we have “consul” who sailed aboard each learned how to grow food in space merchant vessel with the power to and to produce air, water, and adjudicate differences between other necessities there, then master, crew, and others on board humankind can actually settle (Glazer 1985, pp. 26–27; Twiss space, not just sojourn there. New 1876, p. 11). In addition to looking cultures and new societies will to this and perhaps other maritime then evolve as people seek to analogs, it is tempting to suggest adapt to a variety of space that, with an eye to the more environments.

______3See Schwartz (1985) for a comprehensive analysis of the utility of various institutional responses to colonizing opportunities made by migrant farmers from a variety of world cultures.

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This process of building new time I learned the language, cultures and societies will became well acquainted with every undoubtedly contain many individual and his or her position in surprises. Yet, all the resultant the community, and gathered data sociocultural systems must provide on everything from fishing and the basic prerequisites for human house building to marriage and existence if they are to be religion. Because of this holistic successful. Here is where the experience of studying a small, seeming disadvantage of the relatively self-sufficient community anthropologist’s penchant for and trying to figure out all its parts studying small communities may and how they fit together, I find actually prove advantageous. most discussions of space settlement curiously incomplete. The sine qua non of anthropological Typically, they go to great lengths experience is a long and intense to explain how habitats will be built period of field work in a small on a planetary surface or in space, community, during which the how food will be grown in these investigator attempts to obtain a habitats, and how the community holistic understanding of the group will earn its way by mining or (see fig. 6). For example, I once manufacturing some valuable spent a year living on a small island product; then they skip on to few in the middle of the Pacific with details about domestic architecture, only 200 inhabitants, during which local government, and the like.

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Figure 6 a. Building a Canoe in Polynesia Men of Anuta Island rough out the hull of an outrigger fishing canoe. This Polynesian community, located on a tiny volcanic island off the eastern end of the Solomon Islands, well away from regular shipping routes, has a population of less than 100 people. Its small size and relative isolation makes Anuta an intriguing community for thinking about life in a small settlement on the Moon or elsewhere in our solar system. Photo: Richard Feinberg b. Thatching a Roof in Polynesia A communal working group thatches a roof on the island of Nukuria, a Polynesian atoll located in the Bismarck Archipelago near New Guinea. In this atoll community of some 200 inhabitants, people work cooperatively on such chores as roof thatching, much as early American farmers used to help each other out with barn-building “bees.” The isolation, small size, and relative self-sufficiency of such island communities allows the anthropologist studying them to gain a holistic perspective on all facets of life from birth to death. This holistic perspective in turn may enable anthropologists to foresee critical human elements in future space settlements that planners who are inexperienced in the functioning of small, relatively self- contained communities may ignore. Photo: Barbara Moir

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Among the crucial elements of through the demographic transition human life omitted, or glossed over, from high to low population growth in these futuristic projections is the and that, furthermore, the highly most basic one for the survival of educated, technology-oriented any society: reproduction. How people who would be the ones to mating, the control of birth, and colonize space are those inclined then the rearing of children are to have the fewest children, to be arranged is seldom even perhaps not even enough for mentioned in discussions of space replacement of the population. 4 settlement. Yet, if our ventures in space were limited to communities A population’s demographic past is of nonreproducing adults whose not necessarily a reliable predictor number would have to be constantly of its future, however, as we should replenished with recruits from Earth, have learned after the surprise of we could hardly expand very far the post-World War II baby boom in into space. the United States (Wachter 1985, pp. 122–123). It seems obvious Of course, it could be argued that that, when people perceive that it is no great attention will be required to their advantage to have many in this area—that people will carry children, they will do so. For into space whatever reproductive example, Birdsell (1985) has practices are current in their documented how, in three separate earthside societies. But, would cases of the colonization of virgin that mean a high percentage of islands by small groups, the single-parent households and low population doubled within a single birth rates? A distinguished generation. Figure 7 (Birdsell demographer, whom Eric Jones 1957) graphs the population growth and I invited to a conference on on Pitcairn Island from 1790 to space settlement, explained his 1856. Unless radiation hazards, lack of professional interest in the low gravity, or some other aspect subject by saying that he really did of the nonterrestrial environment not think there would be much constitutes an insuperable obstacle population expansion into space. to our breeding in space, there is He argued that the nations most every reason for optimism about likely to establish space settlements the possibility of population are those which have passed expansion in space.

______4But times may be changing. NASA psychologist Yvonne Clearwater (1985, p. 43) has recently raised the issue of sexual intimacy in space, and law professor Jan Costello (1984) has just published an inquiry into the issues of family law in space.

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Nonetheless, the export into space Figure 7 of some current features of mature Population Growth on Pitcairn Island, industrial societies, such as the 1790–1856 high cost of educating children, If physical conditions can be made the desire of both parents to have favorable for human existence on other full-time professional careers, and planets or in orbiting space habitats, the the lack of institutions to aid in experience of small groups of people child rearing, would certainly act colonizing uninhabited islands suggests to slow expansion. Space settlers that our spacefaring descendants may expand rapidly—until checked by interested in expanding their resource limitations. In 1790 six English populations should structure mutineers from the H.M.S. Bounty, eight or community values and services nine Tahitian women, and several Tahitian in such a way that people would men settled on the tiny, uninhabited island want to have more than one or of Pitcairn. Despite genocidal and fratricidal quarrels among the Tahitian two children and would be able to men and the mutineers, the population afford to in terms of both time more than doubled each generation, and money. An anthropological reaching almost 200 in 1856, when lack of perspective could aid space food and water forced evacuation of the settlers in constructing a island. socioeconomic environment for Adapted from Birdsell 1957. promoting population growth; first, by helping them to break out of the assumption that the way things are currently done in mature industrial societies represents the apex of human development; and, second, by informing them of the wide range of reproductive practices employed by the multitudes of human societies, past and present.

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Some of the practices from our not just a few dozen. Of course, it remote past might even be relevant could be argued that sperm and to our future in space. Suppose, egg banks, in vitro fertilization, and for example, that the harshness of even in vitro gestation and genetic the airless, radiation-intensive engineering may be so advanced environments of space, combined by the era of space colonization with the economics of constructing that there would be no need for safe human habitats, dictates that exogamy. Yet, marrying outside of the first space settlements would one’s group can bring benefits that have to be small, containing well may not be obtainable by other under a hundred people (Oberg than social means. 1985, p. 183). Pioneering space colonies might therefore be in the Exogamy can promote social size range of the hunting and solidarity by binding together gathering bands in which most of otherwise separate and scattered our ancestors lived before the communities into a network of discovery of agriculture and the units which, in effect, exchange consequent rise of urbanization. If marriageable youths. Although the so, space settlers might face some Australian aborigines, for example, of the same problems relating to lived scattered over their desert reproduction as did their distant continent in small bands averaging predecessors: the genetic dangers 25 men, women, and children, they of inbreeding, random imbalances were linked together in tribes of in the sex ratio of children born some 500 people (Birdsell 1979). into the group, and what might be This larger tribal community was called the “kibbutz effect,” wherein more than a breeding unit. At children reared close together are appointed times, the members of all not markedly attracted to one the bands would gather together to another upon coming of age (Spiro arrange marriages, conduct rituals, 1965, pp. 347–349). and enjoy the fellowship of friends and relatives from other bands. Our predecessors could avoid Just as this tribal community these problems with one simple provided the aborigines with a institution: the practice of needed wider social group, so exogamy, whereby youths had to might a space age confederation of marry someone from outside their intermarrying space colonies help natal group, thus enlarging the their pioneering inhabitants fight the effective breeding community to loneliness of space (Jones and encompass hundreds of persons, Finney 1983).

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Of course, a space age exogamy The suggestion that a corps of system would probably not anthropologists be recruited to replicate all the features of its facilitate smooth cross-cultural archaic predecessors. Take, for relations in international space example, the custom of female stations, to design appropriate bride exchange, whereby the institutions for permanent space marriageable young women were communities, and to forecast the sent to other groups, which in turn biocultural impact of moving into supplied brides for the young men space might bring approval from who remained at home. Space age my space-oriented colleagues and young women would surely object, hope to many a new anthropology on the grounds of gender equality, graduate trying to find a job in to any rule that required that they today’s tight academic market. leave home to marry, while their However, I would not advocate that brothers could stay. Conversely, anthropologists be elevated to the adventuresome young men might status of elite experts in planning not relish the idea that they must human expansion into space. remain at home and import their Anthropology is not an exact brides. More than likely, if the science in the sense that it can ethos of space communities is make accurate and precise explicitly expansionistic, then both predictions. Anthropological gurus males and females will vie for the of space expansion would hardly opportunity to leave their natal be infallible prophets or unerring community and, taking a mate from social engineers. Instead, I another established community, go foresee a more modest role for off to found a new colony. anthropologists as students of space expansion and advisors in that process. Role of Anthropology The ideal recipients of that advice Assuming that someday it becomes would not be some earthside widely accepted that anthropological planners charged with designing insights and findings could help us the social structure of space understand human expansion into stations, lunar bases, and even space and aid in that process, the more futuristic endeavors. question arises: How are those Ultimately, the people who should insights and findings to be applied receive the most appropriate and who applies them? advice on anthropological matters

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are those who will actually live came up with a remarkable and work in space. Call it self- document, the Constitution of the design, home rule, or just plain United States, which set out a form independence, the underlying of democratic government that has premise is the same: those who since proved most successful (see will actually reside in space fig. 8). This document, and the stations, planetary outposts, and resultant form of government, the first true space colonies should was the product of a concerted have a crucial role in the initial design process based on a design of their particular community comparative study of forms of and, above all, in the inevitable government instituted at different modifications to that design which times and places through history, a would arise through experience. study undertaken not by outside In this light, the burden of space experts but by those who had to anthropologists—some of whom live in the resultant nation. I look must do field work in space if they forward to many such occurrences are to live up to their calling— in space when the space settlers would be to come up with themselves—not earthside planners relevant insights, findings, and or even a space-based planning recommendations derived from elite—sit down, sift through the both terrestrial societies and groups accumulated human experience, in space and to communicate these and come up with principles for the to the spacefarers and colonists. design of new societies adapted to their needs in space. Here is Two centuries ago a group of where the anthropological record— gentlemen farmers, lawyers, and from both Earth and space—and politicians, faced with the task of the principles derived therefrom constructing a viable nation out of a could make a major contribution to disparate collection of ex-colonies, the humanization of space.

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Figure 8

Framing a Constitution for a New Nation, Philadelphia 1787 In framing the Constitution of the United States, a group of gentleman farmers, lawyers, and politicians, representing a tenuous union of ex-colonies, drew upon models of political organization provided by ancient Greece and Rome and other earlier states, as well as the writings of Enlightenment philosophers, to construct a totally new form of government suited to the needs and aspirations of Europeans transplanted to a New World.

Some time in the future, when and if spacefaring and spacedwelling technology is sufficiently developed, similar scenes may be reenacted as space settlers—drawing on the accumulated experience of terrestrial polities and inspired by space age philosophers—set out to devise new forms of government adapted to the needs and aspirations of developing nations in space. Artist: Howard Chandler Christy

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If We Are Not Alone extraterrestrials. To scientists engaged in the Search for While the solar system appears to Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), be the sole province of humankind, however, the prospect of actually we do not know whether we are making physical contact is alone in the galaxy. Should we extremely remote. They argue that have company and should we or the physical problems and great our descendants make contact cost of interstellar travel, as with extraterrestrials, then opposed to the relative ease and anthropology might have a new economy of radio communication, role in space. The experience plus the great value that advanced of anthropologists in trying to civilizations would place on bridge cultural gulfs could be information, as opposed to physical applied to the immense task of experience, mean that contact will comprehending an extraterrestrial be made via the electromagnetic civilization. spectrum, not in person (Morrison, Billingham, and Wolfe 1977). Ten years ago a group of Although the view that interstellar anthropologists and other social travel will never occur is arguable, scientists published a book a case can be made that, even if entitled Cultures Beyond Earth physical contact eventually takes (Maruyama and Harkins 1975) place, speed-of-light radio exploring just such an communication would precede it “extraterrestrial anthropology.” (see fig. 9). Hence, the question is They assumed actual physical “What role could anthropology play contact, via interstellar in cultural analysis at a distance?” travel, between us and the

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Figure 9

Radio Telescope at Arecibo, Puerto The SETI program will search for life that Rico has achieved intelligence and developed The world’s largest radio telescope technology by looking in the quietest band (305 meters in diameter), at Arecibo in of the electromagnetic spectrum (1000 to Puerto Rico, is operated by the National 100 000 MHz) for radio signals that may Astronomy and Ionosphere Center at have leaked or been beamed from such Cornell University under contract to the highly developed civilizations on other National Science Foundation. The planets. NASA’s Ames Research Center Arecibo telescope will soon be used by will conduct a targeted search of stars NASA in a systematic search for radio like our Sun using the largest radio transmissions from other star systems telescopes, including the one at Arecibo. in the galaxy, transmissions that might The Jet Propulsion Laboratory will indicate the presence of extraterrestrial conduct a complementary survey of the intelligence. other 99 percent of the sky, using the 34-meter-diameter telescopes in NASA’s The physics of the formation of the Deep Space Network. The SETI program universe suggest that in the millions is developing a spectrum analyzer that of galaxies with their billions of stars will sample millions of frequency planetary systems may be the rule rather channels looking for narrowband than the exception. The chemistry of the emissions that may be continuous or development of life on Earth, together pulsed signals. Should such deliberately with the discovery of organic molecules created signals be found, anthropologists even in the depths of interstellar space, will find ample work in interpreting the leads many scientists to consider the signaling culture to the receiving one and development of life on other planets as vice versa. very likely.

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With extraterrestrial contact would be easy. Philip Morrison, rephrased in terms of radio whose joint paper with Giuseppe communication only, it might seem Cocconi (Cocconi and Morrison that anthropologists and their skills 1959) stimulated the SETI effort, would have little or no role to play wisely points out that a “complex in this grand intellectual venture—at signal will contain not mainly least in terms of the common SETI science and mathematics but scenario. That scenario envisages mostly what we would call art and the reception of a purposefully history” (Morrison 1973, p. 338). transmitted signal containing some To decode such a signal would mathematical truth, physical be difficult enough. To interpret constant, or other noncultural the cultural material would call knowledge that would presumably for an immense effort. Just think be universally shared among of the scholarship involved in intelligent species scientifically deciphering the hieroglyphs and advanced enough to engage in in reconstructing ancient Egyptian radio communication. The next culture, even though the ancient step in this scenario would be to Egyptians are of the same species build upon this universal knowledge as their modern investigators and to develop a common logical code in part culturally ancestral to them or language—either through a and even though they left the patient and clever tutelage directed Rosetta Stone! (See figure 10.) by the transmitting civilization or Interpreting an extraterrestrial through a lengthy dialog across the culture would be a never-ending gulf of however many light years task, which would generate a whole might be involved (Freudenthal new scholarly industry, calling for 1960). Signal processing experts, the talents of specialists from all mathematicians, cognitive disciplines, especially anthropology. scientists, and linguists would Anthropologists concerned about seem the obvious specialists to the disappearance of independent participate in this radio contact cultural entities on Earth should process, not anthropologists. be among SETI’s most ardent supporters. If the search is However, it would be a mistake to successful, anthropologists will assume that once a common code have more than enough to do—for was shared, the rest of the task millennia to come.

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Figure 10

The Rosetta Stone A slab of black basalt*, rescued from demolition in A.D. 1799 by a squad of Napoleon’s troops in an Egyptian village called Rosetta, and containing a decree passed by a council of priests in 196 B.C., provided the key to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The officer in charge of the squad, Lt. Pierre François Xavier Bouchard, is credited with having realized almost at once that the three inscriptions on the stone were versions of the same text. The content of the decree was soon known from a translation of the Greek capital letters in the bottom inscription. But the nature of the other two scripts— Egyptian hieroglyphics in the top portion and the cursive Egyptian script called demotic which appears in the middle— was not fully understood until 1822. Neither form of Egyptian writing had been used for 1,370 years. A blocking misconception was the idea that, while hieroglyphics were merely pictorial, demotic was strictly phonetic. An English scientist turned linguist, Thomas Young, broke through this block and provided the link that the two Egyptian scripts were related through an intermediary script called hieratic. His translation of the demotic and the work of W. J. Bankes on the phonetic nature of royal names led French scholar Jean François Champollion to the conclusion that both Egyptian scripts on the Rosetta Stone contained symbolic and alphabetic elements. His knowledge of Coptic, the language of the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians, which was written in a sort of cross between Greek and demotic, helped him to finally decipher the Egyptian language in its most ancient script—hieroglyphics. And, of course, with knowledge of the language came a great increase in knowledge of the culture of the ancient Egyptians.

Explanation taken from Carol Andrews, 1981, “The Rosetta Stone,” published by the British Museum. Photograph reproduced by courtesy of

* The Rosetta Stone: since publication discovered to be blackened limestone. the Trustees of the British Museum.

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Even if we are the only intelligent References species in the galaxy, or at least our corner of it, we might not Birdsell, Joseph B. 1957. Some be alone for long. If our own Population Problems Involving technology for settling space really Pleistocene Man. Cold Spring works and enables some of our Harbor Symposium on Quantitative descendants to disperse throughout Biology 22:47–69. the solar system, a dramatic cultural rediversification of ______. 1979. Ecological Influence humankind would occur as the on Australian Aboriginal Social widely scattered colonies develop Organization. In Primate Ecology (through cultural drift or conscious and Human Origins, ed. I. S. choice) new ways of living. Then, Bernstein and E. O. Smith, 117– if adventurous citizens of the solar 151. New York: Garland. system one day migrate to other star systems, their separation into Birdsell, J. B. 1985. Biological small, self-contained breeding Dimensions of Small, Human communities light years from their Founding Populations. In neighbors would virtually ensure Interstellar Migration and the biological speciation (Finney and Human Experience, ed. Ben R. Jones 1985). Earth-descended, Finney and Eric M. Jones, 110–119. though increasingly disparate, Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press. cultures and species would then be faced with the problem Bluth, B. J. 1981. Soviet Space of understanding each other. Stress. Science 81, vol. 2, no. 7, Within such a galaxy of pp. 30–35. differentiating intelligent life forms, “astroanthropology” Carr, Gerald Paul. 1981. would be an essential tool for Comments from a Skylab Veteran. comprehending and relating to The Futurist 15:38. others beyond one’s own cultural and biological experience. Cheston, T. Stephen; Charles M. Chafer; and Sallie B. Chafer. 1984. Social Sciences and Space Exploration. NASA EP-192.

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Clearwater, Yvonne. 1985. A Grigoriev, A. I.; O. P. Kozerenko; Human Place in Outer Space. and V. I. Myasnikov. 1985. Psychology Today 19 (7): 34–43. Selected Problems of Psychological Support of Prolonged Space Flights. Cocconi, Giuseppe, and Philip Preprint of a paper delivered at the Morrison. 1959. Searching for Int. Astronaut. Fed. Congress, Extraterrestrial Communication. Stockholm. Nature 184:844. Hall, Edward T. 1959. The Silent Costello, Jan C. 1984. Language. Garden City, NY: Spacedwelling Families: The Doubleday. Projected Application of Family Law in Artificial Space Living Helmreich, Robert L. 1983. Environments. Seton Hall Law Applying Psychology in Outer Review 15 (1): 11–51. Space. American Psychologist 38: 445–450. Finney, Ben R., and Eric M. Jones. 1985. The Exploring Animal. In Jolly, Clifford J., and Fred Plog. Interstellar Migration and the 1986. Physical Anthropology and Human Experience, ed. Ben R. Archeology. New York: Alfred A. Finney and Eric M. Jones, 15–25. Knopf. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press. Jones, Eric M., and Ben R. Finney. Finney, Ben R.; Bernard J. 1983. Interstellar Nomads. In Kilonsky; Stephen Somsen; Advances in the Astronautical and Edward D. Stroup. 1986. Sciences 53 (Proc. Princeton Conf. Re-learning a Vanishing Art. Space Manufacturing 1983, ed. J. Polynesian Society 96:41–90. James D. Burke and April S. Whitt): 357–374. San Diego: American Freudenthal, Hans. 1960. Lincos: Astronautical Soc. Design of a Language for Cosmic Intercourse. Amsterdam: North- Krauss, Ellis S.; Thomas P. Rohlen; Holland. and Patricia G. Steinhoff. 1984. Conflict in Japan. Honolulu: Univ. Glazer, J. Henry. 1985. Astrolaw of Hawaii Press. Jurisprudence in Space as a Place: Right Reason for the Right Stuff. Brooklyn J. Int. Law 11 (1): 1–43.

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Maruyama, Magoroh, and Arthur Spiro, Melford. 1965. Children of Harkins. 1975. Cultures Beyond the Kibbutz. New York: Schocken. Earth. New York: Random House. Tanner, Nancy Makepeace. 1985. Morrison, Philip. 1973. The Interstellar Migration: The Consequences of Contact. In Beginning of a Familiar Process Communication with Extraterrestrial in a New Context. In Interstellar Intelligence (CETI), ed. Carl Sagan, Migration and the Human 333–339. Cambridge, MA: MIT Experience, ed. Ben R. Finney Press. and Eric M. Jones, 220–233. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press. Morrison, Philip; John Billingham; and John Wolfe. 1977. The Twiss, Travers. 1876. The Black Search for Extraterrestrial Book of the Admiralty, Vol. 4. Intelligence: SETI. NASA SP- London: Her Majesty’s Stationary 419. Office.

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Oberg, Alcestis R. 1985. Wachter, Kenneth W. 1985. Spacefarers of the ’80s and ’90s: Predicting Demographic Contours The Next Thousand People in of an Interstellar Future. In Space. New York: Columbia Univ. Interstellar Migration and the Press. Human Experience, ed. Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, 120–133. Schwartz, Douglas W. 1985. The Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press. Colonizing Experience: A Cross- Cultural Perspective. In Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience, ed. Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, 234–247. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press.

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The Influence of Culture on Space Developments

Philip R. Harris

For a quarter of this 20th century, National Aeronautics and Space humankind has been successfully Administration and the allied extending its presence into space. aerospace industry have The landing of men on the Moon in advanced human culture. The 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission next steps of space technology broke our perceptual blinders—we into the 21st century will were no longer earthbound as transform that culture. our ancestors had thought for centuries. Perhaps the real home of the human species lies Culture—A Coping on the high frontier. Just as the Strategy application of fire and tools changed our primitive forebears, Culture is a unique human so space technology and its invention. Our species created accomplishments force modern it to increase our ability to cope men and women to change their with the environment, to facilitate image of our species. We now daily living. Thus, consciously and are free to explore and use the unconsciously, groups transmit it to universe to improve the quality of following generations. The concept human existence. Our new self- of culture provides a useful tool for concept as “Earth people” may understanding human behavior and energize global efforts toward its relationship to a particular space development. The physical environment. technological achievements of NASA and other national space Human beings created culture, agencies, along with private-sector or their social environment, in space undertakings, contribute the form of practices, customs, mightily toward the actualization and traditions for survival and of our human potential. The development. Culture is the exploration and exploitation of lifestyle that a particular group space resources are altering our of people passes along to their human culture here on Earth. descendants. Often in the process, awareness of the origin of Such vision is necessary to put contributions to this fund of wisdom the endeavors of space scientists is lost. Subsequent generations and technologists into a larger are conditioned to accept these context. During the past 25 years, “truths” about accepted behavior the feats of people in the in a society; norms, values, ethics,

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and taboos evolve. Culture is (12) nonterrestrial raw materials; communicable knowledge which is (13) absence of many Earth both learned and unlearned, hazards (storms, floods, which is both overt and covert in earthquakes, volcanoes, lightning, practice, of which we may have unpredictable temperatures and either conscious or unconscious humidity, corrosion, pollution, etc.); understanding. On this planet, (14) a potentially enjoyable, human culture has been remarkable healthful, and stimulating for its diversity, so that those who environment for humans (Von would operate successfully in an Puttkamer 1985). international arena have to learn skills for dealing effectively with As the director of the California cultural differences. The point is Space Institute, James R. Arnold, that culture is a powerful influence reminded us in a Los Angeles on human behavior as people adapt Times editorial (November 17, to unusual circumstances (Harris 1983), “Space is out there waiting and Moran 1987). for us to try out new ideas.” In his view, the space station and other The program manager for long- space bases to follow will give range studies at NASA’s Office of humans the time and place to Space Flight has listed some of the learn, to experiment, to work, and unusual circumstances on the high even to play. In fact, the Soviets frontier that might influence the have already begun to do these creation of a space culture: things on their Mir space station. (1) weightlessness; (2) easy gravity The formation of space culture has control; (3) absence of atmosphere been under way now for over (unlimited high vacuum); (4) a 25 years, and it is progressing comprehensive overview of the rapidly. Earth’s surface and atmosphere (for communication, observation, Until now, only a handful of humans power transmission, etc.); have actually lived in space. (5) isolation from the Earth’s Whether Americans or Russians or biosphere (for hazardous their allies, these space pioneers processes); (6) an infinite natural were usually from a somewhat reservoir for disposal of wastes homogeneous background. Until and safe storage of radioactive the decade of the 80s, they came products; (7) freely available light, from subcultures like test pilots or heat, and power; (8) super-cold the military and were mostly male. temperatures (infinite heat sink); But, if we project to the next (9) open areas for storage and 25 years, it is obvious that the structures; (10) a variety of non- population in space will be diffuse (directed) types of increasingly multicultural and radiation; (11) a magnetic field; heterogeneous. Both Soviet and

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American space flights, for example species development seem to now include representatives of occur under such circumstances. “allied” countries—cosmonauts or Perhaps this will be true of the astronauts from “foreign” cultures. human race as we shift our Just as on Earth there are human attention from Earth-based to experiences that cut across most space-based resources. As the cultures, it would appear that living Apollo missions demonstrated, the in space will become such a very size, scope, and complexity of “cultural universal.” a space undertaking may be the catalyst for unleashing our potential As we slowly extend our presence and raising our culture to a new up there and establish human level. This may be the first time in space communities in ever human history that people can increasing numbers, there will be consciously design the kind of an urgent need for cultural synergy, culture they wish to create in an be it on a space station or at a alien environment slated for lunar base. Such synergy exploration and exploitation. The optimizes the differences between movement of people from their people, fosters cooperation, and home planet to the “high ground” directs energy toward goals and will transform both our culture and problem-solving in collaboration the human person. The editors with others (Moran and Harris of Interstellar Migration and the 1982). The very complexity of Human Experience remind us that transporting people into space has “Migration into space may be a stimulated the development of revolutionary step for humanity, but matrix or team management in the it is one that represents a continuity space program. Similarly, the with our past” (Finney and Jones creation of space habitats and 1985). colonies in a zero- or low-gravity environment will require synergistic Space planners can benefit strategies of leadership. immensely by utilizing the data base and insights of behavioral Current research in evolution scientists (Connors, Harrison, indicates that harsh environments and Akins 1985). Cultural often result in innovation by anthropologists, for instance, offer species. The pattern of the past a variety of approaches to cultural reveals that creatures are better analysis. One method is called a at inventing and surviving systems analysis; here “systems” when challenged by a difficult refers to an ordered assemblage environment than they are when of parts which form a whole. Thus, not challenged (Harrison and in planning space communities, Connors 1984). The big jumps in one might utilize eight or more

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systems, such as illustrated in community might be organized). figure 11. That is, the new space In Living Systems (1978), James culture can be studied in terms of Grier Miller has proposed a master systems that are used to indicate paradigm for integration of both relationships—for association, or biological and social systems. social grouping; for economic and Dr. Miller is currently engaged in political purposes; for education research to apply his eight-level and training; for health and conceptualization of twenty recreation; for leadership and subsystems to analysis of the guidance (this last being the cultural needs of future space transcendent or philosophical communities (see his paper in this system around which the space volume).

Figure 11

Systems for Analysis of a New Space Culture

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Another way of preparing for a new 1985). If the space population is cultural experience is by examining to be increased and broadened, so typical characteristics of culture. should the composition of space Some of these for a space planners and decision-makers community might be the following: (as happened in miniature with the multidisciplinary group of (1) Sense of self participants at the 1984 NASA summer study at the California (2) Communication Space Institute.)

(3) Dress

(4) Food Organizational Culture in (5) Time consciousness NASA and the Aerospace

(6) Relationships Industry

(7) Values Culture has already unconsciously affected our future in space (8) Beliefs through the organizational cultures (9) Mental processes of the chief developers of space technology. A distinctive culture (10) Work habits has emerged in the past 25 years within NASA itself, and this in turn These ten classes offer a simple has influenced the corporate model not only for assessing an cultures of NASA’s principal existing culture but also for contractors. NASA has been an planning a new one, such as a atypical government agency that culture in space. Although there has been innovative in both are other characteristics for cultural technology and management, analysis (such as rewards), analysis as well as in its relations with of the listed characteristics would contractors (Harris 1985). be sufficient to prepare for a startup space community, such as that of When NASA was established as a the crew at a space station or a civilian Government entity in 1958, lunar outpost. it inherited cultural biases from the several organizations from which it Because culture is so multifaceted was derived. It acquired many of and pervasive in human behavior, the traditional characteristics of we cannot simply impose one Federal public administration, being form of Earth culture on a space subject to the constraints of Civil community. Nor can space Service regulations, annual budget technologists continue to ignore battles, congressional and lobby the implications of culture (Hall pressures, and changing public

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opinion (Levine 1982). Since it was academies and associations, such chartered to be mainly a research as the American Institute of and development organization, Aeronautics and Astronautics NASA was dominated by the (AIAA). The ongoing history of subcultures of the scientific, NASA manifests continuing technological, and engineering alterations of its culture from fields. Its interface with the military crises (e.g., the Challenger and its astronaut personnel from the disaster) and reactions (e.g., Armed Forces provided another congressional investigations) stream of cultural influence. The and new inputs from Presidential introduction of the German rocket commissions (e.g., the Rogers specialists under Wernher von Commission report, 1986). Braun provided further cultural input, as have numerous academics Just as groups of people develop and their universities, beginning national or macrocultures, so too with Robert Goddard of Clarke do human institutions develop University and coming right down organizational or microcultures. to participants in the latest NASA NASA as an organization is a summer study on the campus of the collection of humans who have University of California, San Diego. set for this system objectives, missions, expectations, obligations, Currently, the organizational and roles. It has a unique culture culture of NASA is being altered which is influencing the course of by its interactions with other space development. The NASA national space agencies, such as culture begins by setting those of Japan and Europe, and organizational boundaries and even by its successful cooperation powerfully affects the morale, with the Soviets in the Apollo/ performance, and productivity of Soyuz mission. To broaden its its employees. Eventually, this constituency further, NASA is influence spreads to contractors attempting to reach out to and suppliers. For example, as nonaerospace business and NASA began to plan for its next involve companies in space 25 years, Administrator James industrialization; to expand its Beggs circulated a statement of cooperative efforts with other goals and objectives to Government departments, from administrators and center directors. weather and transportation to This statement from the first commerce and defense; to engage item enunciated demonstrates a in joint endeavors with national future trend in NASA culture:

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GOAL: Provide our people a To analyze this NASA culture, creative environment and the one can take the ten best of facilities, support characteristics listed in the services, and management previous section or one can use a support so they can perform diagnostic instrument (see with excellence NASA’s “Organizational Culture Survey research, development, Instrument,” appendix A in Harris mission, and operational 1983). Perhaps figure 12 best responsibilities. illustrates the possible dimensions of this NASA culture. (Government Executive, October 1983, p. 5)

Figure 12

Aspects of NASA’s Organizational Culture

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The fact that NASA successfully NASA is to implement the vision completed its Apollo lunar missions outlined by the National Commission would seem to indicate that its on Space (1986) in its bold report, organizational culture was adequate. Pioneering the Space Frontier. Since then, budget cuts, loss of talented personnel, and the As an example of the way NASA Challenger accident have pointed culture affects its space planning up the need for cultural renewal. In and management, consider the 1986, as a result of the report of well-documented fact that the The Presidential Commission on agency is leery of the behavioral the Space Shuttle Challenger sciences (Harrison 1986, Hall Accident, reorganization got under 1985, Douglas 1984). Since way following the appointment, the organization is dominated once again, of James C. Fletcher by a technical mindset, it is as NASA Administrator. uncomfortable with social scientists and their potential contributions. The issue of concern now is And yet the agency culture whether the agency’s cultural focus changes, as witnessed by the will enable NASA to provide global publication of the June 1988 report leadership in the peaceful and of the NASA Life Sciences Strategic commercial development of Planning Study Committee, entitled space. As NASA struggles with Exploring the Living Universe: A “organization shock,” external Strategy for Space Life Sciences, forces demand that priority be and by requests for increased given to military and scientific spending on the behavioral missions, leaving commercial sciences in the FY89 budget. satellite launchings and industrialization to the private As human presence in space is sector. Other international space expanded with long-duration agencies—in Europe, Japan, and missions, NASA planners will have even the Third World—compete to confront issues of interpersonal with NASA in launch capability. and group living which until recently Confusion reigns over replacement they avoided (Connors, Harrison, of the fourth orbiter, development and Akins 1985). In interviews by of alternative launch capability, and flight surgeon Douglas (1984) with space station plans, so that NASA astronauts, the latter expressed is an organization in profound regrets that they and their families transition, requiring transformational did not benefit more from the leadership (Tichy and Devanna services of psychiatrists and 1986). This is especially true if psychologists, particularly with

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reference to group dynamics created its share of space leaders, training. Oberg (1985) reveals legends, myths, beliefs, symbols, that, on the other hand, in the visions, and goals—the stuff of culture of their space program, the meaningful organizational cultures. Soviets are more prone to utilize But, as Peters and Waterman such specialists. In fact, that reminded us, author quotes the Soviet head of space biomedicine, Dr. Oleg In the very institutions in Gazenko, as stating that the which culture is so dominant, limitations to human living in the highest levels of true space are not physical but autonomy occur. The psychological (p. 25); Oberg also culture regulates rigorously notes that Svetlana Savitskaya, the few variables that do the second woman in space, count, and provides suggested that a psychologist be meaning. But within those included on long-duration flights to qualitative values (and in observe firsthand the individual almost all other dimensions), stress and group dynamics (p. 32). people are encouraged to stick out, to innovate. My purpose here is simply to bring to the reader’s consciousness the (Peters and Waterman 1982) reality that NASA does have a culture and that that culture Thus, if NASA is to provide the pervades its decisions, plans, world with the technological operations, and activities. One springboard into the 21st century, might even take the chapter these questions are in order: headings of the volume Corporate Cultures and use them to assess (1) Does NASA now have the NASA’s values, heroes, rites and necessary innovative and rituals, communications, and tribes entrepreneurial culture to (Deal and Kennedy 1982). provide leadership for its own renewal and the As reported in a variety of enormous human contemporary management books, expansion into space? from the one just mentioned to Or is it trapped inside In Search of Excellence, research both bureaucratic and supports the conclusion that technical cultures that excellent organizations have inhibit its contributions to strong functional cultures. Since the next stage of space its founding, NASA surely has development?

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(2) Has NASA adequately being reversed with demand for redefined and projected strong headquarters management its present organizational and inauguration of a new technical image and purpose to management information system. its own personnel, the To meet the space challenges of Congress, and the public the future, NASA would do well to at large? Or is it suffering consider planned changes in its again (as it did after three own organizational culture. astronauts were killed in Technological, economic, political, the Apollo capsule fire) and social changes by 2010 will from an identity crisis and demand such adjustments, and a dysfunctional culture? many present organizational structures, roles, operations, As NASA moves beyond its and arrangements (such as a institutional beginnings into the centralized mission control) will next stage of organizational be obsolete. development, maturation would seem to require transformation. Perhaps the present structure is Emergence of a New no longer suitable for this growth Space Culture process and it needs to become a more autonomous agency. (Does The habitation of Skylab, Spacelab, the Tennessee Valley Authority Salyut, and Mir by a few dozen provide a model for this structural humans is the precedent not only change?) Perhaps it should be for space station life but also for part of a global space agency that space culture. Whether astronauts represents both public and private or cosmonauts, they were humans space interests—first in the free- learning to cope with a new enterprise nations and someday environment marked by a lack even in the Communist bloc. of gravity. For most, it appears Perhaps NASA needs to enter into to have been an enjoyable new relationships and ventures experience, despite minor with contractors, whether in the inconveniences caused by space aerospace industry or in other sickness or excessive demands multinational industries. from experiment controllers on the ground. Whether inside or outside It was encouraging to know that the the space suits and capsules, 1984 NASA administrator these people learned to adapt and advocated decentralization in the they proved that human life in organization, putting operational space is possible, even practical. responsibility at the center level. These innovators simply However, in 1986 the trend was transported into space the

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macroculture of the country that culture. Anthropologists are sponsored their space voyage. beginning to probe this new reality The U.S. astronauts reflected and to look for insights their field American culture, while their Soviet can contribute (see Finney’s paper counterparts carried Russian in this volume). Will NASA, for culture into these prototypes of example, use the nation’s future space communities. anthropologists in the planning of a lunar base? If the human In the decade of the 1990s, the composition of that enterprise is to duration of missions and the be multicultural, as is likely, will the number of humans in space will agency call on international experts increase as more permanent types in cross-cultural psychology and of space stations are constructed anthropology? Perhaps NASA in orbit and expanded in size. should join with its colleagues in Perhaps the Americans will name the Japanese and European space these initial space communities agencies in sponsoring a summer after their space pioneers and study of behavioral scientists to heroes, like Goddard, Von Braun, address matters related to the and Armstrong; while the Russians emerging space culture. may name theirs after space luminaries like Tsiolkovsky, Space gives us an opportunity to Korolev, and Gagarin. Then the establish a living laboratory to real challenge of creating a new promote peaceful international space culture will get under way. relations. For example, suppose A major human activity of the the sponsors of a particular space 21st century will be the building station or base were to have as of space communities. Already, a goal the establishment of a Rep. George Brown (D—Calif.) synergistic society on the high has a bill pending before the U.S. frontier. Anthropologist Ruth Congress that would authorize Benedict and psychologist Abraham NASA to provide leadership in Maslow have already provided us space settlements. with a glimpse of human behavior under such circumstances. The issue for consideration now Imagine a space community in is whether this process will be which the cultural norms supported planned or unplanned. In the collaboration and cooperation rather United States, for example, there than excessive individualism and exists a whole body of literature competition. Consider space and research in cultural colonists who are selected because anthropology that could be most they demonstrate high synergy— useful in the design of a space that is, because they are

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nonaggressive and seek what is Back in 1969, astronauts Armstrong mutually advantageous; they and Aldrin confirmed that the lunar encourage both individual and surface was firm and could support group development; they operate massive weight. During the last on a win/win philosophy, or aim visit to the Moon, Apollo 17, the first for group success; they share and professional scientist on these work together for the common missions, Dr. Harrison Schmitt, good. Such considerations take conducted geological studies, so on special relevance in light of we now have some idea of the proposals for a joint U.S.A./U.S.S.R. composition of this body. But there mission to Mars. A space culture is much we still do not know about that espouses synergy might have the Moon, such as the nature of its a better chance for survival and poles and whether any of its craters development than one that did not. were formed volcanically. We should have learned something from the debacle of Fort Raleigh in Before the turn of this century, it 1594, the first “lost colony” of our would seem advisable for NASA to English forebears. follow a Soviet lead and undertake automated missions to gather lunar Since culture formation seemingly data if we are to plan adequately occurs in response to the physical for the new space culture on the environment, consider briefly the Moon’s surface. At NASA’s situation faced by those seeking Johnson Space Center, scientists to establish the first permanent have a scheme for cultural community on the Moon, a base expansion which begins with from which we can explore other precursor exploration in a 1990–92 planets in the universe. It is a timeframe (Duke, Mendell, and remote, alien environment. The Roberts 1985). It would require long-term inhabitants would have new technology development to to adapt their culture to cope with exploit lunar resources and define isolation, for they would be a quarter the site for a research outpost and of a million miles away from home, lunar base. The first two phases of family, and friends on Earth. The site development would rely on physical realities of life on the Moon automated and cybernated systems. would force its inhabitants to adapt In the third phase, permanent their earthbound culture (Pitts human occupancy by a small group 1985). Remember, the Moon lacks of “astrotechnicians” is projected; atmosphere, there is no weather then, in the fourth phase, an there, and there are various kinds advanced base with more people of radiation which require protective would result, possibly by the year cover. 2010.

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To illustrate why serious preparations for a Moon base should include studies of space culture by social scientists, let us view figure 13 in the context of a lunar base.

Figure 13

Characteristics of Space Culture

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1. Sense of Self interdependent. Just as the American Great Plains affected the Self-identity and self-acceptance perspective of its inhabitants, so are manifested differently in will the vast views of the universe different cultures. The comfort we affect lunar dwellers. Considering feel with ourselves and others, the the confined quarters in the early physical or psychological space stages, will the first colonists be we maintain between ourselves ambivalent in behavior because of and others—these are products the difference between their sense of culture. For an international of interior space and that of exterior crew on a space station, as an space? Also, what happens to example, there would be differing lunar colonists when they return to needs for privacy or personal Earth after several years on that space. One can speculate as other sphere? Having been to whether an international accustomed to Moon weight, they community on the Moon should, will on return to Earth feel heavier for the purpose of fostering such than lead, and their whole sense comfort, be structured as an open of self will require profound or a closed society. Personally, readjustment. I would recommend an open, friendly, informal, and supportive 2. Communication community, such as expatriates often maintain among themselves Much of our terminology may when far away from their mother be inappropriate for the lunar country. (Though the society of experience. In space, we will need expatriates may be seen as closed a new vocabulary to replace “up to the surrounding society on and down” and “day and night.” Earth, such a perspective would Back in 1957, when German space be irrelevant in space where science professor Hermann Oberth humans are alone.) wrote his classic Man Into Space, he reminded us that we would The space culture to emerge will have to change our ideas about validate individuals in new ways. construction, because “other laws First, there are the realities of no prevail in space and there is no atmosphere and 1/6 gravity— reason why the old architectural certain to lead to interesting rules should be followed.” By adaptations. With so much extension and analogy, our space and so few people, rugged language about construction and individuals may develop (like indeed most other subjects will the mountain men on the early have to change in a drastically Western frontier) or humans different environment. may learn to become more

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Will there be one official language for the first living things there— or several in use? If the first crews they coped by staying in the sea and settlers are international in for the first two billion years! makeup, is English to be preferred Humans will adapt to lunar or should all be fluent in two conditions which require them to languages? (If Americans were to wear life support systems when undertake a joint mission to Mars they leave their protective habitats. with the Soviets, for instance, That necessity will be incorporated then both English and Russian into the new culture, and it will would probably be required.) alter behavior from that on Earth. Dr. David Criswell, director of Certainly, we can expect extensive the Consortium for Space and use of computers and satellites for Terrestrial Automation and communication, but what will be Robotics (C-STAR), believes that the procedures and the pattern astronauts in space suits are like of interactions between humans disabled or handicapped persons, on the Earth and on the Moon, and that space planners could and how will the means of learn much from the field of communication affect the cultural rehabilitative medicine (1988). expansion? Twenty-first century clothing styles 3. Dress on the home planet may be very much influenced by styles that Culture is also expressed in develop for the lunar surface or for garments and adornments. We interstellar travel. Explorers and may or may not want uniforms scientists in the Antarctic have with mission patches, but lunar tended to grow beards and longer conditions will dictate certain types hair. We wonder what lunar of clothing or space suits. They will dwellers will do. Perhaps they’ll have to be designed to serve a shave off all their hair to keep from variety of purposes from protection having to tuck it into their space to comfort. In 1984, for example, suits every time they don them. the first female to walk in space, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya, 4. Food commented that her space suit was not elastic enough and that she had The diet and eating procedures of to expend too much energy for a group of people set it apart from each movement (Oberg 1981). other groups. We are all aware of NASA’s pioneering in food Some scientists have described the technologies and compositions, so Moon as an impossible environment that even our own intake here on for humans, but so was the Earth Earth has been altered by the

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astronaut experience. However, time gradually be replaced by a because of transportation costs, relative one, like that of traditional we will have to cut back on the farmers who go by sunrise and amount and type of food cargo sunset and seasonal changes? from Earth and depend on new closed biological systems to That particular time sense would of provide human sustenance. course have a different expression Hydroponic farming, featuring on the lunar surface, where the plants suspended in nets above “day” lasts for 2 weeks and so circulating liquids that provide does the “night.” Because the axis nutrients, may prove a boon. With of the Moon does not tilt as does traditional foodstuffs at a premium, the axis of the Earth, the Moon the new culture may focus on lacks seasons. Will the long high-quality and high-energy periods of darkness and isolation nourishment, thereby affecting the incline the first Moon colonists breed of both humans and other toward suicide, as NATO has found animals in space. its soldiers posted in northern countries to be? Will they suffer Although the lunar cuisine may not with manic behavior, as some be as pleasant as that of the mining Swedes do after their annual dark camps in the Old West, its periods? If one needed change, preparation, presentation, and one could move around the Moon eating will surely alter the culture. from areas of darkness to areas of One certainty is that food packages light. But what will happen to the will not be disposable but rather whole concept of day and year, recyclable. Let us hope habitat so much a part of the human planners make up somewhat for heritage? the rations and regimen by providing a view of the Earth in the 6. Relationships dining and drinking area. Or will there be any views from these Cultures fix human and modules buried in lunar regolith for organizational relationships by protection from radiation? age, sex, and degree of kinship, as well as by wealth, power, and 5. Time Consciousness wisdom. The first lunar inhabitants are likely to establish relationships The sense of time differs by on the basis of professionalism or culture, and yet lunar inhabitants their respective disciplines. They will have to keep in touch with will be scientists and technicians, mission control. Will the 24-hour civilian and military. Theirs will time system prevail on the high be primarily work or organizational frontier? Or will the exact sense of relationships, even if they are of

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different nationalities. Because the that six married couples be first colonists will be knowledge selected for any manned mission workers (that is, people who work to Mars. with information and ideas), there is likely to be comparative social Should the makeup of the first crew equality among them. Eventually, be purely civilian, then we could the founders will gain special status expect one lifestyle; whereas, if in the community. military people are included, then we would expect another lifestyle The first element to alter the including rank and protocol. The arrangement will be male-female issue of such relationships will relations. Eventually, this will lead affect governance, housing to the first pregnancy on the lunar assignments, and social life. surface. As more and more people go to the Moon, there will be legal Another unique feature of space and illegal liaisons and eventually culture will be human-machine children will be born on the Moon, relationships. Automation will and someday on Mars. Dr. Angel dominate not only the transportation Colon of Georgetown University system but also the exploration Medical School has already and life support processes (Freitas anticipated the situation with his and Gilbreath 1980, Automation research on space pediatrics.* The and Robotics Panel 1985). Humans point is that space will be a whole may form new attachments to new ball game in terms of human their helpers, especially as relationships and a culture will grow designers program more humanlike in response to such new realities. capabilities and features into these extensions of ourselves. New familial arrangements will Inventive applications of artificial emerge (Oberg and Oberg 1986). intelligence on the Moon may not It remains to be seen whether only facilitate functions in lunar monogamy, polygamy, or communities but also serve as polyandry will become the norm tests of expert systems, which may in 21st century space communities. then be transferred to Earth. If the first lunar colonists are Knowledge engineering will only males, homosexuality may accelerate as a result of space become prevalent; whereas, if development, and space culture mixed groups are sent, then will feature teleknowledge heterosexuality will be the basis (information developed by for many relationships. Astronaut technical transmission) and Michael Collins (1988) proposes telepresence.

______*Personal communication.

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7. Values capacity to express the pioneers’ feelings and longings. The need system of the space culture will be unique, and out of At the 1974 Princeton Conference it will evolve special priorities to on Space Colonization, Richard ensure survival and development. Falk examined “New Options for In time, these priorities will form Self-Government in Space the value system of the lunar base. Habitats.” He proposed four As the colonists move up on the shared commitments that would hierarchy of needs, their values enhance space living: (1) to the will change. The resulting value minimization of violence, (2) to system will in turn influence the economic well-being for all settlers norms or standards of the lunar in the habitat, (3) to a guaranteed community—that is, acceptable level of social and political justice, behavior in that situation. It is and (4) to the maintenance and these mutual premises that will improvement of ecological quality determine whether the colonists are (1977). Falk’s premise is that this pleased, annoyed, or embarrassed sort of value consensus before by the conduct of their fellows. settlement would influence Eventually, this process will recruitment and selection of space produce conventions that are personnel, as well as provide an passed along to each new group ethical orientation for their training. of lunar settlers, so that the preferred practices of privacy, 8. Beliefs deference, etiquette, and gift- giving will be established. People’s lives, attitudes, and behavior are motivated by spiritual For example, it is conceivable that themes and patterns which may these lunar pioneers may ban all take the form of philosophy, talk of Earth accomplishments, religion, or transcendental happenings, or experience and convictions. If the population of a focus only on what is done on the lunar community is international, Moon or in space. They may learn the space culture emerging on the to value the people on the space Moon might include beliefs from the station, who supply them, more Earth’s religious traditions— than remote people on the home primarily Judaism, Christianity, planet, even when they represent Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and the government. Because of their even Confucianism. However, unusual view of the cosmos and since such belief systems are also the light/dark situation on the reflections of new stages in human Moon, they may value artists more development, space dwellers may highly than technicians, for their create their own unique form of

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“cosmic consciousness” that logic, conceptualization, abstract raises the human race to a new thinking, and intuition may evolve. level of being and perceives the We can anticipate a new reasoning oneness of the human family. For process being created in space, example, suppose a space colony especially with wider applications were developed on the basis of a of artificial intelligence. With the belief in synergy; the members removal of many ground-based would then be dedicated to blinders and binders, the creative creating a synergistic society process may be unleashed and through cooperation. human potential actualized.

9. Mental Processes 10. Work Habits

The way people think and learn One way of analyzing a culture varies by culture because of is to examine how the society different emphasis on brain produces its goods and services development and education. and conducts its economic affairs. Space culture, for instance, may The work culture in space will be offer humanity a rare opportunity metaindustrial and will feature to focus on whole, not split, brain the use of high technology. In development. Obviously, modern the beginning, the work will be communication technology and performed outside using satellites will have a primary cumbersome space suits to position in information sharing provide life support. Or it will and knowledge development. be done by robots, operating For education and training, the automatically or under the manual first lunar colonists will rely on guidance of humans, who may computers and a data bank, as remain in a protected habitat. well as on a variety of modern On the surface of the Moon, for media alternatives. Self- instance, this work may involve instructional systems will be the mining, transportation and widely employed, and all in the distribution, and processing of group will be expected to share lunar materials. their expertise and competencies with each other as circumstances Human vocational activity will require. include the operation and repair of communication satellites, the Assuming that a multicultural creation of solar power stations, community develops, a synergy and the conversion of solar power may emerge between Eastern and into microwaves for transmission Western cultural orientations to to Earth and subsequent learning, so that an integration of reconversion to electricity. The

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first space stations, as well as will have enormous impact on bases on the Moon, and Earth-based work cultures. Large subsequently on Mars, will involve American corporations, from much construction—using new Fairchild and McDonnell Douglas space materials and designs to to General Dynamics and build habitats and factories, Rockwell, are already gearing up communication and storage for construction of the $8 billion facilities, and other necessary space station, the staging area for structures. exploration of the rest of the solar system. It may very well develop The early space workers will as a multinational facility for focus on the transformation of spacefaring peoples—a foretaste nonterrestrial resources into useful of 21st century life and culture. supplies, such as oxygen, water, and cement. The nonterrestrial workers will use zero or low gravity Space Personnel to facilitate their labor, and they Deployment System will take advantage of the vacuum. All of this work will require The movement of large numbers extensive use of computers and of people from their native country automation, and the “tin collar to a foreign one has spurred worker,” or increasing interest, especially robot, will be a principal ally. on the part of transnational corporations, in the phenomena Such unusual work activities will of culture shock and reentry influence the direction of the shock. When people are rapidly culture. The roles of knowledge transported from their home culture workers and technical workers will to a strange environment abroad, probably be enhanced. Since they may experience severe those who get into the first space disorientation, confusion, and communities are likely to be highly anxiety. Their sense of identity is selected, competence in one’s threatened when they are removed field of expertise and from the comfortable and familiar multiskillfulness are norms that will and thrust into the uncertain and probably emerge. The space unknown. Such expatriates, culture will reflect these worklife particularly overseas managers and changes in art and artifacts as well technicians who may be away from as in technology. home for many months or years, go through a transitional experience The new space enterprises and the that may include such phases as culture thus created are a fruitful growing awareness of differences, arena for social science research. rage, introspection, and integration. Furthermore, these developments

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Many multinational businesses deployment support services be have relocation services, as well systematized (Harris and Moran as cross-cultural orientation and 1987). Such an approach could be training programs, to facilitate adapted for Earth people going into acculturation of personnel to the space to establish first construction new environment with its changes bases and then planned and challenges. In a previous communities. Figure 14 depicts my publication, I have proposed conception of a space personnel that various aspects of foreign deployment system.

Figure 14

A Space Personnel Deployment System

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At the moment, it is unlikely that the selection of space settlers, spacefarers will have to deal with workers, and travelers. Whether extraterrestrial “foreigners”— the group is a national space but they will have to cope with all agency, an aerospace contractor, the other aspects of adaptation a commercial enterprise, a to a new cultural environment. government department, a media Research by Harrison and company, or a tourist firm, it Connors (1984) on groups in should be responsible for the exotic environments is relevant. spacefarer’s well-being, as well as Their “exotic environments” the impact include polar camps, submarines, of that person on the space offshore oil rigs, space capsules— community. Better to screen out any isolated and remote living potential misfits than to attempt to situation. Such experiences can provide care and rehabilitation in assist in planning life in space space. The rigorous and defined stations and settlements. selection and training used for NASA astronauts may not be the We can thus prevent or limit the basis for future space deployment; psychological “shock” of isolation, these guidelines would seem loneliness, and strangeness that advisable as a more diverse space humans may experience when population evolves: living on the high frontier for many months or even years. The • WHAT—Ascertain the ability following outline of a system for of each space candidate to intercultural preparation and adapt to and deal effectively evaluation is proposed for further with the new environment, research by NASA. It could evaluate both the physiological avoid or reduce the depression, and the psychological withdrawal, hostility, paranoia, and capability of the individual to other mental health problems that deal with the difficulties and may afflict space travelers, and differences of long space thus it could contribute to mission travel and of life in space success. under constrained conditions, identify proneness to space 1. Assessment culture shock and areas for retraining to improve In the next decades of space adjustment to space development, sponsoring conditions, ascertain needs organizations should take care in for skills in human relations and coping.

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• WHO—Apply such screening NASA should consider of space travelers and settlers establishing an organizational data to all who would utilize bank on human factors to be used Government transportation, in the selection and preparation of whether NASA personnel, spacefarers. Such a data bank contract workers, visiting might include information from professionals, members of the research on personnel living in Armed Forces or Congress, such exotic environments as visiting dignitaries from any submarines or the scientific bases source, representatives of the in Antarctica. It might contain media, tourists, or the families information on space habitat who accompany any of these conditions and lifestyle, including people to a space station or data on food, medical conditions, base. responses to weightlessness, and skills required. Eventually, as • HOW—Use a variety of experience in space living means to evaluate suitability increases, the data bank might for space living, such as include specific cultural information psychological interviews, for space stations in orbit, lunar questionnaires, tests, bases, martian bases, and similar simulations, and group locations in space. Space meetings. “expatriates” while onsite or upon return to Earth would be asked to • WHY—Seek not only to contribute insights to this fund of determine suitability but also knowledge about life in zero or low to identify those requiring gravity. Eventually, such input preventive counseling could be classified by the orbit in because of their likelihood to which the experience was experience space culture garnered. shock. The aim is to eliminate from space communities, at In time, this data bank about space least in their founding stages, life may become the basis of policy those who would want to and guidelines for space travel return to Earth prematurely, which would be formulated by those who would be disruptive government agencies, corporations, influences in a space colony, or other organizational sponsors of and those who would simply people in space. It may someday not be satisfactory for their contribute to practical decisions space assignments. Initially, about such interplanetary matters the cost of transporting people as laws and insurance, passports to and from space will demand and visas, financial compensation a careful selection policy and and allowances, taxes, security, program. training, and suitable dress.

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In selecting the first space pioneers who experience space life workers for a tour of duty of in the next 25 years can provide 12 months or less, practicality insight into the new culture and may give preference to those information on adjusting to it. Their healthy and well-balanced Earth-based sponsors should do persons who (a) have already everything possible to enhance had astronaut training, (b) come their well-being and success in as a happily married couple with space, while learning from them complementary competencies, about their experiences aloft. and (c) are committed to long- term living in space. 2. Orientation

Undoubtedly, NASA has already The second component in a assembled a wide range of data space deployment system is a about the performance and needs combination of self-instruction and of astronauts in space during the training to prepare personnel past 25 years. In the next quarter for life beyond this planet. century, we expect that a more Oberg (1985) has described the heterogeneous population will astronauts’ training, which offers be going into space. Research a basis in this regard. However, should be funded on the with a more diverse population dimensions for successful space going into space, more adaptation. Eventually, a profile, generalized training would be useful for assessment, could be needed. The curriculum would developed of requirements in depend on the orbit, length of stay, space for technical competence, and mission. Some of the training resourcefulness, creativity, would be designed to develop productivity, adaptability, skills in one’s area of expertise, emotional stability, motivation, such as space technology or risk-taking, interpersonal and administration. Some of it might communication skills, leadership be to develop and growth potential, cultural a secondary role to fulfill in the empathy, and other psychological, space community, such as food as well as physical, attributes. provider or paramedic. All would be expected to complete We should take advantage of a basic course in space living this period before the time of mass that would deal with zero- travel into space to and low-gravity compensation, conduct research on and develop life support systems, physical means of coping with that alien, care and exercise, mental health sometimes hostile, zero- or services, and human relations. reduced-gravity environment. The All would be given orientation to the cultural challenges of

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space communities and specific of the century for such educational information about the cultures of preparation. (The military academy their fellow crewmembers. model might be adapted for these new peace academies.) NASA, for The learning program would example, might consider a location include human behavior issues like adjacent to the East-West Center communication, motivation, team- near the University of Hawaii, building and synergy, leadership, where ample resources would be conflict management and available. (Such a Pacific Basin negotiation, and family relations, site for an international space both with those in space and with university was proposed in 1985 by those left behind on Earth. Tetsuo Kondo, a member of the Presumably there would be a need Japanese Diet, and by U.S. for all to learn something about Senator Spark Matsunaga, and in space safety, the robotic and 1986 by people addressing the computer systems to be used at National Commission on Space.) the space station or base, and the The faculty of a space academy basic equipment that everybody should range from astrophysicists would be expected to operate, and astrochemists to behavioral such as an airlock or a rover. scientists and astronauts. The Possibly courses in astronomy, program objectives would be space migration, and space to prepare spacefarers for community development and effectiveness and excellence in systems, as well as in space their space cultural experience. recreation and constructive use of leisure time, might be among the In addition to the example of the innovative learning opportunities. NASA training program for members of the U.S. astronaut Instruction might include video corps, prototype space orientation case studies, simulations, programs can also be found in the programmed or computerized educational offerings of the U.S. learning, and questionnaires. Space Camp and the International The content would draw heavily Space University founded in on information gathered about 1987. life in space by both American and Soviet space scientists. 3. Onsite Support and Instructors presenting live or Monitoring media training should include those with experience in space. An effective space deployment system should include a third There might be international, component of support services national, or regional space and monitoring by Earth-based academies established by the turn sponsoring organizations. One dimension of this support

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would include all the food, supplies, NASA today physically monitors the equipment, facilities, communication, vital functions and well-being of its and transport necessary to maintain astronauts. Dr. James Grier Miller a community of humans in space. is planning a computer monitoring If we designate this as “physical system for those on a space station. support,” the other dimension to It is conceivable that organizational be concerned with is “psychological sponsors of space expatriates might support.” That is, a program onsite wish to have a “space wellness at a space station or lunar base program.” This could be a more which will facilitate integration into comprehensive approach that the host environment and culture. furthers the mental or holistic health of the space dwellers. It might Upon arrival at the space location, include needs adjustment surveys, the newcomer should benefit from performance data analysis and an acculturation program, which reporting, and individual or group may include being paired off with counseling. As individual and group a seasoned “buddy,” receiving data is amassed in an organization’s indoctrination briefings, and being computers, insights will be gained presented with media programs with which to improve the whole that will familiarize the person with deployment system. Special the local scene, its dangers and its attention should be paid to high- opportunities. Communication performing spacefarers (Harris links have to be established so 1988). Written records and individuals can keep in touch with videotapes of such top performers family and friends at home on in space can be helpful in preparing Earth. New forms of video/audio others for the challenge of space recordings may be transmitted by living. satellite which will keep spacefarers informed of events in their families, Such data will influence on-the-job hometowns, and organizations. To training, design of space habitats counteract alienation while boosting and equipment, programming of morale, Earth-based sponsors might recreational and other leisure have an information exchange with time, work scheduling, procedures their representatives in space; it for making assignments and could range from organizational scheduling leave, and devising news bulletins to shopping services salary and benefit plans, especially and training updates. for more hazardous service.

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In the startup stages of a space 4. Reintegration operation, only emergency medical assistance may be available to Until now human missions in space space dwellers. But, as the human have been counted in minutes, space community grows and we days, weeks, and months. Present move beyond frontier living planning for the space station by conditions, more extensive physical NASA, for instance, calls for six to and psychological assistance eight people working a 90-day should be made available to shift. Current research indicates spacefarers who need it. Problems that humans can stay in space may arise from the disruption of without unacceptable physical an individual’s circadian rhythm, deterioration for up to 12 months the effects of the gravity-free before being rotated. Obviously, if environment, the stress of lack of human space migration is to take privacy, and the effects of lengthy place, we must move beyond space stays. There are many these constraints. Some have human factors related to space proposed that the first space living that will have to be addressed settlers should be volunteers by those responsible for deploying who commit to space either people in space, not the least of permanently or for a long time. which is how to develop a viable They argue that the first colonists sense of community with relevant to the New World came to stay, psychological, social, political, and not to be rotated back to Europe. economic ideas. Others point to the length of sheer travel time for interplanetary A whole new infrastructure needs missions, such as 2-1/2 years to to be built on Earth to support Mars and back, and discourage space-based activities properly, any plans for too-quick rotation including regional bases on this of space colonists. Visionaries planet that are directly linked to speculate that the human body will a particular space enterprise. eventually adapt to the differences Similarly, an infrastructure has to in space life, that a new gene pool be created at the space facility and even a new breed may evolve where humans will dwell, one over generations. that will deal with the needs and aspirations, weaknesses and Starting with the construction failings of the species. crews and astronauts on the first

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NASA space station, we can through questionnaires, interviews, assume that guidelines will be set or group meetings should be for safe lengths of stay. In the computerized. This data should initial stages of space base be analyzed to improve the development, we can expect future recruitment, selection, regular reentry of space workers and training of spacefarers and to the Earth’s environment. If we to improve the quality of life in are to avoid “reentry shock,” the space communities. process of preparing people for that transition should begin on the high San Diego State University frontier. Perhaps astronauts who professor Arthur Ellis has begun have been to the Moon and back to examine the role of social work would make the best consultants in the space age.* As large space for designing such programs. colonies are planned, he believes Space people will have to readjust that the human services field can both physically and psychologically contribute to establishing policies, to the home planet. Their services, and ethics that will protect sponsoring organizations should and enhance society’s human have a plan for facilitating their resources in space. Ellis envisions reintegration into Earth’s lifestyle the application of social work and tempo. Reentry counseling methodology to the stress and may range from reassignment to depression experienced when occupational activities on this individuals are separated from their planet to preparations for return families by space missions or when to the high frontier. Some will they must endure long periods experience “you-can’t-go-home- together in a space community. again” syndrome, while others will The hazards of being human in complain of a variety of traumas an alien environment may and crises upon their return and demand that some form of space may even require outplacement psychotherapy be available from space services or assistance both on the high frontier and on with a divorce. The interplanetary return to Spaceship Earth. experience may prove to be more profound than cross-cultural experiences here on Earth. Conclusion

To close the space deployment The human race is in transition loop, we should gather and from an Earth-based to a space- analyze information from returning based culture, and the process of expatriates. Data gathered this “passover” may take centuries.

______*Personal communication.

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We Homo sapiens are by recreation, as well as suitable nature wanderers, the inheritors life support. Early in the next of an exploring and colonizing century our extraterrestrial bent that is deep…in our pioneers may produce the first evolutionary past.…Whereas space-born generation that is not technology gives us the psychologically dependent upon capacity to leave Earth, it is the Earth. In time, these high frontier explorer’s bent, embedded dwellers may raise a different deep in our biocultural nature, type of human. that is leading us to the stars. The “creeping” begins with the (Finney and Jones 1985) Shuttle that takes us 300 miles or so to a space station, a platform Anthropologist Finney and for assembling the world’s best astrophysicist Jones remind us scientists and engineers in low that it is the species called Earth orbit. The “walking” “wise”—Homo sapiens—which begins when we can regularly, evolved biologically and adapted economically, and safely extend culturally so as to populate and our presence 23 000 miles make a home of this planet. above the Earth’s surface to These same inclinations and geosynchronous Earth orbit. capacities propel humanity into There or at bases on the Moon the solar system and may be the and Mars we will mature and catalyst for interstellar migrations. step into the universe and a Finney and Jones speculate on an new state of being. explosive speciation of intelligent life as far as technology, or the limits placed by any competing life References forms originating elsewhere, will allow. Automation and Robotics Panel. 1985. Automation and Robotics The humanization of space, in any for the National Space Program. event, implies the extension of Report on NASA grant NAGW- Earth cultures, both national and 629. LaJolla, CA: Calif. Space organizational, into the universe. Inst./Univ. of Calif.–San Diego. It means creating not just new space technologies, methods of Collins, Michael; Roy Andersen; transportation, and habitats but a Pierre Mion; and Roger H. wholly new lifestyle and way of Ressmeyer. 1988. Mission to thinking that evolves appropriate Mars. National Geographic 174 societal and economic structures, (11–Nov.): 732–764. legal and political systems, art and

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Connors, M. M.; A. A. Harrison; Freitas, R. A., Jr., and W. P. and F. R. Akins. 1985. Living Gilbreath, eds. 1980. Advanced Aloft: Human Requirements for Automation for Space Missions. Extended Space Flight. NASA NASA CP-2255. SP-483. Hall, Stephen B., ed. 1985. The Criswell, David. 1988. C-STAR Human Role in Space: Technology, Newsletter 1 (2–March-June): 3. Economics, and Optimization. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Deal, T. E., and A. A. Kennedy. 1982. Corporate Cultures. Harris, P. R. 1983. New Worlds, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. New Ways, New Management. Ann Arbor: Masterico Press/ Douglas, W. K. 1984. Human AMACOM. Performance Issues Arising from Manned Space Station Missions. Harris, P. R. 1985. Management Report on NASA contract 2-11723. in Transition. San Francisco: Huntington Beach, CA: McDonnell Jossey-Bass. Douglas Aircraft Company. Harris, P. R. 1988. High- Duke, Michael B.; Wendell W. Performance Leadership: Mendell; and Barney B. Roberts. Strategies for Maximizing Career 1985. Strategies for a Permanent Productivity. Glenview, IL: Scott, Lunar Base. In Lunar Bases Foresman & Co. and Space Activities of the 21st Century, ed. W. W. Mendell. Harris, P. R., and R. T. Moran. Houston: Lunar & Planetary Inst., 1987. Managing Cultural pp. 57–68. Differences, 2nd ed. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. Falk, Richard. 1977. New Options for Self-Government in Space Harrison, Albert A. 1986. On Habitats. In Space Manufacturing Resistance to the Involvement Facilities (Space Colonies), Proc. of Personality, Social, and [2nd (& 1st)] 1975 (and 1974) Organizational Psychologists in the Princeton/AIAA/NASA Conf., ed. U.S. Space Program. J. Social Jerry Grey, 181–184. New York: Behavior & Personality 1:315–324. AIAA.

Finney, Ben R. and Eric M. Jones, eds. 1985. Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press.

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Harrison, A. A., and M. M. Connors. Oberg, James E., and Alcestis R. 1984. Groups in Exotic Oberg. 1986. Pioneering Space: Environments. In Advances in Living on the Next Frontier. New Experimental Social Psychology, York: McGraw-Hill. Vol. XVIII, ed. L. Berkowitz. New York: Academic Press (NASA Oberth, Hermann. 1957. Man Into contract NCA 2-OR-180-803). Space: New Projects for Rocket and Space Travel. New York: Levine, Arnold S. 1982. Managing Harper & Brothers. NASA in the Apollo Era. NASA SP-4102. Peters, T. J., and R. H. Waterman. 1982. In Search of Excellence. Miller, James Grier. 1978. Living New York: Harper & Row. Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pitts, John A. 1985. The Human Moran, R. T., and P. R. Harris. Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned 1982. Managing Cultural Synergy. Space Program to 1980. NASA Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. SP-4213.

NASA Life Sciences Strategic Tichy, N. M., and M. A. Devanna. Planning Study Committee. 1988. 1986. The Transformational Exploring the Living Universe: Leader. New York: John Wiley & A Strategy for Space Life Sons. Sciences. Washington, DC: NASA Headquarters. June. Von Puttkamer, Jesco. 1985. Beyond the Space Station. National Commission on Space. Paper AAS 84-161 in The Case 1986. Pioneering the Space for Mars II, American Astronaut. Frontier. New York: Bantam Soc. Science & Technology Books. Series, vol. 62, ed. Christopher P. McKay, 171–206. San Diego: Oberg, Alcestis R. 1985. AAS/Univelt. Spacefarers of the ’80s and ’90s: The Next Thousand People in Space. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.

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Future Space Development Scenarios: Environmental Considerations

Richard Tangum

Introduction

Human presence in space has expanded dramatically since the first Sputnik of October 1957. Between 1959 and 1976, 40 spacecraft were launched into lunar orbit or to the surface of the Moon.

Space Flights That Provided Lunar Data ______

Apollo missions (1968-1972) 9 manned flights Luna series (1959-1976) 13 Russian probes Surveyor (1966-1968) 5 unmanned landings Ranger (1964-1965) 3 preimpact photography flights Zond (1965-1970) 4 unmanned flybys Lunar Orbiter (1966-1967) 5 orbital photography flights Explorer 35 (1967) 1 orbital flight ______

Sputnik I The “beep beep” of Sputnik I in October of 1957 changed the world’s perception of itself. This full-scale model of the basketball-size satellite was on display at the Soviet Pavilion at the Paris Air Show. NASA photo: S76-22361

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Likewise, the launching of satellites system. Furthermore, space into low Earth orbit (LEO) and enterprises should be encouraged geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) to benefit people on Earth. has continued unabated. This President George Bush, in his presence in space—to include speech at the Air and Space the lunar surface, asteroids, and Museum on the 20th anniversary Mars—will increase dramatically in of the Apollo 11 landing, both scale and scope within the next echoed an Apollo 11 astronaut quarter century. NASA’s plans for and reinforced the Commission’s a space station in LEO are already goals by stating under way. Mike Collins said it best: The National Commission on “The Moon is not a Space appointed by President destination; it’s a direction.” Reagan calls for human outposts And space is the inescapable on the Moon by 2005 and on challenge to all the advanced Mars by 2115. The Commission nations of the Earth. And believes that an aggressive plan there’s little question that, in should be adopted the 21st century, humans will again leave their home planet To lead the exploration and for voyages of discovery and development of the space exploration. What was once frontier, advancing science, improbable is now inevitable. technology, and enterprise, The time has come to look and building institutions and beyond brief encounters. We systems that make accessible must commit ourselves anew vast new resources and to a sustained program of support human settlements manned exploration of the beyond Earth orbit, from the solar system, and, yes, the highlands of the Moon to the permanent settlement of plains of Mars. space. We must commit ourselves to a future where The Commission further states that Americans and citizens of all a major thrust should be exploring, nations will live and work in prospecting, and settling the solar space.

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Lunar Colony, as Conceived in moon. Drawing on the most advanced where lunar rock quarried on the surface February 1969 thinking of experts, artist Davis Meltzer is processed for the water chemically This painting and its caption, published portrays a lunar outpost that might be locked within it. The water not only fills the 5 months before the Eagle of Apollo 11 possible in a generation. A survey team station’s swimming pool, but also yields touched down on the Moon and brought drills core samples and maps the surface oxygen for breathing and hydrogen for back the first lunar samples, is remarkable as an attendant monitors the oxygen fuel for a flying vehicle, far left. A not for its mistakes in detail, which analysis supply. Aluminum habitation modules lie fencelike radio telescope probes deep by hundreds of scientists of the nearly almost buried for protection against space, and an optical scope in a small 400 kilograms (841 pounds) of lunar rocks micrometeorites and temperatures that observatory studies the heavens, collected by the Apollo astronauts has fluctuate 500°F. between noon and night. undimmed by earth’s atmosphere. Beside subsequently revealed, but rather for the In a laboratory module, foreground, a hangar pit, a commuter rocket poises accuracy of its general idea of facilities biologists observe animals and for return to the blue planet earth.” and activities that now, “a generation” experiment with raising vegetables in Artist: Davis Meltzer fertilized water. A multi-level main module later, we are planning to build and carry Illustration and caption taken from Kenneth out on the Moon: encloses dressing rooms for entering and leaving, medical dispensary, dormitory, F. Weaver, 1969, “The Moon, Man’s First “Frontiersmen of the Space Age, kitchen, and dining and recreation areas. Goal in Space,” National Geographic 135 engineers and technicians colonize the Pressurized tunnel leads to a smelter, (2—Feb.): 206–230. © NGS

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Apollo 16 Lift-Off From the Moon The confetti-colored sparkles of the lunar module lift-off for each of the last three Apollo missions were seen by millions of people, thanks to a TV camera mounted on the lunar rover. We were glad to see our astronauts lifted safely from that far-off surface to join their fellows in the orbiting command and service modules and come home to Earth. But, as we contemplate going back to the Moon, to establish a permanent base, we must be concerned about the effect that our built environment will have on the natural environment there. NASA photo: S72-35613

Studies of the potential use of The term environment in space nonterrestrial materials could have can be used in three different far-reaching implications for the senses: first, the natural environments of low Earth orbit and environment of soils, gases, and the lunar surface, in terms of both organisms that may be present; use and the prevention of possible second, the built environment, contamination. A need is clearly including manned satellites and emerging for some form of the areas humans build to live environmental assessment and and work in; third, the social management to determine what to environment—culture, law, and use space or planetary surfaces for economics. Of immediate and how to do it; what changes to concern is the effect of the built tolerate and what standards to environment on the natural impose; and how to meet these environment in space. standards.

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Potential Research frequencies, allows measurements over a wide range of wavelengths Many of the initial activities (see fig. 15). Solar wind studies potentially associated with the are easier on the Moon because of establishment of a lunar base will the lack of an atmosphere and also involve research. A lunar base the lack of a large magnetic field. setting with low gravity and a Furthermore, the Moon acts as an vacuum environment makes it absorbing surface to the charged possible to conduct unique solar plasma. Geological studies experiments that are not possible can answer questions about the on Earth. These factors, plus Moon’s history, its evolution, added seismic stability, make structure, composition, and state. the Moon a perfect observatory Practical resource development platform. The far side of the Moon questions will arise about where is especially suited for radio large quantities of various ores can astronomy because its pristine be found and how to mine them Figure 15 environment, shielded from radio economically.

Radio Telescope on the Far Side of the Moon In this artist’s concept, a radio telescope has been placed in a meteorite crater on the far side of the Moon. The parabolic grid in the crater reflects the signal to the steerable collector suspended by cables. The lunar far side may prove to be an ideal location for radio telescopes because nearly all radio frequency noise generated by human activity on Earth will be blocked out by the Moon itself. In the concept shown here, the radio telescope is human-tended but is operated by remote control most of the time. Information from the telescope is beamed to a lunar communications satellite which relays the data back to Earth. Other radio telescope designs have also been proposed, including large-area phased arrays which do not require parabolic reflectors. While early lunar base installations will likely be on the near side of the Moon, far side sites for radio telescopes will likely follow because of the clear advantage of such a location. NASA photo: S71-4042V

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An Illustration of the micrometeoritic action turns over Problem the top 3 mm of the lunar surface every 1 000 000 years (Gault et al. Mining of the lunar surface is an 1975). In this time span, the lunar area of potential environmental surface is destroyed, recreated, concern. This issue was voiced by and shaped. the Lunar Base Working Group, meeting at Los Alamos National Extensive mining efforts on the Laboratory in 1984: Moon, however, could scar its surface irreversibly. Numerous Most lunar scientific activities components of mining on the require that the unique lunar Moon must be environmentally environment be preserved. assessed: the scale of the Lunar base operations might mining operation, its associated affect this environment in development, and its technological adverse ways, especially if features. Factors affecting the industrial operations expand. scale of mining include

Specific potential environmental • Ore quality impacts were cited: increased • Size of ore body atmospheric pressure, which could • Availability of energy change atmospheric composition • Cost of operation and compromise astronomical • Type of operation observations, and increased very low radio frequency background Strip mining would probably be through satellite communication the most efficient method for networks, which could affect the producing ore (see fig. 16). There use of the far side of the Moon for could remain the desolation of radio telescopes. steep piles of discarded regolith, alternating with the trenches from Unprotected by any atmosphere, which the regolith is removed. the Moon will accumulate scars The Moon, in time, could become of impacts by humans at an a visual and scientific wasteland. increasing rate. In contrast, the Laws requiring backfilling of the Earth will exhibit a more youthful trenches and recontouring of the appearance, since it is constantly ground surface to some semblance rejuvenated by geological of its original state would be processes such as erosion by needed. wind and water. On the Moon,

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Development and technological larger settlements would require a features affecting the environmental vast mining operation to sustain impact include them. Approximately 100 000 tons of regolith (10-percent usable • Size of mining installation ilemite content) are needed to (land required) produce 1000 tons of oxygen in a • Volume of spoil generated carbothermal oxygen production • Nature of energy source used plant (Cutler and Krag 1985). This • Nature of transportation translates into a mining operation system used that extracts 50 000 cubic meters • Nature and volume of of regolith for each 1000 tons of pollution released oxygen produced. • Use of explosives • Drilling processes Selenopolis, a fully developed lunar settlement envisioned by Krafft Oxidic minerals will probably be Ehricke (1985), could require vast the first resource mined on the quantities of oxygen per year for its Moon for life support and rocket inhabitants’ use for life support and propellant. Although projected ore rocket propellant. Annually to volume for initial production of produce 500 000 tons of oxygen, oxygen would be low (82 cubic an area 7.07 kilometers square and meters of unconcentrated fines per 5 meters deep would have to be day), eventual development of mined.

Figure 16

Three-Drum Slusher This lunar mining system is called a “three- drum slusher.” It is similar to a simple two- drum dragline, in which a bucket is pulled by cables to scrape up surface material and dump it into a waiting truck. The third drum allows the bucket to be moved from side to side to enlarge the mining pit. Surface mining of unconsolidated lunar regolith, using versions of draglines or front-end loaders, will probably be done at a lunar base initially, although deeper “bedrock” mining is also a possibility and underground mining may even be attractive if appropriate resources are located.

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Although the Moon does not have the gravitational field of the Moon an atmosphere as such, it does would occur only through a very have an exosphere in which slow process. What happened to individual particles are captured by these gases? A likely answer its gravitational field. Each one of suggested by Zdenek Kopal the Apollo missions between (1979) is that the gases were 1969 and 1972 added more than rapidly absorbed by the lunar 10 tons of exhaust gases to the crust and bound in a solid state. exosphere. Over the 3-year The implications of the release of period, more than 60 tons of large quantities of gases of gases were released on the different types is unknown. lunar surface. And the five Luna missions that returned samples We must remember that the from the Moon between 1970 and Moon, in its pristine condition, 1976 probably added a similar serves as an important, well- amount. Although subsequent preserved fossil of the solar measurements failed to detect system. Much remains to be their presence, these gases had discovered about the evolution of a sufficiently high molecular the Earth and the solar system. weight that their dispersal from Very little geological evidence has

“Moon, 2000” Would-be developers may find this image of the Moon overly optimistic, at least by the year 2000. But environmentalists like Rick Tangum may view the image, by visual futurist Syd Mead, more pessimistically. Tangum is concerned about the scale of a mining operation necessary to support a large lunar settlement. Unmanaged development of the Moon could destroy its potential to reveal scientific information about the early history of the solar system. Artist: Syd Mead © Oblagon, Inc.

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been discovered about the first continue to clarify Moon-Earth billion years of Earth’s 4-1/2 billion and solar system history (see year history. Geological box). Unmanaged development discoveries on the Moon will of the Moon could destroy this potential.

What We’ve Learned About the Earth by Studying the Moon ______

• The Earth formed during the same planetary accretionary period as did the Moon—about 4.5 billion years ago. Much older rocks are found on the dry airless, rapidly cooled Moon, whose crust has not been eroded and subducted like the Earth’s has. • The Earth, like the Moon, continued to be bombarded by planetesimals from its formation down to about 3.9 billion years ago. This record, too, is preserved on the relatively inactive Moon. • The most likely story of the origin of the Moon explains why the Moon is less dense than the Earth: A planetesimal the size of Mars collided with the Earth and splashed some of the Earth’s mantle, along with the silicate mantle of the impactor, into orbit around the Earth, where the debris accreted to form the Moon. The metallic core of the impactor, on the other hand, accreted to the Earth. This collision tilted the Earth 23° from the plane of the ecliptic and gave it its spin. • The Earth was once completely molten, allowing its differentiation, the heavier elements sinking toward its still molten core, the lighter elements rising to eventually form its granitic continental crust. Traces of such chemical separations, occurring while the Moon was covered by a “magma ocean,” are still preserved in its rocks. • Even after the period of heaviest bombardment (4.5 to 3.8 billion years ago), impacts by asteroids, meteorites, and comets have continued to be significant, albeit random, events in geological history, though the evidence has been mostly erased on Earth. One such catastrophic impact has been found to be coincident with the extinction of the dinosaurs. • The eruption of basalts, derived by the partial melting of the mantle, has been common on the solid planets and their satellites and on some asteroids. This igneous process is seen in the dark lava flows that filled the lunar basins we call “maria” (or “seas”), more of them on the near than on the far side of the Moon.

And an unanswered question:

Why does the Moon lack a magnetic field while the Earth has a relatively strong one? Is it because the Moon has only a small, if any metal core? If so, then why is a “fossil” magnetism preserved in lunar rocks? ______Compiled from information provided by Michael B. Duke, S. Ross Taylor, John A. Wood, and the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA Headquarters.

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Conclusion mining activity can be safely undertaken and what quantity of The formation of positive attitudes exhaust gases can be released and values concerning the over a given period of time. Only environment of space, as the basis then will humans be most able to for assuming a wise stewardship evaluate the likely consequences of role, is becoming increasingly ventures into space and be able to important as many nations begin best preserve the newest frontier their journeys into space. A strong for posterity. emphasis should be placed on fostering an international space environmental ethics. References

The object of environmental Cutler, Andrew Hall, and Peter assessment and management Krag. 1985. A Carbothermal in space should be to define Scheme for Lunar Oxygen what interplanetary regulatory Production. In Lunar Bases procedures are needed to avoid and Space Activities of the unnecessary environmental 21st Century, ed. W. W. Mendell, damage and to monitor the 559–569. Houston: Lunar & effectiveness of such avoidance. Planetary Inst. The first requirement for research is to narrow the field of concern Duke, Michael B.; Wendell W. to areas where there could be an Mendell; and Paul W. Keaton. increased scale of development 1984. Report of the Lunar Base in space in the immediate future. Working Group. LALP (Laboratory Research needs to be focused Publication) 84–43. Los Alamos on methodologies for defining the National Laboratory, 16 pp. environmental systems involved (e.g., the lunar surface) and then Ehricke, Krafft A. 1985. Lunar recognizing key variables in the Industrialization and Settlement— system that are fragile and need Birth of Polyglobal Civilization. In to be respected. Criteria for Lunar Bases and Space Activities environmental quality should of the 21st Century, ed. W. W. emerge which identify, in the case Mendell, 827–855. Houston: Lunar of the lunar surface, how much & Planetary Inst.

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Gault, D. E.; J. E. Guest; J. B. Murray; Daniel Dzurisin; and M. C. Malin. 1975. Some Comparisons of Impact Craters on Mercury and the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. 80: 2444–2460.

Kopal, Zdenek. 1979. The Realm of the Terrestrial Planets. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Paine, Thomas O., et al. 1986. Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Report of the National Commission on Space. New York: Bantam Books.

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Applications of Living Systems Theory to Life in Space*

James Grier Miller

Introduction during space travel and residence. Planners are challenged not only to Earth, so far as we know, is the provide transportation, energy, only planet in our solar system on food, and habitats but also to which living systems have ever develop social and ecological existed. Since Earth’s primeval systems that enhance human life. atmosphere lacked free oxygen and therefore had no ozone layer Making people the dominant to protect primitive cells and consideration does not diminish organisms from the Sun’s killing the need to attend to technologies radiation, life evolved in the sea for for taking spacefarers to their the first two billion years. The new homes and providing an biological activity of primitive algae infrastructure to sustain and is considered a major factor in support them in what will almost creating our oxygen atmosphere, certainly be a harsh and stressful making it possible to colonize land. setting (Connors, Harrison, and Akins 1985). Now the human species is contemplating a second great As clear a vision as possible of migration, this time into space. human organizations and Human settlements, first on space settlements in space and on stations in orbit and then on bases nonterrestrial bodies in the on the Moon, Mars, and other 21st century should be gained planetary bodies, are in the now. A beginning was made by planning stage. the National Commission on Space (1986) in depicting the human Planning for nonterrestrial living future on the space frontier. requires a reorientation of the long- Behavioral scientists, particularly range strategic purposes and short- those with a general systems range tactical goals and objectives orientation, can contribute uniquely of contemporary space programs. to this process. They can do The primary focus must be on the research to improve strategic and human beings who are to inhabit programmatic planning focused on the projected settlements. This human needs and behavior. The implies a shift in thinking by space results should prove to be the scientists and administrators so that drivers of the mechanical, physical, a satisfactory quality of human life and biological engineering required becomes as important as safety to create the space infrastructure.

______*Presented at the NASA-NSF conference The Human Experience in Antarctica: Applications to Life in Space, held in Sunnyvale, CA, August 17, 1987.

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When we envision nonterrestrial permanently in settlements far from stays of long duration, we must Earth, however, they cannot endure plan for quite different social the inconvenient, uncomfortable, phenomena than we have seen and difficult working and living in space missions up to now. conditions that have been the lot of Astronauts have lived on space the highly trained and motivated stations for periods of a few professionals who have gone into weeks or months at most. The space over the past 30 years. great majority of missions have Months and years in a space been relatively brief. Such environment are an entirely missions have required the daring different matter. Motivation and initiative of carefully selected diminishes over time and long- and highly trained astronauts continued discomforts are hard to equipped to accomplish limited bear. goals. If people are to remain

Spacelab 1 As technicians examine the Spacelab module, a physician examines a prospective occupant. As we contemplate long journeys to other planets and lengthy stays in space, we must plan not only for the safe transportation and life support of spacefarers but also for their comfort and well-being. The high motivation that has characterized astronauts and cosmonauts in space flights so far cannot be expected to endure avoidable difficulties throughout long missions. Artist: Charles Schmidt (NASA Art Program Collection)

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If men, women, and perhaps logistical problems of doing even children live together in research there and the attendant nonterrestrial locations which, even costs can be coped with, perhaps with excellent communications to Antarctica is the best place within Earth, are inevitably isolating, their the Earth’s gravity field to analyze behavior will undoubtedly be the problems of life in space and different from any that has so far even to put a space station been observed in space. A new simulator or to model a lunar space culture may well arise (see outpost. Also it is a good place Harris’s paper on space culture in to develop plans for continuous this volume). This is particularly monitoring of human behavior likely in an international program under rigorous conditions, by that includes people from different procedures such as those based nations and diverse cultures. It is on living systems theory, which is not too early to begin systematically outlined below. If that kind of to try to understand what such Antarctic research is infeasible or settlements will be like in order unduly costly, we can consider to plan wisely for them. doing space station research at other locations, such as the Space No place on Earth closely Biospheres at Oracle, Arizona, or resembles the conditions in space, on space station simulators at on the Moon, or on other planetary Marshall Space Flight Center in bodies. The harsh environmental Huntsville, Alabama; at McDonnell stresses and the isolation that Douglas Corporation in Huntington must be faced by people who Beach, California; or at Ames winter over in Antarctica, however, Research Center at Moffett Field, are similar in many ways. If the California.

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Researcher notes condition of insect- growing area at Biosphere II

Biosphere II Test Module On November 2, 1989, botanist Linda Leigh stepped inside an airlock and entered an ecosystem separate from the biosphere of the Earth. For the next 21 days, the air she breathed, the water she drank, and the food she ate were generated by the ecosystem within the 17 000-cubic-foot airtight glass and steel Test Module of Space Biospheres Ventures in Oracle, Arizona. Leigh harvested fruits, vegetables, herbs, and fish grown in the module and prepared them in the module’s human habitat section, which includes an efficiency kitchen, a bathroom with a shower, a bed, and a study area with a desk. She communicated with colleagues and observed air and water quality data, by computer monitor. In this, as in the previous two tests, all environmental quality indicators remained well within safety limits and the human inhabitant remained in excellent health and spirits. James Grier Miller suggests the application of measures based on living systems theory to human behavior in such a simulation of life on a space station.

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Space Station Trainer This accurate physical mockup of a space station module is used to train prospective crewmembers in the use of equipment. The Johnson Space Center also has simulators, which, although they do not look from the outside as the actual hardware will look, do give crewmembers the feeling of being in space. It is not possible to make a trainer/simulator that both looks and feels like the real thing. NASA planners also look at analog situations, like the isolated environment at the South Pole, to study how people function under such rigorous conditions. NASA photo: S90-29691

Synopsis of Living Since 1984 my colleagues and I Systems Theory have been examining how LST can contribute to the effectiveness of Living systems theory (LST) space planning and management. provides one possible basis for At the NASA summer study in such research. This is an LaJolla, we focused on strategic integrated conceptual approach to planning for a lunar base. Since the study of biological and social then a team of behavioral and living systems, the technologies other scientists has explored ways associated with them, and the in which a living systems analysis ecological systems of which they could be employed by NASA to are all parts. It offers a method of enhance the livability of the Space analyzing systems—living systems Shuttle and eventually of the space process analysis—which has been station. used in basic and applied research on a variety of different kinds of The LST approach to research systems. and theoretical writing differs significantly from that commonly

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followed in empirical science. In the real world of daily affairs, One reason for this difference is whether one is dealing with that LST was developed by an computers and information interdisciplinary group of scientists processing or with housing, rather than representatives of one finance, legislation, or industrial discipline. Many members of the production, the problems are always group were senior professors interdisciplinary. The problems with national and international that face space enterprises are recognition in their own specialties. also interdisciplinary. Each All members had advanced training major project needs the skills of in at least one discipline. But they engineers, lawyers, economists, agreed on the importance of computer scientists, biologists, achieving unity in science, working and social scientists in different toward the goal of its ultimate combinations. integration by developing general theories. Research concerned with 2. Inductive General Theory living systems is designed with this goal in mind. It focuses on the There are two major stages in following concerns. the scientific process: first, the inductive stage, and, second, the 1. Compartmentalization of deductive stage. The inductive Science stage is logically prior. Scientists begin the first stage by observing Modern science suffers from some class of phenomena and structural problems that have their identifying certain similarities roots in conceptual issues. The among these phenomena. organization of universities by Then they consider alternative departments, and the structure of explanations for these similarities science generally, emphasizes the and generate hypotheses to separate disciplines. The rewards determine which explanation of academic life are given for is correct. becoming expert in a specialty or subspecialty. It is important, A goal of science that has been however, that, although the major recognized for centuries is the work of science must be done by development of both special specialists, they should all realize theories of limited scope and that they are contributing to a general theories that unify or mosaic and that their work fits, like integrate special theories and cover a piece of a jigsaw puzzle, into an broader spheres of knowledge. It overall picture. is usually necessary to start with

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special theories that deal with a goal of research on LST is to limited set of phenomena. Middle- collect data to make deductive range theories concerned with a tests of hypotheses derived from greater number of phenomena inductive, integrative theory. come later. Ultimately a body of research based on these leads to 3. Common Dimensions general theories that include a major segment of the total subject If scientists or engineers from matter of a field or of several different fields are to work fields. together, it is desirable that the dimensions and measurements The desirability and usefulness of they use be compatible. general theory is more widely Experimenters in physical and acknowledged in some disciplines, biological sciences ordinarily like mathematics and physics, make their measurements using than in others. Unfortunately dimensions identical to those used many students of science and by other scientists in those fields, even senior scientists have not or other units that have known been taught about this goal and transformations to them. are unaware of it. Of course scientists, under the principles of It should eventually be possible to the First Amendment and of write transformation equations to academic freedom, may generate reduce dimensions of any of the their hypotheses any way they disciplines of physical, biological, please. Then they can test or or social science into common evaluate them by collecting data dimensions that are compatible and either confirm or disprove with the meter-kilogram-second them. The findings resulting system of measurement so that from such a procedure, however, specialists in different fields may not have any discoverable can communicate precisely. relationship to the findings of any Investigators studying LST attempt other research in the same field. to use such dimensions whenever it is possible. Voluntary scientific self-discipline in the mature sciences leads If some phenomena of living researchers to prefer to carry out systems cannot be measured studies which test hypotheses along such dimensions, one or that distinguish critically between more others may have to be used. alternative special theories, If this is done, however, an explicit middle-range theories, and statement should always be made ultimately general theories. The that those particular dimensions

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are incommensurable with the 4. Coexistence of Structure and established dimensions of natural Process science. Furthermore, resolute efforts should be made to discover It is important not to separate transformation equations that functional (that is, process) relate them to the established science from structural science. dimensions. Our experience Psychology and physiology are indicates that in many cases process sciences at the level of this can be done. The use of the organism, and sociology transformation equations is and political science are process advocated rather than an attempt sciences at the level of the society. to go directly to some system of Gross anatomy and neuroanatomy common dimensions because are structural sciences at the level people in different disciplines often of the organism, and physical feel that the measures to which geography is a structural science they are accustomed are preferable at the level of the society. in their own fields. Transformation equations are a reasonable first A psychologist or step to common dimensions. neurophysiologist, however, is inevitably limited if Comparable dimensions for living she or he cannot identify the and nonliving systems are anatomical structure that mediates increasingly useful as matter- an observed process, and an energy and information processing anatomist can have only a partial technologies become more understanding of a structure sophisticated and are more widely without comprehending its function. employed throughout the world. Consequently, whenever a process The design of person/machine has been identified but the structure interfaces, for example, is more that carries it out is not known, it precise and efficient when both should be an insistent goal of sides are measured comparably. science to identify the structure. Engineers and behavioral scientists The opposite is also true: It should are able to cooperate in joint be an insistent goal of science to projects much more effectively than identify the process or processes they ordinarily have in the past. that a structure carries out. Often Such cooperation greatly facilitates this is disregarded because it is space science. Such comparability not thought to be urgent. The of dimensions is a main theme of main reason for this appears the program projected in this to be that, in the academic world, proposal. process or functional sciences are administratively separate from,

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and in poor communication with, cable is a single unit but it can their relevant structural sciences separate into the several ropes (e.g., gross anatomy at the level of that compose it. These can unravel the organism or physical geography further into finer strands, strings, at the level of the society). and threads.

5. Biosocial Evolution Systems at each succeeding level are composed principally of systems Living systems are open systems at the level below. Cells have that take from the environment nonliving molecular components, substances of lower entropy and organs are composed of cells, higher information content (food, organisms of organs, groups are energy, information) than they put composed of organisms, and so back into the environment (waste, on. Systems at higher levels are heat, noise). This thermodynamically suprasystems of their component, improbable increase of internal lower-level systems, which are information (negative entropy), organized into subsystems, each which does not occur in nonliving of which performs one of the systems, makes it possible for them activities essential to all living to grow, do work, make products, systems. and carry on other life functions. Our identification of these On the basis of a mass of subsystems was under way by supporting scientific evidence, 1955. By 1965 we had identified LST asserts that over the last 19 of them. A 20th, the timer, approximately 3.8 billion years a was identified only recently (Miller continuous biosocial evolution has 1990). It is interesting that a occurred, in the overall direction of group of researchers at Lockheed increased complexity. It has so far Corporation in 1985, apparently resulted in eight levels of living without any underlying conceptual systems: cells, organs, organisms, theory or any knowledge of our groups, organizations, communities, previous work, identified a set of societies, and supranational systems elements and subelements of the This evolution came about by a living and nonliving aspects of a process of fray-out (see fig. 1) in space station with significant which the larger, higher-level similarities to our subsystems. systems evolved with more (and They were not wholly comparable, more complex) components in each however. One incompatibility is that subsystem than those below them the Lockheed researchers listed as in the hierarchy of living systems. elements or subelements not only Fray-out can be likened to the what we call “subsystems” but also unraveling of a ship’s cable. The what we call “levels” and “flows.”

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Figure 1

Fray-Out We can visualize the relationship among the levels of living systems by comparing a cell to a ship’s cable. As the more complex levels “fray-out” from their cellular form, they grow and thus produce the larger forms. Each of these levels, small or large, is composed of the same 20 subsystems, however.

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6. Emergents 7. The Subsystems of Living Systems The fact that systems at each level have systems at the level Because of the evolutionary next below as their principal relationship among them, all components doesn’t mean that living systems have similar it is possible to understand any requirements for matter and system as just an accumulation of energy, without which they cannot lower-level systems. A cell cannot survive. They must secure food, be described by summing the fuel, or raw materials. They must chemical properties of the process their inputs in various molecules that compose it, nor can ways to maintain their structure, an organism be described by even reproduce, make products, and a detailed account of the structure carry out other essential activities. and processes of its organs. LST The metabolism of matter and gives no support to reductionism. energy is the energetics of living At each higher level of living systems. systems there are important similarities to the lower levels, but Input, processing, and output of there are also differences. Higher- information is also essential in living level systems have emergent systems. This is the “metabolism” structures and processes that are of information. not present at lower levels. Emergents are novel processes, LST identifies 20 essential made possible because higher- processes which, together with one level systems have a greater or more components, constitute the number of components with more 20 subsystems of living systems complicated relationships among (see table 1). With the exception them. It is this increased of the 2 subsystems of the learning complexity that makes the whole process, which seem to have system greater than the simple sum evolved with animal organisms, of its parts, and gives all 20 processes appear to be it more capability. Higher-level present at each of the eight levels, systems are larger, on average, although they may not be present and more complex than those in all types of systems at a given below them in the hierarchy of level. Bacteria, which are cells, living systems. They can adapt to for example, have no motor a greater range of environmental subsystems but many other types variation, withstand more stress, of cells have motor components and exploit environments not and can move about in the available to less complex systems.

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environment or move parts of the components have not been environment with relation to them. identified. This is largely true for Similarly, some groups and organism associating. Even the organizations process little or no simplest animals have some form matter-energy. Some systems of learning but the components are clearly have components for not certainly known. certain processes but these

TABLE 1. The Subsystems of Living Systems

Subsystems which process both matter-energy and information 1. Reproducer, the subsystem which carries out the instructions in the genetic information or charter of a system and mobilizes matter, energy, and information to produce one or more similar systems. 2. Boundary, the subsystem at the perimeter of a system that holds together the components which make up the system, protects them from environmental stresses, and excludes or permits entry to various sorts of matter-energy and information. Subsystems which process matter-energy Subsystems which process information 3. Ingestor, the subsystem which brings matter-energy across 11. Input transducer, the sensory subsystem which brings markers bearing the system boundary from the environment information into the system, changing them to other matter-energy forms suitable for transmission within it 12. Internal transducer, the sensory subsystem which receives, from subsyste or components within the system, markers bearing information about significant alterations in those subsystems or components, changing them other matter-energy forms of a sort which can be transmitted within it. 4. Distributor, the subsystem which carries inputs from outside 13. Channel and net, the subsystem composed of a single route in physical the system or outputs from its subsystems around the space or multiple interconnected routes over which markers bearing system to each component. information are transmitted to all parts of the system. 14. Timer, the subsystem which transmits to the decider information about tim related states of the environment or of components of the system. This information signals the decider of the system or deciders of subsystems to start, stop, alter the rate, or advance or delay the phase of one or more of system’s processes, thus coordinating them in time. 5. Converter, the subsystem which changes certain inputs to 15. Decoder, the subsystem which alters the code of information input to it the system into forms more useful for the special processes through the input transducer or internal transducer into a “private” code tha of that particular system. can be used internally by the system. 6. Producer, the subsystem which forms stable associations 16. Associator, the subsystem which carries out the first stage of the learning that endure for significant periods among matter-energy process, forming enduring associations among items of information in the inputs to the system or outputs from its converter, the system. materials synthesized being for growth, damage repair, or replacement of components of the system, or for providing energy for moving or constituting the system’s outputs of products or information markers to its suprasystem. 7. Matter-energy storage, the subsystem which places matter 17. Memory, the subsystem which carries out the second stage of the learning or energy at some location in the system, retains it over time, process, storing information in the system for different periods of time, and and retrieves it. then retrieving it. 18. Decider, the executive subsystem which receives information inputs from a other subsystems and transmits to them outputs for guidance, coordination and control of the system. 19. Encoder. the subsystem which alters the code of information input to it from other information processing subsystems, from a “private” code used 8. Extruder, the subsystem which transmits matter-energy out internally by the system into a “public” code which can be interpreted by of the system in the forms of products or wastes. ⎫ other systems in its environment. 9. Motor, the subsystem which moves the system or parts of it ⎬ 20. Output transducer, the subsystem which puts out markers bearing in relation to part or all of its environment or moves information from the system, changing markers within the system into othe components of its environment in relation to each other. ⎭ matter-energy forms which can be transmitted over channels in the system 10. Supporter, the subsystem which maintains the proper spatial environment. relationships among components of the system, so that they can interact without weighting each other down or crowding each other.

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A set of symbols, shown in figure 2, diagrams and are compatible with have been designed to represent the standard symbols of electrical the levels , subsystems, and major engineering and computer science. flows in living systems. They are They can also be used in graphics intended for use in simulations and and flow charts.

Figure 2

Living Systems Theory Symbols

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If a system lacks components for dispersed to human brains, since a given subsystem or part of it, an organization makes associations it may disperse the process to a only when human subcomponents system at the same or another have done so. An organization level. Symbiosis and parasitism may, however, have some are examples. The essential part components, like a training of the associator subsystem in department, that are involved in organizations is downwardly the process. It is also possible for

TABLE 2. Selected Major Components of Each of the 20 Critical Subsystems at Each of the Eight Levels of Living Systems*

Subsystem Reproducer Boundary Ingestor Distributor Converter Producer Matter-energy Extruder Motor Supporter Level storage Cell DNA and Matter-energy Transport Endoplasmic Enzyme in Chloroplast Adenosine Contractile Cilia, flagellae, Cytoskeleton RNA and information: molecules reticulum mitochondrion in green triphosphate vacuoles pseudopodia molecules Outer membrane plant Organ Upwardly Matter-energy Input artery Intercellular Parenchymal Islets of Central Output Smooth muscle, Stroma dispersed to and information: fluid cell Langerhans lumen of vein cardiac muscle organism Capsule or of pancreas glands outer layer Organism Testes, Matter-energy Mouth, Vascular Upper Organs that Fatty Sweat Skeletal Skeleton ovaries, and information: nose, skin, system of gastrointestinal synthesize tissues glands of muscle of uterus, Skin or in some higher animals tract materials for animal skin higher animals genitalia other outer species metabolism covering and repair Group NASA officer Matter-energy: Astronauts Crewmember Dispersed to Crewmembers Crewmember Crew that Downwardly Crewmembers who selects Inspectors of who bring who distributes maker of who repair who stows ejects satellite dispersed to who maintain astronauts for covering of damaged food packaged damaged scientific into orbit individual spacecraft crew spacecraft satellite into rations equipment instruments members Information: spacecraft Crew radio operator Organization Dispersed upward Matter-energy: Receiving Conveyer Workers who Doctors who Workers Janitors Driver of Janitors in to NASA department belt in stamp out examine who store in NASA gantry launch site society that inspectors of of NASA factory that parts for astronauts supplies on buildings crane buildings creates space contracted center makes parts space space vehicle agency equipment for space vehicle Information: habitat NASA guards who arrest intruders Community Space agency Matter-energy: Receivers of Food servers Organization Medical Workers Mine Drivers Maintenance that establishes Dispersed to materials in dining that mines organization who put supplies organization of Moon crew of space station builders of from facility Moon in space into storage that sends surface habitat habitat Shuttle community areas minerals vehicles buildings Information: to Earth Operators of downlink to Earth Society Constitutional Matter-energy: Immigration Operators of Nuclear All farmers Soldiers Export Aerospace Officials who convention that Customs service service national industry and factory in Army organizations industry operate national writes national Information: railroads workers of a barracks of a country that builds public buildings constitution Security agency country spacecraft and lands Supranational United Matter-energy: Legislative Personnel EURATOM, World International Downwardly Operators of People who system Nations when Troops at body that who operate CERN, Health storage dispersed to United maintain it creates new Berlin Wall admits supranational IAEA Organization dams and societies Nations international supranational Information: nations power grids reservoirs motor pool headquarters agency NATO security buildings personnel

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systems that lack a given process 20 subsystems at each level of to use an alternative process living systems are listed in table 2. to accomplish a similar effect. Individual bacteria cannot adapt to Similar variables can be measured the environment by learning, since in each subsystem at all levels. they lack associator and memory These are such things as quantity, systems, but bacteria colonies quality, rate, and lag in flows of do adapt by altering the expression matter, energy, or information. of genes. Components of the

TABLE 2 (concluded).

Subsystem Input transducer Internal Channel Timer Decoder Associator Memory Decider Encoder Output transducer Level transducer and net Cell Receptor sites Repressor Pathways of Fluctuating ATP Molecular Unknown Unknown Regulator genes Structure that Presynaptic on membrane molecules mRNA, second and NADP binding sites synthesizes membrane for activation of messengers hormones of neuron cyclic AMP Organ Receptor Specialized Nerve net of Heart Second echelon None found; None found; Sympathetic Presynaptic Presynaptic cell of cell of sinoatrial organ pacemaker cell of sense upwardly upwardly fiber of region of region of sense node of heart organ dispersed to dispersed to sinoatrial node output output organ organism organism of heart neuron neuron Organism Sense organs Proprioceptors Hormonal Supraoptic Sensory nuclei Unknown Unknown Components at Temporoparietal Larynx, other pathways, nuclei of thalamus neural neural several echelons area of components central and components components of nervous dominant that output peripheral system hemisphere of signals nerve nets human cortex Group Crewmember Crewmember Astronauts who Dispersed to Member who Dispersed to all Dispersed Captain of crew Members who Members who receives who reports communicate all members explains coded members who to all in capsule write reports who report messages from crew’s reactions person to person who hear message learn new crewmembers of space to Mission ground control to life in capsule time signals techniques experience Control Organization NASA Representative Users of NASA Office Experts who People who Filing NASA Public relations Administrator secretaries of employees who internal phone responsible explain specs train new department executives, staff who makes who take reports network for scheduling to contractors employees department policy incoming calls to executive flights heads, middle television managers speech Community Operators of Communicator Psychologists Caretakers of Users of Engineers Scientists Central Commanding Officer who downlink to over downlink who report clocks in communication who interpret who do computer officer and writes report Earth to Earth on morale of community system in building blueprints research in of space staff to Earth spacefarers space station space community station Society Foreign news Public opinion Telephone and Legislators Cryptographers All teaching Keepers of Voters and Drafters of National services polling communications who decide on institutions of a national officials of treaties representatives organizations, organizations time and zone country archives national to international voters changes government meetings Supranational UN Assembly Speaker from INTELSAT Personnel of Translators for FAO units that Librarians of National UN Office of Official who system hearing member Greenwich supranational teach farming UN libraries representatives Public announces speaker from country to observatory meetings methods in Third to international Information decisions of nonmember supranational World nations space supranational territory meeting conferences body

*Note: The components listed in table 2 are examples selected from many possible structures of each subsystem and at each level. At the organism level, animals are chosen in preference to plants, although many components of plants are comparable. In general, examples are from human rather than animal groups, although similar structures exist in many other species. Only human beings form systems above the group. Table 2 places special emphasis on living systems involved in space exploration and habitation. At each level the examples of subsystem components are from different types of systems. This choice makes it clear that the analysis applies to various sorts of systems. At the level of the group and above, components involved in communications rather than monetary flows are used as examples in information processing subsystems. This is done because monetary flows, while obviously important, are found only in human systems and are currently not very significant in space habitations.

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8. Adjustment Processes available to higher level systems than to those at lower levels. Living systems of all kinds exist in an uncertain environment to which Countless small adjustments take they must adapt. Excesses or place continually as a living system deficits of necessary matter-energy goes about its essential activities. or information inputs can stress Minor deviations can often be them and threaten their continued corrected by a single component well-being or even their existence. of one subsystem. More serious In the midst of flux, they must threats are countered by a greater maintain steady states of their number of subsystems or all of innumerable variables. them. Severe deviations from steady state constitute pathology Each system has a hierarchy that a system may not be able to of values that determines its correct. preference for one internal steady state rather than another; that is, The six classes of adjustment it has purposes. These are processes vary the input, internal, comparison values that it matches and output processing of matter to information inputs or internal and energy (matter-energy) and transductions to determine how information. far any variable has been forced from its usual steady state. A All adjustment processes are system may also have external used at some cost to the system. goals, such as finding and Ordinarily a system that survives killing prey or reaching a target chooses the least costly of its in space. alternatives.

All living systems have adjustment 9. Cross-Level Research processes, sometimes called “coping mechanisms,” that they Because of the similarities that exist can use to return variables to across all levels of life, empirical their usual steady states. These cross-level comparisons are are alterations in the rates or possible and are the sort of basic other aspects of the flows of research that is most characteristic matter, energy, and information. of living systems science. Since Subsystems also match the state the evolution of the levels has of each variable they control with occurred in physical space-time, a comparison signal and use their comparable subsystems adjustment processes to correct and variables can ultimately be deviations from it. In general, measured in meter-kilogram-second more adjustment processes are or compatible units.

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Research to test cross-level composed of matter and hypotheses began in the 1950s energy and also store and continues to the present and process information); (Miller 1986a). Such research can and MONFLOW, money, provide accurate and dependable money equivalents, account fundamental knowledge about the entries, prices, and costs—a nature of life that can be the basis special class of information. for a wide range of applications. 3. Determine the normal values LST research strategy: The of relevant variables of every following strategy is used to subsystem and of the system analyze systems at any level. It as a whole and measure them has been applied to systems as over time, using appropriate different as psychiatric patients indicators. and organizations. The normal values of innumerable 1. Identify and make a two- or variables have been established for three-dimensional map of human organisms. A physician can the structures that carry out make use of reliable tests and the 20 critical subsystem measurements and accepted processes in the system therapeutic procedures to discover being studied (see table 2). and correct pathology in a patient. Similar information is not available 2. Identify a set of variables to the specialist who seeks to in each subsystem that improve the cost-effectiveness of describe its basic processes. an organization. Studies that make At levels of group and below, it possible to generalize among these represent aspects of organizations are few, with the the flows of matter, energy, result that the usual values of most and information. At levels variables are unknown at of organization and above it organization and higher levels. has proved useful to This lack makes it difficult to measure five instead of three determine to what extent an flows: MATFLOW, materials; organization’s processes deviate ENFLOW, energy; from “normal” for systems of its COMFLOW, person-to- type. Pathology in an organization person, person-to-machine, may become apparent only and machine-to-machine when deviation is so great that communications information; acceptance of the organization’s PERSFLOW, individual and products or services declines or group personnel (who are bankruptcy threatens.

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4. Take action to correct table of the elements, first dysfunctional aspects of the published in the mid-19th century. system and make it healthier In its original form, it was based on or more cost-effective, by, a hypothesis that the elements for example, removing a could be arranged according to psychiatric patient from an their atomic weights and that their unfavorable environment, physical properties were related to altering the structure or their place in the table. Revisions process of a work group, or by Mendeleyev and others over introducing nonliving artifacts succeeding years led to discovery (like computers or faster of errors in the assigned atomic transport equipment) into an weights of 17 elements and organization. included new elements as they were discovered, but the properties Our proposed study would apply of some required that several pairs the above strategy to evaluating of elements be reversed. In the the cost-effectiveness of the early 1920s, after the discovery operations of a crew of a space of atomic numbers, a hypothesis station, tracking the five categories by van den Brock that the table of flows through its 20 subsystems, would be correct if atomic number identifying its strengths and rather than atomic weight were dysfunctions, and recommending used as its basis was confirmed by ways to improve its operations. H. G. J. Moseley’s measurement Later a similar approach could be of spectral lines. The present form applied to a mission to Mars, a of the table places all known lunar settlement, and perhaps other elements in correct order and has human communities in space. It made it possible to predict the could also be used at Antarctic characteristics of elements to be bases. discovered in nuclear reactions.

Validation of LST: LST arises Confirmation of Mendeleyev’s from the integration of a large theory required testing of a number of observations and succession of hypotheses based experiments on systems of a on it. No theory can be considered variety of types that represent valid until such observation and all eight levels. As with other research have shown that its scientific theories, however, its predictions about the real systems assertions cannot be accepted with which it is concerned are without validation. accurate.

How have some of the well-known If LST is to have validity and theories been validated? Consider, usefulness, confirmation of for example, Mendeleyev’s periodic hypotheses related to it is

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essential. The first test of an An application of living systems LST hypothesis was a cross-level concepts to families described study of information input overload the structure, processes, and at five levels of living systems, pathologies of each subsystem carried out in the 1950s (Miller as well as feedbacks and other 1978, pp. 121–202). It confirmed adjustment processes (Miller and the hypothesis that comparable Miller 1980). A subsystem review information input-output curves of a real farnily* was carried out in a and adjustment processes to an videotaped interview that followed a increase in rate of information input schedule designed to discover what would occur in systems at the level members were included in each of of cell, organ, organism, group, several subsystems, how the family and organization. Numerous other decided who would carry out each quantitative experiments have process, how much time was spent been done on systems at various in each, and what problems the levels to test and confirm cross- family perceived in each process. level hypotheses based on living systems theory (e.g., Rapoport and Research at the level of Horvath 1961, Lewis 1981). Such organizations includes a study of tests support the validity of living some large industrial corporations systems theory. (Duncan 1972); general analyses of organizations (Lichtman and Hunt 1971, Reese 1972, Noell Applications of Living 1974, Alderfer 1976, Berrien Systems Theory 1976, Rogers and Rogers 1976, and Merker 1982, 1985); an Living systems theory has been explanation of certain pathologies applied to physical and mental in organizations (Cummings and diagnostic examinations of individual DeCotiis 1973); and studies of patients and groups (Kluger 1969, accounting (Swanson and Miller Bolman 1970, Kolouch 1970) and to 1989), management accounting psychotherapy of individual patients (Weekes 1983), and marketing and groups (Miller and Miller 1983). (Reidenbach and Oliva 1981). An early application of LST at Other studies deal with assessment organism, group, and organization of the effectiveness of a hospital levels was a study by Hearn in the (Merker 1987) and of a metropolitan social service field (1958). transportation utility (Bryant 1987).

______*Personal communication (videotape and script) from R. A. Bell, 1986.

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The largest application of LST has public schools in the San Francisco been a study of the performance area was carried out (Banathy and of 41 U.S. Army battalions Mills 1985). A more extensive (Ruscoe et al. 1985). It revealed study of schools in that area is now important relationships between in process under a grant from the characteristics of matter-energy National Science Foundation. and information processing and battalion effectiveness The International Joint Commission of Canada and the United States A research study is being has been using living systems conducted in cooperation with theory as a conceptual framework IBM, applying living systems for exploring the creation of a process analysis to the flows of supranational electronic network to materials, energy, monitor the region surrounding the communications, money, and border separating those two personnel in a corporation, countries (Miller 1986b). in order to determine its cost- effectiveness and productivity. Other applied research studies are Discussions of possible use of in planning stages, and proposals living systems process analysis are being prepared for some to evaluate cost-effectiveness in of them. These include an Government agencies are under investigation of how to combine way with the General Accounting bibliographical information on living Office of the United States. systems at the cell, organ, and organism levels by the use of Several researchers (Bolman computer software employing living 1967; Baker and O’Brien 1971; systems concepts; an analysis of Newbrough 1972; Pierce 1972; insect behavior in an ant nest; Burgess, Nelson, and Wallhaus and a study of organizational 1974) have used LST as a behavior and organizational framework for modeling, analysis, pathology in hospitals. and evaluation of community mental health activities and health The conceptual framework of delivery systems. LST has also LST and its implications for the provided a theoretical basis for generalization of knowledge from assessing program effectiveness one discipline to another have been in community life (Weiss and discussed by many authors (see Rein 1970). Miller 1978 and Social Science Citation Index 1979 ff.). After a pretest of comparable methods of evaluation, a study of

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It is too early to make a definitive evaluate the performance of evaluation of the validity of living personnel, and recommend ways systems theory. Not enough to improve the cost-effectiveness studies have been carried out of its operations. and not enough data have been collected. It is possible to say, Until the space station is in however, that the theory has operation, we would study human proved useful in conceptualizing activities on modules of a simulated and working with real systems at space station. The method used in seven of the eight levels. Studies this phase could later be applied to at the eighth level, the organ, have the space station and eventually to not so far been carried out but settlements on the Moon or on these will be undertaken in the Mars. future. In addition, the general consensus of published articles The basic strategy of LST process about the theory has been analysis of organizations is to track supportive. the five flows—matter, energy, personnel, communication, and A Proposed LST Space monetary information—through Research Project the 20 subsystems and observe and measure variables related to each. It appears probable that the space Since money flows would probably station that is now in the planning be unimportant in the early stages of stage at NASA will become a reality a space station, only the first four are in the next few years. It would be relevant to the first phase of a prototype for future nonterrestrial this research. A larger and more communities—on the Moon and on permanent space settlement might Mars. well have a money economy.

The crew of such a station would We would measure such variables include not only astronauts but also as rate of flow of essential materials; technicians and other personnel. lags, error rates, and distortion in They would spend a much longer information transmissions; timeliness time in the space environment of completing assigned tasks; and than crews of space vehicles on time and resource costs of various previous missions had spent. activities.

Our research method would use Data Collection LST process analysis to study the space station crew, identify its We plan to collect both subjective strengths and dysfunctions, and objective data.

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Subjective data would consist of badge is attached. With this responses by personnel to equipment it is possible to locate questions about their activities in 0.7 sec any one of up to related to the variables under 65 000 persons or materials such study. Questions would be as equipment, furniture, weapons, presented and answered on ammunition, or food. If desired, computer terminals. Responses the phone nearest to a person’s would be collected in a present location can be rung in centralized knowledge base for another 0.3 sec. analysis by a computerized expert system. In this way many aspects of processes such as the response In addition to these subjective time of personnel to questions or reports, our research design commands, the average time spent includes the use of objective in various activities, the patterns of indicators or sensors to monitor interactions among people, and the flows in all subsystems and movement of equipment to different components and measure them parts of the space station can be on a real-time basis. A time measured without unduly disrupting series of data about them would the day-to-day activities of the be transmitted or telemetered to system. the knowledge base in the computer. All the data on the five major flows from questionnaires and objective In addition to standard measures indicators would be stored in a of units of energy, quantities of single computer. Such data could material, bits of information, and help NASA officials evaluate the the usual personnel records, we effects on space station operations plan to make use of a novel of changes in policy or procedure. technical innovation to monitor the In addition, measurements of movements of personnel and variables over time make it materials. It consists of badges possible to determine norms for similar to the ordinary ID badges them and to identify deviations worn by personnel in many that may show either special organizations. Each badge strengths or dysfunctions. With contains an infrared transponder such information, a computerized in the form of a microchip that, expert system can analyze the on receipt of an infrared signal relationships among the different from another transponder on variables of the five major flows the wall, transmits a stream of and suggest ways to improve the 14 characters that identifies the space station’s effectiveness. person or object to which the

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Figure 3 is a diagram of the space the symbols shown in figure 2. station showing how the five flows, Even when only the primary flows MATFLOW, ENFLOW, COMFLOW, of each sort in the space station PERSFLOW, and MONFLOW, are superimposed in a diagram like might go through its subsystems. figure 3, they form a very complex The subsystems are identified by pattern.

Figure 3

The Five Flows in the Subsystems of the Space Station

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In a real space situation, use of Analyzing such flows in subsystems monitoring would be of value in of the space station would provide many ways. It could identify and experience with a novel system report technological or human for monitoring both living and problems as they occurred. nonliving components of future Badges would make it easy for space habitations. This experience each spacefarer to be found at all could well lead to use of similar times. The officer of the watch methods on manned missions to would be able to see instantly the Moon or to Mars. on a screen the location of all crewmembers with active badges. For instance, some time in the In addition, the computer could be next century such procedures programmed to present possible could be applied to a lunar outpost, solutions to problems and even to a community that would include initiate necessary steps to assure men, women, and children. A wide continuation of mission safety and range of professional interests, effectiveness in the event of in- expertise, abilities, and perhaps flight emergencies or breakdowns. cultures might be represented in

Monitoring the Movement of People and Equipment at a Space Base Identification badges containing tiny transponders could track the movements of the woman playing tennis in this space base or the man running on the track. Similarly, property tags with such microchips could report the up-to-the- second location of the monorail train and guard the artwork and plants against theft. Communication of the microchip transponders with transponders mounted on walls would continually report the movements of both personnel and materials to a computerized expert system. If the man servicing the monorail train on the lower level were to get hurt, such automatic monitoring could summon aid in 1 second. And analysis by living systems theory methods could determine whether the interaction between the two men on the walkway is an insignificant waste of time, an important social encounter, or a vital part of an informal communications network. NASA photo: S71-4297V

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the lunar community. Residents Figure 4 shows such a lunar would live for long times under outpost with designated areas for a at least 6 feet of earth or other command center, habitation, solar shielding, which would provide power collection, a small nuclear Figure 4 protection from solar radiation, power plant, lunar mines, a solar The Five Flows in the Subsystems of a solar flares and other lunar hazards. furnace to use the direct rays of Lunar Outpost

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the Sun for smelting ore and that all the requirements for survival heating the station, a factory, a at all these levels had been slag heap, a farm, recycling considered. Attention would be oxygen and hydrogen, waste given not only to the necessary disposal, and lunar rovers to matter and energy (including transport materials and people on artifacts such as machinery and the surface of the Moon from one implements) but also the equally part of the community to others, essential information flows that as well as for travel outside the integrate and control living immediate area. The five flows systems. Many variables for each through the 20 subsystems of this subsystem could be monitored and community are diagramed as were kept in steady states. those of the space station shown in figure 3. Use of living systems process analysis of the five flows of matter- energy and information would Conclusion assure that all members of the crew received what they needed, The conceptual system and that distribution and communication methodology of living systems were timely and efficient, and that theory appear to be of value to the command centers within the research on life in isolated station and on Earth were fully environments. A space station, informed of the location and which must provide suitable activities of personnel, particularly conditions for human life in a during an emergency. stressful environment that meets none of the basic needs of life, is an extreme example of such References isolation. Alderfer, C. P. 1976. Change A space station would include living Processes in Organizations. systems at levels of individual In Handbook of Industrial and human beings, groups of people Organizational Psychology, engaged in a variety of activities, ed. M. D. Dunnette, 1592–1594. and the entire crew as an Chicago: Rand-McNally. organization. It could also carry living systems of other species, Baker, F., and G. O’Brien. 1971. such as other animals and plants. Intersystem Relations and Using the subsystem analysis of Coordination of Human Service living systems theory, planners of Organizations. American Journal of a station, either in space or on a Public Health 61:130–137. celestial body, would make sure

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Life Support and Self-Sufficiency in Space Communities

Karl R. Johansson

The development of a controlled assemblage of terrestrial species ecological life support system of microorganisms, plants, and (CELSS) is necessary to enable animals. I envision that the the extended presence of humans nonterrestrial ecosystem will in space, as on the Moon or on evolve through the sequential another planetary body. Over a introduction of terrestrial and long period, the provision of local materials, together with oxygen, water, and food, and the appropriate living forms. protection from such inimical agents as radiation and temperature extremes, while Lunar Characteristics maintaining the psychological health of the subjects, becomes The principal constraints on life on prohibitively expensive if all the Moon are (1) a hard vacuum; supplies must be brought from (2) apparent lack of water; Earth. Thus, some kind of a (3) lack of free oxygen, (4) paucity 17th-Century Vision of Life on the Moon regenerative life support system of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen; In this fanciful picture of life on the Moon within an enclosure or habitat (5) intense radiation, periodically by a 17th-century artist, none of the must be established, thereby augmented by solar flares; constraints we now know of are in cutting the umbilicus to Mother (6) wide temperature fluctuations evidence. The atmospheric pressure appears to be just right for bird flight. Earth, but not irreversibly. This at extremes harmful to life; Water is plentiful. The cloud of smoke protective enclosure will enable (7) a 2-week diurnal rhythm; and testifies to the presence of carbon and the survival and growth of an (8) gravity only 1/6 that on Earth. oxygen. The hydrogen and nitrogen needed to sustain plant and animal life are apparent in the lush growth, including the pumpkin-like abodes for the human inhabitants and the cloth flags (or is it the wash?) hung out on poles and limbs. These inhabitants seem to need no heavy clothing to protect them against hazardous radiation or temperature extremes. Though there may be a long night ahead, this scene seems set in the middle of a long, lazy day. And gravity, though not strong enough to pull a “pumpkin” off a tree, is sufficient to hold the people to the floor of their barge, bridge, or balcony. Artist: Filippo Morghen Source of illustration: Library of Congress, Rare Book Division Taken from Davis Thomas, ed., 1970, Moon: Man’s Greatest Adventure (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc), p. 69. 260

Chemistry and Nutrition uneconomical. In that case, they would have to be transported from Lunar regolith as a cover for the Earth until the CELSS matured. habitat would shield the ecosystem Even then, more oxygen, carbon, from radiation and from both high and nitrogen would need to be and low temperatures. The introduced into the system enclosure would need to be periodically as the human and airtight to contain a life-sustaining domestic animal population atmosphere of O2, CO2, N2, and of the habitat increased or as H2O vapor. Presumably oxygen the recycling process became would be provided through the imbalanced. As with oxygen, reductive processing of oxide tanks of compressed carbon ores. From a hydrogen reduction dioxide and nitrogen should be process, the product water could on hand to cope with such be used. With the establishment perturbations. Both air and water in the enclosure of photosynthesis would need to be biologically and by eucaryotes (algae and higher chemically monitored. plants), reliance on ore processing for life-support oxygen would The Moon contains all of the diminish, although that capacity “trace elements” known to be should remain, in place as a necessary for life; e.g., magnesium, backup. Additional water, as manganese, cobalt, tin, iron, needed, would continue to be selenium, zinc, vanadium, and provided externally, although tungsten. The trace elements are the amounts would be small absolutely critical to all species of because, in a properly functioning life, largely as cofactors or catalysts CELSS, all water is recycled and in the enzymatic machinery. While appropriately treated to render it their diminution would slow down potable (free of infectious or toxic the ecosystem, a sudden flush of agents). certain trace elements known to be toxic above certain concentrations The lunar regolith could also would be detrimental to some of provide elements implanted the component species. I hope that there by the solar wind. These the microbial flora which becomes elements include hydrogen and established in the ecosystem will carbon, which could be used to be able to minimize the extent of manufacture water and carbon fluctuation of the trace elements dioxide, and gaseous nitrogen through its collective adsorptive (see box). However, the levels and metabolic functions. This issue of these elements are low will need to be considered in the (100–150 ppm), and thus selection of the microbial species for their recovery may prove to be introduction into the CELSS.

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Lunar Lunch

The Moon has been underrated as a All of these elements except oxygen can

source of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, be extracted from the lunar soil simply by and other elements essential to support heating it to a high temperature (> 1200 °C life. Each cubic meter of typical lunar soil for carbon and nitrogen), and some oxygen contains the chemical equivalent of lunch comes off with the hydrogen. Thus, the for two—two large cheese sandwiches, two problem of accessibility of hydrogen, 12-oz sodas (sweetened with sugar), and carbon, and nitrogen reduces to one of the two plums, with substantial carbon and economics of heating substantial quantities nitrogen left over. of lunar soil, capturing the evolved gases, and separating the different gaseous Although no free water has been found components from each other. Although on the Moon, its elemental constituents water could no doubt be extracted from are abundant there. One constituent, martian soil at a much lower temperature oxygen, is the most abundant element and organic compounds could probably be on the Moon; some 45 percent of the extracted at a somewhat lower temperature mass of lunar surface rocks and soils from an asteroid that proved to be of is oxygen. The other constituent, carbonaceous chondrite composition, the hydrogen, is so scarce in the lunar Moon is much closer than Mars and its interior that we cannot claim to have composition is much better known than that measured any in erupted lavas. of any asteroid. Nevertheless, thanks to implantation of ions from the solar wind into the grains Collection of even a small fraction of the of soil on the lunar surface, there is Moon’s budget of hydrogen, carbon enough hydrogen in a cubic meter of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and other typical lunar regolith to yield more than elements essential to life into a suitable 1-1/2 pints of water. environment on the Moon would support a substantial biosphere. Similarly, carbon and nitrogen have also been implanted from the solar wind. The Taken from Larry A. Haskin, 1990, “Water amount of nitrogen in a cubic meter of and Cheese From the Lunar Desert: lunar regolith is similar to the amount of Abundances and Accessibility of H, C, hydrogen—about 100 grams, or 3 percent and N on the Moon,” in The 2nd Conference of the nitrogen in a human body. The on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the amount of carbon is twice that; the carbon 21st Century (in press), ed. W. W. Mendell beneath each square meter of the lunar (Houston: Lunar & Planetary Inst.). surface is some 35 percent of the amount found tied up in living organisms per square meter of the Earth’s surface.

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Radiation Temperature

The surface of the Moon receives With proper attire, humans can from the Sun lethal levels of high- withstand, at least for short periods, energy electromagnetic radiation, temperature extremes as high as frequently exacerbated by solar 50 °C and as low as -90 °C. The flares of varying duration. Without extremes on the Moon exceed appropriate protection, no living these limits by a wide margin. creature, from microbe to man, Moreover, other species within the could survive the onslaught of this CELSS module would be either radiation. It has been estimated killed or suppressed by such that approximately 2 meters of extreme temperatures. Obviously, regolith will absorb this radiation, the temperature of a CELSS must thereby protecting the human and be maintained within a moderate nonhuman occupants. range, such as 15 to 45 °C, to enable the growth and reproduction Just how much radiation will of living forms. While many types penetrate various protective shields of psychrophilic and thermophilic still needs to be determined. microorganisms abound on Earth, Undoubtedly, radiation-induced their introduction into the CELSS mutations will occur; some will be would be useless because neither lethal; others may be incapacitating; the food crops to be grown therein and still others may result in mutants nor the human beings harvesting better able to cope with the lunar those crops can withstand the environment than the parental temperatures they require. organisms. Of particular concern is the likelihood of mutation among Regulation of the temperature many of the microorganisms within a CELSS must take into constituting the ecosystem, account radiant energy from the thereby endangering the cycling Sun and the release of energy of the critical elements in the lunar from biological and mechanical CELSS. activity within the confines of the habitat. The former can be minimized by the protective blanket of regolith required for radiation protection. Efflux of heat from the interior of the habitat may require provision of active or radiative cooling.

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Energy for Life It is clear that the requirements for food and energy are interrelated All living forms require an adequate and that the various metabolic food supply and a source of energy. processes in the complex food Among animals and humans, energy chain affect the availability of is derived from the metabolism of nutrients to all the species. Light is various organic constituents of the a particularly important source of diet; e.g., carbohydrates, lipids, energy because the process of proteins, and other nutrients. While photosynthesis must go on in order many microorganisms gain energy for molecular oxygen, required by (and carbon) from the oxidation all but the anaerobic forms of of organic compounds, including life (principally bacteria), to be methane, many also derive energy regenerated from water. It will from the oxidation of reduced probably be necessary, however, inorganic compounds; e.g., ++ to regulate the light synchrony if sulfides, ammonia, nitrites, Fe , crop production is to be successful, and hydrogen. Photosynthetic because 2 weeks of dark and 2 of forms of life (some bacteria, the light will not enable normal plant algae, and the higher plants) can growth, though special strains convert photons of energy into might be developed. At the poles, chemical bond energy with the perpetual sunlight could probably photolysis of water and the be obtained on selected mountains, evolution of molecular oxygen. thus enabling an Earth-like The energy thus realized is used photocycle to be created by in the synthesis of carbohydrate periodic blocking of the sunlight (from carbon dioxide and water), (see fig. 5). Elsewhere, artificial which the plants can further light will have to be used to break metabolize to meet their needs or up the 2-week night. which can be eaten by animals and humans to supply their energy needs.

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Figure 5 a. Lunar Polar Illumination The Moon’s diurnal cycle of 14 Earth days of sunlight followed by 14 Earth days of darkness could be a problem for siting a lunar base dependent on solar energy or cryogenic storage. A site that might obviate this problem would be at one of the lunar poles. At a pole, high points, such as mountain tops or crater rims, are almost always in the sunlight and low areas, such as valleys or crater floors, are almost always in the shade. The Sun as seen by an observer at the pole would not set but simply move slowly around the horizon. Thus, a lunar base at a polar location could obtain solar energy continuously by using mirrors or collectors that slowly rotated to follow the Sun. And cryogens, such as liquid oxygen, could be stored in shaded areas with their constant cold temperatures.

b. Polar Lunar Base Module Light could be provided to a lunar base module located at the north (or south) pole by means of rotating mirrors mounted on top of light wells. As the mirrors tracked the Sun, they would reflect sunlight down the light wells into the living quarters, workshops, and agricultural areas. Mirrors at the bottom of the light wells could be used to redirect the sunlight or turn it off.

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Gravity hematologic changes (leading to immunosuppression and Investigations of the effects of diminished red blood cell mass), reduced gravity (0.167 g on the neuroendocrine perturbations, Moon) on human physiology and and other pathophysiological performance and on fundamental changes. Some of these effects life processes in general are being may be minimized by routine supported and conducted by NASA. exercise, and apparently all are Astronauts from the Apollo and reversible, in time, upon return to other short-term space missions 1 g. The response of plants, have experienced the well known, microorganisms, and “lower forms” and reversible, vestibular effect of animal life to micro- or zero (motion sickness) and cephalic shift gravity has been investigated on of body fluids (facial puffiness, Skylab, on Space Shuffle missions head congestion, orthostatic (see fig. 7), and in simulations on intolerance, and diminution of leg Earth, during parabolic flight of girth). (See figure 6.) Longer-term aircraft or in a “clinostat.” Unless weightlessness, as experienced by humans and other life forms can the Skylab astronauts and the adapt to zero g, or to low g as on Salyut cosmonauts, is more the Moon or Mars, it may be complex, resulting in cardiovascular necessary to provide rotating impairment, atrophy of muscle, habitats to achieve the desired reduction in bone mass through gravitational force, as many osteoporosis (loss of calcium), authorities have long proposed.

Figure 6

Lower Body Negative Pressure Device Principal Investigator John Charles tries out the lower body negative pressure device on a parabolic flight of the KC-135, while its designer, Barry Levitan, looks on from behind him, with project engineer Pat Hite on the side. This accordion-like collapsible version of a device used on Skylab creates a vacuum that pulls the subject’s blood into the lower half of the body, just as if the person had suddenly stood up. Its purpose is to prepare the astronaut for return from weightlessness to Earth’s gravity and keep that person from blacking out. Mission Specialists Bonnie Dunbar and David Low tested the lower body negative pressure device, which was fabricated at the Johnson Space Center, on Space Shuttle flight 32, January 9–20, 1990. NASA photo: S89-33413

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Figure 7

Seedlings Grown on Spacelab 1 These seedlings of Helianthus annuus (dwarf sunflowers) were planted by Payload Specialist Ulf Merbold for Heflex, the Helianthus Flight Experiment, conducted in Spacelab 1. Upon being removed from the gravity-inducing centrifuge on which they had sprouted and being placed in mlcrogravity, these seedlings continued to circumnutate, thus proving that Charles Darwin was right in thinking that this spiral growth process is intrinsic to plants, not a response to gravity. The curvature of the seedlings is their response to gravity upon return to Earth at the end of Space Shuttle flight 9, November 28–December 8, 1983.

Selection of Species for an lunar environment. Considerably Heflex is part of an ongoing study of plant response, which will continue in IML-1, Ecosystem more research must be done on closed and semi-closed the International Microgravity Lab, to be flown on the Space Shuttle in 1991. In ecosystems before the organisms The greatest challenge in the two experiments in the part of IML-1 for a lunar CELSS are selected ultimate establishment of a true called the Gravitational Plant Physiology (see fig. 8). Conceivably, any Facility, scientists will try to determine the space habitat is the creation of a number of combinations of species threshold at which oat seedlings can functioning, reliable ecosystem, may be found to work well. One detect gravity and the threshold at which free, insofar as possible, of wheat seedlings respond to blue light in point must be stressed: More than pathogens, noxious plants, the absence of gravity. one species of organism must be venomous insects, etc. Photo: David K. Chapman, Co-Investigator selected to carry out each particular Moreover, the integrity of a function. Thus, several species of working ecosystem would need photosynthetic, nitrogen-fixing, to be preserved and its functions nitrifying, or sulfur-oxidizing monitored regularly. bacteria must be included.

Likewise, a number of species of While it is easy to propose the algae and higher plants, each inclusion of particular species of with the common characteristic of bacteria, fungi, algae, and higher being photosynthetic, must be plants, each of which performs a introduced into the community. particular biochemical function in Such redundancy, which exists to a the recycling of nutrients, no vast degree on Earth, provides a rationale exists by which one can kind of buffer in case some of the predict which particular combination species lose their niches in the of species would be compatible ecosystem and die. under the conditions extant in the

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Figure 8

Zeoponics Plant Growth Chamber at NASA’s Johnson Space Center In this step toward a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) for a lunar base, plants are being grown in varying mixtures of zeolite and quartz sand. (Zeolite is an aluminosilicate mineral that is able to freely exchange constituent ions with other ions in solution without any apparent change in its mineral structure.) Wheat plants (soft red winter wheat, Coker 68-15) have shown the most favorable response in zeoponics systems consisting of 25 to 75 percent zeolite compared to other zeolite treatments and a commercial potting soil. This research is being conducted by Doug Ming and Don Henninger.

Some Special Aspects of for loss of a species in an artificial Life in the CELSS ecosystem include (1) mutation, (2) temporary tie-up of a critical In the first place, the smaller the nutrient, (3) a flush of toxic ions or CELSS, the more magnified compounds, (4) malfunction of the becomes any biological, chemical, temperature control system, (5) a or physical aberration. No doubt sudden shift in the synchrony of human occupants of the first CELSS food cycling, and (6) infection or module would need more help from toxemia. The last reason may be the outside at the beginning than particularly troublesome since it they would later on, when numerous will not be possible to assure the connected modules were in place. exclusion of infectious or toxic microorganisms from the habitat. The dieback of some support Many members of the body’s normal species may well occur from time microflora are opportunistic and can, to time. This would need to be under certain circumstances, cause monitored, so that appropriate disease. Also, plant diseases may measures could be taken to emerge if care is not exercised in reintroduce another strain of the lost the initial entry of seeds or of other species or to introduce an entirely materials which may contain plant different species with comparable pathogens. biochemical properties. Reasons

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Any animals (e.g., chickens, special properties, making it goats, dwarf pigs) ultimately possible to introduce (1) better selected for the space habitat food crops, (2) organisms with should have been raised in a special metabolic functions, and pathogen-free environment on (3) disease-resistant plants. Earth and tested thoroughly for the presence of any microbial While this treatise is directed at a pathogens before their introduction. lunar ecological system, it is worth Gnotobiotic (“germfree,” devoid noting that a laboratory in low of a microflora) animals, however, Earth orbit or one in a modified should not be considered because external tank placed in orbit by upon exposure to the nonsterile a Space Shuttle offers certain environment of the CELSS advantages over the lunar they would undoubtedly die of environment as a place to overwhelming infections; such establish and study space animals have very immature ecosystems for application immune systems. elsewhere, as on Mars, where water and carbon dioxide exist Humans chosen to occupy the in relative abundance. CELSS should be protected against certain infectious diseases (e.g., poliomyelitis, measles, Bibliography whooping cough, and typhoid fever) and bacterial toxemias (e.g., Allen, John, and Mark Nelson. tetanus, diphtheria, and perhaps 1986. Space Biospheres. Oracle, botulism) by the administration of AZ: Synergetic Press. appropriate vaccines and toxoids. While it would not be possible to Dodd, Robert T. 1981. assure the total lack of serious Meteorites: A Petrological- pathogenic microorganisms Chemical Synthesis. Cambridge in the human inhabitants, all Univ. Press. candidates should be checked microbiologically to assess their Duke, Michael B.; Wendell W. carrier state. Mendell; and Paul W. Keaton. 1984. Report of the Lunar Base The very potent tool of genetic Working Group. LALP (Laboratory engineering no doubt will be Publication) 84–43. Los Alamos useful in establishing strains of National Laboratory, April 23–27. microorganisms or plants with

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Faughnan, Barbara, and Gregg MacElroy, Robert D., and David Maryniak, eds. 1987. Space T. Smernoff, eds. 1987. Manufacturing 6: Nonterrestrial Controlled Ecological Life Support Resources, Biosciences, and System: Regenerative Life Space Engineering, Proc. 8th Support System in Space. NASA Princeton/AIAA/SSI [Space Studies CP-2480. Institute] Conf. Washington, DC: AIAA. Mendell, W. W., ed. 1985. Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the Gitelzon, I. I., et al. 1982. 21st Century. Houston: Lunar & Microbiological Aspects of Planetary Inst. Ecological Systems. Translation from the Russian, NASA Moore, Berrien, III, and R. D. TM-77129. MacElroy, eds. 1982. Controlled Ecological Life Support System, Life Sciences Accomplishments, Biological Problems. Proc. of two December 1986. Washington, DC: NASA Workshops held at the Univ. NASA Headquarters. of New Hampshire, Durham, Oct. & Dec., 1979, NASA CP-2233. Life Sciences Report, December 1987. Washington, DC: NASA O’Neill, Gerard K., study director, Headquarters. and John Billingham, William Gilbreath, and Brian O’Leary, eds. MacElroy, Robert D., Norman D. 1979. Space Resources and Space Martello; and David T. Smernoff, Settlements. NASA SP-428. eds. 1986. Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems, CELSS ’85 Phillips, John M., Annita D. Harlan; Workshop. NASA TM-88215. and Kim C. Krumhar. 1978. Developing Closed Life Support MacElroy, Robert D.; David T. Systems for Large Space Habitats. Smernoff; and John D. Rummel, AAS paper 78-145, prepared eds. 1987. Controlled Ecological under NASA grant NSG-2309, for Life Support System: Design, 25th Anniversary Conf., American Development, and Use of a Astronaut. Soc., Houston, TX, Ground-Based Plant Growth Oct. 30–Nov. 2. San Diego: AAS. Module. NASA CP-2479.

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Space Life Sciences Symposium: Three Decades of Life Science Research in Space. 1987. Washington, DC: NASA Headquarters.

Spurlock, Jack, et al. 1979. Research Planning Criteria for Regenerative Life Support Systems Applicable to Space Habitats. In Space Resources and Space Settlements, ed. John Billingham, William Gilbreath, and Brian O’Leary, 13–30. NASA SP-428.

Workshop on Closed System Ecology. 1982. Summary Report, JPL Publication 82-64. Pasadena, CA: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

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Human Safety in the Lunar Environment

Robert H. Lewis

Any attempt to establish a Compared to the Earth, the Moon continuously staffed base or is geologically inactive. VoIcanism permanent settlement on the and internally generated seismic Moon must safely meet the activity are almost nonexistent. challenges posed by the Furthermore, water and Moon’s surface environment. atmospheric processes are This environment is drastically unknown on the Moon. Other different from the Earth’s, and than igneous differentiation, radiation and meteoroids are which occurred early in lunar significant hazards to human history, the main geological safety. These dangers may be process that has acted on the mitigated through the use of Moon is impact cratering. underground habitats, the piling up of lunar material as shielding, The Moon was heavily bombarded and the use of teleoperated by meteoroids throughout much of devices for surface operations. its early existence. Evidence from the Apollo expeditions suggests that the bombardment decreased The Lunar Environment significantly about 3.8 billion years ago. This early bombardment and The Moon is less dense than the subsequent impacts during the past Earth and considerably smaller. Its 3.8 billion years have pulverized density indicates that the Moon’s the lunar surface into dust and bulk composition is also somewhat small fragments of rock, a layer different from Earth’s, although it is referred to as the lunar “regolith.” still a terrestrial (rocky) body. The The majority of the Moon’s surface Moon’s surface gravity is only is made up of heavily cratered one-sixth the Earth’s. And, with terrain, rich in the mineral its consequently lower escape plagioclase feldspar and known velocity, the Moon cannot maintain as the lunar “highlands.” The a significant atmosphere. Thus, uncompacted, upper portion of the surface is directly exposed to the highlands’ regolith is 10 to the vacuum of space. Lacking an 20 meters deep in most places. A atmospheric buffer, the Moon has smaller portion of the lunar surface, a surface temperature that varies mostly on the Earth facing side, over several hundred degrees consists of basaltic lava flows and Celsius during the course of a is known as the lunar “maria.” The lunar day/night cycle. A complete maria are geologically younger than lunar day, one full rotation about the highlands and thus have been its axis, requires approximately cratered far less than the highlands 27-1/3 terrestrial days. have. The depth of uncompacted

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regolith in the maria is roughly 4 to The solar wind is an isotropically 5 meters. distributed, neutral plasma travelling at an average velocity of The bulk density of lunar regolith 400 km/sec. In Earth/Moon space, increases with depth. Its upper it has an average density of about surface is believed to have 45- 10 particles per cubic centimeter percent porosity (Taylor 1982, (Taylor 1982, p. 155). This plasma p. 119). The porous upper is composed of a relatively constant 20 cm of the regolith results from flux of charged particles, mainly repeated meteoroid impacts, which electrons and protons, plus ions of stir up the exposed surface and various elements. occasionally form large craters. These meteoroids represent A solar flare is similar in composition potential hazards to both manned to the solar wind, but its individual and unmanned activities. The particles possess higher energies. meteoroid hazard on the lunar A solar flare may be considered surface may be greater than that in a transient perturbation in the free space (Mansfield 1971, solar wind. Exact timing of the p. 1-4-14). In addition to the free- occurrence of a flare is difficult to space flux of meteoroids, there predict, but the frequency of flares is also ejecta from the impacts. may be related to the 11-year solar Some fragments of ejecta could cycle. Most flares can be observed have larger masses and slower at the Sun’s surface some time velocities than the free-space before a large increase in the solar population of meteoroids. wind’s higher energy particles is detected in the vicinity of the The Moon’s surface is exposed to Moon. Not all solar flares yield three types of hazardous ionizing particles that reach the Earth/Moon radiation. The first two, the solar vicinity, but, of those which do, this wind and solar flares, are produced flux reaches a peak within hours by the Sun. The third type has its and then decreases over several origin outside the solar system and days to the previous solar wind is known as galactic cosmic rays. level.

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Galactic cosmic rays are apparently The Earth’s magnetic field and isotropically produced outside the atmosphere provide significant solar system. The average cosmic protection, lacking on the Moon. ray flux has been almost constant The cosmic ray flux per square over the past 50 million years centimeter of lunar surface per (Taylor 1982, p. 159). Cosmic rays year (during minimum solar activity) are made up of very high energy contains 1.29 × 108 protons plus particles consisting mostly of 1.24 × 107 helium nuclei plus protons and electrons, plus some 1.39 × 106 heavier ions for a total heavy nuclei (iron, for example), of 1.4279 × 108 particles per cm2 positrons, and gamma rays. per year.* Fortunately, as the Both the Earth and the Moon energy of the radiation increases are exposed to these cosmic rays, from solar wind to cosmic rays, the but the Moon’s surface receives a frequency of encountering that higher intensity of cosmic rays than radiation decreases. does the Earth’s surface.

______*Counting only particles with a velocity greater than 10 MeV per nucleon. Information from D. Stuart Nachtwey, Medical Sciences Division, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston.

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Lunar Public Works should be able to obtain these elements concrete. [These manufacturing processes The dry, barren Moon might not seem like a by heating the soil. Once people have are also discussed in the accompanying promising land for settlement. But, with the provided them with lunar water, carbon Materials volume.] The unprocessed soil eyes of a chemist, a pioneer settler may see dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, plants itself can serve as shielding against the lunar conditions as advantages and lunar soil should be able to extract nutrients directly diurnal temperature fluctuations and, as a bountiful resource. from the lunar soil. more importantly, against the hazards of radiation unscreened by an atmosphere and undeflected by a magnetic field, as discussed by Rob Lewis in this paper.

The first concern of a lunar pioneer must be The lunar covered wagon will be a chemical water. There may or may not be water, as rocket, its horsepower hydrogen and trapped ice, at the lunar poles, but there oxygen. Hauling these propellants from Earth will be expensive. It may prove certainly is an abundance of its chemical The Sun shines on the Moon plentifully and cheaper to provide them from the lunar soil. components, oxygen and hydrogen. predictably, but only half the time. Storing Forty tonnes of hydrogen, a reasonable Oxygen is the most abundant chemical solar energy over the 2-week-long lunar estimate of the amount needed for all element (45% by weight) in the lunar soils, night seems difficult and may have to be transportation from low Earth orbit for a from which it may be extracted by various done in the form of hydrogen, metals, and year, could be obtained from just 0.3 km2 of processes. In contrast, the concentration oxygen whose extraction was powered by soil mined to a depth of 1 m. Alternatively, of hydrogen in lunar soil is very low, but the energy from the Sun. Thus, initially, lunar lunar transport vehicles might burn a metal total quantity available is nevertheless power is likely to come from an imported such as iron, aluminum, or silicon, even great. The lunar surface has been bathed nuclear power plant. But electrical power though these are less efficient rocket for billions of years in the solar wind, a flux derived from the Sun is a likely lunar product fuels than hydrogen. All three are major of ionized atoms from the exterior of the and may even be the first major export to constituents of lunar soils, in chemical Sun. These ions embed themselves in the Earth from the Moon (once the souvenir combination with oxygen, from which they the surface of grains of lunar topsoil. market has been satisfied). Eventually, can be extracted. In fact, each is a Furthermore, meteorites, unimpeded by an the solar cells will probably be derived byproduct of one or more processes for atmosphere, continually plow under the old from lunar silicon, a byproduct of oxygen producing oxygen. [Several techniques for solar-wind-rich grains and expose new extraction, or from lunar ilmenite, recently extracting oxygen from lunar soils are grains. In this way, large amounts of shown to be photovoltaic. Conversion need proposed in the Materials volume of this hydrogen have become buried in the soil, not be efficient if a local material, simply Space Resources report.] enough to produce (if combined with lunar obtained, is used as the photovoltaic. More oxygen) about 1 million gallons (3.8 million futuristically, lunar helium-3 has been liters) of water per square mile (2.6 km2) of proposed for use as a fusion fuel superior to soil to a depth of 2 yards (1.8 m). This tritium in that it is not radioactive, does not hydrogen can be extracted by heating the have to be made in nuclear fission reactors, soil to about 700 °C. Supplying the Lunar Better than burning the iron, aluminum, and and yields a proton instead of a more Water Works is a matter of technology and silicon produced as byproducts of oxygen destructive neutron when it fuses with economics, but not a matter of availability of extraction from lunar soils might be to use deuterium. oxygen and hydrogen on the Moon. them to construct lunar shelters. Iron and Lunar soil contains in abundance the aluminum can be fabricated into beams. The boards of space construction may well materials required for life support, be made of glass. Molten lunar soil can be transportation, construction, and power. cast into silicate sheets or spun into With proper understanding and new ideas, The next concern of a lunar pioneer will be fiberglass. These may have greater lunar pioneers should be able to turn the food. Like hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen strength than similar products on Earth lunar environment to their advantage. are available in large quantities from the because of the lack of water to interfere with Taken from Larry A. Haskin and Russell O. lunar soil, although they are present in very their polymer bonds. Partially distilled in a Colson, 1990, Lunar Resources—Toward low concentrations, having been placed solar furnace, soil residue may take on the Living Off the Lunar Land, in Proc. there, like hydrogen, by the solar wind. All composition of a good cement, which when 1st Symp. NASA Univ. of Arizona Space the other nutrients necessary to life are combined with locally produced water and Engineering Research Center (in press), likewise present in the soil. Pioneer settlers the abundance of aggregate would become ed. Terry Triffet (Tucson).

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The Human Factor Meteoroid impacts may have effects ranging from long-term In order to develop permanent erosion of the surface materials of human settlements on the Moon, pressure vessels and space suits we must understand how the local all the way to penetration and environment influences the settlers’ subsequent loss of pressure and safety and health. The lack of injury to personnel (see fig. 9). atmosphere and the extreme More serious impacts could result temperature range mandate the in destruction of equipment and use of sealed and thermally loss of life. insulated enclosures. These enclosures—the colonists’ first line of defense—will range from individual space suits to buildings. The next line of defense must protect the colonists from both meteoroids and radiation.

Figure 9

Crisis at the Lunar Base A projectile has penetrated the roof of one of the lunar base modules and the air is rapidly escaping. Three workers are trying to get into an emergency safe room, which can be independently pressurized with air. Two people in an adjoining room prepare to rescue their fellow workers. The remains of the projectile can be seen on the floor of the room. This projectile is probably a lunar rock ejected by a meteorite impact several kilometers from the base. A primary meteorite would likely be completely melted or vaporized by its high-velocity impact into the module, but a secondary lunar projectile would likely be going slowly enough that some of it would remain intact after penetrating the roof. Detailed safety studies are necessary to determine whether such a meteorite strike (or hardware failure or human error) is likely to create a loss-of-pressure emergency that must be allowed for in lunar base design. Artist: Pamela Lee

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In 1971, the Rockwell Lunar Base being penetrated within 100 days. Synthesis Study investigated A logical next step would be to several strategies for dealing with add more layers of material to the the meteoroid hazard. They took tent. This, of course, increases a probabilistic approach to the the weight of the tent and its problem of safety and examined associated transportation costs. several options. Rockwell was interested in providing portable The next option that Rockwell shielding for short-term surface considered was identical to that activities as well as more permanent just described but with an fixed shielding. The shielding might additional layer of material filling be needed many times during an the gap. In theory, the tent would expedition covering large distances. serve to fragment a meteoroid and the underlying material would On Earth, mobile expeditions which impede and absorb the fragments require temporary environmental before they reached the pressure protection that is lightweight and vessel. On the basis of their easy to redeploy often use tents. surface meteoroid flux model, The Rockwell study examined the the gap filler would need to have use of a tent-like structure which a density of 16 kg/m3 to provide could be erected over an inhabited a 0.9999 probability of no pressure vessel. The tent could penetration within 100 days. A be constructed of a lightweight design of this type may prove to material such as aluminum foil or be practical as portable meteoroid nylon. The Rockwell investigators shielding for short-term surface anticipated that such a structure activities. would act as an extra outer layer of protection against meteoroid However, these measures would impact. For their calculations, the be completely inadequate for any tent had an area of 46 m2 and the long-duration habitat (for a stay insulated wall of the pressure vessel of over 100 days), so the addition had a density of approximately of shielding material seemed 8 kg/m3. A small gap between the desirable. If lunar regolith were tent and pressure wall was initially used as a gap filler, significant considered. This arrangement protection could be added without could provide a 0.9999 probability increasing transport costs from of no penetrations in 100 days Earth. Rockwell concluded that if only a free-space meteoroid flux a gap of approximately 15.2 cm was assumed. However, assuming (6 inches), filled with lunar regolith, also the secondary ejecta hazard, would reduce the penetration risk they found that the tent system to less than one chance in 10 000 had only a 0.1 probability of not over a 2- to 5-year stay.

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Although meteoroid impacts may Individual responses to radiation be a serious problem on an exposure vary somewhat and there infrequent basis, the effect of is controversy over safe limits for ionizing radiation on human health long-term, low-level exposures. is continuous and cumulative over Currently, the maximum permissible an individual’s lifetime. A brief whole-body dose for radiation discussion of radiation dosimetry workers is 5 rem/year and for the is now in order. The fundamental general public 0.5 rem/year (CRC unit of radiation transfer is the rad; Handbook of Tables for Applied 1 rad represents the deposition of Engineering Science 1980, 100 ergs of energy in 1 gram of p. 753). Both of these doses are mass. The characteristics of the larger than the dose of background deposition mechanisms vary and radiation at sea level that humans additional factors must be are normally exposed to. Just as considered. One conversion radiation workers must accept a factor is the quality factor, Q, greater risk than do members of the which is conservatively based on general public, so astronauts are the experimentally determined prepared to accept a greater risk relative biological effectiveness, than radiation workers. Table 3, RBE. When Q is multiplied by the provided by Stu Nachtwey, lists rad exposure, the result is a unit the doses and health risks that the of dosage corrected for the type Medical Sciences Division at the of radiation; this resulting dosage Johnson Space Center estimates is measured in a unit known as an astronaut on a Mars or lunar base the rem. mission would be exposed to during a period of minimum solar activity.

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TABLE 3. Approximate Radiation Doses and Health Risks for an Astronaut on a Mars or Lunar Base Mission During Minimum Solar Activity [From D. Stuart Nachtwey, Johnson Space Center]

Radiation source Representative Skin dose Deep organ (5 cm) Excess lifetime shielding equivalent dose equivalent cancer incidence in a 35-year-old male* Chronic exposure

Trapped belts 2 g/cm2 AI < 2 rem < 2 rem < 0.1% (one-way transit) Free space 4 g/cm2 AI 75 rem/yr 53 rem/yr ~ 1.2%/yr of exposure On lunar surface 4 g/cm2 AI 38 rem/yr 27 rem/yr ~ 0.6%/yr of exposure On martian 16 g/cm2 CO2 (atm.) 13.2 rem/yr 12 rem/yr ~ 0.3%/yr of exposure surface

Acute exposure to large (e.g., Aug. ’72) solar particle event

Free space 2 g/cm2 AI 1900 rem 254 rem ~ 5.7% On lunar surface 4 g/cm2 AI 440 rem 80 rem ~ 1.8% + shielding 15 g/cm2 AI 19 rem 9 rem ~ 0.2% On martian 16 g/cm2 CO2 (atm.) 9 rem 4.6 rem ~ 0.1% surface + shielding 60 g/cm2 AI < 1 rem < 1 rem < 0.03%

*The excess cancer incidence for a 35-year-old female is roughly twice that for a 35-year-old male.

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The rate of irradiation per unit time Silberberg et al. (1985) have and the age and sex of the suggested that a compacted individual at irradiation are also layer of lunar regolith at least important. Younger people are 2 meters thick should be placed more sensitive to the cancer- over permanent habitats. With inducing effects of radiation than shielding of this thickness, the older people, and females are more colonists’ yearly exposure could be sensitive than males because of held to 5 rem per year if they spent cancer induction to the breast and no more than 20 percent of each thyroid. Other serious radiation Earth month on the surface. In effects include cataracts, genetic order to provide an overall level of damage, and death. Radiation protection of no more than 5 rem exposure is considered cumulative per year even in the event of an over an individual’s lifetime. extreme solar flare, such as occurred in February 1956, the Solar flares and cosmic rays are the depth of shielding would have to most dangerous radiation events be doubled. that lunar pioneers will be exposed to. The cosmic ray For the sake of completeness, it dosage at the lunar surface is should be pointed out that some about 30 rem/year and, over an lunar regoliths contain a naturally 11-year solar cycle, solar flare radioactive component material particles with energies greater than known as KREEP. KREEP, 30 MeV can deliver 1000 rem probably a product of volcanism, (Silberberg et al. 1985). Solar contains radioactive potassium, flares deliver most of their energy uranium, and thorium. Material periodically during only a few days containing a high concentration out of an 11-year cycle; whereas, of KREEP should not be used for the cosmic ray flux is constant. shielding, and care should be taken to avoid concentrating it Although the lunar surface radiation as shielding is prepared. The flux is too high to spend much time concentration of KREEP in most in, it is definitely possible to alleviate regolith material would add an the radiation danger with shielding. amount of radioactivity no more When colonists are removed from than that in the granite used in continuous exposure to surface buildings here on Earth. If the radiation, long-term settlement small contribution by KREEP to becomes possible. As in the case radiation dose is considered of meteoroid protection, the when exposures are calculated, simplest solution is to use locally it should not pose any significant available regolith for bulk shielding health problem by itself. of habitats.

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It is a well-known fact that cosmic to the lunar surface and placed in rays produce secondary particles, excavations. Once the modules are such as neutrons, upon collision in place, they will be covered with with matter. These byproducts can the previously excavated regolith add to the radiation exposure if the to provide shielding (see fig. 10). shielding is not “thick” enough to Land (1985) describes various absorb the secondary neutrons as approaches and consequences to well. It turns out that the 15.2-cm- providing support for the shielding thick layer of compacted regolith above the pressurized enclosures. proposed earlier for a meteoroid Logistically and structurally the use shield is not optimum. Obviously, of bulk regolith is a convenient if “thin” shielding is to be used, its solution. Its use reduces the need utility must be examined in light to transport mass out of the Earth’s of its disadvantages. gravity well and favors the transport of sophisticated value-added It seems likely that the initial lunar mass instead. Eventually, as the base will be constructed of settlement begins to grow and modified space station modules, develop industrial capability, locally Space Shuttle external tanks, available metals, glass, and bulk or similar pressure vessels. These regolith can be fabricated into new pressure vessels will be transported facilities.

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Figure 10

Lunar Base Modular Configuration Initial base components could be made up of modified space station modules. The frontispiece shows how such modules might look in the panorama of a lunar base.

The advantage of using modified space station modules is that they will already have been designed, tested, and fabricated for use in space. The disadvantage is that a module designed for zero gravity and free space exposure might require major changes to fit the lunar environment with 1/6 g, ubiquitous dust, and the weight of piled-on regolith shielding.

Because of the nature of the lunar operations on the space station environment, much of the pioneers’ will have provided a lot of useful time will be spent underground experience in human factors within their habitat modules. For engineering. Laboratories, safety and convenience, these factories, farms and entertainment modules will be linked together facilities will all be integrated into with tunnels (see fig. 11). While the underground installations on this underground environment will the Moon (see fig. 12). Some be different from Earth’s standard, types of storage will also be it need not be unpleasant or underground, but a number of confining. By the time the base facilities will remain above ground. is under construction, manned

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Figure 11

Shielded Tunnels The modules of a lunar base would be connected by tunnels, naturally shielded from surface hazards. The tunnels could be made airtight for use but would likely also be provided with airlocks for safety in case of depressurization.

Figure 12

An Agricultural Zone in Krafft Ehricke’s Selenopolis Although the initial lunar outpost would no doubt be quite spartan, the expanding lunar base could be modified to make life under the lunar surface quite Earthlike and pleasant.

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Transportation facilities such as hangars, landing pods, and refueling stations will be located on the lunar surface (see fig. 13). Power plants and communications superstructures will be surface installations as well. Some storage will be in surface warehouses (see fig. 14).

Figure 13

Lunar Hangars Mobile surface equipment will need to be stored in protective hangars. Such hangars would provide shade against the Sun’s heat during the 2-week-long lunar day and lighting for work during the equally long lunar night. Artist: Pat Rawlings

Figure 14

Lunar Surface Activities Activities such as mining, transport, and processing will almost by necessity be conducted on the surface. While automation and teleoperation will be used extensively, some minimum amount of human tending will always be required. In this particular concept (from NASDA, the Japanese space agency), a processing plant produces oxygen and metals and an electromagnetic mass driver shoots these products into lunar orbit, where they can be used to support Earth-Moon space activities. NASA photo: S87-36442

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Strategies for Surface 4-1/2 hours per moon walk. By Operations contrast, the Apollo 17 astronauts’ surface activities, augmented by Although space suits appropriate their use of the lunar roving vehicle to the lunar environment were (see fig. 15), averaged about successfully used during the 8 hours. Another constraint due Apollo missions, they are not the to moon suit use is the time it takes only means of conducting to dress and undress (see fig. 16) surface activities. Moon suits and repair and refurbish the suits. have several disadvantages, one Plenty of spare parts will probably problem being their limited duty be required. However, these cycle. Consumables, recycling difficulties are minor annoyances. systems, and operator fatigue are The most serious problem with the most obvious limitations to exclusive use of moon suits for how long a “moon walk” can last. surface activities is their insufficient The Apollo 14 astronauts walked meteoroid and radiation protection. everywhere and averaged about

Figure 15

Lunar Rover The use of the Apollo lunar Rover greatly increased the lunar explorers’ effectiveness. Mobility will also be very desirable in lunar base operations and will be especially important for scientific exploration. NASA photo: AS17-147-22526

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Figure 16

Suiting Up Much time is consumed donning or doffing a space suit. NASA photos: S81-28710, S81-28674, S81-28689, S81-28722, S81-28725, S81-28669

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Therefore, the development of submarines used for exploration, pressurized surface vehicles research, and repair in the Earth’s equipped with external tools and oceans. Such devices provide manipulators is desirable (see their operators with a safe fig. 17). These vehicles would environment and permit access be analogous to the specialized to a more hazardous one.

Figure 17

Vehicles for Operations in Hostile Environments “Alvin” deep-diving research submarines protect their crews from the hostile ocean environment while permitting mobility and interaction within it. Cameras, floodlights, and portholes enhance the crew’s visual access to their surroundings, and specialized manipulators and end effectors allow physical interaction. Inside the submarine, the crew is maintained in a shirt-sleeve environment. It seems highly likely that pressurized surface vehicles equipped with external tools will be developed to meet similar needs on the lunar surface.

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If vehicles of this type were robot is a remotely controlled developed for use on the Moon, device which may be used to they would definitely have to provide a human presence in a provide meteoroid protection and hazardous environment. Typically, the radiation protection necessary the human operator directly controls to keep the occupants’ exposure the activities of the robot and well within the 50 rem/year limit receives feedback from it, so it is [to the blood-forming organs an electronic and mechanical (NCRP Report No. 98, July 31, extension of the person, essentially 1989, p. 164)]. A thick layer of a surrogate body. Teleoperated compacted regolith built into the robots have been used in the hull may serve this purpose. nuclear industry for years; they are finding applications in underwater Another way to reduce radiation work at great depths; and they have exposure problems might be to seen limited application in space. permit only older personnel (volunteers over 35 and people Lunar teleoperators, like the ones who have already had children) shown in figure 18, could be to spend much time on the operated in one of two modes: surface and keep the younger directly from the lunar habitat, as personnel underground. This in figure 19, or indirectly from a idea is based on the premise that space station or a facility on Earth. delayed reactions to irradiation, Each mode has its unique like cancer, take long enough to characteristics. Operation from develop that older people who Earth would be slower because of are exposed may die of natural the several-second, round-trip causes before the reaction occurs. radio signal delay. In this case, However, this seems to be a the teleoperated device may solution of minimal merit. Every require built-in reflexes to protect colonist will require an individual itself, if the most recent command radiation dosimetry record and a from Earth is in conflict with “weather” forecast concerning the current local conditions. An solar flare hazard whenever he or example of this would be having she leaves the habitat. the teleoperated device stop before walking or driving over A truly satisfactory solution the edge of a cliff which has just appears possible. Taking the appeared on the operator’s TV manned vehicle concept one step screen on Earth. In the early further reveals another type of 1970s, the Russians successfully device, the teleoperated robot, demonstrated the usefulness of which is well suited to the lunar their Lunokhod teleoperated roving environment. A teleoperated vehicles on the Moon (see fig. 20).

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It has been commonly thought freedom manipulator arm (see that the main problem faced by fig. 21). My results (1989) indicate Earth-based operators who that the 3-sec delay inherent in “commute” to work on the Moon round-trip communication between by radio would be severe fatigue the Earth and the Moon is not a and frustration due to the timelag. significant barrier to teleoperated To evaluate this possibility, I manipulation and mobility. With conducted a series of lunar-time- proper system design, this mode delay manipulation and mobility of operation will, at worst, require experiments using a mobile robot patient people and predictive equipped with a 4-degree-of- positioning aids.

Figure 18

Teleoperated Robot Teleoperated robots will be designed to provide a human presence on the lunar surface. This robot’s arms have the same freedom of movement as human arms: three degrees at the shoulder, one at the elbow, and three at the wrist. Its hands are modeled on human hands but require only three fingers and a thumb. The robot’s head can turn up and down, right and left. It has two TV cameras for stereo vision (with glare shades, which are movable on hinges).

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Figure 19

Teleoperations Control Center Underground at the Lunar Base Surface activities could easily be directed from comfortable underground facilities. Such control centers would provide safe environments for lunar workers who would otherwise be required to do routine jobs in a hazardous environment. Each operator could supervise the activities of many semi-autonomous robots or directly control one telerobot to apply more specialized skills to the task at hand. Although the two human operators shown are controlling and monitoring telerobotic equipment at two different locations, they could just as easily be coordinating their teleoperations. Such a team effort could even be assisted by additional controllers located at other sites on the Moon or elsewhere, as long as there were enough telerobots at the work site and sufficient communications channels. Keep in mind that the controllers would always have the option to shut down their telerobots temporarily so that they could take a personal break or attend immediately to another matter within the base without losing travel or space suit removal time or wasting limited excursion supplies like oxygen.

Figure 20

Lunokhod Automated vehicles roving over another planetary body were first used in the early 1970s by the Soviets on their Lunokhod missions. These lunokhods were capable of traveling tens of kilometers at speeds up to 2 km/hr. They were run from a Soviet control center by a crew of five— commander, driver, navigator, operator, and onboard-systems engineer. The crew used slow-scan television images and systems readouts to drive and operate the vehicles.

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Figure 21

SSl Teleoperations Simulation Chamber The Space Studies Institute in Princeton, NJ, has been involved in a continuing experiment to evaluate the usefulness of time-delayed teleoperation under lunar conditions. Here the designers, Rob Lewis and David Brody, demonstrate a telerobotics facility to Jean-Loup Chrétien, who has been a guest cosmonaut. The facility consists of an operator control console and a simulated lunar environment chamber (with its side cover removed to reveal the interior). On the far right, a mobile robot equipped with a 4-degree-of-freedom manipulator can be seen interacting with a workstation while under the time-delayed control of the operator. Although the operator receives video from inside the chamber, direct visual access into it is not possible during experiment runs. The chamber has been optimized to visually replicate lunar conditions when viewed with video Local use of teleoperated devices as if the person were there. Another cameras. would not be hampered by time control approach uses “supervised Photo: Barbara Faughnan delays, but it would require autonomy.” Supervised autonomy additional relay stations, such as involves a working partnership comsats or mountaintop repeaters, between a human, who sets goals to overcome the obstacles to line- and supervises their implementation, of-sight radio propagation on the and a more fully automated robot, lunar surface. It seems likely which is responsible for carrying out that teleoperated robots will be specific tasks. Much less feedback controlled from Earth, from the would be necessary using this Moon, and from points in between. strategy.

Teleoperated robots will not replace Sending a number of teleoperated people; rather they will enhance machines to the Moon to prepare a person’s capabilities. As mentioned the way for later colonists may be earlier, the teleoperated robot may warranted. This would have the be controlled in a master-slave twin advantages of maximizing mode, given sufficient feedback to safety and limiting the cost of the allow the human operator to sense initial missions, as local materials and react to the robot’s environment could be used to prepare a base

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and supplies before the people over other near-Earth locations, moved in. Once the settlement such as natural gravity and useful was occupied, teleoperators resources. Extensive human controlled from Earth would act as activities on the Moon will be “force multipliers.” They could be constrained initially by the lunar run by several shifts of operators environment because it is so on Earth each day (including different from the Earth’s. Means weekends). Thus, each machine to ease these constraints are could do the work of three or more possible and should be pursued. lunar colonists, without the costs There is much to be gained from a of bringing those colonists to the permanent human presence on the Moon and providing life support for Moon. them. In addition, teleoperated devices could potentially permit experts from Earth to provide timely References services otherwise unavailable locally. CRC Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science. Teleoperated machines used in 1980. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: conjunction with a manned base CRC Press, Inc. could be regularly repaired and rebuilt by the lunar staff as required Land, Peter. 1985. Lunar Base by changing needs. We should Design. In Lunar Bases and Space remember that teleoperated Activities of the 21st Century, ed. machines are far less sensitive to W. W. Mendell, 363–373. Houston: radiation than people and can be Lunar & Planetary Inst. optimized for their environment and tasks. If a teleoperator is hit Lewis, Robert H. 1989. Preliminary by a meteoroid, it may possibly Lunar Teleoperations Investigations be repaired or salvaged. If not, it Using a Low Cost Mobile Robot. certainly is more expendable than a In Space Manufacturing 7: Space person. Thus, the development of Resources To Improve Life on Earth, teleoperators for lunar surface use Proc. 9th Princeton/AIAA/SSI is definitely worth further [Space Studies Institute] Conf., investigation. ed. Barbara Faughnan and Gregg Maryniak, 138–143. Washington, The Moon is an ideal “large” space DC: AIAA. station and offers many advantages

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Mansfield, J. M. 1971. Mission Silberberg, R.; C. H. Tsao; J. H. Analysis and Lunar Base Adams, Jr.; and John R. Letaw. Synthesis. Volume II of Lunar 1985. Radiation Transport of Base Synthesis Study, Final Cosmic Ray Nuclei in Lunar Report on NASA contract Material and Radiation Doses. In NAS8-26145. Space Division, Lunar Bases and Space Activities North American Rockwell, May 15. of the 21st Century, ed. W. W. Mendell, 663–669. Houston: NCRP Report No. 98: Guidance Lunar & Planetary Inst. on Radiation Received in Space Activities. July 31, 1989. Taylor, Stuart Ross. 1982. Bethesda, MD: National Council Planetary Science: A Lunar on Radiation Protection and Perspective. Houston: Lunar & Measurements. Planetary Inst.

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Summer Study Postscript: A 1986 Perspective

Philip R. Harris et al.

Now that the National Commission become popular again in this on Space has set out bold goals century as a means of raising and strategies for the American money for state governments. space program in the next Such a lottery could alleviate the 50 years, how can we turn such national tax burden imposed by the visions into realities? Since the plans of the National Commission Challenger tragedy and other on Space, which they estimate to space failures have brought about cost $700 billion. a crisis of confidence in NASA, what innovations are necessary As a step to providing the vigorous to rebuild public consensus and leadership on the space frontier support? What initiatives can the called for by these commissioners, private sector take to promote either the Congress or a private the peaceful use of space by its consortium or a combination of exploration and industrialization? public and private leaders might The faculty fellows from the launch this national lottery. The 1984 summer study propose first target would be to obtain three possibilities for action by funding for a fourth orbiter, to be NASA and supporters of the devoted exclusively to scientific, space program. commercial, and international use. Named “Challenger II,” it would be a public memorial and expression A National Lottery for of appreciation to the seven Space Enterprises crewmembers who lost their lives in the first shuttle of that name. Public lotteries to support Once the Shuttle fleet was back to exploration and civilizing full capacity, the next objective ventures on new frontiers are might be funding for more part of the Nation’s tradition. advanced aerospace planes. Just They were used by the English as the Conestoga wagons and the to support the Jamestown railroad opened up new resources colonization and to open the in the West, so will these initial western frontier. They have vehicles on the space “highway.”

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A Fourth Orbiter The Endeavour, expected to bring NASA’s Shuttle fleet to four again, is seen under construction at Rockwell’s manufacturing facility in California. NASA photo: S89-49397

Continued fundraising of this type present time, there are 50 groups would be designated to help advocating the development of underwrite the space infrastructure space. They have a collective that will enable us to tap space membership of 300 000 and an resources (e.g., the construction aggregate annual budget of of the space station and lunar or $30.5 million. All these, together martian bases of operation). with other space business leaders and entrepreneurs, could provide How? As the National Commission the thrust to translate the lottery on Space gathered its input, proposal into dollars for space hundreds of individuals in 15 public enterprise. Readers of such forums contributed their ideas. magazines as Aviation Week & Such people, along with the space Space Technology and Commercial advocacy groups, could provide the Space could be enlisted in such a momentum for this National Lottery campaign. Gradually, beginning for Space Enterprises. At the with Canada, the lottery could be

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extended internationally. We conference. Space planners and suggest Lee Iacocca and his advocates should urge their leadership of the campaign to congressional representatives to restore the Statue of Liberty as introduce a bill supporting such a an example of the type of citizen convocation and calling upon the and strategy needed in this next Administration to issue invitations national endeavor. “We the people and set an agenda. The primary of the United States of America” purpose of the conference would can implement the goals set forth be to examine ways to implement by the National Commission on the recommendations of the Space. National Commission on Space, thereby opening up the space frontier and improving the quality of A White House Conference life here on Earth. The secondary on Space Enterprise purpose would be to develop a national consensus on the peaceful Another step to encourage civilian and commercial exploration and leadership in the American space utilization of space resources. program would be a White House

A White House Conference The faculty fellows in this NASA summer study group urge that a White House conference be called to find ways and means to implement the recommendations of the National Commission on Space, thereby opening up the space frontier and improving the quality of life here on Earth. Photo: Joyce C. Naltchayan

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A call by the President to carry out enterprises for the direct benefit of the space commission’s goals* the people on Earth.” The sessions would boost American morale, turn might be organized around the four our energies outward, and ensure parts of the commission’s report— the country’s space leadership into civilian space goals for 21st century the 21st century. To recharge the America, low-cost access to the solar national enthusiasm for space, system, opening the space frontier distinguished Americans and other in the next 20 years, American guests would be invited to this leadership on the space frontier conference to propose immediate in the next 50 years. and pragmatic means for reaching the commission’s targets. The planners might invite corporations Reorganization of the in the space business to join the National Aeronautics and Government in sponsoring the Space Administration event. The participants would include not only space professionals If the goals and recommendations but also people of competence and set forth by the National Commission distinction in positions to influence on Space are to be achieved, then the citizenry in their support of NASA needs to be renewed and space activities. We suggest reorganized. The internal renewal Walter Cronkite as the type of of its organizational culture and person capable of communicating management is already under way the message from such a White as a result of the findings of the House conference and enlisting Presidential Commission on the public support. The aim would be Space Shuttle Challenger Accident. to obtain massive media attention But reorganization in the charter not only to the conference but also and structure of the agency might to its results. enable it to become more free of the Federal bureaucracy, annual budget The proposed White House baffles, and political pressures that conference might be structured undermine its ability to make strides on a theme set forth by the National in space. Commission: “Stimulating space

______*Such a call was issued by President George Bush in his July 20, 1989, speech on the steps of the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. Specifically, he proposed commitment to three of the Commission’s twelve technological milestones in space: Space Station Freedom, a permanent lunar outpost, and human exploration of Mars.

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In 1984, the faculty fellows of United States and abroad, as the NASA summer study well as with other national space recommended that legislation be entities, so as to supplement its passed to strengthen NASA by income beyond Government making it more autonomous. appropriations. Then, creative (Models exist in the U.S. Postal financing of space ventures Service, the Tennessee Valley might be discovered through the Authority, and the New York Port issuance of bonds or the sale of Authority.) By creating a National stock in limited R&D partnerships Aeronautics and Space Authority or in space trading companies. as a semiautonomous corporation, (Shades of the Dutch East India our Nation’s leaders would allow Company!) Because of the the NASA budget to be set for scope and complexity of space long-term project development. development, NASA needs to be The funding for research and empowered to give leadership in development could be separated promoting the cooperative efforts from that for operations. Such of Government, universities, and legislative changes might enable industry in the furtherance of NASA to enter into joint ventures human enterprise in space. with the private sector in the

Ships of Exploration “From the voyages of Columbus to the Oregon Trail to the journey to the Moon itself, history proves that we have never lost by pressing the limits of our frontiers,” said President George Bush on the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon. The President urged that we press the limits of our frontiers on to another planet and make a journey to Mars.

Our Niña (and Pinta and Santa Maria) might look like this: A trans-Mars injection stage, essentially large propellant tanks with rocket motors attached (Columbus’ ships didn’t have to carry their propellant), to propel the ship from Earth to Mars. A Mars excursion vehicle, with its aerobrake to slow the descent into Mars orbit (we, too, will make use of the “wind”) and its martian lander. And a Mars transfer vehicle, also equipped with an aerobrake and much smaller rocket motors, to enter Mars orbit and bring the crew home.

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Addendum: Participants

The managers of the 1984 summer study were

David S. McKay, Summer Study Co-Director and Workshop Manager Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Stewart Nozette, Summer Study Co-Director California Space Institute

James Arnold, Director of the California Space Institute

Stanley R. Sadin, Summer Study Sponsor for the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology NASA Headquarters

Those who participated in the 10-week summer study as faculty fellows were the following:

James D. Burke Jet Propulsion Laboratory James L. Carter University of Texas, Dallas David R. Criswell California Space Institute Carolyn Dry Virginia Polytechnic Institute Rocco Fazzolare University of Arizona Tom W. Fogwell Texas A & M University Michael J. Gaffey Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Nathan C. Goldman University of Texas, Austin Philip R. Harris California Space Institute Karl R. Johansson North Texas State University Elbert A. King University of Houston, University Park Jesa Kreiner California State University, Fullerton John S. Lewis University of Arizona Robert H. Lewis Washington University, St. Louis William Lewis Clemson University James Grier Miller University of California, Los Angeles Sankar Sastri New York City Technical College Michele Small California Space Institute

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Participants in the 1-week workshops included the following:

Constance F. Acton Bechtel Power Corp. William N. Agosto Lunar Industries, Inc. A. Edward Bence Exxon Mineral Company Edward Bock General Dynamics David F. Bowersox Los Alamos National Laboratory Henry W. Brandhorst, Jr. NASA Lewis Research Center David Buden NASA Headquarters Edmund J. Conway NASA Langley Research Center Gene Corley Portland Cement Association Hubert Davis Eagle Engineering Michael B. Duke NASA Johnson Space Center Charles H. Eldred NASA Langley Research Center Greg Fawkes Pegasus Software Ben R. Finney University of Hawaii Philip W. Garrison Jet Propulsion Laboratory Richard E. Gertsch Colorado School of Mines Mark Giampapa University of Arizona Charles E. Glass University of Arizona Charles L. Gould Rockwell International Joel S. Greenberg Princeton Synergetics, Inc. Larry A. Haskin Washington University, St. Louis Abe Hertzberg University of Washington Walter J. Hickell Yukon Pacific Christian W. Knudsen Carbotek, Inc. Eugene Konecci University of Texas, Austin George Kozmetsky University of Texas, Austin John Landis Stone & Webster Engineering Corp. T. D. Lin Construction Technology Laboratories John M. Logsdon George Washington University Ronald Maehl RCA Astro-Electronics Thomas T. Meek Los Alamos National Laboratory Wendell W. Mendell NASA Johnson Space Center George Mueller Consultant Kathleen J. Murphy Consultant Barney B. Roberts NASA Johnson Space Center Sanders D. Rosenberg Aerojet TechSystems Company Robert Salkeld Consultant Donald R. Saxton NASA Marshall Space Flight Center James M. Shoji Rockwell International Michael C. Simon General Dynamics William R. Snow Electromagnetic Launch Research, Inc. Robert L. Staehle Jet Propulsion Laboratory Frank W. Stephenson, Jr. NASA Headquarters Wolfgang Steurer Jet Propulsion Laboratory Richard Tangum University of Texas, San Antonio Mead Treadwell Yukon Pacific Terry Triffet University of Arizona J. Peter Vajk Consultant Jesco von Puttkamer NASA Headquarters Scott Webster Orbital Systems Company Gordon R. Woodcock Boeing Aerospace Company

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The following people participated in the summer study as guest speakers and consultants:

Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin Research & Engineering Consultants Rudi Beichel Aerojet TechSystems Company David G. Brin California Space Institute Joseph A. Carroll California Space Institute Manuel L. Cruz Jet Propulsion Laboratory Andrew H. Cutler California Space Institute Christopher England Engineering Research Group Edward A. Gabris NASA Headquarters Peter Harnmerling LaJolla Institute Eleanor F. Helin Jet Propulsion Laboratory Nicholas Johnson Teledyne Brown Engineering Joseph P. Kerwin NASA Johnson Space Center Joseph P. Loftus NASA Johnson Space Center Budd Love Consultant John J. Martin NASA Headquarters John Meson Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Tom Meyer Boulder Center for Science and Policy John C. Niehoff Science Applications International Tadahiko Okumura Shimizu Construction Company Thomas O. Paine Consultant William L. Quaide NASA Headquarters Namika Raby University of California, San Diego Donald G. Rea Jet Propulsion Laboratory Gene Roddenberry Writer Harrison H. “Jack” Schmitt Consultant Richard Schubert NASA Headquarters Elie Shneour Biosystems Associates, Ltd. Martin Spence Shimizu Construction Company James B. Stephens Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pat Sumi San Diego Unified School District Robert Waldron Rockwell International Simon P. Worden Department of Defense William Wright Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

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