Alexander A. Chibilev1, Sergey V. Bogdanov2*, Murat N. Sdykov3 1 Institute of Steppe of the Urals branch of the RAS, Pionerskaya st. 11, 460000, Orenburg, Russia; tel./fax: (3532) 774432; e-mail: [email protected] 2* Laboratory of historic cultural and natural heritage, Institute of Steppe of the Urals branch of the RAS, Pionerskaya st. 11, 460000, Orenburg, Russia; tel./fax: (3532) 774432; e-mail: [email protected] (Corresponding author) 3 Western Kazakhstan Center for the History and Archaeology, Dostyk-Druzhby SUSTAINABILITY st. 194, 208, Uralsk, Kazakhstan Republic; tel. (7112) 503578, 515226; e-mail: [email protected] 72 THE PHENOMENON OF THE HISTORICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL CONTINUITY OF NOMADIC EMPIRES IN EURASIAN STEPPES ABSTRACT. The article summarizes large Age (V – early II millennia B.C.), the steppe volume of historical and geographical data and forest-steppe of the continent became on the influence of nomadic peoples on the cradle of nomadic animal husbandry. the landscapes of northern Eurasian steppe Horses and cattle were domesticated in the during the pre-agricultural phase, i.e. prior to steppes of Northern Eurasia before the IV the 18–19th centuries. It was concluded that millennium B.C. Small-size stock breeding landscapes of the steppe belt represented culture was introduced from the outside, natural-anthropogenic complexes resulting i.e., from the territory of the Near East. At the from cultural transformation of the area by turn of the IV millennium B.C., the wheel for nomadic peoples. The article addresses the transport emerged and the copper deposits key issues facing a new field of study called on the Northern Donets river and in the steppe science. Priuralia were exploited. [Bogdanov, 2004; Merpert, 1974; Ryndina, Degtyareva, 2002; KEY WORDS: historical-geographical Chernykh, 2007]. According to the geological continuity, empires of nomads, dynamics of scale, these impressive innovations in the development, ecological situations. milieu of steppe inhabitants, all refer to the turning-point in the natural history of Northern Eurasia: during the Mid-Holocene INTRODUCTION the boreal-type cold steppes were replaced Geographical and socio-cultural everywhere by steppe landscapes of the prerequisites for the formation of nomadic modern type. Subsequently, there were empires periods of cold and warm aridization, but no global changes in natural-climatic conditions The steppe landscape zone played an were recorded. The transition to nomadic important role in the history of Eurasia, Russia, animal husbandry was favored, first, by the and, in the final analysis, the Old World during development of steppe population, second, many centuries. The ethnogenesis of the by the climatic changes toward aridization, greater part of Northern Eurasia’s peoples is and, third, by the intensive use of wheeled connected with historical-geographical space transport, by domestication of horses for of the steppes. Starting in the Early Metal riding purposes, and by extensive pursuits of gi211.indd 72 28.11.2011 16:04:08 horse-breeding. Intensive nomadic animal modifications till the New Age. They are: husbandry furnished an opportunity to make blood feud (vendetta); mass practice of the most use of the natural resources of the “adoption”, which was the modification of steppes, which was beneficial for obtaining “amanatment” (taking hostage); the tradition surplus produce, promoting the exchange of of sworn brotherhood, united young warrior goods and the social differentiation in tribes, bands; “baltsy” (Iranian) or “baranta” (Turkic) and for the emergence of preconditions for in the form of plundering raids on lands SUSTAINABILITY formation of statehood. of neighbor clans aimed at abaction, bride kidnapping, and acquisition of property 73 The transition to nomadic animal husbandry valuable at that epoch. If the forces of and lifestyle resulted in dramatic changes of “baltsy” participants and their opponents the steppes. The impact on the nature by were in parity or violence was unreasonable, Stone Age tribes was distributed between young warriors could be hired as shepherds their seats and included river valleys and for a long enough time, one year or more, lakesides, where settlements of on-ground to earn what they could not take away and deepened dwellings were concentrated by their force. Essentially, returning with near fishery sites, drinking places, and loot was the main social motivation, while migratory paths of wild ungulates. The use means of taking the loot were not principal. of steppe bio-resources was extremely This was the main ethic difference between selective. Nomadic peoples influenced the the norms of nomads and the ethics of steppe all over. The nomadic lifestyle, unlike settled farmers. Abaction and any form of the settled one, means the high extent of robbery are strongly condemned by farming the territory use. All the territory is involved cultures and civilizations, but they are into the economy use zone. This is why considered outstanding valor by nomads. In nomads developed the classification of tote, very close social-cultural, economical, space by their suitability to be occupied and and other traditions formed in Eurasian be involved in economy [Nanzatov et al., steppes homogeneous enough, plastic 2008]. The mobility of nomadic tribes and and dynamic continuums of nomads that permanent rout of better pastures caused were permanently in the state of transitive frequent military conflicts which were reforming. Instability of these formations that accompanied by the burning of steppe. had historical trend to occupy all the area of The nomadic lifestyle of steppe peoples steppes of Northern Eurasia was caused promoted their contacts with settled farmers by the transitivity and other qualitative of the Far East, the Middle Asia, the Caucasus, characteristics of nomad societies. and the Central Europe and promoted the emergence of poly-ethnic “symbioses” of Meanwhile, displacements of cultural- nomadic and settled populations. Since the historical traditions and population in Early Metal Age, the steppe, for five millennia, the Great Steppe were occurring there was developing under the influence of in certain directions: from arid regions of anthropogenic factors, such as the burning of extreme environment to more favorable vegetation for military, hunting, and agrarian ecological niches of temperate continental purposes, wiping out wild ungulates all over, climate or environment close to semiarid livestock pasturing changeable in space and Mediterranean subtropics. Translations of time, progressing exploitation of mineral cultural achievements took place in three deposits. historical modes coexisting for the last six millennia. A slow enough spreading of a The mobility of nomads was determined nomad group to free ecological niches not only by the dominant economy- accompanied with the spread of their cultural type, but also by very specific social language and local traditions of material and phenomena formed in the early Metal Age spiritual culture, corresponded to effusions. in V-III millennia B.C. and existed in various Diffusions took place through the spread of ggi211.inddi211.indd 7733 228.11.20118.11.2011 116:04:086:04:08 local traditions to neighbors in direct contacts could join several “field commanders”, or (marriages, “baranta”–“baltsy”, territorial by a local natural disaster: a dzut (mass conflicts, “adoption”, gift exchange, trade starvation of livestock in winter due to ice exchange, etc.). Migrations of large groups coating on winter pastures), an epidemic, of nomads, evoked by ecological, political, etc. In the late VII B.C., a large group of Iran- social, and other causes corresponded, as a speaking nomads from Northern Eurasia SUSTAINABILITY rule to transfusions. headed by one of such leaders, king Madius the son of Prototius, invades Western Asia, 74 THE FIRST NOMADIC EMPIRES defeated Urartu and Midia, and conqured IN THE GEOGRAPHIC AREA OF STEPPES the entire Near East. The empire of Madius proved to be ephemeral as all subsequent It is accepted that nomadic lifestyle existed nomadic empires as well. After 28 years of in two variants: the one with year-round existence, it broke up and Scythians came moving and the one with settled winter back homeland divided into groups by clan quarters (semi-settled semi-nomadic). and tribe and carrying their loot [Dovatur Despite the fact that year-round nomads left et al., 1982]. Such ephemeral pseudo-states virtually nothing for the modern archaeology, were emerging among nomads of Northern we have strong reasons to believe that Eurasia during the entire early Iron Age (VIII traces of their existence can be encountered century B.C. – IV century A.D.), but the history everywhere. Temporary used sites rarely led unfortunately do not know names of these to the formation of a developed cultural layer, states and their rulers. but the sites promoted foci of digression of pasture vegetation, intensification of erosion According to G.V. Vernadsky, open and aeolian processes, conversion of natural landscapes of steppes and deserts, much vegetation into synanthropic, and also direct like sea, promoted the trading and cultural extermination of animal species that were relations between relatively isolated regions dangerous or competitive to that economic- of sedentary agricultural culture of Eurasia cultural type of nomadic stock-breeders. (China, Khorezm, and the Mediterranean Besides burial complexes, that are well visible countries) [Vernadsky, 1927].