Snowterm: a Thesaurus on Snow and Ice Hierarchical and Alphabetical Listings
Quaderno tematico
SNOWTERM: A THESAURUS ON SNOW AND ICE HIERARCHICAL AND ALPHABETICAL LISTINGS
Paolo Plini , Rosamaria Salvatori , Mauro Valt , Valentina De Santis, Sabina Di Franco
Version: November 2008
Quaderno tematico EKOLab n° 2
SnowTerm: a thesaurus on snow and ice hierarchical and alphabetical listings
Version: November 2008
Paolo Plini1, Rosamaria Salvatori2, Mauro Valt3, Valentina De Santis1, Sabina Di Franco1
Abstract SnowTerm is the result of an ongoing work on a structured reference multilingual scientific and technical vocabulary covering the terminology of a specific knowledge domain like the polar and the mountain environment. The terminological system contains around 3.700 terms and it is arranged according to the EARTh thesaurus semantic model. It is foreseen an updated and expanded version of this system.
1. Introduction The use, management and diffusion of information is changing very quickly in the environmental domain, due also to the increased use of Internet, which has resulted in people having at their disposition a large sphere of information and has subsequently increased the need for multilingualism. To exploit the interchange of data, it is necessary to overcome problems of interoperability that exist at both the semantic and technological level and by improving our understanding of the semantics of the data. This can be achieved only by using a controlled and shared language. After a research on the internet, several glossaries related to polar and mountain environment were found, written mainly in English. Typically these glossaries -with a few exceptions- are not structured and are presented as flat lists containing one or more definitions. The occurrence of multiple definitions might contribute to increase the semantic ambiguity, leaving up to the user the decision about the preferred meaning of a term. On the contrary, providing a structure to the lexicon so that each term is placed within a semantic network allows to specify its meaning. The preliminary results of this work of selection and classification of terms on polar and mountain environment are presented here, as a proposal of controlled and structured language with the goal to develop a prototype of a thesaurus on this specific sector. The thematic areas, covered at present, deal with snow and ice physics, snow and ice morphology, snow and ice radiometry, remote sensing and GIS in cryosphere environment, sea ice, avalanches, glaciers, disaster management and risk prevention.
1 CNR, Institute for Atmospheric Pollution, EKOLab – http://ekolab.iia.cnr.it/ – {plini;vds;difranco}@iia.cnr.it – 06 90672392 2 CNR, Institute for Atmospheric Pollution, TerraLab – http://tlr.iia.cnr.it/ – [email protected] – 06 90672451 3 ARPAV, Arabba Avalanche Centre – http://www.arpa.veneto.it/indice.asp?l=csvdi/w_csvdi/menuit.htm – [email protected] – 0436 755741
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2. Identification of terminological sources and selection of terms The first sources used to collect the terminology consist of the “Glossario dei termini usati nei bollettini nivometeorologici” by AINEVA and by Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region, the “Sea Ice Glossary” of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research-SCAR, the USGS “Glossary of Selected Glacier and Related Terminology”, the “Sea Ice Nomenclature” (Merenkulkulaitoksen julkaisuja 5/2002), the trilingual “Glossary on snow and avalanches” by the Working Group on Avalanches Warning Services of the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research, the “Večjezični Slovar - Sneg in plazovi” developed by Pavle Šegula. Additional sources were added later on. The terminology of these sources was analysed with respect to the degree of semantic relevance in the field. Terms too generic or considered as non pertinent were excluded. Groups of terms that could be collected in specific appendixes were also excluded. At present the database contains 3.700 records; more than 1.200 non-descriptors have been identified and assigned.
3. Classification of terms The classification and relational structure is based on the EARTh (Environmental Applications Reference Thesaurus) semantic model. The terms are arranged according to a classification scheme which is founded on categories. At the first level, the system is structured into categories defined as “ENTITIES”, “ATTRIBUTES”, “DYNAMIC ASPECTS” and “DIMENSIONS”. The “ENTITIES” describe material and immaterial objects; the “ATTRIBUTES” define the nature of the objects, at least as far as their static aspects are concerned; “DYNAMIC ASPECTS” define the activities, the processes and the conditions in which they are involved; the “DIMENSIONS” identify the spatio-temporal circumstances in which all this occurs. The system is then organized in a framework of different levels and classification knots, and it comprises hierarchical relations. It continues into further levels as they obtain a greater specificity in order to allow a rational arrangement of objects. The vertical structure can be used as a semantic reference system, stable and partially independent from the context. The model envisages the possibility of complementing the faceted structure with a system of themes which by crossing with the vertical structure would form a matrix system. In a thematic approach, the terms linked to a specific sector, are reassembled, while the facet structure tends to scatter them under the more general referral concept. Moreover, the system of themes, as it was conceived, should be developed by a user according to the specific needs of the applicative context. One example of thematic setup is provided by the classification into sectors contained in the “Sea Ice Nomenclature” where the terms are clustered according to “ice development”, “sky and air indications”, “ice arrangement”, “terms relating to surface shipping”, “terms relating to submarine navigation”.
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Fig. 1 - The present status of the Classification Scheme and an example of the hierarchical setup
4. Software details All the terms are stored into Firebird, an open source, client-server, SQL database. In order to handle properly the terminological database the SuperThes software (Batschi, 2002) was adopted. It is a tool for thesaurus management developed with the scientific supervision of EKOLab, in the frame of an international cooperation. The web interface will allow to access the system through the internet.
5. Multilingualism Multilingualism is not the main interest of our working group. Nevertheless, in order not to waste important resources, the already available translations have been collected. The system now contains (including synonyms) 3.200 English terms, the other language are Italian (3.024), Estonian, Finnish, Russian and Swedish (94), French (1.970), German (1.770), Slovenian (1.300) and Spanish (1.870). The enlargement of the number of linguistic equivalents in French and German is mandatory due to the geographical and political position of the alpine area. Other languages will be updated following a direct interest and willingness to cooperate by other institutions.
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Fig. 2 - Two screenshots of the tabular window
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6. Results, their use and future development The results of this work is the production of a monolingual terminological system organized both in vertical way -according to a classification system based on categories- and horizontally on the basis of the systems of themes. SnowTerm could be considered as one of the first attempt to develop a thesaurus on Snow, Ice and Mountain Environment domain. In order to ensure a better and updated conceptual and terminological coverage, an extension and revision of the system is foreseen. Any other reliable glossary or term list will be considered as potential additional sources. The semantic structure of the system will also be strengthened. In order to increase the efficiency of the system in information retrieval operations, a set of associative and equivalence relations will be implemented. The organization of knowledge -through the support of a thesaurus- could bring a strong contribution to the management of the information in the specific domain: by suggesting a language that different institutions could share; ensuring a higher semantic transparency to terminology; providing tools for indexing and retrieving the information and to interchange of data and suggesting semantic maps usable for the conceptual description of the domain.
Bibliographic References AINEVA - Glossario dei termini usati nei bollettini nivometeorologici. http://www.aineva.it/bolletti/bollet5.html. Last visited: 11.11.2008. Batschi W.D., Felluga B., Legat R., Plini P., Stallbaumer S., Zirm K.L, 2002 - "SuperThes": A New Software for Construction, Maintenance and Visualisation of Multilingual Thesauri. 16th International Conference of the GI TC 4.6 “Informatics for Environmental Protection”, Vienna "Environmental Communication in the Information Society". Dahlberg I., 1992 - Knowledge Organization and Terminology: Philosophical and Linguistic Bases. International Classification 19, No. 2, INDEKS Verlag, Francoforte: 65-71. Dahlberg I., 1994 - Conceptual Structures and Systematization. Atti del Seminario “Categorie, oggetti e strutture della conoscenza”, CNR, Roma : 137-155. Fugmann R., 1993 - Subject Analysis and Indexing. INDEKS Verlag, Francoforte. International Organization For Standardization, 1986 - ISO 2788-1986. Documentation. Guidelines for the establishment and development of monolingual thesauri. ISO, Geneva. International Organization For Standardization, 1985 - ISO 5964-1985. Documentation. Guidelines for the establishment and development of multilingual thesauri. ISO, Geneva. Mazzocchi F., Plini P., 2005 - Thesaurus classification and relational structure: the EARTh experience. TKE 2005, Copenhagen, pp. 265-278. Paterson W.S.B., 1994 - The Physics of Glaciers. 3rd edition, Pergamon. Plini P., Lucke S., Baffioni C. & Felluga B., 2001 - T-REKS: a Contribution to the Environmental Information Management through a Computer-Supported Modular Knowledge Organisation System for the Environment. 15th International Symposium Informatics for Environmental Protection, Zurigo. "Sustainability in the Information Society", Hilty L.M., Gilgen P. W. (Eds.): 691-698. Pucci C. R., 1997 - Norma terminologica e linguaggio speciale. Atti della tavola rotonda “la terminologia tecnica e scientifica: attualità e prospettive”, Roma. Regione Friuli Venezia Giulia - Glossario dei termini usati nei bollettini nivometeorologici. http://www.regione.fvg.it/meteo/guida.htm#10. Last visited: 23.03.2006. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research – Aspect, What is Sea Ice? http://www.antcrc.utas.edu.au/aspect/seaiceglossary.html. Last visited: 23.03.2006. Šegula P., 1995 - Večjezični Slovar Sneg in Plazovi. Gorska resevalna sluzba pri Planinski zvezi Slovenije. ISBN: 9616156004.
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Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research, 2004 - Glossary on snow and avalanches. http://www.slf.ch. Last visited: 11.11.2008. USGS, 2003 - Glossary of Selected Glacier and Related Terminology. http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/Glaciers/glacier_terminology.html. Last visited: 11.11.2008. Vainio J., Seinä A., Backman P. (eds.), 2002 - Sea Ice Nomenclature - ENGLISH-FINNISH-SWEDISH- ESTONIAN-RUSSIAN. Merenkulkulaitos, Helsinki. ISBN 951-49-0956-9. http://ice.fmi.fi/SIN.pdf. Veltman K. H., 2004 - Towards a Semantic Web for Culture. Journal of Digital Information, 4 (4), Article No. 255. World Meteorological Organization, 2002 - WMO SEA-ICE NOMENCLATURE. WMO/OMM/ВМО - No.259
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Hierarchical Listing snowterm attributes
Alphabetical Listing abiotic environment Ambu manual breathing device ablation amount of new snow ablation area anchor ice ablation controlling factors anchor loop ablation relation to air temperature anchor point ablation till anchor system ablation-dominant moraines (AD) angle iron abrasion angle of friction accident angle of repose accident area animal components acclimatisation anisotropic ice deformation accretion annual layer accumulation annual snow line accumulation area anoxaemia accumulation area ratio anoxia accumulation controlling factors Antarctic ice sheet accumulation of snow anticyclone accumulation of snow dimension appraisal accumulation pressure (avalanche) area at high altitude accumulations area of high pressure accuracy of location area of weakness acid layers (in ice) area with defense structures activation energy areas putting safety activation volume arrangement of ice needles active identifying object array of stakes activities arresting basin additional load arresting structure additional stress arresting wall adjustable support artificial entities administrative measures artificial respiration advection parameter artificial triggering aeolian conveyance artificial triggering aerial ropeway ascension aged ridge ascent air bubbles age in ice ascent track air bubbles disappearance in ice assessment of avalanche hazard air content of ice Atlantic front air flow atmosphere air humidity atmosphere environment air permeability atmospheric pressure air pressure inside the pores atmospheric processes air rescue atmospheric variability akia attributes albedo automatic weather data collection network alder autumn alignment ribbon avalanche allowable loading avalanche accident allowable stress avalanche activity altitude avalanche air pressure altitude band avalanche airblast altitude factor avalanche area
1 avalanche as composition average at 1000m and 2000m avalanche as induced cause average maximum snow depth avalanche as motion sort average velocity over cross-section avalanche as release sort back-country skier avalanche as size back-country skiing avalanche as sliding surface position backfilled wall avalanche as snow humidity backstay avalanche as track sort bad weather avalanche brake balance velocity avalanche breaker balance year avalanche bulletin (AB) ball joint avalanche catchment area banded ogives avalanche classification bang avalanche committee bare ice avalanche cone basal anchorage avalanche cord basal ice avalanche course basal shear stress avalanche data centre base of the snowpack avalanche defense structure basin avalanche dimension bazooka avalanche dog beam avalanche dog master beam footing avalanche dynamics bed roughness avalanche effects bed surface avalanche exposed area bédières avalanche forecasting behavioural processes avalanche frequency bergschrund avalanche guard bergy bit avalanche gully bergy water avalanche hazard Beryllium-10 in ice avalanche hazard indicated by warning signs beset avalanche interval big avalanche length big avalanche avalanche occurrence big floe avalanche path biochemical processes avalanche pressure bio-ecological entities avalanche probe biological conditions avalanche register biological parameter avalanche release biological processes avalanche rescue organisation biosphere avalanche shed birch avalanche shovel birefringence avalanche situation bivouac avalanche slope blaster avalanche slope blasting avalanche track blasting effect avalanche victim blasting licence avalanche warning blizzard avalanche warning service blowing snow avalanche zone plan blue ice avalanching snow body components
2 body recovery cavity hoar body temperature cement grouting bomb layers in ice chains of depth hoar bomb tram chairlift boom for explosive charge chance of shower bora change in audio volume bottom layer change of slope inclination bottom layer of old snow change of weather conditions bottom of the valley changes in sea level bottom station channel iron boulder channel steel boulder field channelled avalanche boundary layer charge braking structure chart of snow cover heights branch (avalanche) chasm brash ice chattermarks breakable crust chemical conditions breathing paths chemical elements breathing pocket chemical parameters brèches chemical processes breeze chilblains brittle fracture choice of route brittleness cirque brow classification of glaciers buckling clast buffer-line clear built complexes clear cutting bulletin of the Avalanche Warning Service clearing bummock clearing and grubbing buried victim climatology buttress climax avalanche cable climbing skins cable network close ice cableway for passengers' transport close range location rescue beacon (RB) calorimeter close release calved ice of land origin closed slope calving closure Carbon dioxide effect on heat budget closure period Carbon dioxide in air bubbles in ice cloud-burst Carbon dioxide in ice cloudiness Carbon-14 dating cloudy cardiac and circulatory arrest clustered rounded grains carrying snow coarse probing carving effect (cutting furrows in) coefficient of resistance cascade cog railway catastrophic avalanche cohesion catching dam cohesion test catchment basin cohesive snow cause of death cold front cavities at glacier bed cold laboratory cavities within glacier cold snow
3 coloured snow course column of water crack columns crampons combined structures crater communication route creep communication route creep activation energy communication system creep factor communication system crest area communities crevasse compact ice crevasse rescue compact snow avalanche criteria compacted ice edge critical limit value compacting cross bracing compaction cross country skiing compactness cross country skiing track companion rescue crossbeam comparative observation station crouched position compattate dal vento crown surface complete avalanche survey cruciform wind-baffle composition crushed ice particles compound basins crust compressed crusty compression collapse crusty drifted snow compression failure cryoconite compressive strength cryoconite holes compressive stress crystal fabrics effect on deformation rate compressive stress area crystal fabrics strength measurement concave furrows crystal growth in firn concave slope crystal growth in ice concentration boundary crystal size condensation in heat budget crystal structure in ice condensation nucleus current meter conditions cutter-blower confluent front damage confluent glacier damage to a forest coniferous forest damage to terrain considerable avalanche hazard danger consolidated ice dangerous site consolidated ridge dark nilas consolidation coefficient data constructions data acquisition line contamination data from satellites continuing structures dating of ice contour line dead controlled ski area deadman convection in heat budget death convex furrows death by asphyxia convex slope debris cooling debris covered glacier cornice decomposing and fragmented precipitation cornice particles
4 decrease in temperature disciplines deep basin displacement deep snow distance of rope defense structure distress signal defense structure area distribution of local risks defenses against snow creep disturbance deflecting barrier diverging deflecting force double frequency rescue beacon deflecting structure double T beam deflecting wall down jacket deflection angle drainage glacier deflection dam draught deformation dried ice deformation processes drift ice deformed ice drifted snow degree of avalanche danger drifting snow degree of loading driving stress density drizzle density dropping from helicopter density effect on deformation rate drumlin density of constructions dry draught density variation with depth dry snow deposit (avalanche) dry snow avalanche depression dry snow line depression area dry stone wall depth hoar dry-snow zone depth hoar dud depth of burial dummy descent dump moraine descent passage duration of burial descent route dust in ice descent track dynamic aspects desk roof dynamic recrystallization destabilised dynamometer destruction early snow detonating cord earth fill Deuterium excess earth terrace for reforestation developed area earth terrace with toe wall dew east slope dew point east slope diamond dust east slopes differential ablation ecological parameter diffluent glacier ecological processes diffuse ice edge economic measures diffusion of ice molecules ecosystems digging out edge effect force dimensions effect of deformation on crystal fabrics dip effective height of the defense structure direction finding antenna effective length of structure discharge above the snow surface effective protective measures discharging of snow (from trees) effective shear stress
5 effective stress extreme snow depth effective viscosity extreme steep ground effects and single events extreme steep slope elastic limit eyewitness elastic modulus faceted crystals electronic transceiver faceted rounded particles elementary particles factors elements of a structure failure load (snow cover) emergency call fall emergency generator fall-line emergency radio facility fast ice emergency sledge fast-ice boundary emerging due to disappearing of snow fast-ice edge emissivity fatally injured end of the construction area feeling for terrain endoglacial conveyance felt-like snow enhancement factor fern frost entities fibrillation (heart) entrance track (avalanche) fine grained snow environmental conditions fine probing equilibrium line finger rafted ice equipment finger rafting equipment and technological systems finite element method equitemperature fir erratic avalanche firing erroneous evaluation firn escape direction firn basin escape route firn density esker firn edge line European scale of avalanche hazard firn ice European stone-pine firn limit evacuation firn mirror evaporation (surface heat budget) firn snow excavation firn-ice transition expanded foot firnification expanded foot glacier first-year ice exploration fissure (crevasse) formation explosive fjord explosive charge flange explosive control by hand flank explosives sleigh flaw exposed flaw lead exposed to the sun flaw polynya exposedness flexible joint extension of deposits floating ice extension speed floating ice motion processes external causes floating ice of land origin extraordinary avalanche floe extreme floeberg extreme ski-run floebit extreme slope flood water from glacier
6 flooded ice friction energy flow density friction velocity flow direction of airmasses friendly ice flow height (avalanche) frost flow line frost crack flow speed frost smoke flow till frostbite flowing avalanche frostbitten fluted moraines frostheaving fog frozen rain föhn full harness folded moraines funicular railway foliation funicular regime foot of a rock face further avalanche foot of a slope fuse foothills fusion and refreezing crust force of impact fusion latent heat force of propulsion gap forest gas exploder forest clearing GAZEX forester gendarme form of the snow surface general avalanche hazard formation of avalanches general parameter formation of cornices geologic structures formation of fracture geomorfological parameter formation of snow-slide geothermal heat forms of fast ice geothermics forms of floating ice giant floe fracture glacial course fracture depth glacial erosion fracture layer glacial surge fracture length glacier fracture line glacier avalanche fracture of avalanche glacier berg fracture propagation glacier front fracture starting from a line glacier heat budgets fracture starting from a point glacier ice fracture width glacier mill fracture zone glacier response time fractured surface glacier table fracturing glacier temperature fragmentation shell glacier temperature at depth frazil ice glacier temperature effect on deformation rate free-standing wall glacier temperature near surface freezing level glacier tongue freezing level glacieret and snowfield freezing mixture glaciology freezing point glaze frequency glide and creep frequency of issue of avalanche bulletin glide crack friction coefficient glide factor
7 glide surface hasty search gliding hazard gliding snow hazard awareness gliding snow area haze gliding snow avalanche health and safety parameter gondola lift heart massage gorge heat budget of glacier surface grade heat conduction in ice grain heatpack grain boundary self-diffusion activation height of crown energy height of deposit in compression zone grain dimension height of grate grain shape helicopter grain size helicopter drop granular snow helicopter landing place grassy slope helicopter transport grate heliport grate tilt high graupel high altitude tour grease ice high avalanche hazard Greenland ice sheet high gradient metamorphism grey ice high level path grey-white ice high pressure ground abrasion high thermal gradient ground avalanche hike ground avalanche carrying debris hoar ground clearance hollow ground ice hollow cups ground moraine hollow prisms ground roughness horizontal board fence ground surface horn grounded hummock hostile ice group hot water bottle growler hour of burial guideline value hummock gully hummocked ice gully hummocking gust of wind hump gusty day hurricane hail hut hailstone hydraulic conductivity hammer hydraulic diffusivity hand profile hydraulic permeability hand test hydrological basin hard rime hydrological method (mass balance) hard rope hydrological parameter hard slab hydrometeor hard snow hypothermia hardness hypothermic hardness test ice hardwood ice (hardness)
8 ice and snow parameters ice rind ice apron Ice Saints ice avalanche ice sheet ice belt ice sheet area-volume relationship ice bight ice sheet flow model ice blink ice sheet growth and decay ice boundary ice sheet heat budget ice breccia ice sheet isotope-temperature relation ice cake ice sheet isotopic profiles ice canopy ice sheet map ice cap ice sheet mass balance ice cave ice sheet negative temperature gradient ice climbing ice sheet numerical modelling ice column ice sheet rate of thickness change ice concentration ice sheet response to changes ice cone ice sheet stability ice cover ice sheet summer heat budget ice crystals ice sheet surface profile ice crystals deformation ice sheet temperature ice deformation ice sheet temperature near surface ice density ice sheet volume ice dome ice shelf ice edge ice shelf profile ice field ice shelf temperature ice flow effect on temperature ice stream ice fog ice stream driving stress ice formations ice stream temperature ice front ice stream thickness change ice grains ice streams ice impurities concentration ice strip ice impurities effect on deformation rate ice thermal conductivity ice in solar system ice thermal diffusivity ice island ice tongue ice isthmus ice under pressure ice jam ice wall ice keel ice-air interactions ice latent heat ice-axe ice layer iceberg ice limit iceberg calving ice massif iceberg tongue ice methods of dating ice-bound ice mushroom ice-cemented rock glaciers ice needle ice-cored rock glaciers ice nucleus icefall climbing ice of land origin icefoot ice on the soil ice-free ice patch ice-stream interaction moraines (ISI) ice pellets icicle ice port icing ice ridge igniter ice rind immaterial entities
9 immediate aid jökulhlaup impact juridical entities impact fuse kame impact speed kame deposits improvement kame terrace improvised probe katabatic wind improvised search kettle holes improvised shovel kinetic energy impurities in ice kinetic friction angle in particular with a strong additional load knee pine inclination lake ice inclination of the supporting plane lakes beneath ice sheet increase in temperature larch increasing in a snow layer strength large fracture increasing in snow depth large ice field induced (intentional) avalanche large rounded particles inertia large striated crystals inflow of air masses last seen point (of the avalanche victim) influence coefficient latent avalanche hazard infra-red radiation latent heat initial failure latent heat in ice injured person lateral moraines inlandsis lateral structure insolation Laurentide ice sheet insoluble impurities in ice sheet layer instability layer depth instantaneous igniter layer without cohesion intense rain lead intentional release leading of the tour interface leafy wood intergranular veins ledge internal causes lee slope internal friction leeward internal snow strength legislative measures International Commission for Alpine Rescue length of structure International Union of Alpinist Associations lesion interrupted arrangement level ice interrupted structures light additional load interspace light cloudy interval light gradient metamorphism intervention light metal inversion light nilas investigation light rain iron framed structure light thermal gradient irregular crystals lightning irreversible limit of a layer isotherm limit of the construction area isotope-temperature relation line of structures issuing of avalanche warning linked cavity system jammed brash barrier liquid water content jet roof liquid water content
10 living entities mean ice edge load carrying capacity measured ice sheet temperature loading measurement lobed front measurement of settlement local avalanche hazard measurement result local foundation measurement year locating measuring cap location method mechanism of avalanche location of surging glaciers mechanism of movement location of victim medial moraines location point medium avalanche location speed medium first-year ice lodgment till medium floe log medium fracture long distance release medium hardness long range search (rescue beacon) medium ice field long wave radiation medium temperature) longitudinal crevasse medium thermal gradient longitudinal section melt channels longitudinal strain rate melt forms loop melt metamorphism loose snow melt water loose-snow avalanche melt-freeze crust low avalanche hazard melting of snow cover low clouds melting point low cohesion melting snow low hardness melt-out till low pressure meltwater effect on firn formation lubricating layer meltwater effect on firn temperature machine made snow meltwater effect on mass-balance magnetometer meltwater measurement malleability meltwater refreezing in firn map mesh size map of avalanche paths metal detector marginal factor metamorphism of snow marine ice sheet meteorites in ice marked ski run meteorological measurements masonry wall methane in ice mass balance method of direction-finding mass balance effect of change ??? on glacier microclimate mass balance measurement methods microparticles in ice mass balance of Antarctic ice sheet mid station mass balance of Greenland ice sheet minimum (temperature) massive structures minishowel material damage mist material entities mixed forest materials mixed-snow avalanche maximum (temperature) moat maximum gradient moderate avalanche hazard maximum slope inclination moderate rain maze of crevasses moist snow
11 moraine number of dangerous places morainic bank nunatak morainic ridge objective avalanche hazard mortar observation plot mortar observation site mortar shell observation station mount cirque obstacle mountain ash obstacle surrounded by the avalanche mountain forest occlusion mountain glacier ocean mountain guide oceanic waters mountain pass oceanographic parameter Mountain Rescue Service octahedral stress mountaineer odour mountain-pasture ogives mule path old ice multi-year ice old snow narrow terrace old snow cover natural avalanche old snow with facet(t)ed grains natural breaking buttress old snow with rounded grains natural entities open ice natural release open slope near surface faceted particles open slope needles open water neoformation moraine openings in the ice net mass balance operation leader net of cables opposite side slope net radiation organisms network of avalanche defense structures organized rescue neutral atmosphere organized rescue operation new ice orientation mark new ridge orography new snow outer area new-snow avalanche outlet glacier niche outrigger for explosive charge nilas outside of controlled runs nip overcast no avalanche hazard overlayed moraine non living entities over-snow vehicle non-buried victim Oxygen isotopes Nordic skiing Oxygen isotopes in sea water normal strain Oxygen isotopes in snow and ice normal stress oxygen shortage north side packing of snow grains north slope pancake ice north slope panel spacing north slopes parameters not bearing crust paremeters related to buildings nuclear fall-out in ice partial burial nucleus of crystallization partially buried victim nucleus speed partly decomposed particles
12 pass pollution and refuse parameter passive identifying object polygonization path polynya path in snow polythermal glacier patroller population patrolling of ski runs (skipatrol) position pendular regime possible event penetration depth post penitentes postcontrol release percolation speed potential avalanche hazard percolation zone powder snow perennial snow powder snow avalanche perfect plasticity powdery snow avalanche period of closure power of resistance period of foehn practical snow stability tests (skiers) period of validity of avalanche bulletin precipice periphery precipitation permafrost precipitation intensity permanent protective measures precipitation particles permanent retaining structure pressure effect on deformation rate permanent structures pressure gradient permeability of ice pressure measuring device perpendicular prevention perpendicular to the slope preventive measures person primary avalanche physical conditions principal strain physical parameter principal stress physical processes prism (crystal) physical-chemical processes probability of locating piedmont front probability of release piedmont glacier probability of response pile foundation probability of survival pin probable event pin joint probe plane strain probe planetary ice probe test planning probing with improvised equipment planning measures processes plant components products plasticity profile at high altitude plateau profile of one single snowfall plates projectile detonator plentiful rain projectile firing plucking projection point of application of a force properties point of capture propulsion charge Polar glacier protected reafforestation area polar glacier protecting structures pole for explosive charges protective forest pollutants in ice protective measures against avalanches pollutants in ice sheet protective measures against gliding snow
13 protective ramp release by skier puddle release mechanism pulley reliability of forecast pulpit rescue purlin rescue (victim alive) push moraines rescue beacon (RB) qualitative evaluation of avalanche hazard rescue column quantitative evaluation of avalanche danger rescue of living victim radar rescue service radiation rescue toboggan radiation in heat budget rescuer radiation penetration of snow and ice reservoir glacier radioactive layers in ice residual risk radio-echo sounding ice thickness resistance to deformation measurement resistance to movement radio-link respiration mouth to mouth rafted ice responder rafting retaining structures rain retarding mound rain crust retarding wedge rain shower return period ram reverse slope ram penetrometer revival ram profile revival attempts ram resistance revival methods random furrows rezoning raster rib rate of flow ridge ravine ridge recent (new) snow ridge recent weather ridge recessional moraines ridge situation recovery position (E) ridged ice recrystallization ridged ice zone rectangular timber ridging recurring polynya rime redistribution of snow riming reforestation risk refreezing crust risky situation regelation river ice regelation rock anchor regelation layer rock barrier regelation layer at glacier base rock face regeneration (forest) rock glacier reinforcement of potentially endangered rock needle buildings rock ridge relative height rockslide relative humidity of the air rocky flank release rolled steel release an avalanche through test skiing rolling release by accidental triggering roof shape coefficient
14 rope pulley secondary avalanche roped party secondary fracture ropeway for goods transport secondary summit rotten ice second-year ice rotten snow sections, screwed together roughness sedimentary bands round polycrystalline particles self-belay rounded grains self-help rounded polycrystals self-rescue rounding depth hoar serac rounding faceted particles serac ice rounding surface hoar settled snow route settlement of snow route description shaded slope rubble field shady side run shallow basin runout distance (avalanche) shape charge projectile runout zone shape factor rutschblock test shape of roof safety binding shapes of debris safety committee shear safety distance shear bands safety factor shear fracture safety procedure shear moraines safety straps shear planes sag shear resistance of foundation saltation shear ridge sapwood shear ridge field sastrugi shear strain saturation shear strength saturation with water (snow pack) shear stress sawn timber shear-frame scale of difficulties (ski-mountaineering) shearing scale of difficulty shelter scarp shock wave scent shore ice ride-up Scots pine shore lead scree slope shore melt sea ice shore polynya sea water isotopic composition short-wave radiation search area shoulder search of buried victim shovel shear test search speed shovel test search strategy shuga search strip width shut down of operation search time side guy season signs of death seasonal snow cover sill seasonal variations silty ice seasonal variations in firn temperature simple basin seasonal variations in ice-core chemistry single crystal
15 single structure slope surface sintering slope tilt sintering in firn slope with accumulation of drifted snow sirocco (south west wind) slopes sirocco draught slush site conditions slush size of a defense zone (retaining structure) slush ski slush limit ski area small ski binding small avalanche ski centre small floe ski crampons small fracture ski mountaineer small hail ski mountaineering small ice cake ski pole small ice field ski pole grip small rounded particles ski pole probe smooth surface ski pole strap smooth surface of snow ski pole test snow ski run snow and weather bulletin ski sport snow average depth at 1600m ski tour snow barkhan ski track snow blower ski-brake snow bridge skier snow cap skier's avalanche snow conveyance skiing-extreme snow cover skilift track snow cover erosion ski-tourer snow covered slope skitouring snow creep ski-tow snow crystals sky and air indications snow cups skylight snow cushion slab avalanche snow cutter slab avalanche hazard snow density sledge snow drift sledge runner snow drift sleet snow dune slide snow fall slide ramp snow grains slide wedge test snow gully sliding surface snow height sliding theories snow interception by trees sliding velocity snow layer sliding with cavitation snow level sliding without cavitation snow line slope snow load slope distance snow lysimeter slope in the shade snow measurements slope inclination snow net slope orientation snow pack examination
16 snow patch social entities snow plume social groups snow porosity social parameter snow pressure social system snow profile soft rime snow profile at the fracture line soft slab snow profile on hang soft snow snow profile survey softening snow profile survey at high altitude soil investigation for foundation snow rake solar radiation snow retaining capacity solid base of snow cover snow ridge solid faceted particles snow sampler solid snow fence snow science solifluction snow settling solo traveller snow shoes soluble properties in ice sheet snow shower sound speed snow slab sound wave snow slab on lee slope south side snow sliding south slope snow stake south slopes snow stratification space snow surface conditions space between protective structures snow tires space between supports snow to ice transformation spatial dendrite snow wall specific gravity snowball specific heat capacity of ice snow-blind specific snow weight snow-blindness splitting wedge snowboard spontaneous release snowcat spring snow-clad spring snow snow-covered ice spruce snowfall rate spur snowfences squares (C) snowfield stability evaluation snowflake stabilized snowfree stable snowpack snow-increase staggered arrangement snow-line staggered structures snowman staking out snowpack stalactite snowpack analysis (profile) standing floe snowpack evolution starting area snowpack stability statement snowpack structure static friction snowpit for profile survey steady state snowplough steel anchor snow-slide steel structure snowstorm steep ground social conditions steep slope
17 stellar & dendrites superimposed-ice zone stellar crystal supersaturation stemming area supply of external heat sticky snow support storm support footing stormy supporting structure strain at failure surface avalanche strain inside snow cover surface crust strain rate surface deposition and crust strain rate variation with depth surface hoar strand surface hoar strand crack surface hoar crystals stranded ice surface layer strata profile surface release strength surface roughness strength surface search speed (min/m²) strength reduction in a snow layer surface structure stress surface wind stress distribution surge period stress longitudinal gradients surging glaciers stress rate survival chance stretch limit survivor stretcher synoptic chart string line systems of ecosystems strong additional load tabular berg subglacial conveyance tail unit subglacial till deformation tardi-glacial moraine subglacial water pressure team leader subjective avalanche danger technological systems sublimation technology submergence velocity telemark sub-polar glacier telescopic pole substances temperate glacier suction force temperate glacier sudden change in weather temperate glacier impurity content suffocation temperate glacier temperature summer temperature summer (mass) balance temperature fluctuations summit temperature gradient sun crust temperature history sunny temperature history from ice cores sunny side temperature history from temperature profile sunny slope temperature profile sunshine temporary protective measures supercooled drizzle temporary retaining structure supercooled fog tensile crack supercooled rain tensile strength supercooling tensile stress superglacial conveyance tensile stress area superimposed ice tension anchor superimposed pressure terminal moraines
18 terrace transverse section terrain travel time terrestrial environment traverse test area tree core test arrangement tree line thaw holes trench thaw holes (flat terrain) trestle thaw time trigger an avalanche thermal inversion trigger factor thermal range trimline thick first-year ice trough thickness truss beam thickness of fracture tunnel thickness of snow cover turbolent suspension thin first-year ice turbulent conveyance thin first-year ice first stage two-ski drag thin first-year ice second stage U section thin layer UIAA label thin section ultrasonic logging thunder unclean avalanche thunderbolt unconfined avalanche thunderstorm undulated thunderstorm chance unloading (slope) tide crack unstable snowpack tidewater glacier uphill route tidewater glacier deformation uplift of glacier surface tidewater glacier viscosity upwind tidewater glacier yield stress upwind slope till usual track till porosity valley timber construction valley avalanche time valley cirque time favourable for avalanche formation valley flank time lag in glacier response valley floor time parameters valley glacier time profile vaporization latent heat time scale of ice core variable time taken to dig out variant top terminal vast floe total burial vegetation total depth of recent snow velocity total depth of snow cower velocity in extending/compressing flow tour area velocity in laminar flow tour planning velocity in transverse section tourist velocity of kinematic wave track velocity on longitudinal line transfer coefficient velocity on vertical line transition zone (stream shelf) velocity variation in time transport of snow by wind velocity vertical component transverse crevasse vertical board fence transverse force vertical height of a structure
19 very big water through glacier travel time very close ice water within glacier very high watershed very high avalanche hazard waved ogives very low wavy snowsurface very open ice weak base of snow cover very small weak cohesion layer very small fracture weak cohesion snow layer very weak layer weak cohesion snow release very weathered ridge weak layer very wet snow weather victim died during rescue operation weather conditions victim who died later weather factors virgin snow weather parameter viscosity coefficient weather pattern development viscous flow weather with high radiation cooling visible radiation weathered ridge volcanic deposits in ice weathering volcanic deposits in ice sheet wedge volume self-diffusion activation energy wedge of high pressure wall welded joint wall deflector west slope wall terrace west slopes waning sector wet draught warm front wet snow avalanche warm snow wet-snow avalanche warm-air inhaler wet-snow line warming up wet-snow zone warning wetting (snow pack) warning service whale-back shaped rocks warning sign(s) whirl water whirlwind water at glacier bed white-fine bubbly ice water between ice grains whiteout water content width of section water effect on heat budget wild snow water effect on ice deformation winch water effect on sliding velocity wind water environment wind aloft water equivalent of snow wind baffle water flow at glacier bed wind broken particles water flow in linked cavities wind compacted crust water flow in tunnel wind crater water flow of glacier-fed stream wind direction water flow over soft bed wind erosion water flow within glacier wind force water in pores in till wind net water in temperate glacier wind speed water pressure within glacier wind-compacted snow water sky wind-load water table windripples
20 wind-slab windward winter winter ascent winter mass balance wire net wood wood preservative yield stress yield stress of ice yield stress of till young coastal ice young ice zone of crevasses zone of deposition zoning
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