CHAPTER ONE Yeshi Lhendup ORAL TRADITIONS AND EXPRESSIONS 1.1. LANGUAGES & DIALECTS OF BHUTAN r Morning Prayer r Evening Prayer 1.2. ORAL TRADITIONS WITH MELODIES r Empowerment 1.2.1. Oral Poetry r Oral Transmission r Devotional Songs r Discourse/Instructions r Songs 1.3.3. Tuneless Oral Narration 1.2.2. Lyrical Ballad r Departure Salutation r Praising r Mourning Statement r Romantic Songs r Statement of Condolence r Odium r Propitiation to the Spirits r Discreditable r Rhapsody 1.3.4. Riddle r Sentimental r Examples of Riddles r Debating r Examples of Conundra r Supplication r See-of the Riddle Evil Spirits r Narratives r Advice: Lozey as a Precept 1.3.5. Tongue-twister r Short Tongue-twister 1.2.3. Ode r Longer Tongue-twister r Praising r Romantic 1.3.6. Childlore r Odium r Western Region r Discord r Kheng Speakers r Joyful or Rejoicing r Tshangla Speakers r Sorrowful r Supplication 1.3.7. Moral Instructions r Tsangmo of Kurtoe r Religious Precepts r General Instructions 1.2.4. Narration r Heartfelt Advice r Recitation for Ceremonial Functions r Ceremonial Recitation (another version) 1.3.8. Proverbs and Aphorisms r Recitation of Atsara r Religious Proverbs r Narration About an Arrow r Laity Proverbs r Narration on Paper Making and Calligraphy 1.3.9. Poem 1.3. ORAL TRADITIONS WITHOUT MELODIES r Religious Poetry 1.3.1. Stories r Narrative Poem r A Religious Story r Alphabetic Poem r A Humorous Story r Ode of Advice r Fairy Tales BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.3.2. Religious Oral Literature r Dzongkha/Choekey r Refuge r English | 1 the oral traDItIonS anD eXPreSSIonS ORAL TRADITIONS AND EXPRESSIONS Bhutan’s intangible cultural heritage has been preserved in a wide variety of oral expressions such as proverbs, riddles, folktales, legends, myths, epic songs and poems, charms, prayers, chants, songs, dance, drama and prose. Tis invaluable heritage has been passed down to us from our ancestors as knowledge, cultural practices, social values and collective memories, and it is our responsibility to keep it alive for our future generations. Tis research has revealed that certain forms of oral expressions are common among diferent communities while there are others unique to a particular group. Te current study focuses mainly on those elements that are on the verge of or likely to be disappearing in the near future. 1.1. LANGUAGES & DIALECTS OF BHUTAN In Bhutan, various languages and dialects have been in 1. Tshangla kha, 2. Lhopu kha, 3. Gongdue kha, and use as a tool for communication and co-existence, and 4. Lepcha kha. these have evolved over many generations. Although Bhutan is a small country, there is a wide variety of rich Beside these languages, Indo-Aryan languages like linguistic and cultural diversity, in fact so wide that is said Nepali are used as medium of communication along the to even embarrass the Monsoon Dragon with its loud southern border region of the country. Karma Phuntsho roar. Language experts George van Driem and Karma (2013), clearly mentions there are some minor dialects Tshering say (van Driem 1998) that with a population spoken along the southern foothills which are not of just about three quarters of a million Bhutan has 19 included in any group, as follows: dialects that are still in active use. 1. Rai, 2. Kurus/Adivasi, 3. Limbu / Subbha, 4. Tere is a wide range of languages spoken in the ffy four Mongar / Ghaley, 5. Sherpa, 6. Tamang, 7. Gurung, diferent countries of the Asian region. Tese languages 8. Newar / Pradhan. have been classifed into thirteen major groups namely: According to Tashi Tshewang (2013) all the languages 1. Sino Tibetan, 2. Indo European, 3. Altaic families, 4. and dialects spoken in Bhutan can be grouped according Mon Khmer, 5. Tai kadai, 6. Austronesian, 7. Dravidian, to region: 8. Semitic, 9. Siberian families, 10. Caucasian families, 11. Small families of Southern Asia, 12. Creoles and 1. Eastern region: Mostly Tshangla kha, Chali kha, Pidgins, 13. Sign languages. Cho cha nga cha kha, Brokpa ke or Merak and Sakteng kha, Dakpa kha, Zala/Brami/Khoma kha, Te languages and dialects spoken in Bhutan belong in Kurtoep kha and Gongduk kha. the Sino Tibetan group under the Burman sub-group 2. Southern region: Widely spoken - Nepali, Rai, derived from Sino Tibetan, mainly falling under Central Kurus/Adivasi, Limbu or Subbha, Mongar and Bodish and East Bodish, where they may be further Ghaley, Sherpa, Tamang, Lepcha, Gurung, and classifed as follows: Newar or Pradhan kha. Te Central Bodish languages, comprising: 3. Western region: Commonly Ngalong kha, Lhopu 1. Dzong kha, 2. Chho cha nga cha kha, 3. Brokpa kha and Oley kha. ke, 4. Dakpa kha, 5. Brok kat, 6. La kha, 7. Laya kha, 4. North region: Laya kha, Lunana kha, Boe kha. 8. Lunapai kha and 9. Bjobi kha. Lingzhi kha, La kha or Sephu kha and Brok kat, Te East Bodish languages, comprising: 5. Central region: Kheng kha, Mangde kha, Nyen 1. Bumthang kha, 2. Kheng kha, 3. Kurtoep kha, 4. kha, Bumthang kha, Kurtoep kha and Mon kha. Chhali kha, 5. Zala kha, 6. Nyen kha, and 7. Ole kha. Since there are Tibetan settlers in some parts of the Te other languages that do not belong to the two sub- country, the Tibetan language or Boe kha is also included groups but are classifed under Tibeto-Burman language as one of the languages of Bhutan. In addition to the groups are: above there is the sign language taught in Drakthso | 3 IntangIble cultural herItage of bhutan schools, Sang kha (code language used mainly by the language used by monks and the ofcials came to be Armed Forces to establish their identity especially in known as Dzongkha or language of the dzong. the evening) and the code languages invented by youth (mainly girls) for private communication. In Tshangla In 1967 scholar-monk, Pema Tshewang (subsequently dialect this is called Gum-nang lo, meaning reversed Director of the National Library 1973-1993) was or twisted language, refecting that the words used assigned to the textbook division of the Education are sometimes reversed or repeated within a sentence. Department, where he played a major role in the Lastly there is Aloi kha or child language. development of Dzongkha, which hitherto had lacked a written form, to enable its adoption as a written Dzongkha, the principal dialect of the eight western language. In 1971 Bhutan’s 3rd king, His Majesty Jigme districts of Bhutan, has been in use within the Dorji Wangchuck declared Dzongkha the national administrative system since the time of Zhabdrung language of Bhutan. Apart from Dzongkha, Tibetan Ngawang Namgyal. Te Commanding orders of 1st Desi and Nepali have their own scripts. Tenzin Drugey and lyrical ballads of Gelong Sumdar Tashi, Pemi Tshewang Tashi and other records like Te Table below provides a general view of the usage taxation and receipts and other records are maintained of diferent languages and dialects in Bhutan refected in Bhutanese cursive writing, joyig, a script that dates in researches conducted by the Royal Government and back to before the 10th century. As the dzongs were private individuals. the centres of both temporal and religious afairs, the Examples of the usage of languages in Bhutan Region Language/dialect Way of speaking National Language Dzongkha Choe gi ming ga chi mo? Tshangla Nan ga ming hang ya? Chali E ming de wa? Cho ca nga ca kha Khyoe ki ming chi lo? East Merak sakteng? Khyoe gi ming chi lo? Dakpakha/Zala/Brami/Khoma E ku ming zi lo? Kurtoep Wae ming zhe yo? Ngalung Choe gi ming ga chi mo? West Oleykha Ing gi ming a de la? Laya and Lunana Choe gi ming ga chi mo/ga chem? Lingzhi Choe gi ming ga chi mo/ga chem? Lakha Khyuk ming chi lo? North Sephu Khyong gi ming chi lo? Brok-kad Khyoe ming chi yo? Boekha Khyoe rang gi ming gang yin/re? Nepali Tim ro nam kay wo? Tamang Ae la ming te go? Rai Am ko nung de wo? Subbha and Limbu He man me ma wo? Gurung Extinct South Mongar Na ko me ming ye wo? Lepcha A dho abreyang shu bu? Lhopu Na ning heta ho? Kurus/Adivasi Tu nar nam ki? Sherpa Khyoe re ming khang yin? Kheng We che ming ja yo? Gungduk Ge ming sa po? Mangde Weche ming zhe yo? Central Bumthang We ming zha yo? Nyenkha Ye ming she lo? Kurtoep Wey ming zhe yo? Mon Ing gi ming zhe yo? 4 | the oral traDItIonS anD eXPreSSIonS 1.2. ORAL TRADITIONS WITH MELODIES 1.2.1. Oral Poetry Generally, it is considered a virtue if one pleases the used in verbal exchanges). Songs which cannot be mind of the root teacher or an elderly person or the accompanied by the movement of hands and feet are leader of the land. Tis can be done by making eight also included in lu. types of oferings, one of which is the ofering of music accompanied by melodious lu or songs in praise of Tere are diferent types of mani songs, as follows: 1. the respected ones. Tis is ofen called the ofering of Mani dang chigma, 2. Mani dang nyima, 3. Mani dang praising the body with melodious verses, music and summa, 4. Mani thuje chenmo, 5. Bardo Mani 6. Tsho dancing. Lu is simply converting the verses to vocal dhana kosha, 7. Salho nub, 8. Lhonub ngayab, 9. Shomo sounds accompanied by music and sung without the yarsho, and 10. Tashi dang. Amongst these, some are movement of body or any parts of the body.