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Gender Stereotypes and Education in Lesotho

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GENDER STEREOTYPES AND EDUCATION IN LESOTHO PALESA MOSETSE 2006 2 GENDER STEROTYPES AND EDUCATION IN LESOTHO by Palesa Mosetse B. Ed, B. Ed (Hons), M. Ed Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the demands for the degree PHILOSOPHAE DOCTOR in the Faculty of the Humanities Department of Philosophy and Policy Studies in Education at the UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE BLOEMFONTEIN Supervisor: Prof. D. Coetzee-Manning June 2006 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude is extended to all the people who contributed to the completion of this study. • God almighty for giving me patience, perseverance, wisdom, strength and sometimes even disappointments and challenges in pursuing this study. • My mentor, supervisor and mother away from home, Prof. D. Coetzee- Manning for the inspiration, guidance, patience, encouragement, constructive criticism, support, having confidence in me, motivation and intelligence. When the going got tough she pushed me a little harder and I will forever feel indebted to her. • My beloved mother, whom as a child, was prevented by financial limitations from experiencing the wonderful world of education and knowledge but still managed to provide her children with the opportunity to better themselves through education, and true to the Sesotho expression, ‘mangoana u tsoara thipa ka bohaleng. May the strength of my mother in this world be measured by the fruits she bore, and may what I become be a gift to her. • My dearest friend, Father Anthony Thabo Monyau for everything; emotional and financial assistance. Without his help the completion of this study would never have been possible. May the completion of this study show him that there is indeed light at the end of every tunnel and that stars shine only in darkness. • My special gratitude also goes to my nephews Bokang and Motlatsi who, due their age may never understand the importance of their love and support. Their milestones meant victory on my side. 4 • Dr. A. Le Roux for her never-ending encouragement and for believing in me. • Mrs M de Waal, for constantly reminding me that although her shoulders are a bit small, they were forever ready for me to lean on. • Rangoane le ‘mangoane Mafakane for embracing my emotional and financial distress though they had problems of their own. • Lastly to all the people who contributed: my family, colleagues and friends especially Uhuru, Mrs ELM Molapo and Katlego Matshediso, Bob Tlali, Violet Tšolele and ‘Maneo Poopa Sofonia Shale for their love and support. 5 DECLARATION I sincerely and solemnly declare that this thesis submitted in fulfilment of the degree PHILOSOPHAE DOCTOR is my original, entirely independent work and has never been submitted to any other university or faculty for degree purposes. I hereby cede copyright to the University of the Free State. PALESA MOSETSE Bloemfontein November 2005 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION, STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, AIM, METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 8 1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH 10 1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 11 1.5 DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY 13 1.5.1 Geographical demarcation 13 1.5.2 Scientific demarcation 14 1.6 DIVISION OF CHAPTERS 14 1.7 Summary 16 CHAPTER 2 7 GENDER STEREOTYPING AND ROLES: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 INTRODUCTION 17 2.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS 18 2.3 GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT: SOCIAL AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS 20 2.3.1 Biological factors that influence gender role development 20 2.3.2 Social-cultural factors that influence gender role development 23 2.3.2.1 The role of language in gender role development 24 2.3.2.2 The role of the school in gender role development 25 2.3.2.3 The role of family/parents in gender role development 28 2.3.2.4 The role of media in gender role development 29 2.3.2.5 The role of the church in gender role development 30 2.4 THEORIES OF SOCIALISATION 31 2.4.1 The Social Learning Theory 32 2.4.2 The Cognitive Development Theory 34 8 2.4.3 Psychoanalysis Theory 36 2.4.4 Gender Schema Theory 38 2.5 PATRIARCHY AS A DECISIVE FACTOR IN GENDER STEREOTYPING 39 2.5.1 The Nature of an Ideology 41 2.5.1.1 Patriarchy assumes religious status 42 2.5.1.2 Patriarchy views reality in a reductionist way 43 2.5.1.3 Ideology affects every aspect of society 44 2.5.1.4 Ideology ignores all other valid claims and does not tolerate criticism 45 2.5.1.5 Ideology misuses power on the road to supremacy 46 2.5.1.6 Patriarchy and strategies to sustain structures of domination 46 2.5.1.7 An ideology adjusts its norms to suit its purpose 50 2.6 FEMINISM AS A REACTION TO THE SYSTEM OF PATRIARCHY 51 2.6.1 Liberal feminism 53 2.6.2 Radical feminism 55 9 2.6.3 Socialist feminism 56 2.6.4 Commonalities and differences between the three kinds of feminism 57 2.7 THE IDEOLOGY OF PATRIARCHY VERSUS THE IDEOLOGY OF FEMINISM 61 2.8 PRINCIPLES AT THE BASIS OF THE RESEARCH 62 2.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 69 CHAPTER 3 THE INFLUENCE OF TRADITION AND CULTURE ON THE STATUS OF BASOTHO WOMEN IN LESOTHO AND THE CONTEXT OF THE DRAFT LESOTHO GENDER POLICY OF 2003 3.1 INTRODUCTION 69 3.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO WOMEN’S POSITION IN LESOTHO 70 3.2.1 Indigenous Basotho Education 71 3.2.2 Missionary Education during Pre-colonialism, Colonialism and Post- colonialism 74 10 3.3 THE MEANING OF CULTURE, TRADITION AND CUSTOMS 79 3.3.1 The influence of customs, tradition and culture on the role of women in Lesotho 83 3.3.2 Death, ancestral beliefs, religious convictions, and the Basotho woman 84 3.3.3 Marriage and the family 87 3.3.4 Patrilocality and patrilineality 92 3.3.5 Bohali 94 3.3.6 Women and politics in Lesotho 95 3.4 WOMEN, CULTURE AND THE LEGAL SYSTEM IN LESOTHO 99 3.4.1 Conventions and other measures to address women’s rights 100 3.4.2 Inheritance of property in Lesotho 102 3.4.3 Property rights and access to land 103 3.4.4 Women’s access to credit in Lesotho 105 3.4.5 Women’s reproductive rights, health, HIV/AIDS and violence against women 107 3.5 The draft Lesotho Gender Policy (2003) 110 11 3.5.1 The United Nations Conventions guiding the draft Lesotho Gender Policy (2003) 112 3.5.2 Objectives of the draft Lesotho Gender Policy (2003) 115 3.5.3 Strategies for the implementation of the draft Lesotho Gender Policy (2003) 116 3.6 SUMMARY 116 CHAPTER 4 EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION INTO GENDER STEREOTYPES IN EDUCATION IN LESOTHO 4.1 DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT 119 4.1.1 Selection of methods for the research 120 4.1.1.1 Literature review 122 4.1.1.2 Rationale for the use of the quantitative method 123 4.1.1.3 Rationale for the use of the qualitative research method 125 4.2 SAMPLING 127 4.3 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH 130 12 4.4 STRUCTURE OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES 132 4.4.1 Aims of the questionnaires 133 4.4.2 Aims of the interviews 136 4.5 CONCLUSION 137 CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS: TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS 5.1 INTRODUCTION 138 5.2 RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES 139 5.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRE A FOR TEACHERS 139 5.2.2 SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 140 5.2.3 SECTION B: THE DRAFT LESOTHO GENDER POLICY OF 2003 140 5.2.4 SECTION C: WOMEN TEACHERS AND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT 145 5.2.5 SECTION D: DECISION-MAKING SKILLS 149 5.2.6 SECTION E: CULTURAL PRACTICES THAT PERPETUATE STEREOTYPES 151 13 5.2.7 SECTION F: THE CURRICULUM AND THE SCHOOL 163 5.2.8 SECTION G: GENERAL 165 5.3 QUESTIONNAIRE B FOR PRINCIPALS 168 5.3.1 INTRODUCTION 168 5.3.2 SECTION A: GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 168 5.3.3 SECTION B: GENERAL ASPECTS 169 5.3.4 SECTION C: THE DRAFT LESOTHO GENDER POLICY 2003 171 5.3.5 SECTION D: WOMEN AND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT 181 5.3.6 SECTION E: WOMEN AND DECISION-MAKING 186 5.3.7 SECTION F: CULTURAL AND LEGAL PRACTICES 187 5.3.8 SECTION G: DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES IN SCHOOLS 200 5.3.9 SECTION H: GENERAL 203 5.4 ANALYSIS OF THE INTERVIEWS 203 5.4.1 Awareness of the draft Lesotho Gender Policy (2003) 204 14 5.4.2 Provisions for young mothers in the schools 204 5.4.3 Gender sensitising of teaching materials 205 5.4.4 Women Science teachers 206 5.4.5 Equal opportunities in Science subjects 207 5.4.6 Management in schools 207 5.5 CONCLUSION 208 CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF THE SURVEY: STUDENTS AND PARENTS 6.1 INTRODUCTION 209 6.2. QUESTIONNAIRE C: STUDENTS 209 6.2.1 SECTION A: GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 209 6.2.2 SECTION B: SCHOOL RELATED INEQUALITIES 210 6.2.3 SECTION C: STEREOTYPES IN THE SCHOOL SITUATION 225 6.2.4 SECTION D: CULTURAL STEREOTYPES IN THE SCHOOL 229 15 6.2.5 SECTION E: SEXUAL VIOLENCE 240 6.3 QUESTIONNAIRE D: PARENTS 243 6.3.1 INTRODUCTION 243 6.3.2 SECTION A: GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 244 6.3.3 SECTION B: CULTURAL PRACTICES 244 6.3.4 SECTION C: WOMEN’S SEXUALITY 254 6.3.5 SECTION D: DISCRIMINATION IN THE SCHOOL 257 6.3.6 SECTION E: THE DRAFT LESOTHO GENDER POLICY 2003 267 6.3.7 SECTION F: GENERAL 269 6.4 SUMMARY 269 CHAPTER 7 FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 7.1 INTRODUCTION 271 7.2 THE DRAFT LESOTHO GENDER POLICY OF 2003 271 16 7.2.1 Objectives of the policy 271 7.2.2 Concluding remarks on the gender policy 277 7.3 WOMEN, EDUCATION AND THE LAW IN LESOTHO 278 7.3.1 Women’s access and control over land 279 7.3.2 Marriage 280 7.4 CULTURAL PRACTICES 282 7.4.1 Role in life 282 7.4.2 Bohali 284 7.4.3 Patrilineality 285 7.4.4 Patrilocality 286 7.4.5 Thapo 286 7.4.6 Violence against women 287 7.4.7 The initiation school 289 7.5 WOMEN MANAGERS IN EDUCATION IN LESOTHO 289 17 7.6 DECISION-MAKING ABILITIES OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 291 7.7 THE SCHOOL AND GENDER ROLES 292 7.8 THE CURRICULUM 294 7.9 SPORTING ACTIVITIES IN THE SCHOOL 295 7.10 DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL AND AT HOME 295 7.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS 296 7.12 RECOMMENDATIONS
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    Lesotho: Voices Distant but Clear An Exhibition Proposal Kenneth Tucceri A Capstone in the Field of Museum Studies for the Degree of Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies Harvard University Extension School March 2021 Author’s Statement Nna ke Sir Neo Nkune. Ke lutse Ha Nkune le batho ba Lesotho, kapa Basotho, likhoeli tse 27. Ke ne ke Moithaopi oa Peace Corps. “I am Sir Neo Nkune. I lived in Ha Nkune with the people of Lesotho, or Basotho, for 27 months. I was a Peace Corps Volunteer.” While living in the rural, mountainous district of Thaba Tseka in the Kingdom of Lesotho, teaching at a small school—Ha Makōkō Primary School—immersion was paramount to the achievement of my goals. Integration is part of the Peace Corps ethos. Keep an open mind to cultural differences and never stop rising every morning with the ambition to pursue knowledge. That is how I tried to live every day, with successes and failures; confusions and clarities; soaring optimism and humbling self-doubt. Succeeding in cross-cultural competency is a difficult task. It takes resilience and an enduring curiosity. It takes patience and effort. The lows are low. But the highs are elating, gratifying, and rewarding. As a Returned Peace Corps Volunteer, effectively communicating the many impactful experiences I encountered has been a challenge since returning back to the U.S. in January 2020. It is difficult to explain the many dynamic moments. Experiences such as riding in an overcrowded taxi as the only non-African. Or eating ceremonial food—and sipping homemade beer—with members of the community that you have grown to know deeply.