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Sinsky Colostate 0053N 16329 THESIS LONG-TERM WILDFIRE IMPACTS ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND SURVEY, APACHE-SITGREAVES NATIONAL FOREST, ARIZONA Submitted by Katherine A. Sinsky Department of Anthropology and Geography In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Fall 2020 Master’s Committee: Advisor: Jason M. LaBelle Michael C. Pante Ann M. Little Copyright by Katherine A. Sinsky 2020 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT LONG-TERM WILDFIRE IMPACTS ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND SURVEY, APACHE-SITGREAVES NATIONAL FOREST, ARIZONA This thesis evaluates the long-term effects of wildfire on the integrity and visibility of prehistoric surface sites. Covering roughly 38 million acres of the Western hemisphere, ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests rely on fire as a critical and defining element of these ecosystems, but climate change and poor land management have altered forest conditions and allowed severe crown fires to destroy forests that were previously characterized by milder ground fires (Rockman 2015; Westerling et al. 2014; Yue et al. 2013). Today’s high severity wildfires result in major ecological changes and are unprecedented in their suppression costs, property losses, and loss of life. Wildfire is a powerful but often overlooked archaeological site formation process, and knowing its effects is critical to understand the character of survey inventories and surface sites in burned areas (Schiffer 1983). Two primary research questions guide this study: in what ways and to what degree do post-fire ecological changes impact prehistoric site integrity, and what are the implications for archaeological data collection and interpretation. Archaeological site data collected at different times in relation to a high- severity 2002 wildfire are evaluated to identify measurable impacts, including PR1 (previously recorded, pre-fire) and PR2 (relocated, post-fire) records of the same fifty (50) sites, and data from newly identified (n=40) and non-relocated sites (n=22). Results show that long-term wildfire effects altered the surface expressions of all prehistoric sites identified in the 1,500-acre study area in 2018 (n=90). Comparative analyses of site data reveal significant changes in both assemblage content (artifacts and features) and site area (m2) in relocated sites. Implications for cultural resource management in fire-prone and burned areas are discussed. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis has been a source of intrigue and evolution for years and there are so many to thank for their support. Dr. LaBelle is so dedicated to his students and the impacting in the work he does in the field and classroom; I’m grateful for his support as a mentor for going on five years now. Dr. Pante and Dr. Little provided important perspective and edits in the final steps of this project. Thank you to my fellow Rams – Trevor Keevil, Emily “lil’ Em” Orlikoff, Leddy and Elliott, Julia Kenyon, Kate Yeske, Nick Simpson, Alex Freidl, April Tolley, Caitlin Holland, Edwin Harris, Reecie Dern, Michelle Dinkel, Kelton Meyer, Terry Manawche, Matt Muttart, and Katie Horton – for the laughs and love during and after our tenure at CSU. Thank you to the whole crew who worked hard every day on the R-C Phase II survey, rain or shine, Ellsworth or Bagnal. Holly Hall, Seth Allison, Jason Seaman, Nathan Lefthand, Peter Byler, John Curry, Adam Sezate, Alison Talbot, and Caleb Ferbrache. I miss the heck out of you all and will treasure the memories of that project forever. Kent Mead’s enthusiasm early in the project inspired me to tackle my questions and he and HEG provided an enormous amount of data that informed this thesis. Also, thank you Abby Docktor and Laura Brennan for all your background research and contributions to the 2019 survey report. USFS Archaeologist Sarah Stauffer provided data for the survey and this thesis. Mom and dad, where do I start? I wouldn’t be pursuing a career a field I love if not for you. You encouraged us to do what makes us happy, which led me here, to jobs and projects all over the country...that usually don’t feel like work at all. I am forever indebted to you, for your unconditional love and for all the sacrifices you’ve made (emotional and financial) for three decades in what seems effortless. You guys rule and I’m fortunate to know that I was born on third. Colleen, Matt, and Emz, thank you for motivating me when I need a push, making me laugh when I’m in a funk, and for listening and being there. Claire, welcome to the family - I’m so dang excited you’re here! Finally, thanks to my pup Chinle for the constant smiles and companionship, through thick and thin. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................. iii CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................... 1 The Fire .................................................................................................................................................... 3 Post-Fire Salvage Survey .......................................................................................................................... 8 Rodeo-Chediski Interdisciplinary Studies ................................................................................................. 9 Euroamerican Forest (Mis) Management .............................................................................................. 12 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................................... 15 Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 17 Organization of Thesis ............................................................................................................................ 20 CHAPTER 2. THE MOGOLLON RIM .............................................................................................................. 22 The Study Area ....................................................................................................................................... 23 Environmental Background .................................................................................................................... 25 Weather and Climate ............................................................................................................................. 27 History of Research ................................................................................................................................ 29 Prehistory of the Mogollon Rim ............................................................................................................. 33 Prehistoric Materials .............................................................................................................................. 39 Prehistoric Architecture and Features ................................................................................................... 42 Subsistence and Settlement .................................................................................................................. 46 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER 3: WILDFIRE AND ARCHAEOLOGY ............................................................................................... 51 CRM Archaeology and Data Collection .................................................................................................. 51 Archaeological Site Condition Assessments........................................................................................... 54 Geoarchaeology ..................................................................................................................................... 56 Factors in Site Discovery ........................................................................................................................ 58 Provenience ........................................................................................................................................... 61 Fuels and Fire Behavior .......................................................................................................................... 62 Burn Severity .......................................................................................................................................... 64 Direct Effects .......................................................................................................................................... 67 Indirect Effects ....................................................................................................................................... 72 iv Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................................... 76 Definitions .............................................................................................................................................
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