Reconstruction of the Ice Age Glaciation in the Southern Slopes of Mt

Home , Gyachung Kang, Ice tongue, Khumbutse, Lingtren, Machhermo

Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006): 91~124 http:// jms.imde.ac.cn; http://www.imde.ac.cn/journal

Article ID: 1672-6316 (2006) 02-0091-34

Reconstruction of the Ice Age Glaciation in the

Southern Slopes of Mt. Everest, Cho Oyu, Lhotse

and Makalu (Himalaya) (Part 1)

Matthias Kuhle

Geographie/Hochgebirgsgeomorphologie, Geographisches Institut der Universität, Goldschmidtstr.5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany

E-mail: [email protected]

Tel.: + 49 (0) 551 39 8067; Fax: +49 (0) 551 39 7614

Editorial Note: All the serious scientific issues are generally and finally recognized through repeated explorations, many examinations and various debates among different views. The research on past glaciations of the Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau has been considered not only an interesting and valuable hot spot, but also a controversial issue. As a scientific and technological platform for exchanging information on mountain research and development, the JMS provides an equal chance for publishing different ideas and opinions from different schools of thought.

Prof. Matthisa Kuhle has long worked on research on the past glaciations in the High Asia and achieved a series of results. The contribution entitled “Reconstruction of the Ice Age Glaciation on the Southern Slopes of Mt. Everest, Cho Oyu, Lhotse and Makalu (Himalaya)” is one of his research results, and we are greatly interested in it. No matter whether his result or conclusion is correct or not, his spirit to actively take part in and devote himself to the glaciological research is admired by us. However, as a distinctive theory, his article is worth reading. We hope that its publication will arouse responses and contends among colleagues in the circle of mountain science.

The original manuscript was too long with so many figures. Though the author condensed the text and reduced the figures to 30 as we proposed, the article is still very long for being published by a journal. So, we decide to publish it separately in two issues (No. 2~3, Vol. 3). The section for this issue (No. 2, Vol. 3) of the JMS, including 8 Figures and 6 Tables, is the first part of the article. The figures after No. 8 cited in the text of this part will be arranged in the next issue for the convienience of composition (No. 3, Vol. 3). We sincerely apologize to you for any inconvenience this arrangement may have caused you.

Abstract: In the Khumbu- and Khumbakarna system of the Himalaya and has communicated across Himalaya an ice stream network and valley glacier transfluence passes with the neighbouring ice stream system has been reconstructed for the last glacial networks toward the W and E. The ice stream network period (Würmian, Last Ice Age, Isotope stage 4-2, 60- has also received inflow from the N, from a Tibetan 18 Ka BP, Stage 0) with glaciogeomorphological and ice stream network, by the Kyetrak-Nangpa-Bote sedimentological methods. It was a part of the glacier Koshi Drangka (Valley) in the W, by the W-Rongbuk glacier valley into the Ngozumpa Drangka (Valley), by

the Central Rongbuk glacier valley into the Khumbu Received: 18 January 2006 Drangka (Valley) and by the antecedent Arun Nadi Accepted: 28 March 2006

91 Matthias Kuhle

transverse-valley in the E of the investigation area. focused on the evidence of glacier trim-lines and The ice thickness of the valley glacier sections, the -thicknesses. surface of which was situated above the snow-line, This is the regional continuation of a detailed amounted to 1000~1450 m. The most extended and spatially extensive reconstruction of the Ice parent valley glaciers have been measured approx. 70 Age glaciation in High Asia. It completes the km in length (Dudh Koshi glacier), 67 km (Barun- author's research on the past extent of ice and Arun glacier) and 80 km (Arun glacier). The tongue glacier thicknesses in High Asia carried out since end of the Arun glacier has flowed down to c. 500 m and that of the Dudh Koshi glacier to c. 900 m asl. At 1973 and published since 1974 (Kuhle M. heights of the catchment areas of 8481 (or 8475) m 1974~2005) by further observations in areas which (Makalu), i.e., 8848 (or 8872) m (Mt. Everest, have already been studied earlier or which have not Sagarmatha, Chogolungma) this is a vertical distance yet been visited (Figures 1, 2(insert between p. of the Ice Age glaciation of c. 8000 m. The steep faces 94&95), 3, 16). towering up to 2000 m above the névé areas of the 6000~7000 m-high surfaces of the ice stream network were located 2000~5000 m above the ELA. 1.1 Methods Accordingly, their temperatures were so low, that their rock surfaces were free of flank ice and ice balconies. From the maximum past glacier extension The geomorphological and Quaternarygeo- up to the current glacier margins, 13 (altogether 14) locical methods applied in the field and laboratory glacier stages have been differentiated and in part have already been discussed in detail in the papers 14C-dated. They were four glacier stages of the late on empirical Ice Age research and the glaciation glacial period, three of the neoglacial period and six of history of High Asia (Kuhle M. & WANG Wenjing the historical period. By means of 130 medium-sized 1988, Kuhle M. & XU Daoming 1991, Kuhle M.1994, valley glaciers the corresponding ELA-depressions 1997a, 1999a, 2001a) published in the GeoJournal have been calculated in comparison with the current series “Tibet and High Asia — Results of Investiga- courses of the orographic snow-line. The number of tions into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo- the glacier stages since the maximum glaciation Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene (Ice approx. agrees with that e.g. in the Alps and the Age Research)” and “Glaciogeomorphology and Rocky Mountains since the last glacial period. Prehistoric Glaciation in the Karakorum and Accordingly, it is interpreted as an indication of the Würmian age (last glacial period) of the lowest ice Himalaya” Volumes I (1988), II (1991), III (1994), margin positions. The current climatic, average IV (1997a), V (1999a) and VI (2001a). Accordingly, glacier snow-line in the research area runs about these scientifically common methods are only 5500 m asl. The snow-line depression (ELA) of the introduced here in general. Glaciogeomorphologic last glacial period (Würm) calculated by four methods observations in the research area (Figures 1, has run about 3870 m asl, so that an ELA-depression 2(insert between p. 94&95), 16) have been mapped. of c. 1630 m has been determined. This corresponds Locations of typologically unambigous individual to a lowering of the annual temperature by c. 8, i.e., phenomena, i.e., glacier indicators, have been 10℃ according to the specific humid conditions at recorded with the help of 39 signatures (Figures 1, that time. 2(insert between p. 94&95), 16). The catalogue of signatures applied has especially been developed by the author for the base map 1:1 million (ONC 1 Introduction, Methods of Evidence and H-9, 1978 and 1:50 000 Khumbu Himal Schneider Characteristics of the Investigation 1978). The locations of sediment samples, from Areas which only a selection could be taken in consideration for this paper, have also been The aim of this study was to find geomorph- marked. All type localities are presented in Figure 1 ological and sedimentological indicators of a past and Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95). They glaciation. In addition to the reconstruction of the concern areas in which the arrangement of the maximum extent of Ice Age glacier cover, field positions of the indicators provides unambiguous investigations combined with panorama photo- evidence of the Ice Age glacier cover. Reference to graphs and laboratory analyses of samples were them are given in the text, in the photographs,

92 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

Figure 1 Quaternary-geological and glacio-geomorphological map 1:700 000 of the Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal (Cho Oyu-, Mt.Everest- (Chogolungma- i.e., Sagarmatha-) and Makalu massifs) in the Central Himalaya. See Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) and Figure 3.

Matthias Kuhle

Figure 3 Map 1:700 000 with localities of the glacio-gemorphological and -sedimentological valley cross-profiles during the maximum Ice Age glaciation in the Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal between Makalu (8481 m) and Cho Oyu (8205 m) (Central Himalaya). See Figures 1, 2 (insert between p. 94&95), 5~7, 22~24.

tables and figures. In addition to the large-scale proof-system based on the arrangement of the mappings and the recording of type localities, positions, so that they complete the glacioge- which do not only occur on the valley floors but morphologic map (Figures 1, 2(insert between p. partly also on remote slopes and mountain flanks, 94&95), 16). Especially the indicators of the past 34 geomorphologic profiles (Figure 2(insert glacier thickness can be inferred from these between p. 94&95), Figure 3: Pro. 1~34), mainly profiles. All indicators marked in the maps and valley cross-profiles distributed over the entire profiles have been documented on the spot by investigation area, have been recorded (Figures analogue photographs and photo-panoramas in a 5~7, 9~15, 17, 18, 22~24). These profiles are meant medium- sized format. to give an impression of the three-dimensional

Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

Figure 2 Quaternary-geological and glacio-geomorphological map 1:140 000 of the Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal (Cho Oyu-, Mt.Everest- (Chogolungma- i.e., Sagarmatha-) and Makalu massifs) in the Central Himalaya. Basic topographic map: Khumbu Himal 1:50 000, Schneider (1978)

Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

For purposes of a detailed diagnose and The geomorphological maps (Figure 1 and additional reassurance as to the occurrence of real Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) as to the glacier ground moraine (lodgement till) in these high reconstruction of the last glacial period (Würmian, topographic positions testifying to past glacier Isotope Stage 4 to 2, Stage 0 in Table 1) as well as trim-lines, representative samples have been taken the text of the paper consider the late glacial, in order to be analysed in the laboratory (Figures holocene (neoglacial) and historical glacier stages 2(insert between p. 94&95), Figure 3 and 16). The (Tables 1, 3, 5, see table 3 at foot), even though they analyse data of 65 moraine samples are for the are not the true subjects of this investigation. The most part presented in Table 4 and Figures 4, existence of these younger glacier indicators is Figure 19, 20, 25~30. The sediment analyses, important, because they render the differentiation Ct/NT-determination (Elementar Analyser Leco of 7 late glacial- to neoglacial and 6 historical CHN 1000), lime content determination (after glacier stages possible, aligned between the lowest Scheibler; DIN 19684 Teil 5, 1977), grain size past (high glacial of the last glacial period, Stage 0) analysis ('Kombinierte Sieb- u. Pipeanalyse' after and the lowest current glacier margins. They are Köhn M. (1928), DIN 19683 Blatt 2, 1973), marked by the numbers I-XII as being of late determination of the sorting coefficient in the glacial to historical age (Tables 1, 3, 5, see table 3 at matrix spectrum (after the method of Engelhardt foot; Figures 1, 2(insert between p. 94&95), and 16). W.V.1973) (see Figures 20, 21, 25~30) and According to 15 14C-datings (Table 2) and morphoscopic quartz grain analysis (after the measurements of the lichen-diameters their age method of Mahaney W.C. 1995) (see Table 4 and has been determined, i.e., limited (Figure 2(insert Figure 4, Fgure 19) are able to support and between p. 94&95), Figure 16). The number of 13 complete the proof of a huge former glacigenic late glacial to historical glacier stages since the last landscape. Glacially crushed or freshly weathered glacial period corresponds with that of the glacier material cannot immediately be recognized by stages of the post-last glacial period diagnosed morphoscopic quartz grain analyses (Table 4 and worldwide. So, these younger evidences of ice Figure 4, Fgure 19), but by petrographic analyse in margin positions are important indications of the the field, i.e., by the content of erratic material, in correctness of our dating of the lowest past ice places also by the lime content of the debris covers, margin positions as belonging to the last glacial it can be proved that glacially crushed and not period (Stage 0=Isotope Stage 4-2). freshly weathered material in situ is concerned. The sorting coefficient So (= Q3/ Q1 ) 1.2 Areas of investigation compares the ratio of the grain sizes of the first quarter Q1 of the grain size distribution curve with During two expeditions in 1976 and 1977 that of the third quarter Q3 and provides an (Kuhle M. 1980, 1982, 1983a) the author has additional reliable proof as to mainly the evidenced an Ice Age glaciation in the Dhaulagiri- differentiation of fluvial and morainic accumula- and Annapurna Himalaya that was clearly more tions. If only one grain size appears in the sediment, important than it had been suggested for the then So=1. The greater the coefficient is, the Himalaya before (cf. Wissmann H. 1959). As an stronger the intermixing of different grain sizes is, area of reference the Dhaulagiri- and Annapurna which is typical of moraine matrix. Accordingly, the Himal were especially appropriate for these insignificant C-portion, the bi/trimodal and observations, because the author could visit both, quadramodal grain size distribution, the lack in the Tibetan N-slope and the transverse valleys as sorting and the very high percentage of glacially well as the S-slope. In order to substantiate the crushed quartz grains provide evidence of findings, further research areas including the Cho lodgement till (ground moraine) even up to very Oyu-, Mt. Everest- and Makalu-groups, i.e. the high positions in this steep valley relief. Owing to Khumbakarna Himal have been observed, too. this, these analyses are further accumulation During three expeditions up to three months in indicators of the former ice cover as well as of the 1984, 1989 and 1996 leading to altitudes up to over glacier thickness and — in some places — even of 7000 m asl, the N-slopes of these three mountains the minimum altitudes of the glacier trim-line. and the Mt.Everest E-slope were investigated (see

Matthias Kuhle

also Figure 1, 2(insert between p. 94&95), 3). The to the Khumbu area, the upper catchment area of results as to a past glaciation which here, too, was the Dudh Koshi Nadi (Cho Oyu- and Everest-S very extensive — what seems to be inconsistent -slope; Figures 1, 2(insert between p. 94&95), 3). with respect to the subtropic latitude at 27°N and the semiarid climate — has already been published in detail (Kuhle M. 1984a, 1985a, 1985b, 1986a, 2 The Former Trim-lines and Glacier 1986b, 1986c, 1986d, 1986e, 1986f, 1987a, 1988a, Thicknesses in the Makalu- and 1988b, 1988c, 1988d, 1988e, 1991a, 1998a, 1998b, Chamlang- (Khumbakarna-) Himalaya- 1998c, 1999b, 2001b, 2002a). These research areas S-slopes and the Lowest Glacier are immediately N-adjacent to those treated in this Terminus in the Arun Valley paper (Figures 1, 2(insert between p. 94&95), 3). Considering the very important ice thicknesses, the 2.1 The Ice Age Barun glacier topographic connection over high passes across the Himalaya main-ridge and also through it along The Barun Khola (Valley) is the largest source transverse valleys, it becomes clear that the Ice Age branch of the Arun Nadi (Valley) which arises from glacier cover of the N-slope must have been the Himalaya-S-slope and is still heavily glaciated connected with that of the S-slope and that the (Figure3 Pro.1-6). The reconstruction has shown heights of the glacier trim-lines were communi- substantial dimensions of the Late Glacial-, cating. Accordingly, the Ice Age valley glaciers neoglacial- and historical glaciations (cf. Table 1), reconstructed here, formed the outlet glaciers of too. This can be explained by the catchment areas the ice cover north of the Himalaya main-ridge and exceeding an altitude of 7000~8000 m. in S-Tibet (cf. Kuhle M. 1988b, 1998b, 1998c, It has to be stressed, that the late glacial 1999b, 2001b, 2002a). In the research area under coverage of the valley bottoms and the sections discussion, situated S of the main-ridge, the outlet near to them by debris of pedestal moraines (Table glaciers from Tibet as well as the valley glaciers 4 and Figure 4 sample No.5, 6, 7; see Figure flowing down from the S-flanks of the Himalaya 2(insert between p. 94&95)), which has taken place mountains, have developed the lowest Ice Age in many Himalaya valleys from the High Glacial glacier margins and -tongue ends in High- i.e., Stage 0 onwards (last glacial period), i.e., since the South Asia. They reached down to less than 1000 m deglaciation, could be evidenced here, too (Figure asl and, correspondingly, into a climate which was 2(insert between p. 94&95): 2.12.94/1/2; 3.12.94/1; completely different and even then relatively Pro.4; Figure 6). Afterwards a subglacial fluvial warm-humid. The lowest glacier terminals of the cutting into these ground moraines took place, Nanda Devi- and Kamet group, of the Dhaulagiri-, combined with their partial evacuation. Then the Annapurna- and Manaslu-group, of the Langtang- neoglacial (Holocene) and comparatively minor but and Rolwaling group but also of the thick historical moraines and flat glaciofluvial Kangchendzönga Himalaya flowed down just as gravel fields (sanders) (Figure 6; Figure 2(insert low (cf. König O. 1999, Kuhle M. 1980~2005). between p. 94&95) no-4 on the left of 2.12.94/1) How far the outlet glacier has flowed down the have been inserted into these valley cross-profiles, Arun valley from S-Tibet and how substantial the developed toward the ending Late Glacial. A glacier inflow from the Barun- and Iswa Khola renewed burying of the valley bottoms also through (Valley) (Chamlang valley) (Makalu S-side; Figures lateral- and dumped moraines (Table 4 and Figure 1~3) might have been, is treated in the first section 4 sample No.8, 9, 10 and also No.3, 4; see Figure 2 based on data of a one month expedition in 1994. (insert between p. 94&95): 4.12.94; 6.12.94/1/2; For the reconstruction of the maximum Ice Age 29.11.94/1/2), accompanied by the historical glacier filling and -cover of this mountain area the glacier shrinkage, currently takes place in the determination of the then ice thicknesses and higher valley chambers (Figure 2(insert between p. -trim-lines in these valleys is absolutely necessary. 94&95) Pro.1 -2; Figure 5). On the data base of two research expeditions in The reconstruction of the ice levels of the 1982 and 2003 over a period of all together 4.5 maximum Last Glacial period (Stage 0, Table 1) months these questions will be treated with regard Barun glacier of the upper valley chambers from

96 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

the valley heads of the Barun- and Lower Barun section in the valley chamber between the Mera glacier valley up to the confluence of these two Kharka (Figures 1 and 3 on the right of No.37) and valley source branches between the Shershon- Yangri Kharka (Figure 1 on the left below No.45; (Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) Pro.4, Figure 3 above Pro.7) alpine pastures, can be 3.12.94/1-29.11.94/1; Figure 6) and the Mera alpine described as follows: the glacier trim-line runs in a pasture with regard to their maximum ice steady slope from 5800 m above the end of the thicknesses could be summarized into four current Lower Barun glacier (Figures 1 and 3 on exemplary data, in the Barun glacier valley the ice the right of No.37) down to a level of c. 5100 m asl thicknesses amounted to c. 1200 m (Figure 5), in near Yangri Kharka (Figure 3 above Pro.7). the Lower Barun glacier valley to c. 1150 m (Figure Accordingly, the ice thickness at the upper 2(insert between p. 94&95) Pro.3) and in the beginning of this valley section was 1200~1400 m confluence area of the two source branches of the and at its lower end 1400~1600 m, depending on Barun valley to c. 1300 m (Figure 6). the underlying thickness of ground moraine (Table Summing up, the High Glacial (Stage 0; Table 4 and Figure 4 sample No.11; see Figure 3: 8.12.94 1) Barun glacier level of the 6-7 km-long valley and Figure 7).

Table 1 Glacier stages of the mountains in High Asia, i.e., in and surrounding Tibet (Himalaya, Karakorum, E-Zagros and Hindukush, E-Pamir, Tien Shan with Kirgisen Shan and Bogdo Uul, Quilian Shan, Kuenlun with Animachin, Nganclong Kangri, Tanggula Shan, Bayan Har, Gangdise Shan, Nyainquentanglha, Namche Bawar, Minya Gonka) from the pre-Last High Glacial (pre-LGM) to the present-day glacier margins and corresponding sanders (glaciofluvial gravel fields and gravel field terraces) with their approximate age (after Kuhle M. 1974~2005).

Gravel field Glacier stage Approximated age (YBP) ELA-depression (m) (Sander)

= Riß (pre-last High - I No. 6 150 000 ~ 120 000 c. 1400 Glacial maximum)

= Würm (last High Glacial 0 No. 5 60 000 ~18 000 c. 1300 maximum)

I - IV = Late Glacial No. 4 ~ No. 1 17 000 ~13 000 or 10 000 c. 1100 ~ 700

I = Ghasa-Stage No. 4 17 000 ~15 000 c. 1100 II = Taglung-Stage No. 3 15 000 ~14 250 c. 1000 III = Dhampu-Stage No. 2 14 250 ~13 500 c. 800~ 900 IV = Sirkung-Stage No. 1 13 500 ~13 000 (older than 12 870) c. 700

V-VII = Neo-Glacial No.-0 ~ No.-2 5 500 ~ 1 700 (older than 1 610) c. 300~ 80

V = Nauri-Stage No. -0 5 500 ~ 4 000 (4 165) c. 150~ 300 VI = Older Dhaulagiri-Stage No. -1 4 000 ~ 2 000(2 050) c. 100~ 200 VII = Middle Dhaulagiri-Stage No. -2 2 000 ~ 1 700(older than 1 610) c. 80~ 150

VII- XI = Historical glacier stages No.-3 ~ No.-6 1 700 ~ 0 (= 1950) c. 80 ~ 20

VII = Younger haulagiri-Stage No. -3 1 700 ~ 400 (440 resp. older than 355) c. 60~ 80 VIII =Stage VIII No. -4 400 ~ 300(320) c. 50 IX = Stage IX No. -5 300 ~ 180(older than 155) c. 40 X = Stage X No. -6 180 ~ 30(before 1950) c. 30~ 40 XI = Stage XI No. -7 30 ~ 0(= 1950) c. 20

= Stage XII = recent resp. XII No. -8 +0 ~ +30 (1950 - 1980) c. 10~ 20 present glacier stages

Draft: M. Kuhle

Matthias Kuhle

Table 2 C14-datings from the Khumbu Himalaya

C14 age Depth of Recent Altitude Underlying δ 13C (years No Material Locality sample vegetation Comments (m asl.) substratum (‰) before (m) cover 1950)

Moraine, Adjacent valley of Dole unconsolidated (Dole Drangka), end Cyperacae 2050 +/- See Fig.16 1 Soil 4410 0.3 rock - -26.0 moraine; turf 105 No.1 metamorphosed 27°52'32"N/86°43'21"E graywacke

Adjacent valley of Dole, Alpine turf 2400 +/- See Fig.16 2 Peat 4400 tongue basin; 0.25 Gneiss gravel and moist -24.8 140 No.2 27°52'21"N/86°43'24"E alpine scrub

Glacial till - Muds of Adjacent valley of Dole, gneiss and Moist 4165 +/- See Fig.16 3 acid alpine 4230 end moraine; 0.5 -24.8 metamorphosed alpine scrub 150 No.3 moor soil 27°52'10"N/86°43'30"E graywacke

Machhermo Khola Moraine Humus (Drangka), lateral to end material, sand 2350 +/- See Fig.16 4 soil and 4440 0.2 See No.2 -23.8 moraine; with blocks of 295 No.4 peat 27°54'06"N/86°43'03"E gneiss

Lateral depression right Glacio- fluvial of the Ngozumpa 3345 +/- See Fig.16 5 Soil 4910 0.12 sand, sand bar See No.1 -25.1 glacier; 550 No.5 material 27°58'45"N/86°41'30"E

340 m-high pedestal Coarse moraine ground moraine terrace blocks of Peat of 2705 +/- See Fig.16 6 5230 right of the Ngozumpa 0.6 graywacke and Alpine turf -24.5 hummocks 235 No.6 glacier; gneiss 27°59'16"N/86°41'01"E

Lateral depression of adjacent valley glaciers above and right of the Lateral fan - Ngozumpa glacier; Root wood sand on coarse 28°01'55"N/86°41'03"E; See Fig.16 7 from 5350 0.40-0.42 moraine blocks: Alpine turf -23.0 290 +/- 70 orogr. left lateral valley No.7 Rhodiola gneiss and of Lhabtshan E-Glacier granite and in the tongue basin of Lhabtshan 5560 m-summit south glacier

Root wood See Fig.16 8 from 5350 See No.7 0.5 See No.7 Alpine turf -24.7 440 +/- 80 No.8 Rhodiola

On the delta of Glaciofluvially Peat from Gokyo-Tsho (lake) reworked 1165 +/- See Fig.16 9 4745 0.5-0.55 Alpine turf -24.4 hummocks (west); moraine with 110 No.9 27°57'N/86°41'17"E gneiss

Glaciofluvial On alluvial soil in sand on glacial tongue basin in the till with See Fig.2* 10 Peat 4290 Arabtsen valley near 0-0.05 Alpine turf -22.8 320 +/- 130 metamorphosed No.10 Thengpo; sedimentary 27°49'20"N/86°36'35"E rock

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Younger See Fig.2* Glaciofluvial or than 1955; No.11; 400 m West of Namche Bazar; 0.7, glaciolacustrine Alpine 14C-content higher than 11 Wood 3550 -26.3 27°48'12"N/86°42'40"E digging sands on scrub (% modern) the talweg of lodgement till 113.5 +/- the Bhote 1.7 Koshi

Younger See Fig.2* than 1955; No.12; 800 m Glaciofluvial Wood (two Syampoche; 1.30, Alpine 14C-content higher than 12 3780 sands on medial -21.0 pieces) 27°48'30"N/86°42'55"E digging scrub (% modern) the talweg of moraine 100.0 +/- the Bhote 0.9 Koshi

See Fig.2* No.13, 800 m North-north-east above Orographic higher than 0.50, Alpine 13 Wood 4030 Khumjung; right end- or -20.0 210 +/- 50 the talweg of exposure scrub 27°49'21"N/86°43'25"E lateral moraine the Imja Drangka (Khola)

Younger See Fig.2* than 1955; Western margin of Glaciofluvial No.14, 350 m 1.50, Alpine 14C-content 14 Wood 3840 Tengboche; sands of former -23.9 higher than exposure forest (% modern) 27°50'12"N/86°45'50"E glacier bank the talweg of 104.2 +/- the Imja 0.7 Drangka

See Fig.2* Younger No.15, 180 m than 1955; higher than East above Pheriche; 0.60, Alpine 14C-content 15 Wood 4300 Lateral moraine -22.2 the talweg of 27°53'39"N/86°49'48"E digging scrub (% modern) the Khumbu 102.3 +/- Drangka 1.0 (Khola)

* Figure 2 was arranged as an insert between p. 94&95.

Also it has been proved that the trim-line of is nevertheless significant, can be explained by the the High Glacial Barun Nadi (Valley) glacier abutment of the Arun Nadi (Valley) main valley between the Yangri Kharka alpine pasture (Figure 7, glacier (Chapter 2.4). Due to the increasing valley Figure 3 on the left of Pro.5, Figure 1 above No. 46) incline toward the junction with the Arun Nadi and the confluence into the Arun main glacier (Valley), the most important ice thickness, (Figure 3 Pro.6; Figure 1 on the left of No.48) has normally situated where the ice surface cuts the sloped from c. 5100 m asl near Yangri Kharka ELA, has been shifted up-valley as far as up to (Figure 3 on the left above Pro.7) via 4600~4700 m Profile 5 (Figure 7). Here, the glacier surface lies c. asl 9 km down-valley at Profile 5 (Figure 7) to 1200 m above the snow- line. During the last 2800~2700 m at Profile 6 (Figure 3). Suggesting glacial period the snow-line in the area of the lower that during the High Glacial (Stage 0) a ground Barun Nadi (Valley) lay between 3300~3600 m asl. moraine veil with a thickness of only a few metres has covered the bedrock of the valley ground, ice 2.2 The current and Ice Age Irkhuwa- or thicknesses can be reconstructed from 1600 m at Isuwa glacier the maximum (Pro.5) up to c. 800 m (Pro.6) 5 km up-valley from the inflow into the Arun Nadi (Valley) (cf. Figure 3). The cause of this important Likewise from the Himalaya S-slope and decrease in ice thickness is the steep and thus likewise with a catchment area exceeding an accelerating glacier discharge into the low-lying altitude of 7000 m, the Irkhuwa Khola (Valley) Arun valley. The glacier thickness of 800 m, which joins the Arun valley from the W (Figure 3).

Matthias Kuhle

Table 4 Morphometric quartz grain analysis of 15 representative samples from the Khumbakarna Himal with the Barun- and Arun valley (cf. Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) and 3).

Counted Freshly Lustrous Dull quartz grains weathered/ (fluvially (aeolian)/ of the glacially polished)/ äolisch medium Sample crushed / fluvial mattiert Remarks / Anmerkungen sand/ frisch poliert No./Probe- Date/Datum ausgezählte verwittert/ Analyzed grain size/ Analysierte Korngröße: 200-630 µm Quarzkörner nnummer glazigen der gebroch Mittelsandfr- (%) (%) (%) aktion Very high portion of muskovite, many iron-oxide crusts, perhaps pyrite; partly 1 22.11.94/1 201 80.1 19.9 0.0 fluvially polished / Sehr hoher Anteil von Muskovit und viele Eisenoxidkrusten, vielleicht Pyrit. Teils fluviale Überpolitur Large part of grains freshly weathered; small portion rounded at the 2 22.11.94/2 261 89.6 9.6 0.8 edges/Körner größtenteils deutlich frisch verwittert, kleiner Prozentanteil mit Kantenrundung Quartz grains clearly rounded (aeolian with percussion depressions); many 3 29.11.94/1 213 57.3 23.9 18.8 grainy-stalked feldspars/Deutliche Rundung der Quarzkörner (äolisch mit Percussionstrichtern). Viele körnig-stengelige Feldspäte Edges are rounded; portion of dull (aeolian) grains may be higher, because dullness of the grain surface sets in before its rounding (only round and dull 4 29.11.94/2 232 63.4 23.7 12.9 grains can be analysed) / Kantenrundung, Anteil äolisch-mattierter Körner eventuell höher, da Mattierung der Kornoberfläche vor Kornrundung einsetzt, jedoch nur runde & matte Körner zugewiesen werden können Heterogeneous sample: rounded to rounded at edges, but also very fresh and

sharp-edged; partly very nice conchoidal fractures/Heterogen, teils gerundet 5 02.12.94/1 220 59.1 27.3 13.6 bis kantengerundet, aber auch sehr frisch & scharfkantig. Zum Teil sehr

schöne muschelige Brüche

High portion of muskovite; grains markedly stronger-edged than 5 /Hoher 6 02.12.94/2 249 72.3 22.1 5.6 Muskovit-Anteil, Körner deutlich kantiger als 5

Small portion of quartz, partly reddish-oxidized; for the most part freshly 7 03.12.94/1 168 54.8 40.5 4.7 weathered to slightly rounded/Geringer Quarzanteil, teils rötlich oxidiert, größtenteils frisch verwittert bis angerundet

Very high portion of quartz, clearly glaciofluvial character/Sehr hoher 8 04.12.94 237 38.8 29.5 31.7 Quarzanteil, deutlich (glazi-) fluvial geprägt

Relatively high portion of muskovite, edges often rounded/Relativ hoher 9 06.12.94/1 221 64.3 21.3 14.4 Muskovit-Anteil, oftmals Kantenrundung

100 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) Substrate nearly pure quartz sand; heterogeneous with all transitions;

exemplary character at magnification 1.6 / Substrat erscheint als fast reiner 10 06.12.94 /2 221 42.5 28.1 29.4 Quarzsand. Heterogene Probe – alle Übergänge vorhanden. Exemplarischer

Charakter bei Vergrößerungsstufe 1.6

Many quartz grains slightly rounded at the edges - probably minor recent

fluvial reshaping, i.e., glaciofluvial displacement /Leichte Kantenrundung 11 08.12.94 227 67.4 28.6 4.0 vieler Quarzkörner spricht für eine geringfügige rezente fluviatile

Überformung bzw. glazifluviale Umlagerung

12 14.12.94/1 232 43.1 38.8 18.1 Very high portion of quartz/Sehr hoher Quarzanteil

Very high portion of quartz similar to 12, but somewhat more edged/Sehr 13 14.12.94/2 224 57.1 30.4 12.5 hoher Quarzanteil, ähnlich zu 12, nur etwas kantiger

Very high portion of mica, often covered with iron-oxide crusts; all transition

forms (freshly edged, rounded at edges, round)/Sehr hoher Glimmer-Anteil, 14 16.12.94/1 208 74.5 24.0 1.5 vielfach mit Eisenoxidkrusten überzogen; alle Übergangsformen von

kantig-frisch zu kantengerundet-rund

Character of sample obviously fluvially superimposed/Deutlich fluvial 15 19.12.94 234 49.1 46.6 4.3 überprägt

Figure 4 Morphometric quartz grain analysis of 15 representative samples from the Khumbakarna Himal with the Barun- and Arun valley (cf. Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) and 3).

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Matthias Kuhle

Table 5 Average snow-line depression of medium-sized valley glaciers in the Ngozumpa valley (south slope of Cho Oyu) from the Late-Glacial Dhampu-Stage (III) to the recent Stage X (see Table 1~3, see Table 3 at foot)

Average Exposure (in Average Average Number of Minimum age snowline Stade order of snowline glacier length glaciers taken before 1950 altitude importance) depression (m) (km) into account (yrs) (m asl.)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Dhampu III E 4715 815 2.75 1 Older than 4165

Sirkung IV E, S 4763 767 5.05 2 Older than 4165

Nauri V E, S, SW 4970 560 2.81 7 4165

Older Dhaulagiri E, S, W, SW 5073 457 3.50 10 2050-2400 VI Middle E, SW, SE, NE, S, Younger than 5253 277 3.10 19 Dhaulagiri ‘VII W 2050 Younger S, SE, E, NE, N, W 5383 147 2.17 18 440 Dhaulagiri VII E, S, NE, W, SE, VIII 5431 99 1.98 22 320 NW E, NW, NE, S, W, Younger than IX 5453 77 1.74 12 SE 320

X S, E 5478 52 1.57 2 80-30?

E, S, N, NE, SE, W, Recent 5530 0 1.53 30 30-0 NW

total 123

The current 7.5 km-long Irkhuwa glacier, 2.3 The Last Glacial glaciation of the which at the valley head flows down from the Kasuwa Khola (Valley) — a further Chamlang-SE-flank (Figure 2(insert between p. orographic right tributary valley of the 94&95) and 3 on the left below Pro.3, No.12; Table Arun Nadi (Valley) (Figure 3 on the left 6), reaches down to 4080 m. Its orographic above and below Tashigaon) snow-line runs at 5600 m asl. The Last Glacial Irkhuwa glacier (Stage 0=Last The lowest Ice Age ice margin position of the High Glacial maximum = last glacial period = Kasuwa glacier, fixed by the pedestal end moraine Würm = Isotope Stage 4-2) has filled the entire 40 described at 27°37'22"N/87°17'E (Figure 1 half km-long valley (Figure 3 Irkhuwa Khola (Valley)) -right below No.46), was situated at c. 1600 m asl and joined a Arun parent glacier at c. 700 m asl. and thus c. 300 m above the talweg of the Kasuwa Over a distance of 5-6 km it has attained a river, in the meantime cut into the loose rock of the thickness of at least 1100 m (Figure 3 Pro.7). pedestal moraine. During the Late Glacial Ghasa Stage (I; Table 1) At a height of the catchment area of 4450 m or the pre-Ghasa stagnation the Irkhuwa glacier asl and a lowest ice margin position about 1600 m came to an end at 780 m asl, immediately above an orographic snow-line in a SE-exposition can be the junction with the Arun Nadi (Valley). At a calculated for the Ice Age (Stage 0=last glacial medium catchment area (crest fringe) of c. 6500 m period = Würm) Kasuwa glacier at 3025 m asl. this glacier extension proves a corresponding (Calculation of the ELA: 4450-1600=2850; 2850:2 orographic snow-line at 3640 m asl (calculation of =1425; 1425+1600=3025). This remarkably low the ELA: 6500-780=5720; 5720:2=2860; 2860+ orographic snow-line can be reduced to the over- 780 =3640). shadowing of the narrow valley glacier by the

102 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

1500~2000 m-high dividing crest (Figure 1 No.46) there the nearly 2000 m-thick High Glacial Arun to the W-adjacent Irkhuwa Khola (Valley). parent glacier — as one of the large S-Tibetan outlet glaciers of the Tibetan ice, i.e., the S-Tibetan 2.4 The Ice Age Arun glacier ice stream network (Figure 1 N of frame of Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) — flowed down from Coming from the N, the Arun Nadi (Valley) the S-margin of the plateau through the steep Arun leads down from S-Tibet. In this antecedent Nadi (Valley) toward the S (Kuhle M. 1991a, p. Himalaya transverse-valley the regressive erosion 200~204; 213~219; 229/230). Even during the of the Arun River has led to a gorge-shaped Late Glacial (Stage I; Table 1) this Arun outlet incision reaching up to c. 3600 m, i.e., as far as the glacier still had a thickness of at least 1130 m. From Kada valley chamber (Figure 3). There the flat, the valley chamber of Kada, from c. 3600 m asl, up wide high valley bottom of the upper, i.e., Tibetan, to the inflow of the Barun glacier reconstructed in Arun valley (Arun Chu) with its source branches this study, the Arun outlet glacier has flowed down Pum Qu and Dzarka Chu sets in, covered with to 1100 m asl over a distance of 66 km. At the same glaciofluvial gravel accumulations and terraces. time the Arun glacier received a further inflow This region of Tibet's S-margin with the upper from the orographic right side by the junction of course of the Arun Nadi (Valley) was the subject of the Ice Age Kangshung- i.e., Karma glacier from the author's detailed Quaternary-geological and the Karma Chu (see Figure 3). In its source areas geomorphological investigations during his this c. 50 km-long tributary glacier flowed down expedition in 1989 (Kuhle M. 1991a) (Figure 1 and from the E-flanks of Mt.Everest (No.1), Makalu 3). He has reconstructed a c.1400 m-thick High (No.3) and Chomo Lönzo (Kuhle M. 1991a, p. Glacial glacier in the Kharta Chu (Figure 3) (Kuhle 222/223; 225~229; 229/230) and from the M. 1991a, p. 203; 219~223), which at 3630 m asl — N-flanks of Lhotse (Table 6 No.2), Lhotse Shar, more exactly in the Kada valley chamber — flowed Shar Tse (Peak 38; Table 6 No.10), Pethangtse and into the Arun Nadi (Valley) (cf. Figure 3). From Chomo Lönzo (Kuhle M. 1991a, p. 225; 227 ~ 229).

Table 5 Peaks and saddles in the research area

No. Peak Altitude (m asl) No. Peak Altitude (m asl)

1 Mt Everest 8872 (8848) 54 Lingtren 6749

2 Lhotse 8501 55 6145 m-peak 6145

3 Makalu 8481 56 6119 m-peak 6119

4 Cho Oyu 8202 57 Kangchung 6103

5 Nangpai Gosum 7352 58 6238 m-peak 6238

6 Changtse (Bei Peak) 7583 59 6430 m-peak 6430

7 Gyachung Kang 7922 60 Kongde Ri 6187

8 Nuptse 7879 61 6571 m-peak 6571

9 Ngozumpa Kang 7806 62 Nangpa La (Khumbu La) 5716

10 Shar Tse 7502 63 Nup La 5985 or 5860

11 Nangpai Gosum 7352 64 Pumori La 6146

12 Chamlang 7290 65 Lingtren La 6150 or 6126

13 Baruntse 7220 66 6845 m-peak 6845

14 Pumori 7165 (7145) 67 6066 m-peak 6066

15 7020 m-peak 7020 68 Kyajo Ri 6186

16 Karyolung 6611 69 Pa Ri (6073 m-peak) 6073

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Table 6 Peaks and saddles in the research area (Contitued)

No. Peak Altitude (m asl) No. Peak Altitude (m asl)

17 Nupla 5885 70 5570 m-saddle 5570

18 6907 m-peak 6907 71 5927 m-peak 5927

19 Chumbu 6870 72 5941 m-peak 5941

20 Amai Dablang 6856 73 Kusum Kanguru 6369

21 6853 m-peak 6853 74 Khumbui Yul Lha 5761

22 6830 m-peak 6830 75 5719 m-peak 5719

23 6825 m-peak 6825 76 6296 m-peak 6296

24 Drag Karob 6801 77 6907 m-peak 6907

25 Kyashar 6770 78 Pangbug Ri 6716

26 Pigpherago Shar 6718 79 Menlung La 5883

27 Kang Taiga 6779 80 Kang Korob 6705

28 c.6750 m-peak c.6750 81 Drag Korob (or Drangnag Ri) 6801

29 Cho Polu 6734 82 5890 m-pass 5890 6730 m-peak (Baruntse 30 6730 83 Tangi Ragi Tau 6940 SE-satellite) 31 6720 m-peak 6720 84 Trashi Labtsa 5755

32 Kang Karob 6705 85 Pigpherago Shar 6718

33 Khumbutse 6697 86 Panayo Tuppa 6696

34 Panayo Tuppa 6696 87 Teng Kangpoche 6500

35 Rim Ri 6677 88 6180 m-peak 6180

36 Tramserku 6608 89 5967 m-peak 5967

37 Iswa Peak c.6600 90 5949 m-peak 5949

38 6571 m-peak 6571 91 5970 m-peak 5970

39 6550 m-peak 6550 92 Kabsale 5583

40 Taboche 6367 93 Numbur 6959

41 6510 m-peak 6510 94 6797 m-peak 6797

42 6480 m-peak 6480 95 5650 m-col 5650

43 c. 6450 m-peak c.6450 96 6589 m-peak 6589

44 6830 m-peak "Chonku Chuli" 6830 97 6362 m-peak 6362

45 Peak 3 6477 98 6425 m-peak 6425

46 Shipton La 4135 (4127) 99 5977 m-peak 5977

47 Iswa La 5340 100 6477 m-peak 6477

48 Ekrate Dada 6213 101 Jobo Garu 7181

49 Chang La 7066 102 c.6000 m-tower c.6000

50 Lho La 6026 103 Dragkar Go 6793

51 Rapui La 6548 104 6263 m-peak 6263

52 Mt Everest (West Ridge) 7309 (7205) 105 6508 m-peak 6508

53 Jobo Lhaptshan 6440

104 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

Its reconstructed High Glacial ice thickness in the to the roche moutonnée the glacier has buckled middle Karma Chu (Kangshung valley), still 20 km upwards, so that stationary crevasses have been away from the inflow into the Arun Nadi (Valley), developed, through which the supraglacial water amounted to at least 1300 m at a contemporary has permanently struck the culmination of the height of the valley bottom of 3780 m asl (Kuhle M. roche moutonnée at a steep angle on exactly one 1991a, p. 204~210; 222/223). Due to their point up to a depth of at least several decametres. thickness of 2000 m and at least 1300 m these two At the same time it has excavated the pothole. The tributary streams, the Arun outlet- i.e., parent stationary formation of crevasses up to the glacier glacier, coming down from S-Tibet, and the Ice Age surface necessary for this depends on an ice Kangshung- or Karma glacier with their joint thickness which has amounted to far less than tongue — that of the Arun main glacier — have 1000 m during the Late Glacial (pre-Ghasa reached the inflow of the Barun glacier situated 27 Stagnation or Ghasa Stage I; see Table 1). Typical km away (Chapt. 2.1). The ice thickness of the Arun of a feedback of the development of glacier mills main valley glacier is the question treated in the and potholes, such as this, is their locality on a following text. convex full-form, because here the postglacial As background information we ought to call to subaerial Arun River was unable to become mind that the Ice Age Barun glacier (see 2.1) in the effective in this way. Accordingly, potholes on area of the Barun gorge, 6 km away from its inflow roches moutonnées are a very strong indicator. Due into the Arun valley (Figure 3 Pro.6), still had a to the very thick ice in this valley chamber they thickness of c. 800 m (Figure 3 Pro.6). Accordingly, were unable to develop here during the High it must have reached the Arun Nadi (Valley), too. Glacial. Owing to this, these potholes are an According to the data mentioned, the ice indicator of dating. thickness of the Arun parent glacier amounted to a In the most downward area of the section of good 1000 m in the Barun confluence. Owing to the Arun valley between the Lamobagar Gola and this, the ice thickness of the Barun glacier (see Num settlements (Figure 3), a glacigenic bank above), which due to the significant valley incline formation such as this (Figure 1 No.51; Figure 3 was important in the lower Barun Khola (Valley) Pro.9; Table 4 and Figure 4 sample No.1, 2 and 14, (see 2.1), can be reduced to a backflow caused by see Figure 3: 22.11.94/1/2; 16.12.94/1) is situated the abutment of the main valley glacier with its near the Num settlement, a good 700 m above the level at 2100 m asl. This means that the surface of talweg at 1430 m asl. Here, 14 km down-valley the Barun tributary glacier ought to have fallen from the ground moraine remnants near away relatively steadily and evenly from c. 2600 Lamobagar (Table 4 and Figure 4 sample No.12 down to 2100 m over a distance of 6 km, whilst the and 13, see Figure 3: 14.12.94/1/2) and at a height talweg of the Barun Khola (Valley) becomes steeper of the valley floor of only just 730 m asl, the Arun in this area of the valley exit (2.1). In this context, parent glacier was even 180 m thicker than can be the important thickness of the steep Barun glacier recognized by the ground moraine remnant provides an indirect proof of a thick Arun glacier. situated 550 m above the talweg 14 km up-valley A direct proof of the Ice Age Arun main glacier (down-valley from Lamobagar). At Profile 8 the ice down-valley of the Barun Khola (Valley)-junction is thickness still amounted to 1100 m (Figure 3), 22 the whale back-roche moutonnée with potholes km down the Arun valley near Num (Profile 9) to a and glacier striae in the valley chamber of good 700 m (cf. Figure 3). Owing to this, between Lamobagar Gola at 1100 m asl (Figure 1 No.49). the two ice thicknesses being definitely from the The roche moutonnée is covered by a scatter of glacial period (Profile 8 and 9), a consistent round-edged boulders up to some metres lying in decrease in ice thickness — as a function of a steady an unstable position. Besides well-preserved down-valley incline of the glacier surface — has to roundings of abrasion, polishings and glacier striae be interpolated. it shows perfectly preserved potholes up to several The up to 2.5 m, i.e., 3 m-long augen-gneiss metres deep on its culmination. They are partly boulders on the orographic left lateral moraine filled with ground moraine. They originated from a terrace (Figure 1 No.51) of the Num settlement Late Glacial ice cover diminishing in thickness. Due have travelled up to here over a distance of c. 50

105

Matthias Kuhle

km, i.e., they are erratic. They are associated with Further down the valley remnants of a ground crystalline schist boulders (phyllites), so that one moraine cover are preserved on the orographic may speak of a polymict block packing. Different right side. In many places they are several deca- to metamorphic sedimentary rocks as e.g. hundred metres lower than that of the Murmidada thin-bedded mica schists outcrop in the lateral moraine (Figure 1 between No.52 and 51). sub-surface. The erratic boulders are round-edged Corresponding ground moraine remnants are also or even somewhat more strongly rounded. On this situated on orographic left rock cornices, several nearly horizontal terrace form preserved at an hundred metres above the Arun talweg (Figure 1 on acute angle (Figure 1 No.51) they are embedded the left above No.51). On this valley flank, on which into a decametres-thick matrix. According to still very active spring-line erosion has displaced laboratory analyses it is undoubtedly glacigenic and partly completely removed a large part of the (Table 4 and Figure 4 sample No.1; Figure 3: loamy and thus water-damming ground moraine in 22.11.94/1). 80% of the quartz grains are glacially the form of saturation flows (Figure 1 on the left of crushed. Due to the decametres-thickness of the No.51), samples have been taken from ground loose material from which the samples have been moraine covers at 1235 to 1360 m asl, 80~200 m taken, and also due to the erratics contained, an in lower than the Num moraine terrace (see above) situ weathering of the bedrock in the underlying and 535~660 m above the Arun river (27°33'15"N/ area can be ruled out. In addition, the topographic 87°16'E; Figure 3: 16.12.94/1). Here, too, the same position and the arrangement of the positions picture (Table 4 and Figure 4 No.14): nearly 75% of (Figure 1 No.51) make clear that moraine is the quartz grains contained are glacially crushed. concerned. An accumulation of debris flow a good The inflow of the High Glacial (Stage 0; Würm) 700 m above the talweg, which with the exception Irkhuwa glacier into the Arun parent glacier has of these terrace remnants has been completely already been shown in detail (see Chapt. 2.2). In removed by erosion has to be ruled out, because addition it has been shown that during the Ghasa this is extremely improbable and unprecedented. Stage (I), or one of the two pre-Ghasa Stagnations, Beyond it, it would not correspond with the result the tongue end of the Late Glacial Irkhuwa glacier of the morphoscopic analysis according to which had a persistent position somewhat above the only c. 20% of the grains are fluvially polished, but junction with the Arun Nadi (Valley). Here, the 80% are glacially crushed. Several decametres glacier has scoured out its own small tongue basin below toward the NW, a further — here in the bedrock (Figure 1 below No.52). ledge-shaped — moraine planation is situated The mouth of the High Glacial (Stage 0, Table (Figure 1 No.51). 1) Irkhuwa glacier is not merely evidenced by the On the cross-profile under discussion the orographic left lateral moraine (Figure 1 below orographic right Arun Nadi (Valley) flank shows a No.52), but also by a down-valley lateral- or kames deposit of ground moraine which corresponds with terrace in the immediate junction with the Arun that of the lateral moraine terrace of Num, i.e., it Nadi (Valley) at 1120 m asl (Figure 1 below No. 52 comes to approx. the same height. A related on the right). The level of this kames terrace orographic right moraine form, that is a remnant of situated a good 420 m above the Arun river at the a lateral moraine terrace, was found near the direct exit of the Irkhuwa Khola (Valley), becomes Murmidada settlement (or Navgaon) at 1550 m asl, only understandable through the existence of an 830 m above the Arun Nadi (Valley) talweg (Figure Arun parent glacier, against which the tongue of 1 No.52). Here, the proportion of glacially crushed this side glacier has pushed and the abutment of quartz grains even reaches 90% (Table 4 and which has dammed up the Irkhuwa glacier. Figure 4 No.2; Figure 3: 22.11.94/2). The large The dicribed moraine terraces from the Num boulders contained in this matrix are not erratic in and Mumidada settlements, found at a low altitude the true sense, because they might come from the above sea-level of only 1430~1550 m such as this comparatively short north-north-western Arun side and at the same time at a great altitude above the valley, the Kasuwa Khola (Valley) (see 2.3). Owing valley bottom, are of fundamental importance with to this, their mere material does not testify to an regard to the Ice Age glacier reconstruction. Arun parent glacier.

106 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

Accordingly, the following data are necessary for glacigenic sediment. 49% of the grains are glacially their understanding. crushed and almost 47% of them are lustrous From the Num-up to the Simle settlement, i.e., (fluvial). This proves the proximity of a past glacier over a distance of 14.5 km, the Arun parent glacier margin the meltwater of which has displaced the has decreased from an ice thickness of a good 700 moraine material. In morphoscopic terms it has ~830 m to c. 250 m. At a correspondingly been reshaped at the same time, but not completely continuous decrease in ice thickness the Arun reworked. The 4.3% aeolian grains point to a parent glacier ought to have had its lowest ice markedly more arid environment than today and to margin c. 6.5 to 7 km further down-valley near the past cold katabatic winds from the glacier, Sankhuwatar settlement at the mouth of the channeled by the Arun Nadi (Valley). Sankhuwa Khola (Valley) (Figure 3) at 27°27'N The red weathering supports the conclusion /87°08'45"E about 450 m asl (Figure 1 above that the surface of the gravel floor has been No.54). In earlier publications the author has fossilized since c. 18-17 Ka. already cited this ice margin position, though with Summing up, the High Glacial (Stage 0; Table the slightly differing coordinates 27°24'N 1) Arun glacier can be described as follows: During /87°08'30"E (Kuhle M. 1997b, p. 125; 1998a, p. 87) the last glacial period a dendritic valley glacier based on the somewhat inexact One Inch-Map system has joined in the Arun parent glacier. It has (1964) and the ONC-Map (Operational Navigation been fed by the S-Tibetan ice stream network Chart 1978, H-9). In the meantime, the map-sheet (Kuhle M. 1991a) as well as by the Karma-, Barun- Khadbari of the 1:25 000 Nepal-mapwork (2787 and Irkhuwa glaciers and, accordingly, has also 09B, 1996) and thus a more exact quotation of the been nourished by the High Himalaya (Figure 3). coordinates is available. The distance of c. 21-22 This composition of the parent glacier resulted km from the undoubted lateral moraine forms near from the arrangement of the Arun Nadi as an the Num and Murmidada settlements up to this antecedent Himalayan transverse valley leading locality of the glacier tongue end is — with regard down from the Tibetan Plateau. The Arun oulet to the valley decline from 710 m to 450 m asl and glacier descending from there, i.e., from the valley the decrease in ice thickness of c. 750 m — an chamber of Kada (Figure 3), was c. 110 km long and extrapolation value of appropriate probability, flowed down to c. 450 m asl up to the inflow of the which through the numerous glacigenic indicators Sankhuwa Khola (Valley) (27°27'N/87°08'45"E) on this stretch (cf. Figure 1 No.50-54) receives an (Figure 1 and 3 above No.54). The tributary evident confirmation. streams and glaciers of the Arun parent glacier, Down-valley from the High Glacial ice margin also reconstructed in this chapter, are the Barun- position of the Arun glacier a related glaciofluvial and Irkhuwa glacier (Figure 3). They flowed down terrace area sets in. To this belongs the large-scale from the Khumbarkana Himalaya SE- to SSE-slope, preserved main terrace, a good 60 m-high, of the from the Makalu- and Chamlang massif (Figure High Glacial (Stage 0 = last glacial period, Würm, 2(insert between p. 94&95) in the right corner last High Glacial Maximum; Table 1) ice margin below; Table 6), up to the junction with the Arun position at 450 m asl as a connected glacier mouth parent glacier over a length of 61, i.e., 40 km, as far gravel floor (gravel field, sander No.5; cf. Table 1) as 1100 (Figure 1 and 3 on the left below No.48) (Figure 1 No.54). During the deglaciation up to the and 700 m asl (Figure 1 on the left above No.51). Holocene this gravel floor has been cut a good 60 The whole length of the Barun glacier, including m-deep, so that the 100~700 m-wide and 60 m- the fully 33 km-long tongue of the Arun parent high terrace forms have developed. The samples glacier from the confluence of the two ice streams taken c. 18-22 km away from the Ice Age glacier up to the lowest joint ice margin position at 450 m margin (Figure 1 No.54) down the Arun Nadi asl (see above), amounted to 94 km. (Valley) (No.55; Figure 3 sample 19.12.94) up to c. During the High Glacial the ice thicknesses of 250-200 m asl down to the valley chamber of the Barun- and Irkhuwa glacier amounted to at Tumlintar, confirms the glaciofluvial sediment- least 1300 (Figure 6, Figure 2(insert between p. type of the terrace (Table 4 and Figure 4 No.15). 94&95) Pro.4; Figure 7, Figure 3 Pro.5), i.e., The morphoscopy shows the fluvial reshaping of a 1400~1600 m according to the underlying thick-

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ness of the ground moraine (2.1) and 1100 m stream network (Kuhle M. 1991a) has existed in the (Figure 3 Pro.7). At low-lying valley floors of N. There was also a most important, a fully 500 merely c. 1100 and 720 m asl, the lower Arun m-transfluence to the SW-adjacent Irkhuwa glacier parent glacier has even just reached 1100 (Figure 3 across the Iswa La (Table 6 No.47; Figures 2(insert Pro.8) and 700-830 m (Figure 3 Pro.9). In the between p. 94&95), 3 and 1 No.47). Here, the joint feeding areas of the source branches of the Barun Barun- Irkhuwa glacier level situated above this glacier, the Barun- i.e., Upper- and Lower Barun pass has dropped from the Barun glacier surface at substream, the altitudes of the valley glacier levels c. 5900 m asl down to the Irkhuwa glacier level at c. lay at 6200~6450 m (Figures 5, 6; Figure 2(insert 5300 m. between p. 94&95) Pro.1-4), so that ice trans- The current height of the snow-line in the fluences have taken place across 6070~6275 catchment area of the Barun- and Irkhuwa glacier, m-high passes into the N- adjacent Kangchung being the source areas of the Ice Age Arun glacier Nadi (Khola, Valley) or Karma Chu (Valley) (Figure in the Himalaya SSE-slope, amounts to 5450 m asl. 2(insert between p. 94&95) on the right side of This is a 200 m lower value than has been No.10), into the W-adjacent Imja Khola (Valley) calculated for the S-side of the Kangchendzönga (Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) above No.29) Himal situated 100 km further to the E (Kuhle M. and into the E-adjacent Arun Nadi (Valley) (Figure 1990, p. 420). The calculation is based on the 1 between No.23 and 28). Due to additional current orographic ELA of the S-exposed hanging transfluences from or into the Kharta valley via the glacier of the Chamlan group in the left Barun Karma Chu- and also via the upper Arun Nadi valley flank at 5300 m asl (2.1) and of the Irkhuwa (Valley) — a further connection to the S-Tibetan ice glacier in a SE-exposition at 5600 m asl (2.2).

Figure 5 (Profile 2) Cross-section (not exaggerated) across the upper Barun glacier valley from the Makalu (No.3, Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) in the orographic left valley flank as far as the 6380 m-peak (NE-satellite of the 6550 m-peak, No.39, Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) in the right valley flank with its minimum glacier ice filling reconstructed for the last glacial period (c.60-18 Ka). Locality: Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) and 3.

108 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

Figure 6 (Profile 4) Cross-section (not exaggerated) across the Barun valley in the confluence area of the upper and lower Barun glacier valley from the 6260 m-peak (SE-satellite of the 6825 m-peak, No.23, Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) in the orographic left valley flank as far as the 6480 m-peak (No.42, Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95)) in the right valley flank with its minimum glacier ice filling reconstructed for the last glacial period (c. 60-18 Ka). Locality: Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) and 3.

Figure 7 (Profile 5): Cross-section (not exaggerated) across the middle Barun Nadi (valley), looking up from the 4830 m-peak or spur-summit in the orographic right valley flank as far as the 4660 m-spur-summit in the left valley flank with its minimum glacier ice filling reconstructed for the last glacial period (c. 60-18 Ka). Locality: Figure 3.

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Figure 8 Contemporary High Glacial (Würm Age, last glacial period, last High Glacial maximum, Stage 0; see Table 1) and late Late Glacial snow-line altitudes (ELAs) in the investigation area (Figure 1 and 3). The highest point of the current and past glacier feeding areas is the 8848 m-high Mt. Everest. The contemporary climatic snow-line runs at 5500 m asl. The Late Glacial decrease of the ELA during Sirkung Stage IV (cf. Table 1) has been noted down with at least -600 m and the High Glacial one of the last glacial period, i.e. the Würmian Ice Age or Stage 0 (cf. Table 1), with -1200 m. As for the altitude-dependent parts of the surface of the test area in this valley landform of the Himalaya-S-slope the increase in glacier feeding areas at corresponding ELA-depressions is shown. At the same time the factor concerning the elevation of the ice surface, which additionally and by feedback reinforces the glacier development, has not been taken into account. Nevertheless, the increase in the glacier feeding area from currently 6020 km² via 11 374 km² during the late glacial period and 17 934 km² during the high glacial period is so significant that inclusive of the ablation area the entire investigation area (25 240 km²) must have been glaciated during the High Glacial. In the high mountain valley landscape concerned the ratio of the surface of the glacier feeding- to the ablation area is c. 2:1. This corresponds to an AAR (accumulation area ratio) of 0.66.

The modern tongue of the S-glacier of the Thus, the ELA-depression was 1825 m (calculation Chamlan-group discussed here (Figure 3 on the of the ELA-depr., 4100-450=3650; 3650:2=1825). right below No.45), ends at 4590 m. From this For the S- to SE-exposition an ELA-depression of follows a difference in height of 4140 m to the 1950 m can be calculated (2070+1825=3895; lowest ice margin position of the Ice Age Barun- 3895:2=1947.5). Arun parent glacier at 450 m asl (see above). This is to say that the Ice Age snow-line of the Accordingly, a snow-line depression of 2070 m has Arun glacier system, i.e., in the relevant area of the existed (calculation of the ELA-depr., 4590-450= Himalaya S- to SE-exposition, has run at c. 3500 m 4140; 4140:2=2070). As to the Irkhuwa glacier asl (5450-1947.5=3502.5) (Figure 1: 3400-3650) — terminus at 4100 m asl the difference in height to an ELA-value confirmed by the reconstructed High the end of the parent glacier at 450 m asl is 3650 m. Glacial cirque glaciers and the corresponding

110 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

altitude of the cirque level between 3300 and 3600 ELA-depression of 1950 m calculated for this m asl (Figure 1 on the right and half-right above research area. No.46). The Kasuwa glacier (Figure 3 near From the last High Glacial maximum, i.e., the Tashigaon; Figure 1 above No.52), which in an last glacial period (Würm or Stage 0) up to the extreme windward position is exposed to precipita- contemporary glacier margins, 14 glacier positions tion, testifies to a local Ice Age ELA at only just marked by glacier advances in High Asia are 3025 m asl (2.3). established in Table 1. Only part of it has been The Arun parent glacier is at the same time an preserved by unambiguous advance moraines outlet glacier from the margin of the S-Tibetan ice (Figure 2(insert between p. 94&95) between Pro.1 stream network (2.4). Thus, the Himalaya lee-side and on the right below Pro.4; Figure 1 between with its snow-line about 4200-4300 m (see Figure No.37 and 45; below No.47; cf. Table 1) in the 8), has also been considered with regard to the narrow, sometimes gorge-like valley courses of the joint lowest ice margin position at 450 m asl. An Barun- and Irkhuwa Khola (Valley) as well as the averaging of the orographic snow-lines in Arun Nadi (Valley). Since deglaciation large parts windward- and leeward positions yields an ELA at of the older, i.e., mainly Late Glacial, moraines c. 3640 m asl (4250-3025=1225; 1225:2=612.5; have been fluvially reshaped or completely 3025 +612.5=3637.5). A favourable factor, which removed in these valleys exposed to a monsoonal despite this snow-line — which against the 3500 precipitation about 4000 mm/per year. In some m-ELA (see above) calculated for the Himalaya places only the corresponding glacier mouth gravel SSE-slope was 140 m-higher — enabled the Arun floors (gravel fields, sanders, outwash) (Figures 6, 7) outlet- and parent glacier to extend down to 450 m have been left behind as terrace remnants (Figure 1 asl, is the c. 1300-2000 m-thickness of the Ice Age no.1 above No.46, no.4-3 below No.48, no.-0- -6 on ice stream network on the S-margin of Tibet (see the right of No.49, no.-0 below and on the right above; Figure 1 and 3). This feed-back below No.50, No.54, No.55). Beyond these 14 self-heightening of the cold-based ice stream stages, which can be evidenced in many mountain network due to the flat gradient of discharge, must areas of High Asia (Kuhle M. 1986g, p. 443~452, have been the cause for a secondary heightening Table 3; 1998a), two further glacier stages have and extension of the feeding areas. been met in the Dhaulagiri- and Annapurna As for the lowest ice margin position at 450 m Himalaya situated 350 km further W. They have asl (see above; Figure 1 above No.54) the High been classified as pre-Ghasa Stagnation 1 and 2 Glacial snow-line of the Arun glacier established (Kuhle M. 1982, p. 153) and mark early Late Glacial about 3500 m asl (see above) corresponds to a stagnations in the state of thawing out which lasted medium height of the glacier feeding area of 6550 long enough so that kames- terraces and similar m (3500-450=3050; 3500+3050=6550). This bank forms could develop as indicators of ice applies approximately to the catchment area built margins without glacier advance. In the Arun Nadi up from S-Tibet and the High Himalaya which here (Valley), too, at least one locality is situated which rises up to 8481 (8475) m. Comparable heights of can be approached as being a lateral moraine ledge catchment areas made up of N- and S-slope have of the advance of the Ghasa-Stage (Figure 1 No.49), also been calculated for the Dhaulagiri- and but also as a bank formation of a pre-Ghasa Annapurna Himalaya (Kuhle M. 1982, p. 150~152) Stagnation. Correspond- ingly, the numbering of and the Mt. Everest- and Shisha Pangma massifs the gravel floors (gravel field, sander cf. Table 1; (Kuhle M. 1986g, p. 443~452, Table 3; 1988b, p. outwash) would also shift, if during a pre-Ghasa 468~470). Stagnation a similar accumulation of gravels might In the Kangchendzönga massif 100 km further have occurred than at the advance of Ghasa Stage to the E, the reconstructed High Glacial ELA ran at (I). However, according to the theory, this variation about 3900 m asl, i.e., c. 400 m-higher than in this has to be ruled out, because glaciofluvial gravel investigation area. According to the current state of accumulations are dependent on glacier advances. knowledge the reconstructed snow-line in the They are not due to a reduced process of thawing Kangchendzönga massif amounted to c. 1660 m out — hence the expression "advance gravels". (Kuhle M. 1990, p. 420), i.e., 290 m less than the

111

Matthias Kuhle Table 3 Late Glacial-, Neoglacial- and Historical glacier positions, snow-line depressions and absolute ages on the south slope of the Cho Oyu Himalayas (see Figure 2*, 16; Table 1)

Length of glacier (km) Snow- Average Orographic Recent Altitude measured line C14 age Location of ice margin Highest altitude of mathematic snowline Stage III of ice Expo- from the (ELA) (yrs. (in degrees/ minutes/ summit catchment al snowline altitude Comments to X and margin sure highest depre- Before seconds) (m asl.) area (m asl.) (m asl. ) recent (m asl.) point of ssion 1950) (m as1.) (ELA) (ELA) the (m) catchment area

East Khumbui Yul Lha glacier: Location: Fig. 2* on the right above No.74 (compare with Fig. 16)

Older than Dhampu-Stage, late glacial, cirque glacier, 27° 51' N/86° 44' 15'' E III 5761 5580c. 3850 E 4715 2.75 5600c. 885 4165 "Breitboden" glacier

Nauri-Stage, neoglacial, cirque glacier, 27° 51' N/86° 44' 05'' E V 5761 4950 5620 E 4935 2.00 5600c. 665 c. 4165 "Breitboden" glacier

Dole glacier (hanging valley glacier): Location: Fig. 2* next to IV above Pro.21 (compare with Fig. 16)

Older than 27° 52' N/86° 44' 15'' E IV 5629 5550 3980 E 4765 4.20 5600 c. 835 Dhampu-Stage, late glacial 4165

27° 52' N/86° 44' E V 5629 5559 4230 E 4890 2.40 5600 710 4165 Nauri-Stage, neoglacial

Upper Dole glacier (hanging valley glacier, cirque glacier): Location: Fig. 2* on the right of Dole D. (compare with Fig. 16)

27°52'30''/86°43'45'' E VI 5629 5600 4400 E 5000 2.70 5600 600 2050-2400 Older Dhaulagiri-Stage, neoglacial Older than 440 and 27°52'40''/86° 42'30'' E ‘VII 5629 5610 4680 E 5145 1.70 5600 455 Middle Dhaulagiri-Stage, neoglacial younger than 2050 South Luza glacier: Location: Fig. 2* on the half-right below of Luza D. (compare with Fig. 16)

27° 53'/ N 86° 43' 30'' E V 5726 5630 4330 E 4980 2.50 5600 620 C. 4165 Nauri-Stage, neoglacial

27° 54' N/86° 43' E VI 5726 5630 4490 E 5060 1.80 5600 540 2050-2400 Older Dhaulagiri-Stage, neoglacial S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°53'20''N/84°42'05'' E Recent 5726 5660 5440 E 5550 0.30 5550 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages North Luza glacier: Location: Fig. 2* on the right of Luza D. (compare with Fig. 16)

27°53'30''N/86°43'35'' E V 5726 5630 4340 E 4985 2.80 5600 615 C. 4165 Nauri-Stage, neoglacial

27°53'35''N/86°43'20'' E VI 5726 5630 4450 E 5040 2.00 5600 560 2050-2400 Older Dhaulagiri-Stage, neoglacial

112 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) Younger 27°53'35''N/86°43'15'' E VII 5726 5650 4600 E 5125 1.50 5500 375 Middle Dhaulagiri-Stage, neoglacial than 2050

27°53'35''N/86°43'10'' E ‘VII 5726 5650 4700 E 5175 1.25 5500 325 C. 440? Younger Dhaulagiri-Stage, recent

Youngest Dhaulagiri-Stage, recent 27°53'25''N/86°42'25''E VIII 5726 5660 5000 E 5330 1.00 5450 120 C. 320 320 yr. + time needed for plant settlement

S(m) descends further down in the wind 27°53'20''N/86°42'10'' E Recent 5726 5660 5100 E 5380 0.70 5380 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages

Machhermo glacier: Location: Fig. 2* Macchermo D. And on the right of Macchermo D., above Pro.20 (compare with Fig. 16)

C. 2350 +/- Older Dhaulagiri-Stage, stepped valley 27° 54' N/86° 43' 40'' E VI 6186 5800 4400 ESE 5100 7.20 5550 450 295 glacier (2 levels)

Younger Middle Dhaulagiri-Stage, older than 440 27° 54' 32'' N/86° 47' E ‘VII 6186 5800 4560 ESE 5180 4.60 5550 370 than 2050 yrs., stepped hanging trough glacier

South Machhermo glacier: Location: Fig. 2 *on Pro.20 between Macchermo- and Luza D. (compare with Fig. 16)

VII or Younger or youngest Dhaulagiri-Stage 27°54'30''N/86°41'10'' E 6186 5880 4960 NE 5420 1.50 5565 145 C. 320 - 440 VIII hanging glacier with 2 firn basins,

S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°54'30''N/86°41'20'' E Recent 6100 5780 5120 N 5450 0.80 5450 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages

S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°54'40''N/86°40'50'' E Recent 6186 5940 5190 E 5565 0.85 5565 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages

North Machhermo glacier: Location: Fig. 2* on the left of No. 69 (compare with Fig. 16)

High valley glacier with some avalanche 27°54'40''N/86°41'45'' E VII 6073 5750 4900 SE 5325 3.30 5530 205 C. 440 nourishment; tongue hangs down steep slope

S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°54'55''N/86°41'05'' E Recent 6073 5800 5250 SSE 5525 2.70 5525 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages East Pa Ri glacier: Location: Fig. 2* half-right below No.69 (compare with Fig. 16)

C. Presently avalanche caldron glacier, 27°55'05''N/86°42'30'' E VI 6073 5700 4570 E 5135 2.65 5630 495 2050-2400 formerly a hanging valley glacier

113

Hanging glacier with avalanche 27°55'30''N/86°42' E VII 6073 5800 4840 E 5340 1.25 5630 290 C. 440 nourishment

Hanging to wall glacier with avalanche 27°55'30''N/86°41'43'' E VIII 6073 5900 5080 E 5490 1.10 5630 140 C. 320 nourishment

S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°55'30''N/86°41'40'' E Recent 6073 5900 5120 E 5510 1.00 5510 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages

Northeast Pa Ri glacier: Location: Fig. 2* half-right above No.69 (compare with Fig. 16) Younger than 2050 Wall-foot glacier with avalanche 27°56'25''N/86°42' E ‘VII 6073 5900 4720 NE 5310 2.20 5480 170 older than nourishment; ice core preserved by 440

Thick upper moraine block cover mean 27°56'15''N/86°41'40'' E VIII 6073 5950 4880 NE 5415 1.40 5480 65 C. 320 elevation of catchment area

Younger 27° 56' N/86° 41' 30'' E IX 6073 5950 5020 NE 5435 1.25 5480 45 Shifts more and more toward summit; than 320

Calculated S (m) is c. 30 m too low due to 27° 56' N/86° 41' 20'' E Recent 6073 5950 4950 NE 5450 1.15 5450 0 Recent the avalanche nourishment of the wall-foot glacier

East Gokyo glacier: Location: Fig. 2* in the middle between No.72 and 69 (compare with Fig. 16) Deeper Deeper than Confluence with the main Ngozumpa 27°51'N/86°41'50'' E VI 5977 5600 E 5.20 5450 Over 280 2050-2400 than 4740 5170 glacier, thus no end moraines

114 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) Older than 1165 Hummock in tongue basin dated to be 27°57'N/86°41'20'' E ‘VII 5977 5600 4730 E 5165 4.40 5450 285 younger 1165 +/- 110 years than 2050 5977-m summit glacier (South Gokyo glacier): Location: Fig. 2* above No.69 (compare with Fig. 16) S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°56'55''N/86°40'15'' E Recent 5977 5700 5150 N 5425 1.60 5425 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages East Gokyo glacier, northern source component: Location: Fig. 2* right below No.72 on the right side of `VII (compare with Fig. 16)

Large cirque glacier; age correlated with 27°57'15''N/86°40'35'' E VII 5941 5650 4920 SE 5325 3.00 5450 125 C. 440 the neighbouring ice margin position;

Large cirque glacier; age correlated with 27° 57' 20'' N/86° 40' E VIII 5941 5650 5080 SE 5365 2.20 5450 85 C. 320 the neighbouring ice margin position;“

Large cirque glacier; age correlated with Younger 27°57'20''N/86°39'35'' E IX 5941 5650 5140 SE 5395 1.70 5450 55 the neighbouring ice margin position; than 320 1820-1850-Stage ? 5941-m summit southeast glacier: Location: Fig. 2* on the right of No. 72 (compare with Fig. 16)

S (m) descends further down in the wind 27°57'30''N/86°39'50'' E Recent 5941 5650 5190 SE 5420 1.60 5420 0 Recent screen of the cirque form than at older stages

East Donag glacier: Location: Fig. 2* right above of No. 72 (compare with Fig. 16) Deeper Deeper than Confluence with the main Ngozumpa 27°58'30''N/86°41'20'' E VI - V 5977 5650 than E 5.90 5500 Over 255 C. 2050 5245 glacier, thus no end moraine 4840 Partial flow from 5800-m summit (Donag glacier): Location: Fig. 2* on the left end of Pro. 19 (compare with Fig. 16) Steeper, narrow adjacent-valley glacier 27°58'30''N/86°40'25'' E V 5800 5600 4920 S 5260 2.30 5850 590 C. 4165 (cirque-gorge glacier) Older than Steeper, narrow adjacent-valley glacier 27°59'10''N/86°40'30'' E ‘VII 5800 5630 5240 S 5435 1.40 5850 415 440 younger (cirque-gorge glacier) than 2050 27°59'25''N/86°40'10'' E VII 5800 5740 5400 S 5570 0.75 5850 280 C. 440 Wall-foot or cirque glacier

Partial flow from 5813-summit (Donag glacier): Location: Fig. 2* on the left of Pro. 19 and below of No. 71 (compare with Fig. 16) Older than 27°58'30''N/86°40'25'' E ‘VII 5813 5650 4880 SE 5265 3.70 5540 275 440 younger Thin, wide large cirque glacier than 2050 27° 58' 55'' N/86° 40' E VII 5813 5650 5070 SE 5360 2.70 5540 180 C. 440 Large cirque glacier,

27°59'20''N/86°39'50'' E VIII 5813 5680 5200 SE 5440 1.80 5540 100 C. 320 Moderately steep stepped cirque glacier, 115

Matthias Kuhle Table 3 Late Glacial-, Neoglacial- and Historical glacier positions, snow-line depressions and absolute ages on the south slope of the Cho Oyu Himalayas (see Figure 2*, 16; Table 1) (Continued) Length of glacier (km) Snow- Average Orographic Recent Altitude measured line C14 age Location of ice margin Highest altitude of mathematic snowline Stage III of ice Expo- from the (ELA) (yrs. (in degrees/ minutes/ summit catchment al snowline altitude Comments to X and margin sure highest depre- Before seconds) (m asl.) area (m asl.) (m asl. ) recent (m asl.) point of ssion 1950) (m asl.) (ELA) (ELA) the (m) catchment area Younger 1820-1850-Stage?; unsure whether it is 27° 59' 30'' N/86° 40' E IX 5813 5680 5260 ESE 5470 1.90 5540 70 than 320 balanced; Ice margin calculated from 2 tongue 28° 00' N/86° 39' 30'' E Recent 5813 5680 5400 ESE 5540 1.55 5540 0 Recent termini (averaged) Partial flow from 5977-m summit (Donag glacier): Location: Fig. 2* half-left below of No. 71 (compare with Fig. 16) Older than 27°58'25''N/86°40'05'' E ‘VII 5977 5760 4920 SE 5340 4.30 5540 200 440 younger Thin, wide, stepped large cirque glacier; than 2050

27°58'20''N/86°39'55'' E VII 5977 5760 5000 SE 5380 3.50 5540 160 C. 440 Thin, wide, stepped large cirque glacier;

27°58'40''N/86°39'45'' E VIII 5977 5820 5070 SE 5445 3.15 5540 95 C. 320 Thin, wide, stepped large cirque glacier; Younger 27°58'50''N/86°39'30'' E IX 5977 5820 5140 SSE 5480 2.70 5540 60 1820-1850 shade? Cirque glacier than 320

27°59'20''N/86°40'25'' E Recent 5977 5820 5260 SSE 5540 2.00 5540 0 Recent "Cirque gorge'' glacier, stepped

Partial flow from 5941-m summit (Donag glacier) Location: Fig. 2* half-right above of No. 72 (compare with Fig. 16) Older than 27°58'20''N/86°40'30'' E ‘VII 5941 5700 4920 NE 5310 2.70 5560 250 440 younger than 2050 Wall-foot glacier with at least 50% 27°58'15''N/86°40' E VII 5941 5700 5010 NE 5355 2.10 5560 205 C. 440 avalanche nourishment; Wall-foot glacier of the avalanche cone 27°58'15''N/86°38'55'' E VIII 5941 5700 5040 NE 5370 1.55 5560 190 C. 320 type (Kuhle 1982: 173) Younger 27°58'15''N/86°39'30'' E IX 5941 5300 5150 NE 5475 1.10 5560 85 Wall-foot glacier, avalanche cone glacier than 320 27°58'05''N/86°39'15'' E Recent 5941 5820 5310 NE 5565 0.45 5565 0 Recent 1820-1850-Stage?

Kendezhung glacier: Location Fig. 2* above the left quarter of Pro. 19 (compare with Fig. 16)

116 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) Deeper Deeper than C. 2050- Confluence with main Ngozumpa glacier, 28°00'05''N/86°41'20'' E VI 5927 5689 E Min 4.00 5520 Over 195 than 4970 5325 2400 thus no sure end moraines; Older than Consists of 3 partial flows with very little 28°00'40''N/86°40'20'' E ‘VII 5927 5680 5030 E 5355 2.05 5520 165 440 younger avalanche nourishment than 2050 28°00'35''N/86°39'50'' E VII 5927 5680 5140 E 5410 1.40 5520 110 C. 440 Large cirque glacier

Wall-foot glacier with avalanche 28°00'30''N/86°39'30'' E VIII 5813 5660 5250 ENE 5455 0.80 5480 25 C. 320 nourishment; block glacier tongue still active today;

28°00'20''N/86°39'20'' E Recent 5813 5660 5300 NE 5480 0.60 5480 0 Recent Avalanche cone glacier (Kuhle 1982: 173)

5800 m-summit north glacier: Location Fig. 2* below Gyazumpa (compare with Fig. 16)

Steep hanging valley glacier, lacking 28°00'30''N/86°39'55'' E VII 5800 5700 5180 N 5440 1.40 5520 80 C. 440 avalanche supply

Steep hanging valley glacier, lacking 28°00'10''N/86°39'45'' E Recent 5800 5640 5400 N 5520 1.00 5520 0 Recent avalanche supply 5885 m-summit south glacier: Location Fig. 2* half-right above No. 71 (compare with Fig. 16) Short trough or hanging valley glacier 28°00'35''N/86°39'45'' E VII 5927 5750 5150 S 5450 1.80 5550 100 C. 440 with avalanche nourishment Short trough or hanging valley glacier 28°00'50''N/86°39'50'' E VIII 5885 5700 5300 S 5500 1.20 5550 50 C. 320 with avalanche nourishment 28°01'05''N/86°39'55'' E Recent 5885 5750 5350 S 5550 0.65 5550 0 Recent Wall-foot glacier Gyazumpa glacier: Location Fig. 2* above Gyazumpa (compare with Fig. 16) Younger Stepped valley glacier with very little 28°01'20''N/86°41'30'' E ‘VII 5885 5610 5130 E 5370 3.30 5525 395 than 2050 avalanche nourishment Firn field or firn depression glacier (after 28° 01' 40'' N/86° 41' E VII 5885 5670 5160 E 5415 2.50 5525 110 C. 440 H.-J. Schneider 1962) Firn field or firn depression glacier (after 28°01'40''N/86°40'55'' E VIII 5885 5670 5180 E 5425 2.20 5525 100 C. 320 H.-J. Schneider 1962) Younger 28°01'40''N/86°40'45'' E IX 5885 5690 5210 E 5450 1.90 5525 75 1820-1850-Stage ? than 320 Avalanche nourishment has relatively 28°01'40''N/86°40'20'' E Recent 5885 5720 5330 E 5525 1.30 5525 0 Recent increased; Lhabtshan 5560 m-summit south glacier: Location Fig. 2* on the right of No. 70 (compare with Fig. 16) Age plus time needed for plant 28°0l'30''N/86° 40' 50'' E VII 5560 5500 5290 S 5395 0.80 5525 130 440 settlement; cirque glacier; no glacier at present Southeast Nangpai Gosum glacier: Location Fig.2* right above No. 70 next to Pro. 18 (compare with Fig. 16) 117

Older than Large cirque glacier with some avalanche 28°02'25''N/86°40'55'' E ‘VII 6500 5720 5230 SE 5475 3.00 5700 225 440 younger nourishment than 2050 Large cirque glacier with avalanche 28°02'20''N/86°40'40'' E VII 6500 5850 5270 SE 5560 2.00 5700 140 C. 440 nourishment Large cirque glacier with avalanche 28°02'20''N/86°40'20'' E VIII 6500 5900 5320 ESE 5610 1.60 5700 90 C. 320 nourishment Middle glacier tongue: Location Fig. 2* far above of No. 70 (compare with Fig. 16) Glacier lies in precipitation shadow of the 28°02'20''N/86°40' E Recent 6500 5970 5470 SE 5720 1.40 5710 0 Recent 5560-m summit W glacier lobe: Location Fig. 2* far above of No.70 (compare with Fig. 16) Nearly exclusively primary nourishment 28°02'20''N/86°39'50'' E Recent 5980 5750 5560 E 5655 0.80 5655 0 Recent (snow) E glacier tongue: Location Fig. 2* half-right far above of No. 70 (compare with Fig. 16) 28°02'30''N/86°40'20'' E Recent 6500 6060 5320 SE 5690 1.80 5690 0 Recent Avalanche nourishment predominates Lungsampa 6066- peak east glacier (south glacier tongue): Location Fig. 2* on the right of No. 67 (compare with Fig. 16) Stepped hanging glacier with diffluence 28°02'05''N/86°42'30'' E VIII 6086 5900 5280 ESE 5590 2.20 5650 60 C. 320 tongue; The ice margin still existed in 1955-63 (E. Younger 28°02'20''N/86°42'25'' E IX or X 6086 5930 5310 E 5620 1.80 5650 30 Schneider 1978: Khumbu Himal 1:50 than 320 000) 28°02'30''N/86°42'20'' E Recent 6086 5950 5350 E 5650 1.40 5650 0 Recent Gyuba Tshomoche 5677-m summit NW glacier: Location Fig. 2* half-right above the end of Pro. 19 (compare with Fig. 16) Shallow hanging glacier without upper 28°01'10''N/86°43'15'' E VIII 5677 5600 5100 NW 5350 2.30 5420 70 C. 320 moraine; Younger 28°01'N/86°43'30'' E IX 5677 5600 5160 NW 5380 1.70 5420 40 1820-1850 or 1920-Stage than 320 118 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) 28°00'35''N/86°43'45'' E Recent 5677 5600 5240 NW 5420 1.20 5420 0 Recent

5913-m summit NW glacier: Location Fig. 2* half-left below of No. 15 (compare with Fig. 16) Younger 28°01' 10'' N/86° 44' E IX 5913 5800 5230 NW 5515 1.30 5535 20 1820-1850 or 1920-Stage than 320 28°01'05''N/86°44'10'' E Recent 5913 5689 5270 NW 5535 1.10 5535 0 Recent Hanging glacier with bare ice tongue

5913-m summit SSW glacier: Location Fig. 2* far above of No. 57 (compare with Fig. 16) Wall-foot glacier tongue, avalanche 28°00'10''N/86°44'30'' E VIII 5913 5850 5360 SSW 5605 1.50 5660 55 C. 320 nourishment; Wall-foot glacier tongue, avalanche 28°00'15''N/86°44' 35'' E Recent 5913 5850 5470 SSW 5660 1.30 5660 0 Recent nourishment; snowline drop of c. 125 m from S to N SSW Kangchung glacier: Location Fig. 2* far left below No. 57 (compare with Fig. 16) C. Valley glacier with avalanche 27°57'45''N/86°42'35'' E VI 6089 5700 4780 SSW 5240 3.40 5720 480 2050-2400 nourishment, avalanche caldron Older than 27°57'50''N/86°43'E ‘VII 6089 5700 5040 SSW 5370 2.40 5720 330 440 younger Glacier with debris covered tongue than 2050 Composed of several avalanche cones; 27°58'15''N/86°43'20'' E VII 6089 5880 5120 SSW 5500 1.80 5720 220 C. 440 avalanche cone glacier Consists of several avalanche cones, 27°58'20''N/86°43'30'' E VIII 6089 5920 5240 SSW 5580 1.30 5720 140 C. 320 avalanche cone glacier SE tongue: Location Fig. 2* below No. 57 (compare with Fig. 16) 27°58'15''N/86°43'35'' E VIII 6040 5900 5230 SSW 5565 1.25 5720 155 C. 320 Avalanche cone glacier 27°58'30''N/86°43' 40'' E Recent 6040 6000 5440 SSW 5720 0.85 5720 0 Recent Avalanche cone glacier Kangchung S glacier (Nyimagawa glacier): Location Fig. 2* far below of No. 57 (compare with Fig. 16) Deeper Deeper than Confluence with the Ngozumpa main 27°55'30''N/86°43'20''E V 6103 5600 than S Over 7.00 5595 Over 495 C. 4165 5100 glacier 4600 Valley glacier with connected hanging C. 2050 - 27°55'45''N/86°43'30'' E VI 6103 5600 4760 S 5180 6.70 5595 415 glaciers and firn depressions so that there 2400 are different exposures involved Older than Valley glacier with connected hanging 27°56'15''N/86°44'15'' E ‘VII 6103 5600 4930 S 5265 4.60 5595 330 440 younger glaciers and firn depressions so that there than 2050 are different exposures involved Primary nourishment through snow fall is 27°57'10''N/86°44'30'' E VII 6103 5600 5080 S 5340 3.30 5595 255 C. 440 dominant Primary nourishment through snow fall is 27°57'25''N/86° 44' 30'' E VIII 6103 5650 5200 S 5425 3.00 5595 170 C. 320 dominant 119

Younger 27°58'05''N/86°44'30''E IX 6103 5680 5310 SSE 5495 1.50 5595 100 1820-1850-Stage? Bare ice tongue than 320 27°58'30''N/86°44'20'' E X 6103 5750 5360 SSE 5555 1.35 5595 40 Subrecent 1900-1920-Stage or even younger 27°58'35''N/86°44'15'' E Recent 6103 5800 5390 SSE 5595 1.00 5595 0 Recent Nyimagawa glacier, E tongue which flows down from the 5540-m anticline: Location Fig. 2* half-right below No. 57 (compare with Fig. 16) 27°57'59''N/86° 44' 40'' E X 6103 5590 5210 SSW 5400 1.55 5415 15 Subrecent 1900-1920-Stage or even younger 27°58'15'' N/86°44'42'' E Recent 6103 5590 5240 SSW 5415 1.00 5415 0 Recent Jobo Lhaptshan W glacier from stage VI and older confluence with the Nyimagawa glacier: Location Fig. 2* VII-IX left above of No. 53 (compare with Fig. 16) Older than 27°54'50''N/86°43'30'' E ‘VII 6440 5700 4560 W 5130 4.40 5500 370 440 younger Firn caldron glacier composed of 2 flows than 2050 27°55'10''N/86°43'45'' E VII 6440 5700 4700 W 5200 4.10 5500 300 C. 440 Firn caldron glacier composed of 2 flows Northern W glacier: Location Fig. 2* far half-left above of No. 53 (compare with Fig. 16) Combinations of hanging and avalanche 27°55'55''N/86°44'30'' E VIII 5939 5650 4900 W 5275 2.40 5360 85 C. 320 cone glacier; Younger 27°55'52''N/86°44'40'' E IX 5800 5650 4950 W 5300 2.00 5360 60 1820-1850? than 320 27°55'52''N/86°45'05'' W Recent 5800 5700 5020 W 5360 1.30 5360 0 Recent Hanging glacier with bare ice tongue Southern W glacier: Location Fig. 2* ‘VII left above of No. 53 (compare with Fig. 16) Hanging glacier with little avalanche 27°55'20''N/86°44'25'' E VIII 6440 5860 4750 W 5305 3.00 5420 115 C. 320 nourishment; Younger 27°55'15''N/86°44'25'' E IX 6440 5930 4920 W 5425 2.00 5500 75 1820-1850? than 320 S (m) shifts up the lee side of the cirque 27°55'15''N/86°45'03'' E Recent 6440 6000 5000 W 5500 1.65 5500 0 Recent basin (5420-5500) Jobo Lhaptshan SW glacier from V and older, confluence with the Ngozumpa glacier): Location Fig. 2* far left of No. 53 above the right end of Pro. 20 (compare with Fig. 16) 120 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006) Contact with the Ngozumpa glacier 27°54'40''N/86°43'30'' E V 5540 5240 C. 4400 SW 4820 2.45 5500 680 C. 4165 through a ground moraine ramp (platform moraine) (Kuhle 1983a: 238) C. 2050- 27°54'40''N/86°44'05'' E VI 5540 5240 4760 SW 5000 1.45 5500 500 2400 Younger than 2050 27°54'45''N/86°44'30'' E ‘VII 5540 5300 4940 SW 5120 0.80 5500 380 Increasing avalanche nourishment older than 440 Gyalagba glacier (or Tshom glacier): Location Fig. 2* left below of No. 53 (compare with Fig. 16) Deeper Deeper than C. 2050- The glacier overrides the main Ngozumpa 27°53'35''N/86°43'48''E VI 6367 5900 than WSW Over 4.80 5450 Over 350 5100 2400 glacier: confluence; 4300 Older than Mix between avalanche caldron and 27°53'35''N/86°43'48''E ‘VII 6367 5940 4300 WSW 5120 Over 4.80 5450 330 440 younger hanging glacier with primary than 2050 nourishment 27°53'50''N/86°44'22''E VIII 6367 5970 4720 WSW 5345 4.10 5450 105 C.320 Stade VII is not confirmed; Glacier tongue is thickly covered with debris up to the back wall, transition from 27°53'57''N/86°44'30''E Recent 6367 6000 4900 WSW 5450 3.70 5450 0 Recent avalanche caldron (H.J. Schneider 1962) to avalanche cone glacier (Kuhle 1982: 173) 5743-m summit SW glacier: Location Fig. 2* far half-left below No. 40 (compare with Fig. 16) C. 2050- 27°53'10''N/86°44'10''E VI 5743 5460 4350 SW 4905 2.70 5450 545 3 steeper hanging and cirque glaciers 2400 Younger Large cirque glacier that transports much 27°53'15''N/86°44'35''E ‘VII 5743 5520 4620 SW 5070 2.00 5450 380 than 2050 moraine material Konar glacier: Location Fig. 2* below and half-left below of No. 40 (compare with Fig. 16) Glacier flowed down from a stepped short Older than 27°51'25''N/86°44'43''E IV 6542 5800 3720 S 4760 5.90 5525 765 trough over a confluence step into the 4165 main valley; Avalanche nourishment increased 27°51'35''N/86°45' E V 6542 5840 4000 S 4920 5.25 5525 605 C. 4165 proportionally with glacier retreat Avalanche nourishment increased 27°51'52''N/86°45'37''E VI 6542 5980 4150 S 5065 4.40 5525 460 2050-2400 proportionally with glacier retreat Avalanche nourishment increased 27°52'21''N/86°45'45''E VII 6542 6140 4580 S 5360 3.40 5525 165 C. 440 proportionally with glacier retreat Avalanche nourishment increased 27°52'37''N/86°45'52''E VIII 6542 6200 4780 S 5490 2.80 5525 35 C. 320 proportionally with glacier retreat 27°52'42''N/86°45'53''E Recent 6542 6230 4820 S 5525 2.70 5525 0 Recent Largely debris-covered glacier tongue 121

Matthias Kuhle Table 3 Late Glacial-, Neoglacial- and Historical glacier positions, snow-line depressions and absolute ages on the south slope of the Cho Oyu Himalayas (see Figure 2*, 16; Table 1) (Continued) Length of glacier (km) Snow- Average Orographic Recent Altitude measured line C14 age Location of ice margin Highest altitude of mathematic snowline Stage III of ice Expo- from the (ELA) (yrs. (in degrees/ minutes/ summit catchment al snowline altitude Comments to X and margin sure highest depre- Before seconds) (m asl.) area (m asl.) (m asl. ) recent (m asl.) point of ssion 1950) (m asl.) (ELA) (ELA) the (m) catchment area Ngozumpa main glacier (now comprised of components of Lungsampa, Ngozumpa and Gyubanare glaciers): Location Fig. 2* between Nos. 4, 9, 7, 66, 15 and 0-III below Pro. 21 (compare with Fig. 16) Older than 27°51'l2''N/86°44'45''E IV 8202 7300 3580 S 5440 30.20 6000 560 Sirkung-Stage, late glacial; 4165 27° 52' N/86° 44' 20'' E V 8202 7300 3780 S 5540 28.70 6000 460 C. 4165 Dominant exposition is south; Mix between dendritic valley glacier C. 3345- 27°51'08''N/86°43'30'' E VI 8202 7350 4200 S 5775 25.10 6000 225 composed of firn caldron, firn flow and 4550 firn field glacier;

On the lateral moraines of stage VI or 'VI 27°55'40''N/86°43'10''E ‘VI 8202 7350 4280 S 5815 24.10 6000 185 C. 2050 Rhizocarpon geographical with Ø up to 25 cm (2000-3000 yrs. Old) is growing;

Since about the middle age only the Younger surface level has changed, not the ice 27°55'08''N/86°43'00''E ‘VII 8202 7400 4380 S 5890 23.30 6000 110 than 2050 margin Exception: small-scale lateral breakouts of the glacier tongue.

Since about the middle age only the surface level has changed, not the ice 27° 55' 11''N/86°43'00'' E VII 8202 7400 4560 S 5980 22.40 6000 20 C. 440 margin. Exception: small-scale lateral breakouts of the glacier tongue.

Since about the middle age only the VIII- C. 320 surface level has changed, not the ice 27°55'25''N/86°43'00''E 8202 7400 4600 S 6000 22.25 6000 0 recent -recent margin. Exception: small-scale lateral breakouts of the glacier tongue. * Figure 2 was arranged as an insert between p. 94&95.

122 Journal of Mountain Science Vol 3 No 2 (2006)

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(eds). 1991: Tibet and High Asia (II), from South and Central West Tibet with Evidences for its Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditons. GeoJournal 25 Importance as an Ice Age Trigger. Himalayan Geology 19 (2, (2/3): 131~303. Tandon, O.P (ed), The Role of the Tibetan Plateau in Forcing Kuhle M. & Jacobsen J.P. 1988. On the Geoecology of Southern Global Climatic Changes): 3~22. Tibet - Measurements of Climate Parameters including Kuhle M. (ed) 1999a. Tibet and High Asia (V) (Results of Surface- and Soil-Temperatures in Debris, Rock, Snow, Firn Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, and Ice during the South Tibet- and Mt. Everest Expedition in Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene) 1984. GeoJournal 17 (4) (Kuhle M. & Wang Wenjing (eds), GeoJournal 47 (1/2). pp. 394. Tibet and High Asia (I), Results of the Sino-German Joint Kuhle M. 1999b. Reconstruction of an approximately complete Expeditions): 597~615. Quaternary Tibetan Inland Glaciation between the Mt. Kuhle M. & Wang Wenjing 1988. Tibet and High Asia - Results Everest- and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. - A new of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions (I). GeoJournal 17 (4): glaciogeomorphological southeast-northwest diagonal profile 446~667. through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy Mahaney W.C. 1995. Glacial Crushing, Weathering and and Ice Age cycle. GeoJournal 47 (1-2) (Kuhle M. (ed), Tibet Diagenetic Histories of Quartz Grains inferred from Scanning and High Asia (V), Results of Investigations into High Electron Microscopy. In: Menzies, J. (ed), Modern Glacial Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology Environments - Processes, Dynamics and Sediments, Vol. 1, of the Pleistocene): 3~276. pp. 487~506. Kuhle M. (ed), 2001a. Tibet and High Asia (VI): Glaciogeo- Wissmann H. 1959. Die heutige Vergletscherung und morphology and Prehistoric Glaciation in the Karakorum and Schneegrenze in Hochasien mit Hinweis auf die Himalaya. GeoJournal 54 (2~4), 55 (1). pp. 475 Vergletscherung der letzten Eiszeit. Akademie der Kuhle M., 2001b (Published 2003) . Reconstruction of Outlet Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz, Mathetematisch- Glacier Tongues of the Ice Age South-Tibetan Ice Cover naturwissenschaftliche Klasse 14: 1103~1407.

— To be continued —

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