Roosevelt Red Ware and the organization of ceramic production in the Silver Creek Drainage

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Authors Stinson, Susan Lynne, 1971-

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ROOSEVELT RED WARE AND THE ORGANIZATION OF CERAMIC

PRODUCTION IN THE SILVER CREEK DRAINAGE

by

Susan Lynne Stinson

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 9 6 UMI Number: 1383579

UMI Microform 1383579 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.

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STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

hsaroara J . Mxiis DATE Assistant Professor of Anthropology 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the guidance of my advisor, Barbara J. Mills, and committee members David J. Killick and J. Jefferson Reid. I received valuable collaboration and Tonto Basin ceramic samples from the Center for Desert Archaeology. I would specifically like to thank Mark Elson, Jeff Clark, Jim Vint, Beth Miksa, and Jim Heidke. Also, I am grateful to Linda Newman and Carmelita Angeles for their tireless help in the collection of sand samples during the summer of 1995. Finally, I must extend a special thanks to both of my parents and to Scott Van Keuren for their endless hours of academic and emotional support. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES 6

LIST OF TABLES 7

ABSTRACT 8

1. CERAMIC PRODUCTION, MIGRATION, AND THE SILVER CREEK AREA 9

2. A MODEL OF ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION AND MIGRATION 14 An Economic Model of Integration Following Migration 15 Archaeological Implications 23

3. THE STUDY OF CERAMIC PRODUCTION 28 Ceramic Production and Migration into the Silver Creek Area 31 Ceramic Production in the Silver Creek Area: Research Questions 3 3

4. SILVER CREEK DRAINAGE: THE STUDY AREA AND ITS GEOLOGY 3 6 The Sample Database 36 Silver Creek Drainage: Sites Along the Mogollon Rim 42 Silver Creek Drainage: The Snowflake Area 47 South of the Mogollon Rim: The Grasshopper Region .48 Central Arizona: The Tonto Basin 50 The Silver Creek Drainage: Raw Sand Sample 51

5. METHODS OF PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 54 Petrography in the American Southwest 56 Methods of Petrographic Analysis for the Silver Creek Project 57 Ceramic Samples 58

6. INTERPRETATION OF COMPOSITIONAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL DATA 67 Locus of Production 68 Raw Sand Sample Analysis 74 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Technology of Pinto Polychrome Production 81

7. PINTO POLYCHROME AND MIGRATION INTO THE SILVER CREEK DRAINAGE 85 The Implications of Pinto Polychrome Technology in the Silver Creek Drainage 86 The Organization of Ceramic Production and the Migration Process 90

APPENDIX 1. GRAIN TYPES IN SAND AND SHERD POINT COUNTS ..96

APPENDIX 2. RAW SAND SAMPLE COMPOSITION 97

APPENDIX 3. RAW SAND SAMPLE TEXTURE 99

APPENDIX 4. CERAMIC POINT COUNT COMPOSITIONAL DATA 101

APPENDIX 5. CERAMIC POINT COUNT TEXTURAL DATA 112

WORKS CITED 117 6

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1, Map of the Silver Creek Drainage 10

FIGURE 2, Geologic Map of the Silver Creek Drainage 45

FIGURE 3, Roundness/Sphericity Scale 64

FIGURE 4, Mean Ceramic Ware Compositions by Site 69

FIGURE 5, Ceramic Ware Compositions for Bailey Ruin 71

FIGURE 6, Composition of Pinto Polychrome by Site 72

FIGURE 7, Sand Assemblage Composition by Wash 76

FIGURE 8, Textural Characteristics of Quartz 79

FIGURE 9, Technological Comparison of Pinto Polychrome ..84 7

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1, Ceramic Samples by Type and Site 40

TABLE 2, Raw Sand Sample Locations 52

TABLE 3, Ceramic Wares by Code Number 67

TABLE 4, Mean Quartz Grain Size by Wash 77

TABLE 5, Quartz Textural Data From Ceramics 80

TABLE 6, Summary of Migration Scenarios 92 8

ABSTRACT

Along the Mogollon Rim of east-central Arizona changes in the technology of ceramic production, including the appearance of Roosevelt Red Ware, have been attributed to migrating Kayenta-Tusayan populations during the late Pueblo

III period. This study compares the technology and mineralogical composition of Pinto Polychrome from the

Silver Creek drainage to other wares commonly found in this area and to samples of Pinto Polychrome from sites south of the Mogollon Rim.

The petrographic analysis of ceramic samples and the microscopic analysis of raw sands indicate that Pinto

Polychrome was locally produced in the Silver Creek drainage, is technologically distinct yet related to Showlow

Black-on-red, and is closely tied to the Kayenta-Tusayan tradition of using ceramic plates. Finally, an economic model of integration is used as a framework for assessing the impact of Kayenta-Tusayan migrants in the Silver Creek drainage and their possible connection to the production of

Pinto Polychrome. 9

CHAPTER 1

CERAMIC PRODUCTION, MIGRATION, AND THE SILVER CREEK AREA

In the American Southwest, during the late and early 14"^'' centuries, there appears to have been a high degree of population movement and spatial reorganization throughout the Colorado Plateau, including the Mogollon Rim area of east-central Arizona. Many of these changes have been attributed to the abandonment of large portions of the

San Juan drainage and the Kayenta-Tusayan area as drought conditions became quite severe (Adler 1994; Crown 1994; Dean et al. 1994; Fish et al. 1994; Gumerman and Dean 1994; Haury

1958; Reid 1989). This movement was probsibly the result of several factors, including increasing population pressure, unfavorable environmental conditions, and a need to maintain the sociocultural system already in place {Dean 1996). It has been suggested that people moving into the Mogollon Rim area at this time were migrants from the Kayenta-Tusayan region (Carlson 1970; Crown 1994; Haury 1958).

The impact of these migrations to the Silver Creek drainage (see Figure 1) of the Mogollon Rim area has Flake Ruin

Tayloi Co(l(wikvood With Fourmilp Ruin

• ^ ShumwAy Ruin

Pinedale

Pinmble Kuin

B Poneiv Hill

Show low

• Sile • Hough's Cieal Kiva Show Low Ruin • Modem Town Mogoiion Rim

Kilometers

Figure 1 Location or Major Sites Discussed Within the Silver Creek Archaeological Research Project Study Area important implications for community reorganization during the late Pueblo Ill/early Pueblo IV period from A.D. 1275-

1325. Large, aggregated sites replaced small, relatively dispersed settlements in the 12"'' and 13"'' centuries, and it has been suggested that these changes required new socially or ritually integrative mechanisms (Adams 1991; Crown 1994;

Graves 1982). A demographic shift of this kind would have also triggered economic change within the agricultural system and any associated income-producing activities.

One of these activities, craft production, has often been cited as a common source of supplemental income in households that farm on marginal land or are experiencing hardship {Arnold 1975; Foster 1965; Mohr Chavez 1992; Nash

1961). In the American Southwest the manufacture and distribution of ceramics may be one way of compensating for agricultural underproduction (Stark et al. 1995; Wilson and

Blinman 1995; Zedeno 1995). Therefore, it is important to explore variation in the organization of pottery production that may be indicative of change in the larger economic system. The introduction of migrant groups into settlements along the Mogollon Rim is a possible economic trigger of this kind.

In this study I propose that changes in the organization of ceramic production in the Silver Creek area may be a direct result of Kayenta-Tusayan populations entering the region. Compositional data are used to evaluate the locus of production and technological style of

Pinto Polychrome, a ceramic type that first appears in the

American Southwest during the late Pueblo III period. I argue that the manufacture of this particular ceramic is an effect of population movements and community reorganization in the Silver Creek drainage.

The introduction of migrant populations into this area undoubtedly had economic consequences that affected the systems of agriculture and craft production. Therefore, the following model provides a framework for assessing the economic integration of Tusayan-Kayenta migrants into the

Silver Creek area and the changes in ceramic production that seem to have occurred during the same time period. This model can be used to more clearly assess the economic aspects of rural-to-rural migration in the prehistoric

American Southwest. 14

CHAPTER 2

A MODEL OF ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION AND MIGRATION

There are many rural areas of the world where household economies are based almost solely on agricultural production. In these communities, wealth is commonly measured by the amount of fertile land available to each family. Of course the ideal situation is that all self- sufficient households have an adequate supply of land; however, in a world of drought, flood, soil deterioration, and population pressure, it often is not possible (Amanor

1994; Berry and Cline 1979; Boserup 1990; Brookfield and

Brown 1963; Cohen 1977; Donner 1987; Griffen 1976; Mellor

1985; Netting 1993).

So when faced with an agricultural crisis, what are the solutions a household has to choose from? Typically, the two main long-term solutions have been to increase household productivity levels {intensification techniques and increased labor involvement) or to move. Increased exchange may accompany either of these situations to varying degrees.

In addition, conflict over land rights may result in the forcible movement of either single households or entire

communities from their fields (Chubb 1961). Population pressure will only heighten the effect of these two situations (Boserup 1990:16; Dumond 1965; Hamer 1970).

Generally, it seems that population movement is a common response in times of hardship, and the social dynamics involved in this process provide a useful background for the study of a number of other types of behavior, including those of agriculture and craft production. So, the question may be asked: After a migration event, how does the migrating population (either one household or an entire community) economically integrate into the host society?

An Economic Model of Integration Following Migration

As useful as the study of migration is, relatively few studies have actually looked at the economic effects of migration in a completely rural environment. On the other hand, much research has been done conceiming the consequences of agricultural crises on non-migrant populations. Generally, the economic outcome of insufficient agricultural production, among those who stay 16 in place, may be quite similar to the situation that a

migrating population would face once they are actually in a new location (Arnold 1988; Netting 1993). Therefore, this research is applicc±»le to the study of migration.

Nash (1961) has provided an example of the income source that is the most viable alternative to agriculture in a peasant community of Chiapas, Mexico. Here, when land is iinavailable or insufficient, most households will turn to pottery production as an income supplement (Nash 1961:187).

"Agriculture does not, by itself, maintain Amatenango at its expected level of living. The making and selling of pottery is an important component in the meeting of the customary standard of life" (Nash 1961:187). Therefore, poorer households, with little fertile land, must depend more heavily on craft production for their survival (Nash

1961:188) .

Arnold's (1975) work in the Ayacucho Basin of Peini provides another example of potters living on poor agricultural land where there is virtually no topsoil remaining and water is extremely scarce. Ironically, the geological environment is ideal for obtaining the raw materials needed in ceramic production. These people still

depend on farming for their basic sustenance, and pottery

furnishes a source of income which supplements their low

agricultural productivity.

In South Highland Peru, Mohr Chavez (1992) has found

that the "small field size, presence of volcanic rocks, and

restrictions against planting on archaeological sites" (Mohr

Chavez 1992:68) all contribute to low agricultural yields.

The seasonal production of ceramics provides a material

object that can either be sold or traded for farm products

that may be otherwise unattainable.

Additional income is also necessary in western Java,

where land scarcity is becoming a severe problem (Hardjono

1987). Low agricultural productivity has created a

situation where '^not only those with access to little or no land endeavor to find other income-producing occupations; some relatively large land-owners also seek other activities that yield income" (Hardjono 1987:246). Obviously, if land was plentiful, a strictly agricultural occupation would be desirable because of the better returns and the shorter length of the workday. Since this is not feasible, textile 18

production is heavily relied upon to boost household

earnings. In fact, the textile industry supplies roughly

25% of the households in Sukahaji and is one of their main

sources of income (Hardjono 1987:255). This is second only

to the cultivation of rice which supplies approximately 4S%

of households with their income (including agricultural wage

labor) (Hardjono 1987:255). Consequently, there are two

main employment patterns in Java. First, small- and medium-

sized landowners tend to have several sources of income at

all times. Second, those people or households with no land

will have one full-time occupation that is generally

unrelated to agriculture (Hardjono 1987:272).

Studies such as these (Kramer 1985) are useful

indicators of the situation a migrating population may be

faced with once they reach a host community; however,

migration involves a whole set of social relations as well

(Schwartz 1970). Five different post-migration situations

can be formulated to represent the economic opportunities

available after migration.

1. The most desirable outcome occurs when a migrating

population is able to immediately obtain a 19

sufficient quantity of viable agricultural land.

Virtually all of a household's income will be from

agriculture and usually the unit migrating can

choose the level of farming intensification that

they prefer.

2. Either a marginal quality of land or an insufficient

quantity of land are obtained. In this case, a

household is not able to fully support itself from

agricultural production alone (Breman 1985; Sinha

1978). Therefore, an additional source of income is

utilized, and this tends to be some form of craft

production that is based solely in the household.

These items can be traded for food to supplement

the food produced on land under cultivation.

3. The least desirable economic outcome of a migration

event occurs when there is no viable agricultural

land currently available (not already in use) at the

destination. In this event the migrating population

has two choices. First, the group stays at the host

community until farmland becomes physically

available. Until this occurs, each family is forced 20

to obtain all of its income from non-agricultural

pursuits, often household-based craft production of

some kind. These items are then traded for food and

subsistence materials as needed. The second choice

is to migrate again in search of available

agricultural land. This behavior may also take the

form of seasonal contract labor in areas of great

technological intensification (Netting 1993). Labor

movement in this sense may become a cyclical pattern

that occurs year after year, with no permanent

settlement on agricultural land.

4. Another migration situation occurs when productive

agricultural land is available at the host

community; however, the already established

population has control over the fields and their own

land tenure system (Levy 1992). In this

predicament, the migrants are forced to obtain all

or most of their family income from non-agricultural

occupations, excluding contract field labor.

Concurrently, these households are socially

integrating into the host community (possibly by giving gifts or joining in religious and social

ritual) so that viable land becomes obtainable.

5.The final migration situation occurs when

agricultural land is accessed through the kin ties

of a previously migrating group. This initial

migration population already experienced one of the

first four economic situations and has subsequently

opened the door for a secondary movement of people

into the area by way of family relationships. An

example of this scenario is visible in the stream

migration, north out of Baja California during the

California gold rush of the late 19"'' century. The

flow of information concerning jobs and living

arrangements was quite heavy along family lines.

The initial move from the hometown area was generally motivated by economic and family constraints. Newly married individuals, plus relatives in some cases, were tempted to join sisters, brothers, and other kin in central Baja and farther north (Alvarez 1987:42-43)

This kinship connection (whether of social or blood relation), which draws migrants along certain channels, is 22 one of the most utilized techniques of economic integration when settling at a destination (Anthony 1992:903) .

Kinship is the legitimate vehicle through which membership in a rural community is galvanized into economic, social, and political action. The presence of 'close relatives' is regarded as an important proxy for the prevalence of social ties, which, in turn, represents integration into the community. The presence of 'close relatives' is contingent upon the per­ ception of a part or the whole of one's kin group as 'close'. The absence of this perception is regarded as the relative scarcity of social ties and minimal communal integration (Abeysekera 1984:148).

Therefore, information flow seems to be an extremely important factor in the choice of destination for a migrating population.

In economic situations where land is scarce or of poor fertility, migrants seek out income supplements from occupations outside of agriculture. Household craft production is feasible under these conditions; however, most contemporary migration examples illustrate that contract or migratory labor is frequently pursued because of job and transportation availability in today's world system.

Actually, craft production seems to be the chosen source of secondary income when there is an established market for a 23

particular material item. This was seen in the Javan

households of Sukahaji where textile production was commonly

practiced in addition to agriculture (Hardjono 1987). When

the need for a specific craft product is not a host-

community concern, migrating households will more often

choose contract labor as their alternative occupation.

Therefore, depending on the economic circumstances

surrounding the destination society, if quality land is

lacking, the migrant family will opt for either craft

production or contract labor. These two activities fill the same income void.

Archaeological Implications

Recently there has been a resurgence of migration theory in archaeology as many people have come to realize that there actually was a substantial amount of movement throughout prehistory (Anthony 1992; Cameron 1995; Clark

1994; Lekson and Cameron 1995). However, the increased study of the dynamic migration process has also brought out many of the problems which are inherent in the archaeological investigation of these events. Current rural-to-rural migration events in agriculturally-based 24 societies deserve more attention. This is one reason why the study of economic integration after migration is of value to the archaeological research of prehistoric land tenure systems and the origins of craft production.

It appears that information flows and migration streams may have been extremely important prehistorically for gaining knowledge of natural resources in a foreign area.

Anthony (1992:903) claims that the specific origin of the initial migration should be evident, and will therefore be characterized by regionally defined artifact types.

^^Archaeologically, this should result in artifact distributions that follow a specific line of movement, though such sites might be transitory and difficult to identify" (Anthony 1992:903). If this pattern is distinguished in the archaeological record (Haury 1958;

Rouse 1958), then a system of kinship migration may have been in operation within this region. In addition, the determination of prehistoric climate and soil quality in a particular area may be effective in studying the link between agricultural intensification and this pattern of stream migration. 25

It is argued that a migrant's economic position sets up

their ability to succeed in a host community (Shrestha

1990:64). If this is true, then migrations throughout the

New Guinea Highlands, where resettlement land only exists on the fringes of Chimbu territory (Brookfield and Brown

1963:78), are basically set up to fail. These ideas have important archaeological implications for soil deterioration, population pressure, and the abandonment of both settlements and entire regions.

Two general points appear to be nearly universal in describing the economic situation of a migrating population as it integrates into a host community. First, in any agriculturally-based society, if a household gains access to a sufficient quantity of viable land, farming will become the dominant source of income. All secondary occupations, including contract labor and craft production (beyond the household's actual needs), will be dropped in order to devote both time and energy to the fields. Examples of this phenomenon can be seen in many areas, including the British

Middle Ages, where potters continued investing their 26 earnings until they could afford to buy land and then stop potting (Arnold 1988:194).

The second generalization involves the overall economic position of migrants in a rural agrarian system. These populations tend to be the poorest members of the society and occupy a marginal position in the host community. In a few cases, migration does not seem to be a successful step up the agricultural ladder. However, the correlation of secondary migration and strong kin ties may provide an exception, providing easier access to the integration process.

Finally, it is very important to consider variation in the production system. For example, potters may be participating in different types or degrees of craft production at different times throughout the year depending on the weather, the ritual cycle, or the agricultural cycle.

In addition, several types of production (part-time vs. full-time) may be occurring simultaneously within one interacting potting community. These multiple activities would certainly complicate the archaeological record, and 27 subsequently muddle the archaeological signature that migrating populations were leaving on a production system.

Change in systems of craft production, specifically ceramic production, can therefore provide valuable insight into the migration process and subsequent economic integration of moving peoples. However, in each of these above-mentioned migration scenarios it is necessary to first understand the organization of ceramic production before any causal mechanisms are attributed to change in this system of production. 28

CHAPTER 3

THE STUDY OP CERAMIC PRODUCTION

Production is the cornerstone of all economic models (Mills and Crown 1995:1).

All economic systems can be characterized by the three

processes of production, distribution, and consumption, and

knowledge of the organization of production is necessary to

fully comprehend the interactions between these processes.

Ceramics are one material class specifically amenable to the

study of the organization of production within an economic

system, because they "are ubiquitous components of the

technological repertoire of most food-producing societies,

and even some nonfood producers" (Mills and Crown 1995:1).

The organization of production is a broad concept, including

the place, time, and process of production, as well as the delineation of relations between the producer and consumer

(Mills and Crown 1995:2).

In the American Southwest, pottery has been scrutinized for its variation in space, time, composition, style, technology, use, and context of deposition. Here, the organization of ceramic production has been addressed 29

primarily through the study of standardization and craft

specialization, as is common outside the Southwest as well

(Brumfiel and Earle 1987; Clark and Parry 1990; Costin 1991;

Pool 1992; Rice 1981). However, it is essential to determine the locus of ceramic production before reconstructing any of the mechanisms that affect prehistoric ceramic artifact distributions (Orton et al. 1993; Rice

1987; Shepard 1965a, 1965b; Sinopoli 1991; Zedeno and Mills

1993:175). Discrimination between local and nonlocal ceramics is the first analytical step for understanding patterns of ceramic variation related to economic questions

(Zedeno and Mills 1993:175).

Typically, archaeologists in the Southwest draw upon three different, yet interrelated, sources of data, in order to define the organization of ceramic production. First, direct evidence of ceramic production, which is the strongest, consists of the tools, raw materials, and any features used in the production process (Triadan 1989).

Second, indirect evidence of manufacturing involves the assessment of sherd and vessel morphological characteristics; however, this is the weakest form of 30

evidence available when inferring aspects of the productive

system. Third, production loci can be identified (local vs.

non-local production) through various forms of compositional

analysis, including petrography. "Mineralogical and

chemical analyses form the basis for determining the source

of pottery, identifying the relative concentration of

producers within an area, and comparing the relative

intensity of production among sites and regions" (Mills and

Crown 1995 :8).

Several archaeologists have used these methods to

investigate the production of Roosevelt Red Ware in the

American Southwest (Crown 1994; Danson and Wallace 1956;

White 1994; Zedeno 1994). They have hypothesized that non- locally produced Pinto Polychrome found at many sites below the Mogollon Rim of east-central Arizona was manufactured above the Rim, possibly in the Silver Creek drainage. This presumption has many implications for the movement of populations from the Kayenta-Tusayan area into the Mogollon

Rim area during the late IS"** century. What follows is a summary of the work supporting the production of early

Roosevelt Red Ware in the Mogollon Rim area. Ceramic Production and Migration into the Silver Creek Area

Roosevelt Red Ware may have been manufactured at a

number of different locations in the Southwest, but where

were the earliest examples. Pinto Black-on-red and Pinto

Polychrome first produced? Reid at al. (1992) suggest that

migrants from north of the Mogollon Rim introduced Roosevelt

Red Ware into the mountains. This is based on stylistic and technological similarities between Pinto types and red wares from the north such as Showlow Black-on-red (Reid et al.

1992).

Many provenience studies of Roosevelt Red Ware have been conducted at sites below the Mogollon Rim, and consistently it appears that the non-local Pinto Polychrome is being manufactured somewhere above the rim and is then either being traded or carried to the south by migrating populations (Carlson 1970; Christenson 1995a, 1995b; Crown

1994; Reid et al. 1992; Triadan 1994; White 1993; White and

Burton 1992; Zedeno 1994). White and Burton (1992:222) point out:

the distinctive grey paste and white grog temper are not characteristic of ceramics manufactured in central Arizona but are virtually diagnostic of pottery from the Little Colorado region. The ubiquitous, well-rounded, well-sized-sorted, and mineralogically homogenous (i.e., nearly pure quartz) grains in their paste are also a diagnostic feature of the aeolian Paleozoic sandstones of the Little Colorado region.

The most prominent compositional study of Roosevelt Red

Ware was recently completed by Crown (1994), and in this

project she also concludes that the introduction of Pinto

Polychrome is closely tied to immigrants from the Tusayan-

Kayenta area (Crown 1994:208). In addition, Crown

postulates, as does Carlson (1970:116), that the Pinedale

style "emerges from the initial mingling of Kayenta-Tusayan

and Mogollon Rim populations," where it then becomes visible

on various southwestern ceramic types including Pinto

Polychrome.

Closely tied to this work is White's thesis (1993)

which focused on the origins of Pinto Polychrome. Her

compositional data also indicates that non-local Pinto

Polychrome below the Mogollon Rim is being manufactured at a currently undetermined site or group of sites above the rim.

Zedeno's research at Chodistaas Pueblo (1994:95) in east- central Arizona is yet another example of compositional 33

support for the manufacture of Pinto Polychrome in the Upper

Little Colorado area, which drains the Colorado Plateau

north of the Mogollon Rim.

All of these projects cite the impact of migration on

the organization of ceramic production, and specifically the

manufacture of Roosevelt Red Ware. For example, "the

characteristics of these bowls (in particular, design style,

temper technology, and carbon paint) and the circumstances

of their appearance on the Grasshopper Plateau suggest that

Roosevelt Red Ware technology may have been a result of a

movement of people from north of the Mogollon Rim" (Zedeno

1994:95) . Therefore, the delineation of production loci for

Pinto Polychrome is crucial to understanding the movement of

people throughout the Southwest during the 13'^'' and 14'^'"

centuries. The effect of the migration process on ceramic

production systems can then be tested.

Ceramic Production in the Silver Creek Area: Research

Questions

The locus of ceramic production can be established in two different manners. The first method involves the study of ceramic technology by closely examining the steps in the 34

manufacturing process (raw materials, vessel forming, and

firing). The assumption with this approach is that certain

technological traditions will be associated with specific

production loci or groups of potters. The second method is

compositional in nature and requires the use of

mineralogical or chemical techniques to evaluate the variation in ceramic raw materials as compared with the geology of different areas. According to Shepard

(1936:389),

the immediate purpose of ceramic techno­ logical investigations are to identify the materials and locate their sources, to study the indication of workmanship, and to describe properties by reference to exact, impersonal standards. There are two ultimate aims in the interpretation of techno­ logical data. The first is to trace the history of the potter's craft, the second is to recover more accurately and in greater detail than is possible by other methods the evidence which pottery preserves of cultural development, contacts, and influences.

Therefore, both of these analytical methods, technology and provenience, are utilized in this study of ceramic production in the Silver Creek drainage, so that two lines of evidence are available for evaluation. This research addresses the manufacture of Pinto Polychrome above the Mogollon Rim by comparing compositional data (petrography)

from both ceramic samples and raw material samples of sand

from the Silver Creek area. The central questions of this

study are:

1. Can a locus of production in the Silver Creek area

be pinpointed for any of the wares (Roosevelt Red Ware,

White Mountain Red Ware, Cibola White Ware, and/or

Showlow Red Ware)?

2. Can Pinto Polychrome, identified as nonlocal from

assemblages below the Mogollon Rim, be confirmed as

made in the Silver Creek area?

3. Is there a direct technological link between any of

the study wares (specifically Showlow Red Ware) in this

area and Roosevelt Red Ware?

Once these questions have been sufficiently addressed then larger issues, such as the previously outlined model of migration, ceramic production, and specialization, may be tackled for the Silver Creek area and other regions of the

American Southwest. 36

CHAPTER 4

SILVER CREEK DRAINAGE: THE STUDY AREA AND ITS GEOLOGY

This chapter first describes the sample database while providing descriptions of the ceramic wares and types utilized in this study. Second, the sites sampled are presented along with their respective geologic settings.

This geologic background is necessary for the assessment of ceramic composition and possible production locations.

The Sample Datad^ase

This study focuses on the production of ceramics, specifically Pinto Polychrome, during the late Pueblo III time period in the Silver Creek drainage. Pinto Polychrome is a ceramic type within the larger grouping of Roosevelt

Red Ware, which also includes Pinto Black-on-red, Gila

Black-on-red, Gila Polychrome, Tonto Polychrome, Salado Red,

Salado White-on-red, Cibicue Polychrome, Chevelon

Corrugated, Belford Red, Belford Smudged, and Gila Red-on- brown (Colton and Hargrave 1937). Three of these polychromes (Pinto, Gila, and Tonto types) are often collectively referred to as the Salado Polychromes (Crown

1994) .

The earliest of these polychromes, Pinto Polychrome, is dated from A.D. 1270 to 1325, and is found throughout east- central anid southeastern Arizona (Christenson 1995; Crown

1994; Montgomery and Reid 1990). It almost always occurs in bowl form and is characterized by an exterior red slip that is commonly polished, either a white or pinkish (salmon) interior slip, and interior designs using an organic black paint. These designs lack an interior framing band between the designs and the rim of the vessel (Colton and Hargrave

1937; Crown 1994; Gladwin and Gladwin 1930; Hawley 1936).

Samples of Pinto Polychrome were obtained from two sites in the Silver Creek drainage (Bailey Ruin and Fourmile

Ruin), Grasshopper Pueblo, and several sites in the Tonto

Basin (see Figure 1). The samples from Fourmile Ruin provide information on the composition of Pinto Polychrome from a site situated in an area geologically dissimilar to that of Bailey Ruin, yet within the same drainage system.

The sites south of the rim. Grasshopper Pueblo and the Tonto

Basin sites, allow the examination of specific Pinto 38

Polychrome samples considered to be produced in other areas.

In addition to the examination of spatial variability (north and south of the Mogollon Rim) in Pinto Polychrome, I have undertaken a technological and compositional comparison between Pinto Polychrome and several other ceramic types and wares. These include Gila Polychrome, Tonto Polychrome,

Showlow Black-on-red (Pottery Hill and Bailey Ruin), White

Mountain Red Ware (Pottery Hill and Bailey Ruin), and Cibola

White Ware (Bailey Ruin). The number of samples of each ware from each site are listed in Table 1, and the integrity of the typing of Pinto Polychrome sherds was maintained by selecting only rim sherds with visible design elements, as well as the presence or absence of a band (lifeline) at the rim. Those samples labeled Pinto-Gila Polychrome have not been classified as a proto-Gila or formal transition type

(Reid and Whittlesey 1992). Use of the term, Pinto-Gila, only occurs in cases where the differentiation between Pinto

Polychrome and Gila Polychrome is unclear.

Gila Polychrome is prevalent throughout the Southwest during the mid-to-late A.D. 1300s and is found as both jars and bowls. These vessels are covered with a red slip, have 39 black-on-white bold painted designs, have thicker hatching lines than Pinto Polychrome, and have bands (lifelines) on the exterior jar rims or interior bowl rims (Crown 1994:19).

Tonto Polychrome is quite similar to Gila Polychrome; however, the designs have red incorporated into them on both the bowls and jars. These vessels may or may not have

"lifelines" and the designs are bold and lack hachure of any sort. It appears that Tonto Polychrome is most common during the late A.D. 1300s and early A.D. 1400s, but this is not definitive (Crown 1994:19-20).

Showlow Black-on-red is usually found as bowls with a thin red slip and thin (sometimes fugitive) black carbon paint. The distribution of this late Pueblo Il-early Pueblo

III type is concentrated along the Puerco River and from the

Mogollon Rim north to near the Hopi Buttes, and it is tempered with sand or mixed sand and sherd (Fowler 1991;

Hawley 1936; Haury 1931; Mera 1934). Typically, it has solid geometric patterns; however, north of the Mogollon Rim many vessels with hatched opposed to solid designs have been included in this type even though they may be identical in design to Pinto Black-on-red, which is found above and below 40

SHOWLOW ROOSEVELT WHITE CIBOLA TOTAL RED RED WARE MOXniTAIN WHITE WARE RED WARE WARE Pottery Hill 10 5 15 AZ P:12:12} Bailey Ruin AZ P:ll:l) 11 25 33 10 79 Fourmile Ruin 10 10 AZ P:12:68) Grasshopper AZ P:14:l) 10 10 Punkin Center 5 5 Pyramid Point 2 2 AZ V:5:l) Griffin Wash 8 8 AZ V:5:90) Syc2unore Creek 4 4 Table 1 Ceramic Samples by Type and Site the Mogollon Rim (Christenson 1995a and 1995b). In 1934

Mera proposed the derivation of Pinto Polychrome from

Showlow Black-on-red by the addition of the interior white slip.

White Mountain Red Ware contains multiple polychrome and black-on-red ceramic types that are discriminated from each other primarily on the basis of design differences and 41

the placement of white paint (for the polychromes). This

ware is distinguished by a thick red slip, black painted

designs (with a matte-glaze at the end of the sequence) , and

a light-colored paste (paste color can be highly variable)

with crushed sherd temper (Carlson 1970). This ware is

distributed throughout portions of east-central Arizona,

northeast Arizona, and west-central New Mexico during the

Pueblo III and Pueblo IV time periods.

Cibola White Ware is generally distinguished by the

presence of a white slip, black mineral paint, a light-

colored paste with sherd or mixed sherd and sand temper, and

firing in a reducing or neutral atmosphere (Colton and

Hargrave 1937). Pinedale Black-on-white is the type sampled

in this study, and it dates to A.D. 1275-1325 (Reid et al.

1995).

Finally, five Mogollon Brown Ware plates from Bailey

Ruin were also sampled for a technological and compositional

comparison to Pinto Polychrome. The paste of these plates

(brownish-gray) is macroscopically identical to the Pinto

Polychrome and Showlow Black-on-red samples included in the study. Plates, whether perforated or unperforated, are most 42 common at sites in the Hopi-Kayenta area, and perforated plates are not found to the south until the late A.D. 1200s

(Christenson 1994). This distribution has allowed the presence of perforated plates, along with other lines of evidence, to support the identification of migration at several sites in the southwest, including Point of Pines

(Haury 1958), the Reeve Ruin (DiPeso 1958), and the Goat

Hill site (Woodson 1995). On the basis of use-wear analysis, the presence of ash and clay as residues, and their recovery from ceramic manufacturing toolkits, many plates seem to have functioned most plausibly as a mold or turntable during ceramic production (Christenson 1994), although other functions have not been ruled out.

Silver Creek Drainage: Sites Along the Mogollon Rim

Potteiry Hill

Pottery Hill is a late Pueblo III site (A.D. 1200-1275) which is located on a hilltop near the present-day settlement of Linden. The pueblo has approximately 50 rooms scattered across the top of the hill and a slightly lower eastern terrace (Mills et al. 1995; Mills 1996). This site was first described and mapped by Walter Hough (1903). 43

Subsequent work at the site has been conducted by the

University of Arizona Archaeological Field School over the last four years (Mills et al. 1993).

Bailey Ruin

The Bailey Ruin is a late Pueblo Ill/early Pueblo IV site (A.D. 1275-1325) with approximately 200 rooms grouped around a central plaza space. These rooms are relatively large (4 x 4 m), and it appears that at least some of the rooms were two-story. The dominant ceramic types at the site include Pinedale Black-on-white, Pinedale Polychrome,

Cedar Creek Polychrome, and Pinto Polychrome (Mills et al.

1995) . The University of Arizona Archaeological Field

School has been working at the site since 1993; in addition, initial brief investigations at the ruin were conducted by the Third Beam Expedition in 1929 (Haury and Hargrave 1931).

Geology Along the Moaollon Rim

Geologically, the area all along the rim is sedimentary and it is composed mainly of Permian age (Paleozoic) sediments overlain in places by unnamed Upper Cretaceous rocks which extend in a narrow east-west zone from Showlow 44 westward to Heber (see Figure 2). These Cretaceous rocks predominantly consist of fine- to coarse-grained feldspathic sandstone that were deposited as both marine and nonmarine nearshore deposits (Nations 1989:435,442-444). In addition, kaolinitic clays were deposited across the Colorado Plateau and northeastern Arizona at this time, and this alluvium has been used extensively for ceramic production of white wares.

Along the Mogollon Rim the Cretaceous sediments lie unconformably on an erosional surface which is deeply cut into the earlier Paleozoic stratigraphy (Nations 1989:444).

The Permian deposits around Bailey Ruin and Pottery

Hill consist primarily of various sandstones, the "rim gravels," and the Kaibab Limestone. Each of these units is contributing to sand assemblages in the various south-to- north-draining washes throughout the area. However, the

Coconino Sandstone is most widely exposed in the region.

This sandstone is a "cliff-foirming, cross-stratified, nearly pure quartz arenite" (Blakey and Knepp 1989:336) which is eolian in origin. This sandstone has uniform, medium-sized quartz grains in a well-cemented silica matrix and minor amounts of feldspar, mica, and iron oxide. Generally, it is SITES 1., Show Low aroa 2. Oaonal Draw 3. PInodole Rutn Trm 4. NIcK's Comp Slla 6. Dalloy'a Ruin e. nod Hill silo 7. Purcoll Draw 0. Squow Wash —tIzU ' » T» D. Chovolon Canyon Dam 10. Polalo Wash Q neoo (D *720 O H Chavez Pasa Ruin o HI (p H H- O

r.nr.MiInn ' An/irlip - ® tb NnllnnnI .'Sllaronvira 1 *i O Nnl.lnajg (D I- or n aI s rr ft rr P* H (D u> 00 to M H- .. M l-»00 A< ^ H 20 JO mlla 0 O H Modern town - Prohlalorlo ruin National (D (D Qualornory/rnrllory boaollo TrO - Chlnio Formallon ?r Oualernary boaalla Trm - MoonKopI Formntlon Ko- CrntDOOoua a Sedlmontary doposllo n PIK - Kiilbttb Formollon (U H- (U0 <« (D

Ul 46 white in color (grading to red and brown in certain areas) and has a porosity ranging from 7 to 19% (Keith 1969:446-

447). In certain areas along the Mogollon Rim the Coconino

Sandstone is capped by one of the yoimgest Permian units on the Colorado Plateau, the Kaibab Formation.

The Kaibab Formation is mainly composed of limestone and dolomite; however, this unit also contains sandstone, red sandy mudstone, bedded gypsum, conglomerate, and several varieties of chert (Blakey and Knepp 1989:336). Many of the

Kaibab outcrops in the Silver Creek area have easily accessible chert nodules available as mechanical weathering removes the limestone matrix (Kaldahl 1995:66).

Finally, the "rim gravels" (Pre-Cambrian through

Triassic in age) are located directly on and to the north of the Mogollon Rim. This unit was deposited by drainages flowing north and east onto the Colorado Plateau, and the gravels are primarily composed of silica-cemented sandstones and quartzites of varying particle size (Blakey 1989; Blakey and Knepp 1989; Wrucke 1989). 47

Silver Creek Drainage: The Snowflake Area

Fcurmile Ruin

Located on Cottonwood Wash, Fourmile Ruin is a large, multi-roomblock Pueblo IV site which is situated roughly 25 kilometers northeast of Bailey Ruin and 20 kilometers north of Pottery Hill. It is estimated to have greater than 500 rooms positioned on a high ridge directly adjacent to the wash. A combination of tree-ring dates and ceramic types

(late White Mountain Red Ware, Gila Polychrome, and Tonto

Polychrome) indicate a relatively long occupation from A.D.

1000 to approximately A.D. 1400 (Mills 1996:17; Woodman

1991:28-33).

Geology Around Fourmile Ruin

Sedimentary deposits in this area are represented by the Moenkopi Sandstone and the Kaibab Limestone, as described above. The Moenkopi Formation consists of sandy and silty red-bedded (lenticular and cross-bedded) sediments which are non-marine in origin. The sandstone beds are poorly to fairly well-sorted, fine-grained, and often separated by variably thick beds of shale. In contrast to the Coconino Sandstone, the Moenkopi Sandstone contains 48

approximately 80% silica, 4% iron oxide and aluminum oxide,

and 13% calcium carbonate (Keith 1969:447).

Fairly deep deposits of quaternary and tertiary gravels are scattered across the region, in addition to the relatively recent (Plio-Pleistocene) volcanic deposits. The

Springerville-Showlow volcanic field generated numerous basalt flows, nodules of gabbro, and extensive distributions of cinder from approximately 2.1 to 0.3 million years ago

(Woodman 1991:19; Lynch 1989:682-683). These volcanics, which are located to the east and southeast of Fourmile Ruin may be contributing to the raw sand assemblages that are available as ceramic tempering agents.

South of the Mogollon Rim: The Grasshopper Region

Grasshopper Pueblo

Grasshopper Pueblo is a large, multi-roomblock Pueblo

IV period site located on Salt River Draw. This masonry pueblo has roughly 500 or more rooms and several large plaza spaces. White Mountain Red Ware, Roosevelt Red Ware,

Grasshopper Ware, and smaller amounts of Cibola White Ware comprise the decorated ceramic assemblage (Triadan 1994:17,

27). The site was first investigated archaeologically by 49

Hough in 1918-19 (Hough 1930) , and has siabsequently been excavated only by the University of Arizona Archaeological

Field School from 1963 to 1992 (Graves et al. 1982; Reid

1989). The Pinto Polychrome ceramics sampled for this study were taken from collections made during the field school years under the direction of J. Jefferson Reid.

Geology of the Grasshopper Region

The Grasshopper Plateau immediately surrounding

Grasshopper Pueblo consists of a gray limestone mixed with shales (Naco Formation) and the sandstones and shales of the

Permian Supai Formation. These reddish-colored sandstones are typically cross-bedded and are cemented noncalcareously.

In addition, some of the Tertiary gravel deposits in the area contain quartzite, limestone, chert, granite, sands of variable composition, and diabase (Triadan 1994:40-41,

Zedefio 1994:22). Diabase is a ceramic temper of basaltic origin and because it is not found directly above the

Mogollon Rim it is characteristic of ceramic production south of the Colorado Plateau. 50

Central Arizona: The Tonto Basin

Tonto Basin Sites

The four sites sampled for Roosevelt Red Ware in the

Tonto Basin are Pxinkin Center, Pyramid Point, Griffin Wash, and Sycamore Creek (Stark and Heidke 1995) . All of these sites are in close proximity to either the Salt River or

Roosevelt Lake and they all have strong chronological dates in the mid- to late-A.D. 1200's (Christenson 1995) . The ceramic assemblages sampled from each site were recovered from masonry/adobe structures.

Geoloav of the Tonto Basin

The geologic iinits of the Tonto Basin span an immense period of time from the Early Proterozoic Era to the present, and throughout this time there have been instances of erosion, uplift, and volcanic intrusion. Therefore, the region is quite heterogeneous geologically, allowing the accurate sourcing of ceramic compositional zones. The important difference between this area and those to the north (Silver Creek drainage sites) is that "the sands in the Tonto Basin are either mineral-rich or rock-fragment- rich with a variety of grain types. No pure quartz sands are found within the Basin" (Miksa and Heidke 1995:134).

This simple fact allows the distinction between those ceramics produced in the Tonto Basin locally and those that may have been traded into the area or brought in by migrants.

The Silver Creek Drainage: Raw Seuid Sample

The geologic information presented in the previous sections is only intended to describe gross differences between geographic regions. This allows for the differentiation between locally and non-locally produced ceramics at each of the sampled sites; however, pinpointing a specific locus of production in the Silver Creek drainage is problematic because of the relatively homogeneous stratigraphy throughout the area. Therefore, raw sands were sampled from four separate washes in the Silver Creek area between Pottery Hill and Bailey Ruin (see Table 2). These samples provide more detailed data on the available raw materials in the southern portion of the Silver Creek drainage just north of the Mogollon Rim.

All washes sampled only carry water seasonally, but there is a great difference in the amount of discharge that each can handle. The small Pottery Hill Wash (an arbitrary name for an unnamed wash based on its proximity to the archaeological site) runs north-south at the bottom of the east side of the hill. Mortensen Wash is a relatively large

(over three times the size of Pottery Hill Wash) drainage that is located approximately half-way between Pottery Hill and Bailey Ruin near the town of Pinedale, Arizona. Willow

Wash runs north-south just to the east of Bailey Ruin and is clearly smaller than Mortensen Wash.

SAMPLE SOURCE # OF SAMPLES

Pottery Hill Wash 2

Mortensen Wash 9

Willow Wash 6

Day Wash 9

Tab]Le 2 Raw Seuid Sample Locations

Finally, Day Wash is roughly the same size as Willow Wash and it is located on the western side of Bailey Ruin. Both

Willow Wash and Day Wash have noticeable deposits of alluvial kaolin clay which would be extremely amenable for the production of ceramic vessels. 54

CHAPTER 5

METHODS OF PETROGRAPHZC ANALYSIS

Ceramic composition and technology are often used to establish the origins of pots, raw materials, and people.

On a basic level of analysis, the connection between characterization and behavior relies on the Provenience

Postulate, which claims "compositional variation within a source to be less than the variation between different sources" (Bishop et al. 1982:301). In fact, the discrimination between locally and non-locally manufactured ceramics is of primary concern when answering economic questions related to the archaeological patterning of various production systems (Zedeno and Mills 1993:175).

Rice defines ceramic characterization as "the qualitative and quantitative description of the composition and stmcture of a ceramic so as to evaluate its properties and uses and permit reproduction of the material" (Rice

1987:3 09). Both chemical and mineralogical approaches can be taken in characterization studies; however, by identifying the specific mineral constituents within a clay 55

body, tnineralogical studies can often tie an assemblage of

ceramics to a specific geological formation or region

(Peacock 1970:381). Therefore, when asking general

questions concerning the provenience, it is of great benefit

to conduct a mineralogical study before attempting detailed

chemical analysis.

Petrographic analysis, one particular mineralogical

technique, is an ideal method of determining the mineral

constituents within a ceramic body. This analytical tool

treats ceramic material as artificial stone or metamorphosed

sedimentary rocks: clasts are supported in a clay matrix

and both of these are at least partially during firing (Rice

1987:376). Commonly, sherds are thin-sectioned parallel to

the vessel body (Kempe and Templeman 1983:30; Rice

1987:379), although perpendicular sections may provide

interesting data on the paints, slips, and specifically glazes of decorated wares.

Thin sections are viewed microscopically under polarized light, which vibrates in only one direction (which is dependent on the particular microscope. Under "crossed nicols," an analyzer absorbs the plane-polarized, north- 56 south light and instead transmits east-west light (Klein and

Hurlbut 1993:289-307; Philpotts 1989; Rice 1987:377).

Minerals, either inherent in the pottery clay or added by the potter as temper, can then be defined by their optical properties in plane- and cros-polarized light and subsequently compared between sherds and geologic regions

(Sinopoli 1991:104) . Most of the identifiable minerals are considered to be coarse inclusions, and the clay matrix is generally too fine-grained to be definable under the polarizing microscope (Peacock 1970:379).

Petrography in the American Southwest

The practice of identifying individual grains petrographically was pioneered in the Southwest by Anna 0.

Shepard as she worked on the production location of the Rio

Grande Glaze-Paint Wares (Shepard 1965:68). Even though her study was based mainly on qualitative petrography, she established a model for distinguishing ceramic production locales in a geologically diverse area. This model is very much in use today throughout the Southwest because it is inexpensive, reliable, and productive. Since the 1950s numerous southwestern examples of

petrographic analysis have been conducted with an emphasis

on quantitative petrography (Abbott and Schaller 1992;

Danson and Wallace 1956; Garrett 1983; Miksa and Heidke

1995; Mills et al. 1995). In addition, many recent studies

have combined different types of ceramic characterization

with technological and stylistic analyses, thereby

strengthening the power of each technique and formulating

richer data (Abbott 1994; Crown 1994; Triadan 1994; Zedeno

1994) .

Methods of Petrographic Analysis for the Silver Creek

Project

Petrography was chosen as the analytical method in this study of Pinto Polychrome primarily because of the need to examine both compositional and technological patterns in the ceramic production system. This method is less expensive than most chemical techniques; therefore, more samples were available for analysis. One clear disadvantage of using petrography on ceramics from this portion of the Colorado

Plateau is the poor resolution of raw material sourcing.

The geology and composition of sands (useful for tempering) 58

across the Mogollon Rim is extremely homogeneous; therefore,

it is virtually impossible to discern precise geologic

correlates for ceramic characterization. For this reason, I

have limited the identification of ceramic manufacturing

loci to the geographic regions discussed previously. The

remainder of this chapter presents the specific

compositional and technological methods employed in the

analysis of all sampled ceramics and raw sand sources.

Ceramic Samples

Point Counting and Grain Identification

Thin-section petrography can be cjuantified in two ways:

visual comparison and point counting. Visual comparison is

a more subjective method of estimating particle density by

equating the experimental sample to one of known

percentages. This method does not provide veiry detailed

data; however, in large projects where time is an issue and geology is substantially heterogeneous it can be relatively effective. Point counting involves actually enumerating the

individual grains that fall under a central cross-hair or grid intersection points so that circumstantial analysis

(quantitative) may be applied to the data (Rice 1987:381; 59

Stoltman 1989:148). Each thin section is moved across the

stage at a set interval of measurement, and the petrographer

systematically samples grains that happen to fall under the

central cross-hair.

Recently, there has been an increase in the use of a

particular point-counting method, the Gazzi-Dickinson

technique (Dickinson 1970; Gazzi 1966). Using this method, all grains which are at least sand size (>0.0625 mm) are counted as individual mineral grains rather than as rock fragments. By counting mineral species, sands with different mean grain sizes can be compared to each other, and these can then be compared to the sand temper in ceramics (this temper may be composed of crushed rock).

Therefore, the maturity of the sands collected does not interfere with the determination of possible source areas for ceramic temper. It is important to remember that only sands from the same "order" of landforro should be analyzed together (Ingersoll 1993).

All ceramic samples in this study were thin-sectioned parallel to the vessel wall by Ray Lund of Quality Thin

Sections, in order to maximize the area available for 60 analysis. The composition and texture of the ceramics were then analyzed by the author using a quantitative point counting technique (Gazzi-Dickinson method). The counting interval was set at one millimeter (vertically and horizontally across the section), so that all grains, sand- sized or larger (whether inherent in the clay or added as temper by the potter) falling under this point were identified and analyzed across the entire areal extent of the thin section. A one millimeter interval was employed in order to maximize the number of grains counted without overestimating certain grain types by counting individual minerals more than once (Chayes 1956:11-12). The counts for each thin section were converted to volume percentages (see

Chapter 6), in order to determine the mineral composition of each vessel (Chayes 1956:13). These data provide the mineral composition for each vessel which can be compared and tested against the geology of each region and potential loci of production defined.

The Gazzi-Dickinson technique stipulates that all grains should be broken down into two categories - monomineralic fragments and lithic fragments. The 61

tnonomineralic grains are designated by their mineral phase,

and the lithic fragments are classified by their source and texture (Miksa and Heidke 1995). The ceramic petrographic data collected for this study has been recorded in this manner as seen in Appendix 4.

In addition to basic grain identification, the original paste color (macroscopic) of each vessel was classified into one of sixteen groups as defined specific colors as represented in the Munsell Color Chart. These groupings were then used subjectively for the classification of clay matrix colors under the microscope. Also, the relative birefringence of clay particles and the condition of any primary carbonates were observed in order to estimate if the vessel firing temperature reached and exceeded 830 degrees C

(temperature variable with composition) . At this temperature primary carbonates are dissociated and clay particle birefringence is destroyed (Vaughan 1995:117).

Textiiral Analysis

Texture refers to the size, shape, and frequency of a specific grain types (mineral) and their relation to the clay matrix. Textural analysis has increasingly been 62 utilized in ceramic compositional studies in situations of geologic homogeneity and when the predominant temper is quartz or sand. This method was first utilized by Peacock

(1971) in his study of Roman coarse pottery from Fishbourne.

The analytical technique is dependent theoretically on both the Provenience Postulate and several basic principles of sedimentary geology. Ceramics made in a relatively restricted geologic area, and hence raw materials all probably originating from the same foirmation, may contain sand grains of the same size as a result of similar weathering and sorting processes depending upon the total amount of grain variation within the sand (Orton et al.

1993:141; Williams 1983:304).

The textural variables of grain size, roundness, and sphericity have long been an integral part of sedimentary basin analysis (Carozzi 1993; Chamley 1990; Davis 1992; Folk

1974; Lewis and McConchie 1994; Miall 1984; Ries and Conant

1931; Tucker 1988). These measurements taken together create a characteristic picture of each particle that is a combination of the internal structure, and the origin and history of every grain. For example, the mean grain size of 63 an assemblage of particles typically reflects the competency of transport processes which brought the grains to their depositional environment. Particle roiindness refers to the smoothness or sharpness of its edges and corners, and this is generally a measure of the amount of physical abrasion that a particle has undergone. Finally, particle sphericity measures the degree to which a particle approaches a perfect sphere. This is more heavily influenced by particle origin than the variable of roundness (Davis 1992:9-10).

Textural analysis seems a logical application in the analysis of ceramics from this study because of the dominance of pure quartz sandstones and relatively homogeneous geology throughout the Silver Creek drainage.

Grain size was measured in millimeters (to the one-hundredth of a millimeter) by the diameter of the long axis of each particle, and these were then averaged for each thin section in order to formulate a mean grain size for every ceramic vessel sampled. Both roundness and sphericity were measured by visual estimation using a roundness/ sphericity scale that is a combination of Power's (1953) and Folk's (1955) scales (see Figure 3). Grains are cross-classified by 64

FIGURE 3

Roimdness/Sphericity Scale For Textural Analysis

0.9 0 O 0 0 0

0.7 Q o a

0.5 o o CP o

0.3

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 SPHERICITY/ROUNDNESS roundness (scale = .1, .3, .5, .7, .9) and sphericity

(scale= .3, .5, .7, .9) into one of 20 different categories.

These categories are then used to compare the overall shape and size of particles from different vessels, different geologic regions, and different ceramic types or wares.

Raw Sand Sample, Analysis

Sand samples were collected during the summer of 1995 from four separate washes in the Silver Creek drainage between the sites of Pottery Hill and Bailey Ruin. When feasible (depending on the width of the wash) nine samples were taken from each drainage by lying a twenty-meter tape across the floor of the wash, perpendicular to each bank.

Three samples were then bagged from equal intervals across the tape. This process was then repeated twice at 100-meter intervals down the length of each drainage. I was careful to select sampling areas that were upstream of any major episodes of recent construction or man-made roadways so that natural sorting processes would be in effect.

These samples were then subsampled randomly in order to obtain a more representative particle size range from each drainage. Next, 100 individual grains from each subsample 66

were then analyzed under a binocular microscope at lOx.

Only particles formally defined as sand, within the size

range of 1/16 mm to 1 mm (Wentworth 1922), were analyzed.

The mineral identification, grain size (diameter of long axis in millimeters), grain roundness, and grain sphericity were recorded for each particle in the same way that the ceramics were analyzed under the petrographic microscope.

Therefore, the data from the ceramic vessels can be easily compared to these sand assemblages for greater insight into the source of raw materials used in ceramic production.

The sand sample data has been recorded using the criteria of the Gazzi-Dickinson technique as described earlier (see Appendix 2). The sand compositional information is therefore grain-based, and all samples were taken from first-order landforms such as alluvial fans and local drainages (Ingersoll 1993). 67

CHAPTER 6

INTERPRETATION OF COMPOSITIONAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL DATA

In this chapter, data generated from the petrographic analysis of ceramic samples and microscopic investigation of raw sand samples are presented and interpreted in this chapter (all data including point counts are located in

Appendices 2-5). To address the locus of production for these ceramics, the compositional data from the sherds is first compared to the geology of the Mogollon Rim area and then to the 27 raw sand samples taken from four washes in the Silver Creek drainage. Finally, the production technology of Pinto Polychrome (including the salmon variety) is examined in relation to the production techniques of other ceramic wares. Table 3 provides the code numbers associated with ceramic wares as they are designated in all figures throughout this chapter.

SHOWLOW ROOSEVELT WHITE CIBOLA PLAIN RED WARE RED WARE MOUNTAIN WHITE WARE RED WARE WARE PLATES ABBREV. SLRW RRW WMRW CIWW Plates CODE 1 2 3 4 5 Table 3 Ceramic Ware by Code Number 68

Locus o£ Production

The overwhelming majority of sherds sampled for this

project have primarily sherd and q[uartz sand temper as seen

in Figure 4, which compares the compositional data for all

ceramics sampled from each site. Many of these samples also

contain trace amounts (<1.0%) of quartzite, chert, and

plagioclase feldspar (see point data in Appendix 4);

however, these percentages are so small that they have not

been included in the following figures. Even though these

assemblages contain different ceramic wares and types and

come from different sites, it becomes immediately apparent

that there is extremely little variation in their temper

constituents. This homogeneity is not totally surprising.

Virtually all sherds from sites outside of the Silver Creek

drainage (i.e.. Grasshopper and the Tonto Basin sites) were chosen for analysis specifically because they did not appear

to have been manufactured at these sites and were

hypothesized to come from the Silver Creek area.

The limited degree of variation in characterization can also be seen by examining the ceramics from Bailey Ruin.

All five wares are represented in the samples from this site 69

FIGURE 4

Mean Ceramic Ware Compositions by Site

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20 • SHERD 10 • QUARTZ @ MATRIX

SITE 70

(Figure 5), and the same homogeneity of sherd and quartz temper is readily visible. It is worth mentioning that some ceramics within each ware appear to have had both sherd and quartz sand intentionally added as temper, while others appear to have had only crushed sherds added to the paste by the potters. This distinction was made on the basis of both the size distribution and the total percentage of quartz sand in each sample. The sherds with a mixed temper exhibit a bimodal distribution (approximately 0.14 mm and 0.28 mm) of quartz grain size and have relatively higher percentages

(roughly 10%) of quartz overall. Those samples with sherd temper also have small percentages of quartz sand; however, these quartz grains are much smaller (approximately 0.15 mm) and comprise a smaller portion of the total composition

(roughly 2-3%). In the latter case, it is highly probable that these sands were present naturally in the clay before procurement because the majority of clay sources in the

Silver Creek area are secondary or alluvial deposits near drainages (see Chapter 4).

A closer look at Pinto Polychrome helps to answer the question: Was Pinto Polychrome locally produced in the FIGURE 5

Ceramic Ware Compositions for Bailey Ruin

90

80

70 60

50

40

30

20 • SHERD 10 • QUARTZ 0 S MATRIX CIWW PLATE RRW SLRW WMRW WARE 72

FIGURE 6

Composition of Pinto Polychrome by Site

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20 • SHERD 10 • QUARTZ 0 S MATRIX

SITE 73

Silver Creek drainage? In the following discussion (and in

Figure 6), the term "Pinto Polychrome" refers to both the white-slipped Pinto Polychrome and Pinto Polychrome, salmon variety. The arbitrary grouping of these data seem justified because all compositional differences between these types are statistically negligible.

Upon close examination of the Pinto Polychrome sherds, it becomes obvious that the majority of these samples have sherd fragments as the dominant temper type; however, all of the samples do have varying percentages of quartz sand. In addition to the presence of quartz, most of the ceramic samples of this type contain small quantities of chert, plagioclase feldspar, quartzite, and silica-cemented sandstone particles, which is the same compositional pattern found in virtually all samples analyzed here from sites both within and outside of the Silver Creek drainage.

This compositional assemblage is precisely what is to be expected if these Pinto Polychrome ceramics were being produced somewhere along the Mogollon Rim. Geologically this region is sedimentary (see Chapter 4), and is composed of various sandstones, the "rim gravels," and the Kaibab 74 limestone, which contains chert nodules. A comparison of the Mogollon Rim geological formations and the sherd compositional percentages clearly indicates that a locus of production for Pinto Polychrome in the Silver Creek drainage cannot be ruled out. The following raw sand sample analysis provides further support for the manufacture of ceramics in this area.

Raw Ssmd Sample Analysis

The predominant formations in this southwestern portion of the Silver Creek drainage are the Coconino Sandstone, the

Kaibab Limestone, and the "rim gravels." The sand sample grain assemblages appear to be composed of materials derived from all three geological formations (Figure 6). However, the sands are dominated by quartz that is relatively spherical. This high percentage of quartz may be explained by processes of mechanical weathering which would likely have a greater affect on the sandstones (individual grains break apart more easily than fused grains) as opposed to quartzite, the second most common material represented in these assemblages. A close inspection of the sands by wash (Figure 7) illustrates the quartz percentages falling between 45% and

65%, the quartzite percentages ranging between 35% and 45%, and both plagioclase feldspar and chert comprising less than

5% of the grain assemblages. Clearly, there is more quartzite represented in the washes than is actually found in the sand temper either inherent in the clay pastes or added by the potter. One possible explanation is that potters are selecting clay with primarily quartz in it, or they are purposefully gathering wash sand that is dominated by pure quartz sand. Another reason for this difference may simply be the result of a natural variation of sand composition across and throughout the individual washes.

There is a chance that these raw sand samples analyzed here do not accurately represent the true range of variation in the drainage because of the small number of samples analyzed.

In order to strengthen the argument for an origin of

Pinto Polychrome in the Silver Creek drainage, the textural data of mean grain size, grain roundness, and grain sphericity can be compared for the ceramic samples and the 76

FIGURE 7

Sand Assemblage Composition by Wash

100

80 -

60 -

40

20 - m CHERT • QUARTZIT • FELDSPAR 0 @ QUARTZ

WASH 77 sand assemblages from each wash. These data help to connect the uniform, highly spherical pure quartz grains of the

Coconino Sandstone, the raw sands from washes in the Silver

Creek area, and the arkosic sand (predominantly quartz) found in the ceramic samples.

First, a comparison of mean quartz grain sizes (mm) between the wash sands as seen in Table 4 and the ceramic samples as seen in Table 5 places the mean raw sand sizes

(the lower level of precision in the raw sand measurements is a factor of the lower magnification under the binocular microscope) near the middle of the range for ceramics (0.2-

0 .3 mm) .

POTTERY MORTENSEN WILLOW DAY

HILL

SIZE (nim) 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2

Table 4 MecUi Quartz Grain Size by Wash

Second, the similarity in grain roundness and sphericity between the quartz in the ceramic samples and the raw sands is quite evident by comparing the values in Table

5 (ceramics) to those in Figure 8 (raw sands). The raw sand samples exhibit sphericity values around 0.4-0.5 and roundness values from 0.2 to 0.4. This variation in degree of rounding may be the result of differential weathering processes between the washes. The lower relative values seen for Pottery Hill Wash and Willow Wash are probably caused by the smaller size of these drainages, their lower flow rates, and therefore their lower erosional power. The roundness and sphericity values for the raw sands are again well within the range of variation exhibited by the quartz present in the ceramic sample; however, on the whole the sands have slightly lower levels of roundness and sphericity. This may be indicative of a cleaning technique where the largest inclusions are removed from the temper or the clay paste by the potter before vessel forming. These larger particles are typically those with lower roundness and sphericity values and their absence in the sherd samples may be raising the ceramic textural values. On the other hand, potters may be differentially selecting rounder, more spherical sands from the washes for use as temper. S QSPHERE • GROUND 80

SITE WARE MEAN MEAN MEAN Q QUARTZ Q SPHERICITY SIZE (MM) ROUNDNESS Pottery Hill SLRW 0 .25 0.4 0.6 Pottery Hill WMRW 0 .09 0.3 0.6 Bailey Ruin SLRW 0.18 0.4 0.7 Bailey Ruin RRW 0 .24 0.4 0.6 Bailey Ruin WMRW 0.19 0.4 0.7 Bailey Ruin CIWW 0.25 0.5 0 . 7 Bailey Ruin Plates 0.40 0.3 0.7 Fourmile RRW 0 .32 0.4 0 . 8 Ruin Grasshopper RRW 0.48 0.4 0.8 Tonto Basin RRW 0.39 0.4 0 . 6 Table 5 Quartz Textural Data From Ceramics

All of these correlations between the sands and the

ceramic temper are specifically evident in Pinto Polychrome,

which indicates that it was also produced with raw materials

from the Silver Creek drainage. There is one interesting

difference between the mean quartz size found in the

Roosevelt Red Ware samples and that of any other ceramic

ware sampled (see Table 5). The mean quartz size of

Roosevelt Red Ware is noticeably larger (0.24-0.48 mm) than the quartz present in the White Mountain Red Ware (0.09-0.19

mm), Cibola White Ware (0.25 mm), or Showlow Red Ware (0.25

mm). This difference indicates that either potters are not 81

carefully cleaning the clay before its use and larger sand

particles are being left in the clay, or small quantities of

sand are being added to the clay as temper. This second

hypothesis does not preclude the clear dominance of sherd

temper throughout the paste of the Roosevelt Red Ware

samples, and more specifically Pinto Polychrome.

The Technology of Pinto Polychrome Production

The probable locus of production identified for Pinto

Polychrome just north of the Mogollon Rim allows us to now consider its production technology in comparison to other ceramic wares of this region, specifically Showlow Black-on- red and the ceramic plates from Bailey Ruin. The implications of the compositional data presented in this section will be further discussed in Chapter 7.

The most striking observation when examining the compositional percentages for each of the five wares is that

Showlow Black-on-red (SLRW) has a reversed quartz-to-sherd ratio as opposed to the other ceramic types (see Figures 5 and 9). Purposefully added quartz temper is much more abundant in Showlow Black-on-red than all other samples, and this suggests that a different manufacturing technology was 82 employed during the production of this ceramic type. In contrast. Pinto Polychrome and all other wares (including the ceramic plates from Bailey Ruin) examined in this study exhibit a higher sherd-to-quartz ratio in the temper particles (see Figure 9). This obvious difference in tempering between Showlow BlacJc-on-red and Pinto Polychrome provides evidence of a real technical distinction between these two ceramic types, which have similar pastes, slips, paints, and firing characteristics.

In addition, it is important to note the highly comparable tempers of Pinto Polychrome and the plain ceramic plates from Bailey Ruin. The composition of these plates is also virtually identical to that of other wares (White

Mountain Red Ware and Cibola White Ware) in the Silver Creek drainage. This similarity between Pinto Polychrome and the

Mogollon Brown Ware plates, as seen in Figure 9, has significant meaning for the technological- relationships that are discussed in the following chapter.

These plates, along with the White Mountain Red Ware and Cibola White Ware samples are extremely homogeneous technologically, and they all exhibit sherd temper 83 percentages within a very narrow range. The mean quartz size is relatively small in each of these ware, compared to

Roosevelt Red Ware samples, which indicates that no sands were added as temper by the potter. Instead, this small unimodal sand size distribution is the result of naturally mixed or interbedded (see Chapter 4) alluviual clays and sands. 84

FIGURE 9

Technological Comparison of Pinto Polychrome

• SHERD • QUARTZ 0 MATRIX

WARNEW 85

CHAPTER 7

PINTO POLYCHROME AND MIGRATION INTO THE SILVER CREEK DRAINAGE

The compositional data of five ceramic wares combined with geological information and the analysis of raw sand samples from the Silver Creek drainage do indicate that a the region of ceramic production for Pinto Polychrome can be narrowed to the area just north of the Mogollon Rim.

Samples from the sites below the rim, Grasshopper Pueblo and those in the Tonto Basin, appear compositionally identical to those ceramics made locally in this portion of the Silver

Creek area. The mineral composition of sands in the paste of these ceramics is not only representative of the geologic formations exposed within the Silver Creek drainage, but it is equally dissimilar to any geologic environment south of the Mogollon Rim. There are no monomineralic sand (quartz) in the Tonto Basin (various igneous rocks) or in the

Grasshopper region (various igneous rocks including diabase) , and even sands from drainages to the east and west of the Silver Creek drainage should have a strong igneous component. Therefore, it is necessary to designate the production

location as the Silver Creek drainage in general because of the relatively uniform geology along this section of the

Mogollon Rim. This geological zone encompasses the sites of

Bailey and Pinedale Ruins, but few other sites (Mills 1996).

In addition, these data provide further support for manufacture of sherd-tempered Pinto Polychrome above the rim that was then traded into the Tonto Basin or transported to southern sites by migrating people.

The Implications of Pinto Polychrome Technology in the

Silver Creek Drainage

The probable locus of production for Pinto Polychrome just north of the Mogollon Rim provides the necessary background for a discussion of changes in production technology associated with the inception of this ceramic type. The study of ceramic technological style closely examines many aspects of the manufacturing process, which tend to be quite conservative and highly influenced by the specific learning framework of ceramic production {Lechtman

1977; Rice 1987; Shepard 1936; Whittlesey 1982; Zedeno

1994). The assumption with this approach is that certain 87

technological traditions will be associated with specific

ceramic production groups.

The technology of Pinto Polychrome has often been compared to Showlow Black-on-red, typically found north of the Mogollon Rim (Colton and Hargrave 1937; Crown 1994;

Fowler 1991). These two ceramic types, as seen at Pottery

Hill and Bailey Ruin, are highly similar in manufacturing technique. However, they also differ dramatically in the presence of certain tempers as seen in Chapter 6 (Figure 9).

In the Silver Creek drainage, the similarities between Pinto

Polychrome and Showlow Black-on-red include, first, a virtually identical brownish-gray paste which distinguishes them from other ceramic wares, such as White Mountain Red

Ware and Cibola White Ware, that are commonly found at sites throughout the drainage. Second, Pinto Polychrome and

Showlow Black-on-red share the application of hatched opposed to solid designs in carbon paint. Showlow Black-on- red is identified by the presence of a thin red slip, while

Pinto Polychrome can also have either a white slip or a pinkish, salmon-colored slip on the bowl interior.

Interestingly, this use of carbon paint requires a firing technology different than that employed in the production of other wares in this area. Both types must have been fired in a neutral-to-reducing atmosphere at a relatively low temperature in order to allow the organic black paint and red slip to survive the firing (Crown 1994:187) .

Despite the obvious similarities, Showlow Black-on-red and Pinto Polychrome as produced in the Silver Creek are clearly different in temper composition. At both Pottery

Hill and Bailey Ruin, Showlow Black-on-red is predominantly tempered with the local quartz sand as already described in

Chapter 6. By contrast, virtually all of the Pinto

Polychrome at Bailey Ruin is heavily tempered with light gray to white sherd fragments. This shift in tempering technology between two ceramic types that are otherwise quite similar, indicates a distinct change in the ceramic manufacturing process during the late Pueblo III time period. However, what is this change attributable to?

This new technological style could be a result of

Kayenta-Tusayan migration into the Mogollon Rim area. The use of carbon paint is common on various black-on-white painted wares in the Kayenta-Tusayan and Little Colorado 89

areas (Fowler 1991). Also, ground sherd fragments were

frequently chosen as the tempering agent in the latter area

as well as in the Silver Creek area. At the present time,

the most compelling ceramic evidence supporting a migration

of Kayenta-Tusayan populations into the Silver Creek

drainage is found in the presence of sherd-tempered plates

at Bailey Ruin (Mills 1996). In terms of paste, the plates

are macroscopically identical to the Pinto Polychrome and

Showlow Black-on-red samples, and yet microscopically

identical only to the composition of Pinto Polychrome from

Bailey Ruin.

The technological correlation demonstrated in this

thesis between the plates and Pinto Polychrome is important

for two main reasons. First, plates, whether perforated or

unperforated, are most common at sites in the Hopi-Kayenta

area, and they are not found to the south until the late

A.D. 1200s (Christensen 1994). This distribution has

allowed the presence of plates, along with other lines of

evidence, to support the identification of migration at

several sites in the southwest, including Point of Pines

(Haury 1958), the Reeve Ruin (DiPeso 1958), and the Goat 90

Hill site (Woodson 1995). At Bailey Ruin, the recovery of plate fragments from at least 50 different vessels, the majority of which are made of local materials, seems to indicate potter interaction rather than simply trade of the items. Second, on the basis of use-wear analysis, the presence of ash and clay as residues, and their recovery from ceramic manufacturing toolkits, plates seem to have functioned most plausibly as a mold or turntable during ceramic production (Christensen 1994). Therefore, their compositional similarity to Pinto Polychrome creates an undeniable link between the Kayenta-Tusayan area, the Silver

Creek drainage, and the creation of a new technological style of ceramics.

The Orgeuiization of Cercunic Production and the Migration

Process

This compositional analysis has shown that Pinto

Polychrome was locally produced in the Silver Creek drainage, is technologically distinct yet related to Showlow

Black-on-red, and is closely tied to the Kayenta-Tusayan tradition of using ceramic plates. This combination of technological change and the inception of the Pinedale 91 design style (Carlson 1970; Crown 1994), as visible on Pinto

Polychrome, provides a convincing argument for Pinto

Polychrome first being manufactured along the Mogollon Rim of east-central Arizona. Therefore, Pinto Polychrome seems to be a good example of the merging of ceramic technologies as a result of Kayenta-Tusayan migrations into the Mogollon

Rim area as Carlson (1970) and Crovm (1994) have proposed.

This knowledge of the organization of ceramic production during the late Pueblo III time period allows us to begin directly examining migration as a process.

Returning to the previously mentioned alternative models of economic integration, each migration scenario, as summarized in Table 6, can be evaluated with respect to the origin of

Pinto Polychrome.

The simplest economic explanation can be found in

Scenario 1 where Kayenta-Tusayan populations immediately obtained farm land upon their arrival in the Silver Creek area. Here, the production of Pinto Polychrome may be solely attributable to a socially or ritually integrative mechanism, where economics has virtually no role as Crown's model (Crown 1994) suggests. However, economic factors 92

MIGRATION LAND AVAILABILITY AT S0T7RCE OF INCOME SCENARIO DESTINATION OF MIGRANT GROUP sufficient quantity of agriculture viable agricultural land 2 marginal quality of Isind or agriculture and insufficient quantity of craft production land 3 no viable agricultural land craft production or recurrent migration 4 productive agricultural craft production or available but under social contract labor control by host 5 sufficient agricultural land agriculture or accessed through kin ties agriculture and craft production Table 6 Stuomary o£ Migration Scenarios

undoubtedly play a role in migration processes and the remaining migration scenarios are worth considering here.

Under Scenarios 2 and 3 Kayenta-Tusayan groups moved into the Silver Creek drainage and either obtained a marginal quality of land or simply an insufficient quantity of land. In this case, the migrants may have produced Pinto

Polychrome for strictly economic reasons alone, in other words to supplement or replace subsistence production. A multifaceted example of this situation is found in Arnold's

(1975) work on ceramics in the Ayacucho Basin of Peru. The

Quinua potters in this geographic region practice both 93

agriculture and craft production; however, the agricultural

potential of the arid, eroded farmland, which is located in a marginal area of the valley, is limited. Interestingly,

Arnold brings up the point that living in this marginal area may actually be a potter's choice because "the same factors that make pottery materials available - erosion of topsoil and extensive stream cutting - contribute to its poorer agricultural potential" (Arnold 1975:190).

Another possible cause for this change in tempering technology may have been structured by a specific form of social integration which stems from migration Scenario 4.

Here the migrants would have needed to socially integrate into the host community in order to gain access to viable agricultural land, and the production of Pinto Polychrome may have functioned both economically and socially to ensure integration. In order to be a fully functioning member of village society, each household is often required to maintain a certain level of resources so that necessary ceremonial and social obligations can be met (Scott 1976:9).

Finally, scenario 5 raises the issue of stream migration along kin lines, whether these be fictive. 94

affinal, or consancfuineal. Contact between these two

geographic areas prior to substantial population movement

would support the possibility of stream migration over time,

because in many areas of the world, kinship can be

structured by trade and the craft production and consumption

process rather than from genealogy alone. In fact, evidence

of contact between the Kayenta-Tusayan area and regions to

the south can be found during the Pueblo III time period.

As increasing population concentration in the Kayenta-

Tusayan area created a spatial gap between themselves and

neighboring populations, they maintained or increased the

level of contact with groups to their south (Dean 1996:35).

For example, there is great similarity in ceramic design

between these two areas. More specifically, "the occurrence

of Kayenta White Ware and White Mountain Red Ware pottery in

areas of opposite affiliation, the addition of white

outlining to some Kayenta polychromes, and the Kayenta or

Tusayan migrations to Point of Pines" (Dean 1996:35) all

reinforce this connection between the two areas. This

connection prior to Kayenta-Tusyan migrants entering the

Silver Creek drainage supports migration Scenario 5. 95

The discussion surrounding each of these migration scenarios and their relation to ceramic production in the

Silver Creek area is only supposition and it provides the starting point for further research in this area concerning the organization of ceramic production and the manufacture of Pinto Polychrome at this time in the prehistory of the

American Southwest. However, population movement and community reorganization along the Mogollon Rim undoxabtedly triggered change in the organization of ceramic production.

There is a clear technological connection between Pinto

Polychrome and Kayenta-Tusayan ceramic production, exemplified by the locally-manufactured plain ware plates at

Bailey Ruin. Therefore, this compositional analysis of

Pinto Polychrome does support Crown's proposal that the origin of this ceramic type is attributable to an influx of

Kayenta-Tusayan migrants into the Silver Creek drainage during the late Pueblo III time period. 96

APPENDIX 1

GRAIN TYPES IN SAND AND SHERD POINT COUNTS (Miksa 1995)

Monomineralic Grains

MICR Microcline: alkali feldspar with polysynthetic (cross-hatch) twinning, may have zones of Ca- plagioclase.

00 Undifferentiated opaque minerals.

PLAG Plagioclase feldspar, often with albite twinning, occasional Carlsbad twinning, less than 10% altered.

QTZ All quartz types.

Sedimentary Lithic Fragments

LSS Siltstones: granular aggregates of equant siib- angular to rounded, silt-sized grains with or without interstitial cement. May be well to poorly sorted, with or without sand-sized grains. Composition varies from quartzose to lithic- arkosic, with some mafic-rich varieties.

LSCH Chert: microcrystalline aggregate of pure silica.

SHERDT Sherd temper: (counted only in sherd samples). Dark, semiopaque angular to subround grains, generally with discrete edges, and generally in­ cluding silt and sand-sized temper grains.

Metamorphic Lithic Fragments

IMF Foliated quartz aggregate: planar-oriented fabric developed in mostly strained quartz crystals with sutured crystallite boundaries . Quartzite. APPENDIX 2

RAW SAND SAMPLE COMPOSITION*

Monocrystalline grains Sed Rock Frag Meta Sample Number Wash OTZ PT.AO LSCH 1 Pottery Hill 70 1 1 2 Pottery Hill 62 3 1 3 Mortensen 68 0 32 0 4 Mortensen 48 0 50 2 5 Mortensen 53 0 46 1 6 Mortensen 54 0 43 3 7 Mortensen 47 0 52 1 8 Mortensen 46 0 51 3 9 Mortensen 49 0 47 4 10 Mortensen 51 0 49 0 11 Mortensen 57 0 42 1 12 Day 80 0 20 0 13 Day 63 2 35 0 14 Day 70 1 29 0 15 Day 66 3 31 0 16 Day 61 1 38 0 17 Day 68 0 32 0 18 Day 55 0 45 0 19 Day 74 3 23 0 20 Day 82 4 14 0 21 Day 75 1 24 22 Willow 60 0 40 Monocrystalline Grains Sed Rpck Frag Meta Rock Frag Sample Number Wash OTZ PLAG LSCH LMF 23 Willow 63 0 37 0 24 Willow 49 1 50 0 25 Willow 70 2 28 0 26 Willow 58 1 41 0 27 Willow 54 0 46 0

* The total number of grains counted for each sample is 100. APPENDIX 3

RAW SAND SAMPLE TEXTURE

Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Wash Size (mm) Roundness Snhericitv 1 Pottery Hill 0.2 0.3 0.3 2 Pottery Hill 0.2 0.1 0 .1 3 Mortensen 0.3 0.3 0.3 4 Mortensen 0.3 0.1 0.5 5 Mortensen 0.5 0.7 0 . 5 6 Mortensen 0.3 0.3 0.7 7 Mortensen 0.1 0.3 0.3 8 Mortensen 0.2 0.5 0.5 9 Mortensen 0.1 0.3 0.3 10 Mortensen 0.4 0.7 0.5 11 Mortensen 0.5 0.5 0.7 12 Day 0.4 0.1 0.3 13 Day 0.2 0.3 0.3 14 Day 0.2 0.3 0.5 15 Day 0.3 0.1 0.5 16 Day 0 .1 0.3 0.5 17 Day 0.2 0.5 0.7 18 Day 0.1 0.3 0.5 19 Day 0.4 0.5 0.5 20 Day 0.1 0 . 5 0.7 21 Day 0.2 0.7 0.9 22 Willow 0.2 0.3 0.5 23 Willow 0.4 0.1 0.3 Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Wash Size (mm) Roundness Sphericity 24 Willow 0.4 0.1 0.3 25 Willow 0.3 0.5 0.5 26 Willow 0.1 0.5 0.7 27 Willow 0.3 0.5 0.7 APPENDIX 4

CERAMIC POINT COUNT COMPOSITIONAL DATA

Monocrystalline grains. Sample Number Ware Type Total MICR oo PLAG OTZ SC-16 SLRW Showlow B/R 254 1 1 0 96 SC-17 SLRW Showlow B/R 228 0 5 0 79 SC-18 SLRW Showlow B/R 245 0 2 0 106 SC-19 SLRW Showlow B/R 276 1 2 0 102 SC-20 SLRW Showlow B/R 260 0 9 1 39 SC-21 SLRW Showlow B/R 235 0 5 0 13 SC-22 SLRW Showlow B/R 193 0 2 0 8 SC-23 SLRW Showlow B/R 257 0 1 0 75 SC-24 SLRW Showlow B/R 168 0 1 0 8 SC-25 SLRW Showlow B/R 309 0 2 0 26 SC-26 WMRW St. Johns Poly 204 0 2 0 2 SC-27 WMRW St. Johns Poly 207 0 4 0 4 SC-28 WMRW St. Johns B/R 262 0 2 0 5 SC-29 WMRW St.Johns/PinedaleB/R 221 0 1 0 10 SC-30 WMRW St.Johns/PinedaleB/R 216 0 1 0 3 SC-41 SLRW Showlow B/R 134 0 0 1 54 SC-42 SLRW Showlow B/R 197 0 3 0 76 SC-43 SLRW Showlow B/R 246 0 4 0 33 SC-44 SLRW Showlow B/R 230 0 2 2 62 SC-45 SLRW Showlow B/R 198 0 3 1 52 SC-46 SLRW Showlow B/R 247 0 0 0 7 SC-47 SLRW Showlow B/R 211 0 2 0 17 Sed Rock Fraa Meta Rock Frag Sample Number LflS LSCH SHERDT LMF SC-16 0 0 1 0 SC-17 0 0 21 0 SC-18 0 0 5 3 SC-19 0 0 12 1 SC-20 0 0 16 1 SC-21 0 0 38 0 SC-22 0 0 50 0 SC-23 0 0 2 3 SC-24 0 0 30 0 SC-25 0 0 70 1 SC-26 0 0 29 0 SC-27 0 0 43 0 SC-28 0 0 37 0 SC-29 0 0 32 0 SC-30 0 0 36 0 SC-41 0 0 2 0 SC-42 0 0 2 0 SC-43 1 0 10 0 SC-44 0 0 10 0 SC-45 0 0 18 0 SC-46 0 0 52 0 SC-47 0 1 22 0

H o to Monocrystalline Grains Sample Number Ware Type Total CR oo PLAG OTZ SC-48 SLRW Showlov; B/R 245 0 2 0 8 SC- 49 SLRW Showlow B/R 210 0 3 0 17 SC- 50 SLRW Showlow B/R 235 0 0 0 6 SC- 51 SLRW Showlow B/R 231 0 1 0 1 SC- 52 RRW Pinto/Gila Salmon 260 1 2 0 60 SC- 53 RRW Pinto Poly 250 0 2 2 50 SC- 54 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 243 0 0 1 49 SC- 55 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 79 0 0 0 25 SC- 58 RRW Pinto/Gila Salmon 253 0 2 0 2 SC- 59 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 246 0 1 0 1 SC-60 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 196 0 0 0 3 SC-61 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 250 0 0 0 11 sc-62 WMRW Undiff B/R 98 0 0 0 2 SC-63 WMRW St, Johns Poly 101 0 1 0 4 sc-64 WMRW St, Johns Poly 151 0 0 0 6 SC- 65 WMRW Undiff B/R 248 0 2 0 7 SC- 66 WMRW Pinedale B/R 161 0 6 0 15 sc-167 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 270 0 0 0 8 sc-168 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 202 0 2 0 10 SC- 169 WMRW Pinedale Poly 223 0 2 0 18 sc-170 WMRW Cedar Ck/4Mile Poly 301 0 0 1 39 sc-171 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 193 0 4 2 4 sc-172 WMRW Pinedale Poly 233 0 4 0 2 sc-173 WMRW Pinedale Poly 284 0 0 0 11 sc- 174 WMRW Pinedale Poly 100 0 0 0 2 sc-175 WMRW Pinedale Poly 264 0 0 0 5 sc-176 WMRW Pinedale Poly 189 0 0 0 7 Sed Rock Frag Meta Rock Frag Sample Number LSS LSCH SHERDT LM£ SC-48 0 0 39 0 SC-49 0 0 24 0 SC-50 1 0 31 0 SC-51 3 0 31 1 SC-52 0 1 3 1 SC-53 0 4 0 3 SC-54 3 1 0 1 SC-55 2 1 0 0 SC-58 0 1 54 0 SC-59 0 3 28 0 SC-60 0 1 9 0 SC-61 0 0 30 0 SC-62 0 0 22 0 SC-63 0 0 20 0 SC-64 0 0 3 0 SC-65 0 0 10 0 SC-66 0 2 24 0 SC-167 0 0 22 0 SC-168 0 0 30 0 SC-169 0 0 20 2 SC-170 0 0 51 0 SC-171 0 0 10 2 SC-172 0 0 35 0 SC-173 0 0 70 0 SC-174 0 0 11 0 SC-175 0 0 24 0 SC-176 0 0 27 0 Monocrystalline Grains. Sample Number Ware Type Total CR 00 PLAG OTZ SC-177 WMRW Pinedale Poly 273 0 3 0 13 SC-178 WMRW Pinedale Poly 199 0 2 0 32 SC-179 WMRW Cedar Ck/4Mile Poly 212 0 2 0 2 SC-180 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 251 0 0 0 10 SC-181 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 225 0 0 0 2 SC-182 WMRW Pinedale B/R 223 0 0 0 9 SC-183 WMRW Pinedale Poly 245 0 2 0 2 SC-184 WMRW Pinedale Poly 132 0 0 0 0 SC-185 WMRW Cedar Ck Poly 295 0 0 0 6 SC-186 WMRW Fourmile Poly 308 0 0 0 9 SC-187 WMRW Pinedale Poly 229 0 2 0 9 SC-188 WMRW Fourmile Poly 115 0 1 1 6 SC-189 CIWW Pinedale B/W 171 2 0 2 19 SC-190 CIWW Pinedale B/W 218 2 0 2 9 SC-191 CIWW Pinedale B/W 291 0 0 0 6 SC-192 CIWW Pinedale B/W 280 0 0 0 23 SC-193 CIWW Pinedale B/W 191 0 0 0 6 SC-194 CIWW Pinedale B/W 206 0 2 0 2 SC-195 CIWW Pinedale B/W 351 0 0 0 14 SC-196 CIWW Pinedale B/W 336 0 0 0 7 SC-197 CIWW Pinedale B/W 262 0 0 0 10 SC-198 CIWW Pinedale B/W 282 0 3 0 14 SC-199 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 140 0 0 0 13 SC-200 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 233 0 1 0 27 SC-201 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 256 0 0 0 17 SC-202 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 259 0 0 0 18 o SC-203 Ul Sed Rock Frag Meta Rock Frag Sample Number LSS LSCH SHERDT LME SC-177 0 0 19 0 SC-178 0 0 8 4 SC-179 0 0 30 0 SC-180 0 0 37 0 SC-181 0 0 42 0 SC-182 0 0 31 0 SC-183 0 0 27 0 SC-184 0 0 7 0 SC-185 0 0 21 0 SC-186 0 0 21 0 SC-187 0 0 42 0 SC-188 0 0 17 0 SC-189 0 0 17 0 SC-190 0 0 19 2 SC-191 0 0 35 0 SC-192 0 0 40 0 SC-193 0 0 27 0 SC-194 0 0 21 0 SC-195 0 7 67 0 SC-196 0 0 50 3 SC-197 0 0 3 0 SC-198 0 0 42 0 SC-199 0 0 37 0 SC-200 0 0 20 0 SC-201 0 2 16 2 SC-202 0 1 51 0 SC-203 0 0 47 0 MonocrYShalline Grains Sample Number Ware Tvoe Total MICR 00 PLAG OTZ SC-204 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 248 0 0 0 5 SC-205 RRW Pinto Poly 307 0 0 0 12 SC-206 RRW Gila Poly 248 0 0 0 10 SC-207 RRW Pinto Poly 169 0 0 0 9 SC-208 RRW Pinto Poly 175 0 2 0 18 SC-209 RRW Pinto Poly 105 0 2 0 3 SC-210 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 174 0 2 0 3 SC-211 RRW Pinto Poly 213 0 3 0 4 SC-212 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 159 0 2 0 6 SC-213 RRW Pinto Poly 180 0 0 0 10 SC-214 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 277 0 0 0 16 SC-215 RRW Pinto Poly 249 Q 0 5 10 SC-216 RRW Pinto Poly 318 0 0 0 15 SC-217 RRW Pinto Poly 268 0 0 0 31 SC-218 RRW Gila Poly Salmon 292 0 0 0 9 SC-240 RRW Pinto Poly 201 0 0 2 22 SC-241 RRW Pinto Poly 234 0 2 0 14 SC-242 RRW Gila Poly 228 0 0 0 9 SC-243 RRW Gila Poly 294 0 9 0 30 SC-244 RRW Gila Poly 316 0 3 0 22 SC-245 RRW Gila Poly 255 0 1 0 20 SC-246 RRW Tonto Poly 210 0 0 0 19 SC-247 RRW Gila Poly 142 0 2 1 12 SC-248 RRW Gila Poly 240 0 1 0 25 SC-249 RRW Gila Poly 202 0 0 1 13 SC-250 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 223 0 0 0 16 SC-251 RRW Pinto Poly 217 0 0 0 15 Sed Rock Frag. Meta Rock Frag Sample Number LSS LSCH SHERDT LM£ SC-204 0 0 33 0 SC-205 0 0 50 0 SC-206 0 0 37 0 SC-207 0 0 27 0 SC-208 0 4 34 0 SC-209 0 0 18 0 SC-210 0 0 19 0 SC-211 0 0 27 0 SC-212 0 0 21 2 SC-213 0 0 38 0 SC-214 0 0 29 3 SC-215 0 3 37 0 SC-216 0 0 67 0 SC-217 0 0 31 0 SC-218 0 0 42 0 SC-240 0 0 30 2 SC-241 0 0 19 0 SC-242 0 2 36 0 SC-243 0 0 30 3 SC-244 0 0 29 0 SC-245 0 0 32 0 SC-246 0 2 33 0 SC-247 0 0 15 0 SC-248 0 0 35 0 SC-249 0 0 16 0 SC-250 0 0 32 0 SC-251 0 0 28 0 Monccrygtailing Grains. Sample Number Ware Tvtje Total MICR oo PLAG OTZ SC-252 RRW Pinto Poly 202 0 0 0 46 SC-253 RRW Pinto Poly 163 0 0 0 11 SC-254 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 264 0 0 0 42 SC-255 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 237 0 0 0 12 SC-256 RRW Pinto Poly 214 0 2 0 9 SC-257 RRW Pinto Poly 188 0 1 0 17 SC-258 RRW Gila Poly Salmon 258 0 0 1 5 SC-259 RRW Gila Poly 119 0 0 0 2 SC-260 MBW plate 271 0 2 0 6 SC-261 MBW plate 256 0 2 0 7 SC-262 MBW plate 122 0 1 0 1 SC-263 MBW plate 196 0 0 0 6 SC-264 MBW plate 137 0 0 1 22 SC-265 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 167 0 0 0 11 SC-266 RRW Pinto Poly 189 0 0 0 12 SC-267 RRW Pinto Poly 209 0 0 0 3 SC-268 RRW Pinto Poly 140 0 1 0 9 SC-269 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 193 0 0 0 6 SC-270 RRW Pinto Poly 122 0 0 0 10 SC-271 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 156 0 0 0 10 SC-272 RRW Pinto/Gila Poly 205 0 0 0 9 SC-273 RRW Pinto Poly Salmon 262 0 0 0 50 SC-274 RRW Pinto Poly 219 0 0 0 9 SC-275 RRW Pinto Poly 298 0 0 0 23 SC-276 RRW Pinto Poly 175 0 2 0 12 SC-277 RRW Pinto Poly 302 0 1 0 15 SC-278 RRW Pinto Poly 212 0 0 0 5 Sed Rock Frag Meta Rock Frag Sample Number LSS LSCH SHERDT LM£ SC-252 0 0 22 0 SC-253 0 0 26 0 SC-254 0 0 21 0 SC-255 0 0 35 0 SC-256 0 0 33 1 SC-257 0 1 22 0 SC-258 0 0 19 0 SC-259 0 0 6 0 SC-260 0 0 48 0 SC-261 0 0 29 0 SC-262 0 0 22 0 SC-263 0 1 17 0 SC-264 0 0 8 3 SC-265 0 0 21 0 SC-266 0 0 31 0 SC-267 0 1 10 0 SC-268 0 0 20 0 SC-269 0 0 33 0 SC-270 0 0 20 0 SC-271 0 0 22 0 SC-272 0 0 23 0 SC-273 0 0 14 0 SC-274 0 0 39 0 SC-275 0 0 39 0 SC-276 0 0 25 0 SC-277 0 0 45 SC-278 0 1 36 MonocrYatalline Grains Sample Number Ware Type Total MICR OO PLAG OTZ SC-279 RRW Pinto Poly 231 0 1 0 18 SC-280 RRW Pinto Poly 211 0 0 0 15 SC-281 RRW Pinto Poly 150 0 0 1 14 SC-282 RRW Pinto Poly 162 0 0 0 18 SC-283 RRW Pinto Poly 209 0 0 0 8

,Sed Rock Frag Met a Rock Frag Sample Number LSS LSCH SHERDT I,MP SC-279 0 0 30 1 SC-280 0 1 26 0 SC-281 0 0 32 0 SC-282 0 0 39 0 SC-283 0 1 25 0

• SC-16 through SC-30 are from the Pottery Hill site • SC-41 through SC-218 and SC-260 through SC-264 are from Bailey Ruin • SC-240 through SC-249 are from Fourmile Ruin • SC-250 through SC-259 are from Grasshopper Pueblo • SC-265 through SC-283 are from the Tonto Basin sites APPENDIX 5

CERAMIC POINT COUNT TEXTURAL DATA

Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Size (mm) Roundness Sohericitv SC-16 0.16 0.5 0.7 SC-17 0.13 0.5 0.6 SC-18 0.16 0.4 0.6 SC-19 0 .12 0.3 0 . 6 SC-20 0.18 0.4 0 . 7 SC-21 0.17 0.4 0.6 SC-22 0.37 0.4 0.6 SC-23 0 .19 0.4 0.6 SC-24 0.07 0.4 0.6 SC-25 0.18 0.4 0.6 SC-26 0.04 0.3 0.8 SC-27 0.13 0.3 0.5 SC-28 0.08 0.3 0.5 SC-29 0.13 0.4 0.7 SC-30 0.09 0.3 0,7 SC-41 0.13 0.4 0,6 SC-42 0.13 0.4 0.6 SC-43 0.22 0.4 0,6 SC-44 0.24 0.4 0 , 7 SC-45 0 .18 0.4 0.7 SC-46 0.21 0,3 0.7 SC-47 0.19 0.4 0,7 SC-48 0.26 0.4 0 . 8 Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Size (mm) Roundness Sphericity SC-49 0.14 0.4 0.7 SC-50 0.18 0.4 0.2 SC-51 0.12 0.7 0.9 SC-52 0.19 0.4 0.6 SC-53 0.16 0.4 0.6 SC-54 0.14 0.4 0.6 SC-55 0.39 0.4 0.7 SC-58 0.12 0.4 0.6 SC-59 0.12 0.5 0.7 SC-60 0.33 0.4 0.6 SC-61 0.28 0.4 0 . 6 SC-62 0.16 0.4 0.6 SC-63 0.20 0.4 0.9 SC-64 0 .15 0.4 0.7 SC-65 0 .17 0.5 0.7 SC-66 0.35 0 . 5 0.7 SC-167 0.05 0.4 0.5 SC-168 0 .14 0.5 0 . 8 SC-169 0 .12 0.5 0.7 SC-170 0.13 0.4 0.8 SC-171 0.11 0.5 0.6 SC-172 0.60 0.3 0.7 SC-173 0 .14 0.2 0.7 SC-174 0.22 0.7 0.9 SC-175 0.16 0.1 0.6 SC-176 0.22 0.4 0.6 SC-177 0.07 0.4 0.7 SC-178 0.13 0.5 0.6 Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Size (mm) Roundness Sohericitv SC-179 0 .12 0.3 0.7 SC-180 0 .12 0.5 0.5 SC-181 0.28 0 . 7 0 . 7 SC-182 0 .28 0.4 0.6 SC-183 0.08 0.5 0.9 SC-184 0.00 0.0 0.0 SC-185 0 . 09 0.4 0.7 SC-186 0 .22 0.4 0.6 SC-187 0 . 35 0.4 0.7 SC-188 0.42 0.3 0.7 SC-189 0.26 0.3 0,7 SC-190 0.31 0 . 6 0.6 SC-191 0 .14 0.3 0.8 SC-192 0.22 0 . 6 0.7 SC-193 0.67 0.5 0.6 SC-194 0.14 0.5 0.7 SC-195 0.31 0.5 0.7 SC-196 0.16 0.7 0.7 SC-197 0.13 0.6 0.6 SC-198 0.12 0.5 0.7 SC-199 0.19 0.5 0.6 SC-200 0 .26 0.5 0.6 SC-201 0 .18 0.4 0.5 SC-202 0.28 0.5 0.6 SC-203 0.30 0.1 0.3 SC-204 0.27 0.3 0.6 SC-205 0 .16 0.5 0.7 SC-206 0 .18 0.4 0.6 Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Size (mm) Roundness Sohericitv SC-207 0,40 0.5 0.7 SC-208 0.39 0.4 0 . 7 SC-209 0.21 0.4 0 . 6 SC-210 0.84 0.5 0.6 SC-211 0.08 0.5 0.9 SC-212 0 .37 0.5 0.6 SC-213 0 .15 0.4 0.7 SC-214 0 .13 0.4 0.6 SC-215 0,17 0.4 0.6 SC-216 0 ,11 0.1 0 . 7 SC-217 0,16 0.3 0.6 SC-218 0.17 0.4 0 . 7 SC-240 0.28 0.4 0 . 7 SC-241 0.34 0.3 0.7 SC-242 0.22 0,3 0.8 SC-243 0,23 0.5 0.8 SC-244 0,53 0.4 0.8 SC-245 0,25 0.4 0.6 SC-246 0,29 0.4 0.7 SC-247 0,19 0.3 0.7 SC-248 0,21 0.3 0.7 SC-249 0.23 0.4 0.7 SC-250 0.53 0.4 0.8 SC-251 0.54 0.4 0.8 SC-252 0.50 0.2 0.6 SC-253 0.51 0.6 0.4 SC-254 0.36 0.4 0.7 SC-255 0.40 0.4 0.8 Sample Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Mean Quartz Number Size (mm) Roundness Snherici tv SC-256 0 . 53 0.3 0.6 SC-257 0.30 0.3 0 . 5 SC-258 0 .42 0.4 0.5 SC-259 0.45 0.4 0.7 SC-260 0.20 0.3 0.7 SC-261 0.39 0.4 0.6 SC-262 0.88 0,3 0 . 7 SC-263 0.19 0.3 0.8 SC-264 0.32 0.4 0.6 SC-265 0 .44 0.4 0.5 SC-266 0.51 0.4 0.6 SC-261 0.49 0.4 0.7 SC-268 0.32 0.5 0.7 SC-269 0.37 0.5 0.6 SC-270 0.38 0.4 0.8 SC-271 0 .44 0.4 0.6 SC-272 0.48 0.4 0.6 SC-273 0.21 0.3 0.6 SC-274 0.39 0.3 0.6 SC-275 0.42 0.4 0.6 SC-276 0.45 0.4 0.6 SC-277 0.28 0.2 0.8 SC-278 0.37 0.5 0.7 SC-279 0.27 0.4 0.6 SC-280 0.21 0.3 0.5 SC-281 0.23 0.4 0.7 SC-282 0.31 0.4 0.6 SC-283 0 .42 0.4 0.6 117

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