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Home , Eurasian Steppe, Nogai Horde, Nomadic empire, Steppe belt, Volga Bulgaria

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72 SUSTAINABILITY of the . Starting in the Early Metal Metal intheEarly of thesteppes. Starting space withhistorical-geographical connected ’s ofNorthern greater part peoplesis many centuries. The ethnogenesisofthe and, inthefinalanalysis, theOld World during ofEurasia, , role inthehistory important The landscapezone played an prerequisites forthe formation ofnomadic Geographical andsocio-cultural development, ecological situations. continuity, empires ofnomads, dynamicsof steppe science. issuesfacing anewfieldofstudycalled key nomadic peoples. addresses the The article from culturaltransformation ofthearea by natural-anthropogenic complexes resulting landscapes ofthesteppe beltrepresented wasconcludedthat the 18–19thcenturies. It phase, i.e. to thepre-agricultural prior during Eurasiansteppe the landscapesofnorthern on theinfluenceofnomadicpeoples volume andgeographical ofhistorical data 3 2* Alexander A.Chibilev 1 INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT. IN EURASIAN STEPPES CONTINUITY OF NOMADIC EMPIRES HISTORICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL THE PHENOMENON OF THE Western Center andArchaeology, for theHistory Dostyk-Druzhby ofSteppeInstitute oftheUralsbranchRAS,Pionerskaya st.11,460000, [email protected] Republic;tel. (7112)503578,515226;e-mail: Kazakhstan st. 194,208,Uralsk, Orenburg, [email protected] Russia;tel./fax: (3532)774432;e-mail: ofhistoric culturalandnaturalheritage, ofSteppe Institute ofthe Laboratory (3532) 774432; e-mail: [email protected] (3532) 774432;e-mail: Urals branchoftheRAS,Pionerskaya st.11,460000,Orenburg, Russia;tel./fax: The article summarizes large The article historical-geographical 1 , Sergey V. Bogdanov riding purposes, pursuitsof andby extensive riding bydomesticationofhorsesfor transport, and, third, bytheintensive useofwheeled by theclimaticchangestoward aridization, development ofsteppe population,second, wasfavored,animal husbandry first,bythe were recorded. The transitionto nomadic conditions global changesinnatural-climatic butno aridization, ofcoldandwarm periods Subsequently, type. modern there were bysteppe landscapesofthe everywhere the boreal-typecoldsteppes were replaced theMid-Holocene Eurasia:during Northern of inthenaturalhistory the turning-point milieu ofsteppe inhabitants, allrefer to scale, theseimpressive innovationsinthe 2007].AccordingChernykh, to thegeological 2002; Degtyareva, 1974;Ryndina, Merpert, Priuralia were exploited. [Bogdanov, 2004; riverandinthe Donets on theNorthern emerged andthecopperdeposits transport oftheIVmillenniumB.C.,turn thewheelfor oftheNearEast.At the i.e., from theterritory culture wasintroduced from theoutside, millennium B.C. Small-size stock breeding Eurasiabefore theIV steppes ofNorthern Horses andcattlewere domesticated inthe the cradleofnomadicanimalhusbandry. and forest-steppe ofthe continentbecame IImillenniaB.C.), –early thesteppe Age (V 2* , Murat N.Sdykov (Corresponding author) 3 81.0116:04:08 16:04:08 28.11.2011 ggi211.indd 73 i 2 1 1 . i n d d

in V-III millenniaB.C. andexisted invarious Agephenomena formed Metal in theearly specificsocial butalsobyvery cultural type, not onlybythedominanteconomy- ofnomadswasdetermined The mobility deposits. time, progressing exploitationofmineral livestock changeableinspaceand pasturing purposes, wipingoutwildungulates allover, vegetation for , hunting, andagrarian anthropogenic of factors, suchastheburning was developing undertheinfluenceof Age, Metal Early thesteppe, for five millennia, nomadic andsettledpopulations. Sincethe emergence of poly-ethnic “symbioses” of and theCentral andpromoted the of theFar , theCaucasus, East,the Middle promoted withsettledfarmers theircontacts The nomadiclifestyle ofsteppe peoples ofsteppe.accompanied bytheburning whichwere conflicts frequent military routpermanent ofbetter pastures caused 2008]. and ofnomadictribes The mobility be involved ineconomy [Nanzatov et al., to beoccupiedand space bytheirsuitability developed theclassificationof into theeconomy usezone. This iswhy isinvolved use. Alltheterritory the territory the settledone, of meansthehighextent steppe allover. The nomadiclifestyle, unlike selective. Nomadicpeoplesinfluencedthe of steppe bio-resources wasextremely pathsofwildungulates.migratory The use places, and sites, drinking near fishery and deepeneddwellings were concentrated lakesides, where settlementsofon-ground their seatsandincludedriver valleysand Stone Age between wasdistributed tribes the steppes. onthenature by The impact and lifestyle resulted indramaticchangesof The transitionto nomadicanimalhusbandry formation ofstatehood. and for theemergence ofpreconditions for goods andthesocialdifferentiation intribes, produce,surplus promoting theexchange of steppes, whichwasbeneficialfor obtaining the mostuseofnaturalresources ofthe to make anopportunity furnished husbandry nomadicanimal Intensive horse-breeding. 7 3 Diffusions took placethrough thespread of culture,spiritual corresponded to effusions. and language andlocaltraditions of material accompanied withthespread oftheir group to free ecological niches millennia. Aslowenoughspreading ofa modescoexistingforhistorical thelastsix cultural achievements took placeinthree subtropics.Mediterranean Translations of climate orenvironment closeto semiarid ecological nichesoftemperate continental environmentextreme to more favorable directions:from arid of in certain the Great Steppe were there occurring traditionsandpopulationinhistorical Meanwhile, displacementsofcultural- ofnomadsocieties. characteristics andotherqualitativeby thetransitivity Eurasiawascaused steppes ofNorthern trendhad historical to occupyallthearea of reforming. oftheseformations that Instability were inthestate oftransitive permanently and dynamiccontinuumsofnomadsthat steppes homogeneousenough,plastic and othertraditionsformed inEurasian economical, closesocial-cultural, tote, very considered outstandingvalorbynomads. In cultures andcivilizations, but they are are strongly robbery condemnedbyfarming andanysettled farmers. form Abaction of ofnomadsandtheethics the norms This wasthemainethicdifference between thelootwere not principal.means oftaking loot wasthemainsocialmotivation,while by theirforce. Essentially, returning with away whattheycouldnottake to earn for alongenoughtime, oneyear ormore, couldbehiredyoung asshepherds warriors were orviolencewasunreasonable, inparity “baltsy” andtheiropponents participants theforcesvaluable atthatepoch.If of andacquisitionofproperty kidnapping, bride of neighborclansaimedatabaction, in theform raidsonlands ofplundering bands; “baltsy” or (Iranian) “baranta” (Turkic) of swornbrotherhood, united young warrior “amanatment” hostage);thetradition (taking “adoption”, whichwasthemodificationof blood feud of (vendetta); masspractice modifications tilltheNewAge. They are: 228.11.2011 16:04:08 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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7 4 emergence leader, ofacharismatic who system by broken was often socio-cultural East) wasformed. The fragile balanceof this (“ishcusa” tribes Scythian from intexts Near homogenous continuumofIran-speaking east to theDanuberiverinwest, alargely Eurasiafrom inthe of Northern B.C.) centuries over allsteppes AgeIron (VIII–VII period. Atthebeginning ofthe early certain settlements, for socalledheadquarters, a into thesequarters turned often handicraft quarters. The developmentand offarming and, insomeregions,winter quarters summer affected bythenomadismapplyingsettled The environment ofsteppe waseven more fences, cromlechs, etal. as piles ofstones known “obo”, “gurias”, small are stillnotidentified, suchasunnatural Many unusualforms ofmicroreliefunknown. placesremainthousands ofsimpleburial in fieldandplotted ontopographic maps, complexes,Besides burial thatare well visible ofnomadicstock-breeders.cultural type dangerous orcompetitive to thateconomic- ofanimalspeciesthatwereextermination vegetation into synanthropic, andalsodirect and aeolianprocesses, conversion ofnatural pasture vegetation, intensification oferosion but thesites promoted foci ofdigression of to theformation ofadeveloped culturallayer, everywhere. Temporary usedsites rarely led traces oftheirexistence canbeencountered we have strong reasons to believe that nothingfor archaeology, themodern virtually thatyear-roundDespite thefact nomadsleft (semi-settledsemi-nomadic).quarters moving andtheonewithsettledwinter theonewithyear-round variants: in two isaccepted thatnomadiclifestyle existed It rule to transfusions. social, andothercausescorresponded, asa of nomads, byecological, evoked political, exchange, etc.). oflarge Migrations groups conflicts, “adoption”, exchange, gift trade “baranta”–“baltsy”,(marriages, territorial local traditionsto neighborsindirectcontacts IN THE GEOGRAPHIC AREA OF STEPPES THE FIRST NOMADIC EMPIRES [Grousset, 1939]the O. 1935],andR.Grousset Janse[Janse, byG.V.termed 1927], [Vernadsky, Vernadsky nomadic tribes, theXiongnu, whichwas there emerged apoliticalconfederation of (230–221B.C.), ChineseQinDynasty Imperial the Eurasiansteppes, inoppositionto the Savinov, 2005].Atthattimeintheeastof [Klyashtorny, Asia andSouthern Inner Kushans inCentral Asia, andbytheHunsin steppe ,-Caspian bythe andtheSauromatiansSarmatians inthe wasalteredcultural heritage bythe B.C. theIVandIIcenturies theScythian In 2007;Krivosheyev,Mordkovich, 2006]. Russia, andinmostofEurope [Adji, 1998; living inInner, Central, and , anthropological ofthepopulation diversity basis, introduced changesinto ethnicand factor,element, external that,onaregular nomads thatconstituted themobilehuman isthe 1927].It [Vernadsky, countries) andtheMediterranean (, Khorezm, agricultural culture ofEurasia of sedentary relations relatively between isolated regions sea,promotedlike thetradingandcultural much landscapes ofsteppes anddeserts, According to G.V. Vernadsky, open states andtheirrulers. namesofthese donotknow unfortunately A.D.), B.C. –IVcentury butthehistory century Age theentire Iron Eurasia during (VIII early were emerging amongnomadsofNorthern et al., 1982].Suchephemeralpseudo-states theirloot[Dovatur andcarrying and tribe back homelanddividedinto groups byclan came existence, itbroke upandScythians nomadic empires aswell. 28years After of proved to beephemeralasallsubsequent the entire NearEast. The ofMadius andconqured andMidia, defeated Urartu the sonofPrototius, invades Western Asia, Madius headed byoneofsuchleaders, king Eurasia nomadsfrom Northern speaking etc. thelate In VII B.C., alarge group ofIran- coating onwinter pastures), anepidemic, oflivestock inwinter dueto ice starvation adzut(mass by alocalnaturaldisaster: could joinseveral “field commanders”, or Steppe Empire , implying 228.11.2011 16:04:08 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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their attempting to shutthemselves offfrom civilizations ofEurasiawere continually millennia,thesedentary two course ofnearly the Great Wall ofChina(214B.C.). the Over Steppe Empire of withtheconstruction State responded oftheXiongnu to therise space ofthe “Great Steppe”. The Chinese the nomadsthatoccupiedgeographical the ideasofspecificstate formations of from participants ofcampaigns to from participants Turan Arabian authors, about wholearned Turki in thewest. regionthe eastto andNorthern basinandtheGreatSungari Wall ofChinain of mountainandplainsteppes from the state formations encompassedthebelt theirdisintegration.after These nomadic Second Turkic establishedin682, Khaganate and Eastern Turkic Khaganates, withthe followed bythecreation ofthe Western wasfoundedKhaganate in552. This was (Fig.Turkic Khaganates 1). The first Turkic associated withtheestablishmentof epochofsteppe empiresThe next is borderseastern oftheRomanEmpire. Empire, wascreated byAttilatheHunon a newEuropean nomadicempire, theHunnic A.D., the70sof the4thcentury Ugric tribes. In unions oftheHunnic, andthe Sarmatian, Caspian steppes, there emerged war-political (Seven rivers’ basin)aswell asto theUral- andZhetysu to Kazakhstan Eastern tribes decay. As theresult ofmigration of Turkic B.C., itfell into peoples, Icentury intheearly both withChinaandothernomadic however, becauseofconstantwarconflicts, region for the Baikal centuries; abouttwo and Dzhungaria, Mongolia, of , The Empire united theterritories lines. (“border”) of theEurasianfortification analysis outalandscape-historical first to carry Transuralia, etc. P.N. [1927]wasthe Savitsky lines, the fortification “Perovsky rampart” in line, theBelgorod line, theCossack defense A.D.), century the Vladimir (X Tula abatis builtbyPrince andfortifications ramparts protective lines fortification 7 5 disturbing neighborsusing , namelythe “anti-steppe” On theotherhand, there were emerging ,, Kypchaks, andMongols). by anomadiclifestyle (aspursuedbythe steppes ofEurasia,asbefore, were dominated XIIcenturies, the in 744)theXI–early Second Turkic ceaseditsexistence Khaganate thefallof After (the Turkic Khaganates thanpreviously.impacts muchmore human was experiencing serious Steppe atthetimeof Turkic Khaganates, Hence, itcanbeconcludedthatthe Great settlements andnomadicheadquarters. emergedroad these between network ofiron. Awell developedmining andworking there Siberia, existedof Southern centers of sable, squirrel, many areas andmarmots. In elk),Alpineibex,roe,Altai wapiti(Siberian wild horses, zerens gazelles), (Mongolian pursuits oftheancient Turki, washunting and yakbreeding. Prominent, amongthe They were engagedinsheep, horse, , the Turki, peoples. andbytheneighboring oftheeconomymain sector pursuedby constituted the Nomadic animalhusbandry [Klyashtorny, Savinov, 2005,p.106]. [an Arab]putsonearrow to hisbowstring” shoots outten arrows before akharidzhit and leftward, upward anddownward. He andbackward, rightward and tuckforward people... Heshootsfrom hishorse rushingnip shoots atwildanimals, birds, shootingmarks, rout, andconquestofcountries... A Turki horseback riding, loot battlesofwarriors, have nobusinessbutrobbery, raid, hunting, canal building, orcrop gathering. Andthey medicine, farming, construction, horticulture, any trade, handicraft, They donotpractice is nopredestination ofpeacefor them... constitution isbasedonmoving, andthere and changesare intolerable. The gist oftheir and thesameplace, lownumberofmoves an unmovingstate, along-timebeinginone are ofpeoplesfor whomasettledlife,“Turki 869), wrote thefollowing about Turkic lifestyle, theerudite from Bagdad(diedin Dzhakhiza, Khaganate. byAl- This iswhatwritten nomads, inhabitantsofwarlike Turkic ofcustoms andmoralsofdescriptions saved anumberofdistinctive (), 228.11.2011 16:04:08 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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Fig. 1. The steppes of Northern Eurasia in the epoch of Turkic Khaganates (according to [Klyashtorny, Savinov, 2005] with additions) 228.11.2011 16:04:08 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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ezen – (Universe)”), and ofthe Earth “Master asthegoddess(Delkhein regarded theEarth beliefs peopleinthepast of Mongolian 1993,p.31]. [Tserenkhand, The religious to thenewnomadcamp transported space”, together withthedwelling, were be abandoned, allelementsof “economic theevent thatanomadcamphadto In must notbearany tracesofhuman activity. that theplaceofabandonedcamp rules, followed people, byMongolian imply At thesametime, traditionally, thecamp from someregions to others. ofintrudingplants well asto thetransport a concentrationofsynanthropic speciesas to on thelocalfloraandfauna,contributing expanses andhadanimmenseinfluence could move freely across thehugesteppe campsa ring. SuchmobileMongolian tents) thatwere intheform arranged of “kurens”, (nomad i.e. several hundred kibitkas nomads’The Mongolian campsrepresented Eurasia aswell asthebordering countries. steppe andforest-steppe space of Northern Rus andencompassingalmostthewhole huge state stretching from Chinato Southern “Genghis ”. Hesucceededto create a underthenameof title ofsupreme khan 1206 the Mongol-Tatar superethnosbegansince the nomadicstate formations. Expansionof representing adefinitive stage(“imago”) of Empireby aMongolian ofGenghisides, replaced, inthefirsthalfofXIIIcentury, formsEarly ofthesteppe empires were development andmanagementtechniques. methods andways ofnaturalresources’ space dueto theimprovement ofgovernance development intimeand acertain underwent ofontology, terms In nomadicempire Khaganate, andHungary. Khaganate, Alania,theKhazar , upper reaches ofthe Yenisei river, theUygur inthe theKyrgyzhandicrafts: Khaganatein animal-breeding economy andwithadvanced centers with anintegrated agricultural and OF THE STEPPE EMPIRES THE “IMAGO” STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT 7 7

when Temujin wasbestowed withthe [Trepavlov, 2002]. Cossack century attacksby thelate XVI the NogaiHorde, ceaseditsexistence under last nomadicempire oftheGreat Steppe, ofthe and middleparts Yaik basin). river The Dnieper), andtheNogaiHorge (inthelower the steppes the between Volga and the , andalso the (in andKazakh Siberian, , , into several new Turkic states: Crimean, mid-XV century, theGoldenHorde decayed Chagatai Horde, andothers). Toward the Hordes (GoldenHorde, White Horde, to disintegratestarted into separate Ulus- (as wasthecasewithitspredecessors) andthen,againexisted for aboutacentury The empire ofMongol-Tatar super-ethnos ofnature,unity society, andman. the biosphere approach: awareness ofthe ”:Yasa”objects. Mongolian wasbasedon approachresource-based to natural True”, and “Russian Truth”, demonstrated such as Laws ofHammurapi”,“The “Salic orsimilarlaws, oftheearlier aspects damage to individuals. Environmental morenatural objects severe thanfor the imposed punishmentfor thedamageto peoplesystem. society- the nature- “Yasa” law,tribal whichregulated allrelations in on thebasisoftraditionalMongolian “Yasa” wascodifiedunderGenghisKhan the world, theenvironmental codeoflaws sacred placefor them.For thefirsttimein formed steppe landscapewasaHistorically natural phenomena,objects,andelements. the Japanese, andtheKorean) animated all of theAltaiclanguagefamily(theBuryat, of space. otherpeoplesThe , like sufficiently positive culturaltransformation onthenaturalenvironmentMongols asa justified inviewingtheinfluenceby 2004; Nanzatov, 2008]. We are therefore to aminimum[Kulpin, the soilwaskept were soconfigured thatdamagedoneto and movingstones. Even pathsandroads flowersdigging andgrass, thesoil, picking face oftheEarth” wasnotpermitted, i.e. to beadhered to, suchas: “scratching the surface. There were anumberofprohibitions her bodywasidentifiedwiththeterrestrial 228.11.2011 16:04:13 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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7 8 warlike nomads, asatthe warlike “pacification” of aimed notsomuchatthe defense from border borderfortified linesinitssouthern built theGreat Wall ofChina,Russiasetup region.the Ussuri theQinEmpire Like that the region to theAmurriverand 19th century, theselines stretched from rivers andtheEmpire’s borders. themid- In lines were alongthe setup, particularly state wasdeveloping, Cossack fortification of nomadicstate entities. As theRussian form nolongerfacilitated thepreservation initstraditional mobile animalhusbandry owned bymobilestock-breeders. Extensive, oflands gradually involved inthere-division Empire wereChina, Russia,andtheOttoman livestock ofaboutthesamenumber. almost entirely replaced bydomesticated million herds ofwildungulate animalswas component ofthesteppe asthemany- or Cossack were fortresses built.Sucha considered to bethetimeatwhichRussian others) andthedate oftheirestablishmentis and Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Uralsk, major cities(suchasSaratov, Volgograd, residential centers,contemporary including by barely noticeableruinsorare occupiedby Ages arethe Middle currently represented of andruraltype settlements oftheurban agriculture, Steppe includingirrigation. of buildingmaterials, handicrafts, and the following canbementioned:mining grazing. Amongtheprogressing pursuits, withfootloose animalhusbandry sedentary and oflivestock, and stalledkeeping use byanimalhusbandry, valley-meadow witnessed thepursuitsofdistantpastures inthesteppe,Age theMiddle husbandry to nomadic andsemi-nomadicanimal time, are stillnotresearched. addition In nomadic lifestyle ofpeopleslivingatthat which provide evidenceofthesedentary- including medievaltowns andfortifications, to beresearched. Numerous settlements, epoch oftheGoldenHorde stillremains natural environment ofthesteppe inthe The influenceofnomadicpeoplesonthe DECLINE OF THE NOMADIC EMPIRES AGRICULTURAL IN INTERVENTION THE the Great Steppe underwent a powerful apowerful the Great Steppe underwent Xiongnu State entitiesto theNogaiHorde, Hence, forcenturies, from almosttwenty fires. occurring yearly steppe thatispyrogenic becauseofalmost fusilladed withrocketsandshells;itisthe isthesteppeand fieldsofbombingcraters. It oflongones,many caponiers, kilometers nowadays withtheirtrenches, including to thesocalledbelligerent landscapesof yards steppe firing corresponding are thelargest steppe and in Kazakhstan ranges and EmbaSemipalatinskfiring Saratov, rangenearOrenburg, firing Donguz “Shikhany” rangesnear andEngelsfiring century. Kapustin Yar intheLower Volga, alsointhe20th functions military-technical Ironically, vital thesteppe stillperformed even Borodino battlefields. andProkhorovka where and Tokhtamysh fought, and battlefield,Kosovo thebattleonKondurcha river, battlefield, theKulikovo the the Kalka following events took place:thebattleof troops.between Onsteppe battlefieldsthe ground forsteppe isaperfect a “shoot-out” battles. Aplainsurfaced small- andlarge-scale springboard for campaigns, thefieldfor manyDuring centuries, thesteppe wasthe 2004; Chibilev, 1994]. Levykin, Campaign (1950s–1960s)[Chibilev, 1990, theSoviet implemented during Virgin Lands off thefaceofEurasiansteppes was stage aimedatwipingthenomadiclifestyle (the1930s). of collectivization The final atthetime sedenterization) (compulsory settled lifestyle amongnomadicpeoples introductionofthe and thecompulsory Empire 26XX intheXIXandearly centuries the resettlement initiatives oftheRussian wascontinuedintheform of This policy [Khazanov, 2002]. pursued theanti-nomadiccolonialpolicy of habitationthenomadsandconsistently bearers ofagricultural traditionsto theareas theinvasionlifestyle; theyarranged ofthe only ameansofproduction,butalsothe wasnot that nomadicanimalhusbandry them (Fig. 2). The rulersofRussiawere aware 228.11.2011 16:04:13 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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Fig. 2. The lands of the Cossack forces of the in the XVIII – early XX centuries 228.11.2011 16:04:13 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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8 0 population andcompositionof livestock was integrating for factor plain ecosystems. The spaces ofthesteppe empires constituted an that wasdominantinopen husbandry Nomadic andsemi-nomadicanimal – – – – – empires. nomadic semi-settledpeoplesofthesteppe ofinfluencebynomadicandsemi- centuries that wassubstantiallyaltered bymany half oftheHoloceneresulted inthesteppe Eurasian nature andhumansinthesecond steppe. oftheNorthern The co-evolution seevirginpredecessors couldcertainly norintheXIXcentury, our century XVIII isevidentthatneitherinthe of Russia.It immigrants from European provinces of theXVIII-XIX centuries, andbythefirst witnessedbythenaturalists theappearanceof which determined influence from steppe alternating empires,

cattle propagated insteppe space. animals, suchashorses, sheep, goats, and decades ofpeace, herds ofdomesticated other four-legged years nomads. and In herds ofwildhorses,saiga,and koulan, altered. faunaisvery Its There are nolarge images”) steles. andkulpytas anthropomorphous sculptures (“stone mazars, andmausoleums, andalso small fences, cromlechs, andmenhirs), Steppe). There are pilesofstones (“obo”, of thousandssuchintheGreat commons’ (there burials are hundreds over valleyswere usedfor kings’ and reference points, andoutstandingcliffs monuments. Allwell visibletops ofhills, has hugenumberofsacralandburial It nomads; of andheadquarters and winter quarters bears numerous tracesofsummer It local beaten tracksandcaravan ways; iscovered withtranscontinentaland It renovation; asto herbage purposes in military is for manyIt timesscorched aswell live inconcord andharmony withNature. them andthatreflected theiraspiration to the nomads’ surrounding ideasoftheworld the “circle” origin of astheshape-forming of pasture steppe landsthatpredetermined and aspecificlandscapelandmanagement organization ofterritory principle concentric isthe It andMongolia. Russia, Kazakhstan, regions in ofpasture animalhusbandry a nomadcampisstilltruefor nowadays pastures for different oflivestock around kinds [Shinkarev, of distribution 1981].Orbital circle meanttheroute oftraditionalroaming their nomadicroute intheform ofacircle. The planning andterminological designation of placesforquarters, andin theircarriages, ofcamps, thearrangement winter (yurta), implemented intheform oftheirdwelling nomadicpeoples,Mongolian were of space, astraditionallyusedby Turkic- mastering ofconcentric The principles of pastures” [Nanzatov etal., 2008,с.254]. type byacertain characterized and eachpart outineachpart... carried economic activities ofspacewithaparticular segments... asparts into “through thedivisionofterritory dynamically affected byadvanced nomads principle. the concentric wereThe territories and thelineardynamicalprinciple principles: steppe areas main bycombiningthetwo unique methodsofmanaging pasture moving withintheirlife space, theydeveloped Since thenomadicpeopleswere constantly difficult to imagine. etc.) tarpan, ungulates isnot (saiga,koulan, grazing substantiallydiffered from thewild domesticated of animalswhosecharacter landscapes bytheseherds ofmany million The mechanicalinfluenceonsteppe to 80millionsheepandgoatstogether. million horses, over 10millioncattle, up one pastured onthisspaceatleast25–30 within therangeof5–12millionpeople of theGreat Steppe humanpopulation According to estimations, underfluctuations 2007; Khazanov, 2002]. ofGod[Mordkovich, dzhuts, andbyotheracts controlled byseasonalweather fluctuations, 228.11.2011 16:04:17 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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steppe empire. eventually ledto theformation ofanew leaderinoneofthesegroupscharismatic cultural continuity. The emergence ofanew while maintainingtheoverall economicand greater numberofethnicandculturalgroups into uluses, creatingthe legacy greater and lying outsidethesteppe down belt,broke successors inevitablylosttheirterritories to conquertheentire Eurasia;theemperor greatlife conqueror of every wastoo short the naturalandgeographic processes. The of peoplesthesteppe empires, butalsoin andthelifestyle nomadic animalhusbandry) means ofproduction(nomadicandsemi- Eurasian ,are similarnotonly inthe changed politicalborders across theentire radically nomads that,withnaturalperiodicity of migrations and campaigns 3. Conquest ofnature) andaman. over apersonality part ofnature(understood asa andsociety priority of laws basedontheparadigm ofanabsolute became theworld’s firstenvironmental code laws “Yasa” formed around XIIIcentury, theearly oftheirlands.mastering The steppe codeof sacralization anddynamicalconcentric transformation Turkic-Mongolian origin) causeda of steppe empires, theirpeoples(mainlyof ofrelativelyperiod peacefuldevelopment 2. systems.Forecological andsocio-cultural many centuries, especiallyinthe achievement ofrelative ofnatural equilibrium indicatedThe presence the ofcontinuity of naturalandanthropogenic geosystems. ofcontinuity,quality i.e. sustainableunity systematic manifestations, aphenomenal Empire. Allofthemhad, ofscaleand interms andtheformation oftheJungar creation ofHunEmpire untilthefallof in thesteppe beltofEurasiasincethe state entities, cultural- Age, Iron and theearly individualnomadic of disintegration Age Metal continuumsoftheEarly historical the 1. After orburden?the benefit ofthe empires steppe – The legacy DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 8 1 steppeempires, ofspacebasedonthe were appearing cultural of nomadic steppe empires of Northern of nomadicsteppe empires ofNorthern and , ,Kazakhstan, are successors 6. Eurasian states, firstofall, Russia,, historical steppescience. geoecologyandthe thehistorical knowledge: solved ofnewfields withintheframeworks set for science. themodern The taskcouldbe forest-steppe, steppe) inEurasiais anddesert of openlandscapes(steppe, mountainsteppe, centennial influencebynomadsontheformation 5. consequencesofmulti- The taskto discern sandy semi-. into saltmarshesand turned large lakes anddozens –Barby ofother Aksakal the lake rivers becamedrainlesswatercourses; and time, the Turgay, Irgiz, ,andmany other lowest this over thelastmillennium.During number oflivestock intheregion were the andthe by China,thepopulationdensity thedefeatwhen, after oftheJunggarEmpire –themidXX century century mid XVIII the AralSeatragedythatoccurred inthe processes inmany ways are reminiscent of basin inNewAges showsthatcatastrophic situationoftheAral-Caspian geo-ecological settled agricultural population.Analysisof in perception by ofthenomadicworld andontheaberrations the XIXcentury) Sandsinthesecondhalfof Horde inRyn destroy theseniches, theBukeyev like in theclosedecological nicheswillinevitably trapped, bythepoliticaloreconomic reasons, a numberofindividualepisodes(isolates isbasedon It criticism. withstand serious of thenomadiccattleovergrazing cannot steppe landscapes asaresult oftheimpact the growing of anthropogenic desertification times. in thepre-industrial The axiomabout steppes in thesecondhalfofHolocene ofthenature andmenof of co-evolution formation ofnomadicempires wasaresult centuries. Naturallyandgeographically, the theprevioussemi-nomadic peoplesduring result ofdiverse influencebynomadicand anthropogenic complexes formed asa XX centuries, were sustainablenatural- of belt of agricultural development intheXIX– steppe the Eurasia,before thebeginningNorthern of 4. Landscapes 228.11.2011 16:04:17 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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8 2 4. Chibilev, S.V. A.A.andLevykin, (1994) Consequences ofDe- The Landscape-Ecological 3. The Phenomenon andtheParadoxes E.N.(2007)Kargaly: Chernykh, ofitsDevelopment Bogdanov, 2. S.V. (2004) The Copper EpochintheSteppe Priuralia. 288p. Ekaterinburg, Adji, M.(1998)Europe, 1. Turkic, 334p. Mysl, theGreat Steppe. Moscow: i.e., thetranscendentpower oftheE geographers, developed ageocratictheory, followed bypoliticalscientists, historians, and example, Russianculture themodern experts pessimistic assessmentsbymany authors. For of theSovietUnion,resulted inextremely the Eurasianspace, especiallythecollapse of ontheterritory the endofXX century eventsof individualculturalandhistorical at answer to thisquestion.Exaggeration certain burden? Recentinvestigators donothave a for isitablessingor Eurasiancountries; ofthesteppe empires What isthelegacy nomadic empires intheirmany aspects. Turkic-Mongol andtheIranian-speaking features inherited these countries ofthe structureofadministrative andterritorial of thestate, economicalinstitutions, and subordinationpersonality to higherinterests power organization, theimperative of Eurasia. The potestative system ofthestate 8. Georgi ,I.G.(1776) ofAllPeoples The Description LivingintheRussianState. Pt. 1.SPb:8. Schnor. 7. Dovatur, D.P., A.I.,Kallistov ShishovaI.A.(1982)Peoples by in ofOurCountry History “The Chibilev, 6. A.A.(2004) The Lessons Taught by Virgin //Science. SoilUpturned Society. Man. Chibilev, 5. A.A. (1990) The Face of Notes ontheSteppe The Steppe: Ecologo-Geographical REFERENCES papers to theScientific-Practical Conference dedicated to the40 velopment of Virgin LandsontheLeft Bankofthe of //Abstracts Volga andKazakhstan. Moscow, 200p. (Kargaly V). Herodotus”. Moscow, 455p. Vesnt. UrORAN,№3, pp. 109–116. Zone of The USSR.Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 191p. lands upturned. Orenburg, p. 52–54. urasian (10-05-00867; 10-05-96056r_Ural_a). the RussianFoundation for BasicResearch from isdonewithfinancialsupport This work empires. ofthesteppe peopleandvaluable legacy land useinthearea themost isperhaps years ineffective experience pastoral component. The over seven thousand includingthe anthropogenicequilibrium the paradigm ofmaintaininggeosystem Eurasiashouldbebasedon of Northern and demographic policiesinthesteppes Projects for theoptimizationofeconomic resulted from theirenvironmental apriority. projectsweremodernization naturaland “conquest ofnature” andofthepost-soviet 2011. pp. 5–53]. The failure ofStalin’s plan Eurasia[Zamyatin,steppes ofNorthern space over thestates andsocietiesin ACKNOWLEDGEMENT th Anniversary ofvirgin Anniversary  228.11.2011 16:04:17 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 1

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84 SUSTAINABILITY 8 Zamyatin, D.N. (2011)Geocratic. Eurasiaasanimage, asymbol, andaprojectofRussian 28. Vernadsky, G.V. Part 1. (1927)AnOutlineofRussian History. With thesupplementof 27. border ofEurope andAsia” (2011). Uralriverbasin:itshistory, geography,“The andecology” (2008), Uralmountainsasthe “The steppe free from borders”“The (2003), region” landscapesoftheUrals-Caspian “The (2006), 600 publicationsincludingthemonograph fundamentals ofsteppe science”“The (1998), Scientific Expert, Issue3.pp. 5–54. Scientific Expert, civilization // andmanagement.Moscow: The state ideologyandvaluesinpublicpolicy “Geopolitical Notes onRussianHistory” byP.N. Savitsky. Prague: EurasianBookPublisher. Murat N.Sdykov ademographer, isahistorian, asociologist, Sergey V. Bogdanov Alexander A.Chibilev isageographer andalandscape Kazakhstan (XVII – early XX)” –early (XVII Kazakhstan in 2004. publishedinAlmaty 5 monographs, including ofpopulationthe history Western “The Kazakhstan” journal. Heistheauthorofover 100 publicationsand editor of q “The andArchaeology andthe Center for theHistory Kazakhstan till2003.Heistheheadof University WesternKazakhstan Нe heldthepositionofrector of The Utemisov Western andsocialculturalproblemshistorical ofpopulationmigrations. professor. ofHistory, Doctor The mainresearch interest isthe and president demographists of association; The Kazakhstan of Steppe oftheUralsbranchRAS.Heisauthorover the RussianGeographical Society. HeistheheadofInstitute of vice-president 2005,hewaselected the RAS(since1997).In ofGeographyDoctor (since1992),acorrespondent memberof the founder ofthenationalpark Bor.”“Buzulukskiy Heisthe “Orenburgskiy” inRussia,andalso thatisthefirststeppe reserve anthropogenic origins. Heisthefounder ofthenaturalreserve Eurasiathatcombinenaturaland geosystems ofNorthern generalizing datafrom naturalsciencesandhumanitiesabout steppe science astheintegral geography schoolinthemodern scientist. Hedeveloped thetheoretical baseofthehistorical “Topographiya byP.I. Orenburgskaya Rychkov” (2010),etc. and editions Copper Epoch in thesteppe Priuralia”“The (2004), author ofover 70scientificpublicationsincluding monographs ofSteppe oftheUralsbranchRAS.Heis the Institute of culturalandnaturalheritage ofhistoric heads theLaboratory (1999)anddocentofarchaeology.Candidate ofHistory He Eurasia.Heisthe of nomadicculturesheritage ofNorthern scientificinterestsscientist. His are related to thestudyof uestions of history andarchaeology of uestions ofhistory The Western isanarchaeologist steppe andahistorian 81.0116:04:17 16:04:17 28.11.2011