“Is El Dorado green?

Opportunities for the silicium revolution in Colombian landscapes”

D.G. Debouck

Cali@Bogotá, July 6, 2021 El Dorado in the Old World: • metallurgy invented by 6,000 years b.P. • gold/ silver used as money 4,500 y b.P. • in the trade of goods/ services

in the New World: • metallurgy invented by 3,500 years b.P. • gold and silver used as jewelry photo: Coe et al. 1988 • goods/ services are swapped According to Fray Pedro Simón (1625): Muisca chief taking office covered with gold dust made offerings in Lake Guatavita; it was a celebration to ensure the continuance of rain for maize and potato crops.

‘El Dorado’: magnet for hundreds of adventurers in 16th and 17th centuries; obligation to reimburse the ship, the journey; poverty and hunger at home

Additional reading: Arango-Cano 1985, Diamond 1997, Dunn & Kelley 1989, Friede 1984, Harari 2014, Williams et al. 1999 2/32 Death and hunger at home Spain • Andalusia, 1489-1490: typhus • Barcelona, 1489-1490: bubonic plague • Sevilla, 1485: bubonic plague • Zaragoza, 1486, 1490: bubonic plague

Portugal • Oporto, 1486: bubonic plague

Italy • Florence, 1417: bubonic plague • Milano, 1477-1479: bubonic plague • Lombardy, 1477-1479: famine • Venice, 1477-1478: bubonic plague • Venice, 1692: famine sources: Grove & Rackham 2003, Kohn 1998, McNeill 1998

Pieter Bruegel the Elder Triumph of Death, ca. 1566 3/32 The beginning of some ecological mismatch

Cristoforo Colombo (1451-1506)

• only mean of transportation = the horse (and adding status)

The American tropics invaded by inter alia• : no domestic animals in the Antilles • repetition of a cultural lack of understandingexcept of the forest dog, thus no meat! • steel sword and steel axe (never in the New World before 1492) • the four beasts of Apocalypse: cattle, goat, pig, sheep

Additional reading: Bergreen 2011, Crosby 1991, Debouck 2017, Diamond 1997 4/32 Out of context?

Bi-national park ‘La Amistad’ Costa Rica Panama

Cattle: 1/5 of performance or less, but producing methane! Buffer zone: degraded pasture

47% *

has the farmer been in-formed how to get out of the poverty trap?

* percentage of degraded pastures in Brazil: Jank et al. 2014 photo: Debouck 2019 The flowering of human addictions (1) Dates of introduction of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) heliophilous grass from river margins on alluvial soils sugar

Andalucia, 1000 Sicily, 800 Iran, 500 China, 3200 b.P. Canarias, 1480 Tunisia, 800 Louisiana, 1673 Indochina, 2000 b.P. Nicaragua, 1540 Haiti, 1494 Colombia, 1540 SaoTomé, 1493 India, 3000 b.P.

Brazil, 1530 Madagascar, 400

saccharose (= sucrose) = glucose (only form of energy used by the brain) + fructose sources: Patiño 1969, Nicora & Rúgolo 1987, Mintz 1991, Sauer 1993, Roach 1995, Zimmer 2005 6/32 what if ?

sugarcane: • sustainable production? water, manpower? • coming conflicts with urban areas for water • burning the leaves = burning money + pollution! • tropical dry forest in Valle = 1.5% left!

win-win approaches are possible: • through breeding: better water efficiency • purchase of watershed to ensure water flows • move the crop where there is more rain • through breeding functional abscission • use of leaves for cellulose production

sources: Díaz-Merlano 2006; Patiño 1969 7/32 Potential and use of Genetic Resources in Saccharum

(Poaceae, Andropogoneae, 6 ; C4 photosynthesis) Hybrids with S. spontaneum (India, SE Asia) Traits POJ-2878 (1921) yield resistance to sereh and to SMV mosaic resistance to red rot, and to root rot (Pythium arrhenomanes) resistance to smut (Ustilago scitaminea) resistance to gummosis (Xanthomonas vasculorum)

Hybrids with S. robustum (New Guinea) vigor and straight stems

Hybrids con ? ? ? water efficiency, leaf abscission (crosses with Erianthus, Miscanthus)

sources: Stalker 1980; Prescott-Allen & Prescott-Allen 1983; Oldfield 1989; Roach 1995 8/32 The flowering of human addictions (2) Dates of introduction of coffee small tree growing in altitude forests of NE Africa

coffee photo: West 2002

botanic garden of Amsterdam (founded in 1682) 1706 Paris

Yemen Martinique Surinam 1722 Ethiopia Colombia 1713 1000 1660 Java 1758 Brasil 1696 1730 Isla Bourbon 1717

caffeine: alkaloid, keeps the brain active, causes the heart to beat rapidly originally, a defence mechanism against insects in no-frost climates sources: Hobhouse 2005, Koehler 2017, Patiño 1969, Pendergrast 1999, Smith et al. 1992, Wrigley 1995 9/32 Movement of coffee leaf rust, Hemileia vastatrix

photo: Charrier 1982

India Cameroon 1869 Mexico Puerto Rico 1903 1983 1957 Ethiopia Colombia 1868 Java 1894 Ceylon 1980 Tanzania * 1876 Brazil Fiji 1970 1879

* direct introduction of living germplasm [works of Louis Pasteur: 1865-1885]

sources: Avelino et al. 2015, Charrier 1982, Koehler 2017, Sauer 1993, Smith et al. 1992 10/32 Potential and use of Genetic Resources in Coffea

resistance to leaf rust: C. canephora, C. pseudozanguebariae drought tolerance: C. racemosa resistance to berry disease: C. arabica, C. canephora resistance to leaf miner: C. stenophylla absence of caffeine: C. perrieri

C. canephora C. congensis C. liberica C. arabica

C. canephora o C. humilis 12 N C. arabica C. liberica C. eugenioides C. fadenii o C. canephora 0 C. pseudozanguebariae C. humilis C. sessiliflora C. liberica o C. stenophylla 12 S C. costatifructa C. anthonyi C. mufindiensis C. brevipes C. pocsii C. anthonyi C. canephora C. pseudozanguebariae C. charrieriana C. canephora C. congensis C. congensis C. racemosa C. perrieri C. liberica C. liberica C. salvatrix C. mayombensis C. mayombensis + > 40 sp. C. zanguebariae sources: Anthony 1992, Anthony et al. 1993, Anthony et al. 2007, Charrier 1982 Crops feeding Africa Foreign Native • maize 19+ • finger millet 19+ • Asiatic rice • pearl millet • barley • Guinea millet • emmer wheat • sorghum • common bean • African rice • Lima bean • fonio • peanut 12oN • tef • soybean • cowpea • cassava • bambara groundnut • potato 0o • hyacinth bean • sweet potato • yam • plantain/ banana • coffee • tomato 12oS • enset • cocoa • yam bean • papaya • oil palm • sweet orange • sesame • mango • watermelon • sugarcane • melon • chili pepper • gombo sources: Harlan 1992, Harlan & Stemler 1976, Portères 1976, Purseglove 1976, Vietmeyer 1996, Westphal 1974 12/32 brasiliensis (Willd.) Müll-Arg. Uses before 1492: • detoxified seeds for food

• seeds used as baits for fishing

• latex coagulated with acid to make a ball to play

• latex used to start a fire

• syringes to inject intoxicant in the nostril

• headbands to keep feathers in ceremonies

photo: Schultes 1945

sources: Hobhouse 2005; Métraux 1963; Patiño 1967; Schultes 1984; Smith et al. 1992 The wheel of industrial revolution! Uses after 1492: • pencil eraser • hot-air balloons (1770) vulcanization (Charles Goodyear, 1839) 1850-1880: • rubber boots • hose-pipes, seals • raincoats 1818: Karl von Drais: “draisine”

1839: Kirkpatrick Macmillan: pedals and gear 1880-1895:

1868: Clément Ader: solid rubber tyre • tyres for bicycles

1885: John Kemp Starley: sprocket and chain • electric wires

1888: John Dunlop: rubber pneumatic tyres • telegraphic cables 1900- today: • versatility (p.ej. to take it on the train) • individual mobility (gender, age, society classes) • tyre for cars sources: Herlihy 2004, Hobhouse 2005; Métraux 1963; Patiño 1967; Schultes 1984; Smith et al. 1992; Williams et al. 1999 Hevea Aublet () Hevea benthamiana Müll.Arg.* Amazonas (Col.) Hevea brasiliensis (Willd.) Müll. Arg.* S Amazonas (Bra.) Hevea camargoana Pires Isla Marajó (Bra.) Hevea camporum Ducke Pará (Bra.) Hevea guianensis Aubl.* Amazonas, Caquetá (Col.) Hevea microphylla Ule N Amazonas (Bra.) Hevea nitida Mart. ex Müll.Arg. N Amazonas (Bra.) H. pauciflora (Spruce ex Benth.) Müll.Arg. Vichada (Col.) Hevea rigidifolia (Benth.) Müll.Arg. Vaupés (Col.) Hevea spruceana (Benth.) Müll.Arg. E Amazonas, Pará (Bra.)

1876:

mapa: Wycherley 1995 fuentes: Langenheim 2003; Smith & Schultes 1990; Smith et al. 1992; Wycherley 1995 15/32 While we are in an Interglacial period of the Holocene, . . . Vostock, Antarctica

. . . the Industrial Revolution is quickly changing the air we breath

sources: IPCC 2014, Petit et al. 1999 16/32 Change in global mean annual temperature in 1860-2005 20/21 highest temperatures, in the last 25 years

May 2013: Since 1850: 400 ppm! carbon dioxide: 35% increase methane: 150% increase nitrous dioxide: 20% increase

pre-Industrial Revolution: air CO2 level: 280 ppm

additionnal information: Gore 2006, National Research Council 2008 Occuring now at Lake Mead, Hoover Dam, Nevada, USA

source: CNN June 6,2021

Human-induced global warming can make periodical droughts worse! Additional reading: McKinnon et al. 2021, Stokstad 2021, Williams et al. 2020 18/32 Impact of climate change on crop productivity from simulations in 2010

source: World Bank 2010

Traditional ‘bread baskets’ (France, Ukraine, Near East, southern China) at risk! New ‘bread baskets’ (USA, Brazil, Argentina, Australia) at risk! Recent ‘hunger beaters’ (Mexico, South Africa, India, south east Asia) again at risk! 19/32 Impact of climate change on crop productivity in different regions by 2050

Crops maize sorghum millet rice wheat West Africa - 12% n.s. n.a. n.s. n.a. Sahel - 11% n.s. - 11% n.s. n.a. East Africa n.s. n.s. - 3% n.a. n.a. Central Africa - 15% -3% - 5% - 3% n.a. South Africa - 11% - 5% n.a. n.a. n.a. South Asia - 9% - 9% n.a. - 3% n.a. China n.a. n.a. n.a. - 3.7% - 10.2% S-E Asia n.s. n.a. n.a. n.s. n.a. U. S. A. - 23% - 2.2% n.a. n.a. - 5% Europe - 5.8% n.a. n.a. n.a. - 2.1%

n.s. non significant change; n.a. not applicable/ no data in these studies, sugarcane and cassava non affected in any of such areas where grown sources: Knox et al. 2012, Lobell & Gourdji 2012, Malhi et al. 2021 20/32 A light at the end of the tunnel: an opportunity for plant genetic resources Can we reverse the coming severe climate change? Alternatives for carbon capture

Strategies, Efficiency Ecological risks CO leakage Employment Costs GR factors 2 Reforestation + afforestation Soil sequestration Direct air capture Ocean fertilization

Others . . .

• Others: alternatives (e.g. biochar) that consume fossil energy should be discarded • other benefits should be considered: biodiversity, food, natural products

• risks linked to CO2 increase are high enough to launch a market for CO2 capture

Additional reading: Conniff 2019, Fisher et al. 1994, Griscom et al. 2017 22/32 Options for reforestation and afforestation in Colombia (1)

Neotropical origin Fruit species Annona, Bactris (pejibaye), Casimiroa (sapote), Citrus (pummelo), Eugenia (araza), Garcinia (mangosteen), Mangifera (mango), Myristica (nutmeg), Persea (avocado), Pouteria (sapote), Prunus (cherry), Psidium (guava), Punica (pomegranate), Spondias (hog plum + red mombin)

Nut species Anacardium (cashew), Bertholletia (Brazil nut), Caryocar (butternut), Juglans (walnut), Macadamia (macadamia), Phytelephas (vegetable ivory)

Other food/ beverage species Artocarpus (breadfruit), Cola (kola), Caryodendron (inchi), Elaeis (oil palm), Paullinia (guarana), Tamarindus (tamarind), Theobroma (cocoa) sources: Barbeau 1990, Duke 1989, Martin et al. 1987, Patiño 2002, Popenoe 1920, Smith et al. 1992 23/32 Options for reforestation and afforestation in Colombia (2) Neotropical origin Species for animal feeding Brosimum (ramon), Leucaena (leucaena), Prosopis (algarrobo + mezquite)

Species for exotic wood Astronium (ron-ron), Cedrela (cedar), Dalbergia (rosewood), Guaiacum (ironwood), Pericopsis (afrormosia), Pterocarpus (narra), Sideroxylon (tempisque), Swietenia (mahogany), Tabebuia (cortez), Tectona (teak)

Species for health chemistry Cinchona (quinine), Malpighia (acerola), Myrciaria (camu camu)

Species for phytochemistry Adhatoda (Malabar nut), Hevea (rubber), Jatropha (coquillo), Lonchocarpus (rotenone), Moringa (moringa), Orbignya (babassu), Pittosporum (petroleum nut), Platonia (bacuri), Terminalia (tropical almond)

sources: Barbeau 1990, Duke 1989, National Research Council 1979, Patiño 2002, Simmonds et al. 1989 Smith et al. 1992, White & Gasson 2008 24/32 Colombian landscapes . . . and silicium revolution (1)

• linking water management with CO2 (zero) emission, thus linking the crop with the amount and pattern of rainfall in each field

• key role of local communities, to keep water, biodiversity and soil resources

• indigenous peoples can teach a lot about food production and management

of ecosystems because of long experience in pre-industrial CO2 context

• urgent need to document the memory about their sustainable practices

• a living for local communities, under low CO2 emission, is essential:  a combination of: paid ecosystem services, added value to biodiversity rural employment re-thought and enhanced, in light of the 2% trap

• risk of rural exodus and loss of agricultural heritage (landraces + knowledge)

• role of botanical gardens, genebanks and extensionists to provide options

Additional reading: Diamond 2005, Sachs 2008, Smith 1986 25/32 Colombian landscapes . . . and silicium revolution (2)

• food production under low CO2 : possible role of biofuels from tree crops?

• food consumption under low CO2 : reduction in long distance transportation?

• crop breeding so far focused on pest resistance/ yield, less on abiotic stress

• shortcoming in kind of ex situ collections and evaluation methods?

• coming problems: pests AND yield AND drought AND heat → total GD → paid ecosystem services inter alia: in situ conservation of crop wild relatives → if more food security, more plant breeding on more crops: more breeders → if so, given the technological evolution of breeding, focus on bioinformatics

• hope: public and youth can have access to @-information as never before

Additional reading: Diamond 2012, Friedman 2009, Hickey et al. 2019, Sachs 2008 26/32 Epilogue . . .

• just as Columbus we were confused, we did not understand the Americas

• we went into with Old World ideas (as we went to the Moon with a car!)

• yet the crops developed by the Amerindians made 40% of the world’s food

• climate change is on us; the best insurance to succeed in it is variation to adapt which means genetic resources for: • food security • rural enployment • climatic mitigation

• CO2 reversal

• but opportunities like these, for GR professionals, never before, at that scale!

• GR + silicium revolution + landscapes in Colombia = green El Dorado!

27/32 A few references (1)

Anthony, F. 1992. Les ressources génétiques des caféiers: collecte, gestion d’un conservatoire et évaluation de la diversité génétique. Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération. Paris, France. 320p. Anthony, F., M.N. Clifford & M. Noirot. 1993. Biochemical diversity in the Coffea L.: chlorogenic acids, caffeine and mozambioside contents. Genet. Resour. & Crop Evol. 40 (2): 61-70. Anthony, F., S. Dussert & E. Dulloo. 2007. Coffee genetic resources. in: “Conserving coffee genetic resources”, F. Engelmann, M.E. Dulloo, C. Astorga, S. Dussert & F. Anthony (eds.). Bioversity International. Rome, Italy. Pp. 12-22. Arango-Cano, J. 1985. Mitos, leyendas y dioses chibchas. Plaza y Janes Editores Ltda. Bogotá, Colombia. 167p. Avelino, J., M. Cristancho, S. Georgiou, P. Imbach, L. Aguilar, G. Bornemann, P. Läderach, F. Anzueto, A.J. Hruska & C. Morales. 2015. The coffee rust crises in Colombia and Central America (2008-2013): impacts, plausible causes and proposed solutions. Food Sec. 7 (2): 303-321. Barbeau, G. 1990. Frutales tropicales en Nicaragua. Editorial Ciencias Sociales. Managua, Nicaragua. 397p. Bergreen, L. 2011. Columbus: the four voyages 1492-1504. Penguin Books. New York, New York, USA. 423p. Charrier, A. 1982. L'amélioration génétique des cafés. La Recherche 13 (136): 1006-1016. Coe, M., D. Snow & E. Benson. 1988. Atlas of Ancient America. Equinox Books. Oxford, England. 240p Conniff, R. 2019. The last resort. Scientif. Amer. 320 (1): 52-59. Crosby, A.W. 1991. Metamorphosis of the Americas. in: “Seeds of change”, H.J. Viola & C. Margolis (eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. USA. Pp. 70-89. Debouck, D.G. 2017. Domesticaciones americanas: cuando la recursividad humana con ayuda de algunas plantas hace maravillas contra el peso de la geografía y de la migración original. in: “Domesticación en el continente americano: investigación para el manejo sustentable de recursos genéticos en el Nuevo Mundo”, vol. 2, chapt. 5, A. Casas, J. Torres-Guevara and F. Parra (eds.). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, Mexico. Pp. 135-149. Diamond, J. 1997. Guns, germs and steel - The fate of human societies. W.W. Norton & Company. New York, New York, USA. 480p. Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking. Penguin Group. New York, New York, USA. 576p. Diamond, J. 2012. The world until yesterday: what can we learn from traditional societies. Viking Penguin. New York, New York, USA. 499p. Díaz-Merlano, J.M. 2006. Bosque seco tropical Colombia. Banco de Occidente Credencial. Cali, Colombia. 206p. Duke, J.A. 1989. CRC Handbook of nuts. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida, USA. 343p. The diario of Christopher Colombus’s first voyage to America, 1492-1493. O. Dunn & J.E. Kelley. 1989. The University of Oklahoma Press. Norman, Oklahoma, USA. 491p.

28/32 A few references (2)

Fisher M.J., I.M. Rao, M.A. Ayarza, C.E. Lascano, J.I. Sanz, R.J. Thomas & R.R. Vera. 1994. Carbon storage by introduced deep- rooted grasses in the South American savannas. Nature 371 (6494): 236-238. Friede, J. 1984. La conquista del territorio y el poblamiento. in: “Manual de Historia de Colombia. Tomo I: Prehistoria, Conquista y Colonia. 3ra edición”, J. Jaramillo-Uribe & J. Posada (eds.). Instituto Colombiano de Cultura, Procultura S.A. Bogotá, D.C., Colombia. Pp. 117-222. Friedman, T.L. 2009. Hot, flat, and crowded. Why we need a green revolution, and how it can renew America. Release 2.0. Picador, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. New York, New York, USA. 516p. Gore, A. 2006. An inconvenient truth. Rodale. Emmaus, Pennsylvania, USA. 328p. Grove, A.T. & O. Rackham. 2003. The nature of Mediterranean Europe – an ecological history. Yale University Press. New Haven, Connecticut, USA. 384p. Harari, Y.N. 2014. De animales a dioses: breve historia de la humanidad. Penguin Random House Grupo Ediorial, S.A.U. Barcelona, Spain. 493p. Harlan, J.R. 1992. Crops and man. 2nd edition. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. and Crop Science Society of America, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA. 284p. Harlan, J.R. & A. Stemler. 1976. The races of Sorghum in Africa. in: “Origins of African plant domestication”, J.R. Harlan, J.M.J. de Wet & A.B. Stemler (eds.). Mouton Publishers. The Hague, The Netherlands. Pp. 465-478. Herlihy, D.V. 2004. Bicycle: the history. Yale University Press. New Haven, Connecticut, USA. 470p. Hickey, L.T., A.N. Hafeez, H. Robinson, S.A. Jackson, S.C.M. Leal-Bertioli, M. Tester, C. Gao, I.D. Godwin, B.J. Hayes & B.B.H. Wulff. 2019. Breeding crops to feed 10 billion. Nature Biotechnol. 37: 744-754. Hobhouse, H. 2005. Seeds of wealth: five that made men rich. Shoemaker & Hoard. New York, New York, USA. 313p. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2014. Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contributions of working groups I, II, and III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (core writing team, R.K. Pachauri & L.A. Meyer (eds.). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland. 151p. Jank, L., S.C. Barrios, C.B. do Valle, R.M. Simeão & G.F. Alves. 2014. The value of improved pastures to Brazilian beef production. Crop & Pasture Sci. 65 (11): 1132-1137. Jaramillo, J., E. Muchugu, F.E. Vega, A. Davis, C. Borgemeister & A. Chabi-Olaye. 2011. Some like it hot: the influence and implications of climate change on coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) and coffee production in East Africa. PLoS ONE 6 (9): 1-14 (e24528).. Koehler, J. 2017. Where the wild coffee grows: the untold story of coffee from the cloud forests of Ethiopia to your cup. Bloomsbury. New York, New York, USA. 268p. Kohn, G.C. 1998. The Wordsworth encyclopedia of plague and pestilence. Wordsworth Editions Ltd., Ware, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. 408p. 29/32 A few references (3)

Langenheim, J.H. 2003. Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology, and ethnobotany. Timber Press. Portland, Oregon, USA. 586p. Lobell, D.B. & S.M. Gourdji. 2012. The influence of climate change on global crop productivity. Plant Physiol. 160 (4): 1686- 1697. Martin, F.W., C.W. Campbell & R.M. Ruberté. 1987. Perennial edible fruits of the tropics - An inventory. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Agriculture Handbook No. 642. Washington, D.C., USA. 247p. McKinnon, K.A., A. Poppick & I.R. Simpson. 2021. Hot extremes have become drier in the United States Southwest. Nature Climate Change: 1-16. McNeill, W.H. 1998. Plagues and peoples. Anchor Books. Random House, Inc., New York, New York, USA. 365p. Métraux, A. 1963. Rubber. in: “Handbook of South American Indians. Vol. 5. The comparative ethnology of South American Indians”, J.H. Steward (ed.). Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. New York, New York, USA. Pp. 227-228. Mintz, S.W. 1991. Pleasure, profit, and satiation. in: “Seeds of change”, H.J. Viola & C. Margolis (eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. USA. Pp. 112-129. National Research Council. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C., USA. 332p. National Research Council. 2008. Ecological impacts of climate change. The National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C., USA. 57p. Nicora, E.G. & Z.E. Rúgolo de Agrasar. 1987. Los géneros de gramineas de América austral - Argentina, Chile, Uruguay y áreas limítrofes de Bolivia. Editorial Hemisferio Sur S.A. Buenos Aires, Argentina. 611p. Oldfield, M.L. 1989. The value of conserving genetic resources. Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA. 379p. Patiño, V.M. 1967. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América equinoccial. Tomo 3. Fibras, medicinas, misceláneas. Imprenta Departamental, Cali, Colombia. 569p. Patiño, V.M. 1969. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América equinoccial. Tomo 4. Plantas introducidas. Imprenta Departamental, Cali, Colombia. 573p. Patiño-Rodríguez, V.M. 2002. Historia y dispersión de los frutales nativos del Neotrópico. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Cali, Colombia. 655p. Pendergast, M. 1999. Uncommon grounds: the history of coffee and how it transformed our world. Basic Books. New York, New York, USA. 458p. Petit, J.R., J. Jouzel, D. Raynaud, N.I. Barkov, J.-M. Barnola, I. Basile, M. Benders, J. Chappellaz, M. Davis, G. Delaygue, M. Delmotte, V.M. Kotlyakov, M. Legrand, V.Y. Lipenkov, C. Lorius, L. Pépin, C. Ritz, E. Saltzman & M. Stievenard. 1999. Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostock ice core, Antarctica. Nature 399 (6735): 429- 435. 30/32 A few references (4)

Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of tropical and subtropical fruits excluding the banana, coconut, pineapple, citrus fruits, olive, and fig. The Macmillan Company. New York, New York, USA. 474p. Portères, R. 1976. African cereals: eleusine, fonio, black fonio, teff, Brachiaria, Paspalum, Pennisetum, and African rice. in: “Origins of African plant domestication”, J.R. Harlan, J.M.J. de Wet & A.B.L. Stemler (eds.). Mouton Publishers. The Hague, The Netherlands. Pp. 409-452. Prescott-Allen, R. & C. Prescott-Allen. 1983. Genes from the wild - Using wild genetic resources for food and raw materials. Earthscan, International Institute for Environment and Development. London, England. 101p. Purseglove, J.W. 1976. The origins and migrations of crops in tropical Africa. in: “Origins of African plant domestication”, J.R. Harlan, J.M.J. de Wet & A.B. Stemler (eds.). Mouton Publishers. The Hague, The Netherlands. Pp. 291-309. Roach, B.T. 1995. Sugar canes, Saccharum (Gramineae-Andropogonae). in: “Evolution of crop plants. Second edition”, J. Smartt & N.W. Simmonds (eds.). Longman Scientific & Technical. London, England. Pp. 160-166. Sachs, J.D. 2008. Common wealth: economics for a crowded planet. Penguin Books. New York, New York, USA. 386p. Sauer, J.D. 1993. Historical geography of crop plants - A select roster. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, USA. 309p. Schultes, R.E. 1984. The tree that changed the world in one century. Arnoldia 44 (2): 3-16. Simmonds, M.S.J., L.E. Fellows. & W.M. Blaney. 1989. Wild plants as source of novel anti-insect compounds: alkaloidal glycosidase inhibitors. in: “New crops for food and industry”, G.E. Wickens, N. Haq & P. Day (eds.). Chapman & Hall Limited, London, United Kingdom. Pp. 365-377. Smith, N.J.H. 1986. Botanic gardens and germplasm conservation. Harold L. Lyon Arboretum Lecture. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu, Hawaii. Vol. 14, 55p. Smith, N.J.H. & R.E. Schultes. 1990. Deforestation and shrinking crop gene-pools in Amazonia. Environ. Conserv. 17 (3): 227-234. Smith, N.J.H., J.T. Williams, D.L. Plucknett & J.P. Talbot. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell University Press. Ithaca, New York, USA. 568p. Stalker, H.T. 1980. Utilization of wild species for crop improvement. Adv. Agron. 33: 111-147. Stokstad, E. 2021. A voice for the river. Science 373 (6550): 17-21. Vietmeyer, N.D. 1996. Lost crops of Africa. Volume 1. Grains. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C., USA. 383p. Westphal, E. 1974. Pulses in Ethiopia, their and agricultural significance. Agric. Res. Rep. Wageningen, The Netherlands, 815. Pp. 129-151. White, L. & P. Gasson. 2008. Mahogany. Kew Publishing. Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew, Richmond, Surrey, United Kingdom. 99p. Williams, A.P., E.R. Cook, J.E. Smerdon, B.I. Cook, J.T. Abatzoglou, K. Bolles, S.H. Baek, A.M. Badger & B. Livneh. 2020. Large contribution from anthropogenic warming to an emerging North American megadrought. Science 368: 314-318.

31/32 A few references (5)

Williams, T.I., W. E. Schaaf & A.E. Burnette. 1999. A history of invention. Little, Brown and Company. London, United Kingdom. 367p. Wrigley, G. 1995. Coffee, Coffea (Rubiaceae). in: “Evolution of crop plants. Second edition”, J. Smartt & N.W. Simmonds (eds.). Longman Scientific & Technical. London, England. Pp. 438-443. Wycherley, P.R. 1995. Rubber Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). in: “Evolution of crop plants. 2nd edition”, J. Smartt & N.W. Simmonds (eds.). Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom. Pp. 124-128. Zimmer, C. 2005. Smithsonian intimate guide to human origins. Madison Press Books. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. New York, New York, USA. 176p. Wrigley, G. 1995. Coffee, Coffea (Rubiaceae). in: “Evolution of crop plants. Second edition”, J. Smartt & N.W. Simmonds (eds.). Longman Scientific & Technical. London, England. Pp. 438-443. Wycherley, P.R. 1995. Rubber Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). in: “Evolution of crop plants. 2nd edition”, J. Smartt & N.W. Simmonds (eds.). Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom. Pp. 124-128. Zimmer, C. 2005. Smithsonian intimate guide to human origins. Madison Press Books. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. New York, New York, USA. 176p.

32/32 Muchas Gracias información adicional: [email protected]