Educational Leadership." INSTITUTION Association for Supervision Andcurriculum Development, Washington, D.C

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 059 130 SO 002 345 Leeoer, Robert R., Ed. AUTHOR Era. Readings TITLE Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary from "Educational Leadership." INSTITUTION Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Oct 71 NOTE 301p. AVAILABLE FROMAssociation for Supervision andCurriculum Development, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 (#611-17852,$6.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC Not Available fromEDRS. DESCRIPTORS Activism; Affective Objectives;Behavioral Objectives; *Cu..:riculim Development;Curriculum Problems; Educational Accountability;*Educational Change; *Educational Objectives;*Educational Philosophy; Educational Quality;Ethnic Studies; Individualized Instruction;Politics; Racial Integration; Relevance (Education) ;Social Action; *Social Change; Student Rights;Values

ABSTRACT Sixty-six articles and two poems,selected from "Educational Leadership", comprisethis book. Major emphasisis on curricular concerns and instructionin the schools of today and the future. Authors provide insightful,comprehensive understanding about educational issues and concerns ratherthan attempt final answersto complex problems. Re-examinationof educational goals is necessary before future curriculum isreshaped. The materials, dividedinto 11 sections, are arranged partly inchronological order by date of publication and partly in accordancewith logical treatment of the instructional concern represented. Thedivisions are:1) Values; 2) Individualization; 3) Social Involvement;4) The Search for Theory; 5) Integration; 6)Ethnic Studies; 7) StudentRights and Responsibilities; 8) Whorls in aRevolutionary Society; 9)Politics; 10) Adapting to the Needs of ourTime;ands11) In a World Setting. The various authors uphold thepotential of each individualand express the importance ofincreasing interrelationship and interdependence of human affairs in theworld scene. New meaning and quality in education can be agents ofchange towa.,1 solvingworld problems. Included is a list of Autumn1971 ASCD publicationsand an author-subject-title index that isalphabetically arranged. (Editor/SJM) fr

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RevolutiorN

Readings from EDUCATIONALLEADERSHIP

U.S. DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HASBEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY ASRECEIVED FROM THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT POINTS OFVIEW OR OPIN IONS STATED DO NOTNECESSARILY OFFICE OF EDU- REPRESENT OFF:CIAL CATION POSITION ORPOLICY %7188t1 In a RowWWII

Readings from EDUCATIONALLEADERSHIP

Edited by ROBERTR. LEEPER

Introduction by NEIL P. ATKINS

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any informe:ion storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Stock Number: 611-17852

The materials printed herein are the expressions of the writers and not a state. ment of policy of the Association unless set by resolution.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 70-182201 CONTENTS

Foreword A Rich Yield Robert R. Leeper vii Introduction The Texaires of Tomorrow Neil P. Atkins ix

1 VALUES: THE CHALLENGE, THEDILEMMA

Who Am I? Theron H. Jacobson 2 Will America Survive? Alvin D. Loving, Sr. 4 Vaiues and Our Destiny Kimball Wiles 6 A Strategy for Developing Values James D. Raths 11 A Curriculum of Value Chris Buethe 17 Teaching Without Specific Objectives James D. Raths 20

2 INDIVIDUALIZATION: THE PUPIL ASPERSON

Individualized Instruction Alexander 1, /vizier 28 Please Stop and See Joan L. Dailey 35 Individual Differences: A Precious Asset Willard C. Olson 35 "Hey, You!" Robert W. Edgar 37 The DropoutOur Greatest Challenge Earl C. .7elley 41 Creativity and Its Psychological Impli.mtions Marie I. Rasey 44 Uniqueness and Creativeness: TheSchool's Role E. Paul Torrance 48 Learning Our Differences Rodney A. Clark 52 Significant Learning: In Therapy and inEducation Carl R. Rogers 56

HI iv Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

3 SOCIAL INVOLVEMENT: THE ISSUES, THE IDEALS

Schools and the Social Revolution Robe, Q Leeper 68 A Cultural Enrichment Projcct Pays Off I. 1:Bryant 70 Poverty and Reeducation P. F. Ayer 73 Materials the PLadvantaged NeedAnd Don't Net:. liartin Haberman 76 When Students Teach Others John W. Landru.n, Mary D. Martin 81

4 THE SEARCH FOR THEORY

Myths About Instruction James B. Macdonald 86 Needed: A Theory of Instruction Jerome S. Bruner 97 The Nature of Instruction: Needed Theory and Research James B. Macdonald 105

5 INTEGRATION: THE UPREACH, THE OUTREACH

From Debate to Action Dan W. Dodson 110

Integration...A Curricular Concern Conrad F. Toepfer, Jr. 112 Whose Children Shall We Teach? Romeo Eldridge 116 Instructional Materials Can Assist Integration M. Lucia James 120

6 ETHNIC STUDIES: THE RICHNESS OF PLURALISM

Teaching Afro-American History with a Focus on Values Sidney Simon, Alice Carnes 126 The Case for Black Studies Charles E. Wilson 129 Needed: Ethnic Studies in Schools Geneva Gay 133 Materials for Multi-Ethnic Learners LuMar P. Miller 137

7 STUDENT RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

What Do They Want? Neil P. Atkins 142 Rights and Responsibilities of Students Morrel J. Clute 144 Why Students Rebel Jack R. Frymnier 146 Contents

The Student Voice: A New Force Edward W. Najam, Jr. 152 Student and Administration Crises Mark A. Chest Jr 155 Can the Student Participate in His OwnDestiny? James E. House 159

8 WHORLS IN A REVOLUTIONARYSOCIETY

Educating Youth in a Revolutionary Society Robert Smith 164 The Insufferable Lot of the American Middle Class Child Samuel Tenenbaum 169 Reach Out or Die Out F. T. Cloak, Jr. 173 Irrat;onalism and the New Reformism Mary Anne Raywid 178 Religion in the School: What Are thc Alternatives? Charles C. Chandler 184 National Practices in Teaching About Religion Alan Gorr 187 The Impact of Court Decisions onEducational Strategies Edgar Fuller 189 Some Observations on Adolescent DrugUse Simon L. A uster, M.D. 194

9 POLITICS: EDUCATION IN THEARENA

The School in a Political Setting Gordon N. ackenzie 202 The Federal Colossus in Education Threat or Promise? J. Galen Saylor 205 Political Power, the School, and the Culture Alvin D. Loving, Sr. 211 Political Power and the High SchoolCurriculum John S. Mann 213

10 ADAPTING TO THE NEEDS OFOUR TIME

The Greening of Curriculum Paul R. Klohr 218 The Rediscovery of Purpose inEducation Harold G. Shane 220 The Nature of Curricular Relevance Harvey Goldman 223 The Nurture of Nature Fred T. Wilhelms 228 230 Sensitivity Education Stephen M. Corey, Elinor K. Corey Founding a Peoples College Raymond W . Houghton 234 Free Schools: Pandora's Box? Joshua L. Smith 237 Alternative Schools: 241 Is the Old Order ReallyChanging? DonaldW. Robinson Developing Flexible All-Year Schools John McLain 245 Universities Without Campuses Henry A. Bern 248 7 vi Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

11 IN A WORLD SETTING

There Is Much We Can Lcarn Vincent R. Rogers 254 Thc Worldwide Struggle for Education George A. Male 255 The Larger Question: A New Sense of Common Identity Alexander Frazier 257 Maintaining a Supportive PhysicalEnvironment for Man Pauline Gratz 261 Thc Arts in a Global Village Maxine Greene 264 Political Socialization in International Perspective Byron G. Massialas 272 What Is Valued in Different Cultures? Ina Corinne Brown 276 Soviet Education Faces thc '70's Alexander M. Chabe 278 Aspirations for Education in thc"New" and Free Nations of Africa Enoka H. Rukare 283

Index 287

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

SPECIALackncwledgment is made to the authorsfor permission to reprint the articles appearing in this bookof readings. Advice and counselhave been available from Neil P. Atkins, ExecutiveSecretary, ASCD, and from James Raths, Chairman, ASCD PublicationsCommittee. Robert R. Leeper, Associate Secretaryand Editor, ASCD publications, and editing the materials includedin wasresponsible for selecting, arranging, Nash, this volume. Technical production washandled by Nancy Olson, Barbara and indexer. and Lana Pipes, with Mary AlbertO'Neill as production manager FOREWORD

A Rich Yield

Curricular Concerns in a Revolu- citizen. In their writing, these school people tionary Era represents a rich yield of special have reached beyond themselves, beyond the materials from Educational Leadership, the confines of their classroom or school or state journal of the Association for Supervision or region. Frequently they have helped us to and Curriculum Development.Here is a identify, analyze, probe, the urgent problems panorama of curricular concerns etched in and needs of our time.Often they have the fires of an insurgent period. The focus is pointcd to the light on the far horizon, the upon instruction and the setting is that of flame of insight that can guide us to a higher, the school in today's world. happier, and better tomorrowteday. That the past decade has been one of The writings included here represent, kaleidoscopic changc is evident beyond dis- not a set of conclusions or final answers in cussion. The ebb and flow of the various any of the areas treated, but rather impor- adversarial forces have not stilled in all these tant statements of issues or concerns or a years; nor will they still perceptibly in the masterful attempt to extend our grasp of the decade to come. Both word and deed, some- topic. When the reader comes to the end of times violent, raucous, scaring, often shock- these pages, he will see that the discussion ing, have pierced our complacency and is not completed; yet he will sense that it has stirred our consciences. In this period many been astutely and ably advanced by the writ- voices have confronted us with our own ings of the contributors. He will recognize ideals, with the dreams and aspirations that as have these writers that there arc few we had thought we were exemplifying well simple answers to such complex concerns as in our lives and institutions. These voices those treated herein. have taught us of our shortcomings. They It would be impossible to state that the have reminded us of democracythe sur- curricular concerns examined here arc the passing giftand of the long overdue de- sole or even the most important issues of livery date. these turbulent years.Yet we do believe Throughthisturbulent decade, we that the ideas treated in the following pages have had the counsel of persons with un- have been close to many of the school people usual vision and perspective. So many of the who have been trying to sense the meaning, contributors to Educational Leadership have the aspiration, the potential, and the finality shared their wisdom with us.They have of the tumultuous hours we are experiencing enabled us again and again to move forward together. in the continuing struggle to make schooling Two poems and sixty-six articles com- more meaningful and fulfilling for allwho prise this volume. These materials fall rather arc influenced by :t, whetherpupil, teacher, naturally into eleven groupings, beginning supervisor, administrator, parent, or other withthe very personal and moving out vlii Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era through the home, the school, the com- Materials in each of these sections are munity to the national and the international arranged partly in chronological order by scene. The sections are thefollowing: date of publication, and partly in accor- dance with thelogicaltreatment of the 1.Values: The Challenge, the instructionalconcernrepresented.Each Dilemma section attempts to plunge directly into the 2.Individualization: The Pupil as heart of a curricular concern and to develop Person the broader implications of the topic. 3.Social Involvement: The Issues, Some of the materials included here the Ideals have beenselected and used by other 4. The Search for Theory anthologists in the field of curriculum and 5.Integration: The Upreach, the instruction. W e believe, however, that the Outreach presentation in this ASCD book of readings 6.Ethnic Studies: The Richness of will bring within a single cover materials Pluralism that would not otherwise be easily available 7. Studem Rights and Responsibilities to students in education, whether preservice or in-service. These special writings arehere 8.Whorls in a Revolutionary Society made available to all persons who are con- 9.Politics: Education in the Arena cerned with curricular matters in a trying, 10.Adapting to the Needs of Our Time uncertainyet exciting and, in so vastly 11. In a World Setting many ways, promisingera.

October 1971 ROBERT R. LEEPER, Editor and Associate Secretary Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development INTRODUCTION

The Textures ofTomorrow

OUR SCHOOLS are in trouble. discoverthat basic curriculumquestions with a new sense of Public confidence in educationalinstitutions are being revived eroded. A funda- urgency: What isschooling for? How clear of all varieties is seriously nation have of what we mental question, often unformedand unut- an image do we as a endless want our schools todo? Do we have any- tered, hovers relentlessly above the the kind debate of a dozen or more contemporary thing resembling agreement about The question, simply of learning the schools arebeing called upon educational issues. detect among our stated, is, "What is going tohappen to edu- to promote? Can we decade be people even a trace of commoncommit- cation in the seventies?" Will the to teach identified, in the long sweep of historyof the ment to the kind of society we are debates United States, as the time in whichformal toward? Out of the discussions and schooling disintegrated and dwindled as a on questions such asthese, new ends and vital force in the life of the nation, or was concerns for schools willbe derived. should revitalized and renewed? Clearly, educators cannot and The final answer to that question,of not do the job alone, yetthey will carry a of course, is not at allclear. We shall simply heavy responsibility in the clarification have to await the course of events andthe goals and prioritiesin education.Itis passage of time beforejudgment can be equally clear that, as the processcontinues, made. Nevertheless, all signspoint to the they will be obliged to look moreand more likelihood that the seventies willfeature a beyond the confines of the schools tothe cul- reordering of educational priorities inthe ture for direction.Merely reworking the nation. If this prediction turns out tobe a familiar fabric of curriculum contentis not valid one, then we are, indeed, in arevolu- enough in a revolutionary era.The cur- tionary era. ricular concerns examined inthe pages of One could read the many sharpdis- this volume touch the texturesof tomorrow. agreements that contribute to thegrowing Some concerns may eventuallybe muted; of disenchantment with education as signals others will become dominant patternsin the concern,ifnot distress,from a people curriculum; still others which are not even learning already deep into the process of present here may finallybe incorporated how to cope with the staggeringchanges design. Yet, to insis- into the new educational which confront us as a country. The challenge and consider them thoughtfully is to tent call to account for the successes ordering of goals and into not only the present failures of the school is prodding us personal attempting to newly define or freshlyrede- priorities, but also many of our education educational convictions andcommitments. fine the purpose and function of of these in our society.It is not surprising, then, to More than that, an examination Ixi x Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era concerns calls into question ourprofessional the authors in these pages do not lend them- competence to translate them into practice. selves to ready-made solutions. On the con- Suppose, for example, that by some trary, they underscore the importance of miraculous happenstance we were to find generating new understandings rather than out that the American people wanted the searching for magic formulae. Perhaps in schools to contribute directly to the develop- the past we have not been called upon ment of more genuinely humane individuals enough to generate ideas; we have instead thinking, feeling, self-actualizing, and self- been expected to apply techniques to soothe confident persons who are open, responsive, educational ills.However, if we read the concerned, and responsible enough to be temper of the times correctly, those expec- counted on to exercise intelligent action on tations have changed. personal and social issues. Would we be As we look at the conflicting demands prepared to suggest the direction in which placed upon the schools, we are often ap- curriculum reconstruction should be headed palled at the disarray. The question is how to accomplish that end? can we contribute from our positionin If we are to help shape the curriculum educationwhatever it may beto turning of the future, we shall have to undertake the the ebb of cynicism into the flow of con- job of reeducating ourselves for the task. fidence? The world of education is not what it once As a group of people in all roles and was.Priorities, values, organizations, cen- positions in education who have associated ters of power, and lines of authority are themselves in ASCD on behalf of the im- shifting radically.If old answers do not provement of the quality of the educational solve new problems, then we shall have to experience in the schools, our purpose has learn how to analyze the latter and rethink been and continues to be to improve our- the former. selves.From thepages of Educational It is a far more comfortable task to per- Leadership, these authors have helped us to fect the method than to rethink the goal. It sharpen our perceptions of curricular con- is a painful and traumatic experience to be cerns, to heighten our awareness of trends forced to reexamine where one is going when and issues that are emerging (some say one is so intent upon trying to getthere. exploding), and to identify and learn new That is true for nations as well as individuals. competencies that we are being asked to Yet, in a revolutionary era it must be done. acquire. Beyond that, though, it is up to the The curricular concerns expressed by individual, in his own situation, to do.

October 1971 NEIL P. ATKINS, Executive Secretary Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 1 VALUES: THE CHALLENGE, THE DILEMMA

We hope for miracles on the"values front." We do not pay enough attention tothe fact that it took many years for ourstudents to learn their present almost valuelessbehavior, and that it may take a longsustained effort to help students to develop serious purposesand aspirations through the clarifying processes. For a free society, opportunities toclarify and to choose must be createdagain and again. Raths, p. 16.

13 EL23 (1): 111-13; November 1965 e, 1965 ASCD

Who Am I?

THERON H. JACOBSON

I am Negro Bad boys put their heads on their desks I am bad. I am very bad. I am poor white trash I don't feel good I am bad. I made marks on that kid's paper and threw My mother whips me to make me good it on the floor I am bad. It made me feel good My preacher says the devil will get me Now I am very, very bad. I am bad. The bell rings Jesus don't love me ./ can go! I am bad. I don't know what that teacher says Who am I? I am bad. I run-- I don't understand her so I don't listen I shout I am bad. I hit that kid next to me I don't know them funny black marks in my I am Negro book I am poor white trash I am bad. I don't know nothin' I can't make them marks stay on the lines I don't listen I am bad. I am lazy My teacher puts a paper on my desk I don't sit still I don't know what to do I mark on my papers I do nothin' I mark on other kids' papers I am bad. I hit kids I make pretty colored marks on the paper (I I know who I am like my crayons) I am the bad-dest kid in the room It makes me feel good Everybody knows it I want to show it to the kid next to me and I am so bad. tell him about it I talked I marked up my paper Today the teacher smiled at me! "HelloI like that red shirt!" I am very, very bad. That kid next to mehe is good I don't say nothin' The teacher likes his paper I see some trucks He went to play with some trucks and I'd like to roil them on the ruz blocks She don't care I want to play with blocks and trucks I roll them and roll them No! I am bad. That makes me feel real good. I marked up my paper I'll take them blocks and make me a garage for Blocks and trucks are for good kids my trucks

Theron H. Jacobson, First Grade Teacher, Wtshington School, Decatur,Illinois 2 14 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 3

I make me a good garage and put mytrucks Them funny marks says my name in it I believe I can make one of themfunny I lie on fly: rug and look at it marks I feel good. I made one on the board My teacher says, "Tony, youmade a good I feel good. My teacher said, "My, that is good! garage. You used some red blocks. Some of these days you can write all your Let's count together and see how manyred name. blocks you used. You are a smart boy. 1 2-3-4. I'm glad you are in my room!" Let's see how many wheels are onthat She likes me! truck. I say,"I'll make you 'nuther good picture, better'n that!" 1-2-3-4. play. Tony, you are a smart boy! Me and that kid next to me went out to You can count!" He likes mel I feel very, very good! That kid next to me Who am I? He wanted to make a garage too I am a boy 1 helped him-- I am good! We made a garage I am Tony It was a big garage I am good! We put a big truck in it and 2 I made a good garage That boy said we had 2 garages I am good! trucks I counted We used some green blocks I am good! That boy and me counted I know this is a red shirt He helped me count 8 green blocks I am good! I feel good! That kid likes me We got some paper get I am good! A big stack is over there where we can The teacher likes me it any time we want it I am good! We made big colored marks all over our I made a pretty picture papers I am good! It looked pretty! I know them funny marks says my name My teacher said, "Tony and Jeff, youmade I am good! some pretty pictures! Get that roll of tape and we'll put them up. I made one of them marks I'll write your names with my bigblack I am very, very good! pencil so everyone can see! That kid next to me is good, too We have 2 pretty pictures!" We're 2 good boys I feel good. I'm glad I'm me!

15 4 4 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

EL 26 ( I ): 9-11; Octobe: 1968 0 1968 ASCD

Will America Survive?

ALVIN D. LOVING, SR.

I AM optimistic about America's in themselves. They are a part of the dia- future.I could just as easily be fatalistic. logue. The vast TV networks are involved There really is not much choice. Either you in this dialogue, America's churches are a have faith in mankind, or you do not. Either part; the federal government, social agen- you believe we can resolve our social di- cies, service clubs, and chambers of com- lemma by the turn of this century or you merce are involved. believe we will perish as a nation.In the By the year 2000, equality of oppor- past, people have said give us a hundred tunity will be a way of life.Social justice years and we will resolve our differences. will be a reality. Subcultural differences will No longer do we have a hundred years. Ac- be de-emphasized, giving more meaning to cording to Alvin Toffler,' maybe we do not a unified American culture. have the thirty-two I have so optimistically These changes will net come easily. referred to.Toffler says, "We are suffering Nothing in a democracy does.One route the dizzying disorientation brought on by the could be through a high quality of education premature arrival of the fvture." which, coupled with black pride and proper If the future is now, vve will not survive. motivation, will develop an innovative urban But, if the future is a mere thirty-two years sophistication.A highly educated, well- away, we may make it.In a very complex trained leadership, supplemented with black society like ours, it takes a little time even to urban sociologists, black psychologists, sci- destroy ourselves. Witness the hot summers entists, engineers, and technologists, will be- of 1966 and 1967. Rather than the begin- gin to use the power and control that cities ning of the end, these, fur some, turned out have. Suburban areas, which depend on the to be blessings in disguise. For if we, as a cities for water, sewage, electric power, and nation, were not concerned, we would not employment,willfind themselves atthe have become involved in dialogue that pro- mercy of this highly sophisticated center of duced the Kerner Report 2 or groups like control. Those suburban communities that the Detroit Committee.3 These are not ends have elected to become isolated from the cities will find themselves taxed greatly by I Alvin Taller. 'The Future as a Way of Life."Horizon 7(3):109-15; Summer 1965. the control centers to get these much needed © Copyright 1965 by Alvin Toffier. utilities and services. The dense population 2 Report of the National Advisory Com- brought on by the increasing birthrate in mission on Civil Disorders.Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government these core area3 will, by our method of Printing Office, March 1, 1968. representative government, give these cen- 3 "ProgressReport ofthe New Detroit ters political power and control. A "share- Committee," appointed by Mayor Jerome Cava- oftheAppalachian naugh and Governor George Romney of the State cropper revolution" of Michigan. whites, Puerto Ricans, American Indians,

Alvin D. Loving, Sr., Assistant Dean, School of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and ASCD President, 1971-72 16 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 5 and Mexican Americans, coupledwith the populated areas where comolidation is tak- racial factors Jisappearance of the WASP (WhiteAnglo- ing place. Socioeconomic and Saxon Protestant) myth, willfurther com- are the main reasonsfor urban community districts plicate the American scene. This powerand adherence to old boundaries. Rich districts and complication will not come easily.There do not want to support poor combine would be violence in degreesunbelievable. all-white districts do not want to with districts that have nonwhites.Today, socially,afford Education as Change Agent we cannot, financially or these injustices. A second route could bethrough edu- These communities, through planning, eradicate these ills cation as an agent of change.Education, can voluntarily move to redistricting, or with vision and with forthrightconviction and thus smoothly execute risk of its leadership role insociocultural devel- they can wait for court decisions and opment, could throughreorganizatiOn and shameful conflict. innovation bring us to the samepoint by Let us assume that good willprevail. revolution and New school districts will fan outfrom the turn of the century that and violence threaten to do. central cores of our cities like Dctroit, Education could realize that thereis others whose base is along a river or ocean hori- nothing sacred about our graded systemof front. Or they may become vertical or organization, our report card as a meansof zontal strips in cities like Chicago.These city and evaluating pupil progress, ourneighborhood areas would extend across many schoolhouses, our localized boards ofeduca- township lines. Educational parks would replace indi- tion, our present administrativeorganization, vidual school buildings. Revenue from the our outmoded systemof financial support for schools, our perpetuation of the status quo, sale of the old prime sites could assistwith These parks our lip-service to theideals of democracy, or the cost of the new parks. racism. would be complexes that would accommo- our silent consent to students Given the climate of todayand the date from twelve to twenty thousand frightening thought that we may notturn from kindergarten to college. The location socioeconomic this century as a free democraticsociety, if of these parks would assure education could effectively and racial balance. a society at all, communities utilize all it already knows. Weknow how The problems that divide children learn, how childrenfeel, much over pupil placementwould disappear. Edu- have struggled for about individual differences,implementation cators and social scientists fourteen years to find ways ofintegrating of innovations, andreorganization and con- have skills schools.There has been some successbut solidation of school districts. We the gain. in-service education, the frustration has far exceeded in human relations, in Cleveland, Mil- and in research. We knowhow to imple- Little Rock, Birmingham, waukee, New York, and Boston lead along ment research findings. Education could, or rather must, take list of cities where conflictaccompanied at- boards of educa- tempts at integration.Integration has been the leadership in moving by big the realization abandoned as a way toward equality tion and communities toward emphasis on that support of the ideals ofdemocracy is city ghetto communities for an educationseparate but our only hope ofsurvival as a nation. a high quality of Communities must be made torealize equalizing. be de- that political boundaries serving asschool The educational park would district boundaries in metropolitan areas are signed for economy, efficiency,innovation, as obsolete asthey are in outstate, sparsely and experimentation. 6 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

The elementary schoolorganization humanities, we are again recognizing that would be nongraded and self-contained. The feelings and social concerns pay high divi- schools of River Rouge, Michigan, with their dends in the learning process. nongradcd two-year blocks in the six years The educational park or any other after kindergarten, with parent conferences organizvtion with its advantages would de- in lieu of report cards, have proved signifi- mand a new theory of administration, one cantly that children learn more and are psy- thoroughly grounded in what Morphet and chologicallyand sociallybetteradjusted others 4 refer to as the "collegial concept," than they were before the reorganization. in empathy and sensitivity. Innovations in secondary school cur- The staff of such a program must be riculum would be built on what we learned trained by our teacher education institutions from the Eight-Year Study, the Michigan in problem-solving techniques, human rela- College-Secondary Agreement, Life-Adjust- tions, and leadership skills.These must be mentEducation, andCoreCurriculum. coupled with proficiency and accountability. Modular scheduling, team *.eaching,non- They must have been exposed to the socio- graded curriculum would be supplemented cultural scene of America and have devel- by what we have learned from previously oped a resolution toward its unification. mentioned experiments. Transportation and other services will The previous development in secondary be developed by the new Metropolitan Area schools placed emphasis on the affective organization. rather than the cognitive, but by virtue of All this sounds so simple, yet I am the process utilized, the cognitive did not certain that, as one readsit,things are suffer. happening in the viscera, El Sputnik changedallthis.Emphasis was put on the cognitive and the affective 4 Edgar L. Morphet, Roe L. Johns, and Theodore L. Reller. Educational Organization and was thrown out. Today, however, with fed- Administration.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: eral support for socialsciences and the Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967.

EL 21 (8): 501-504, 554-55; May 1964 0 1964 ASCD

Values and Our Destiny

KIMBALL WILES

MANY people attempt to state States to continue to provide leadr.- ship in the values on which America's destiny rests. the world and which will destroy the Ameri- Each of us who thinks critically has tried can image. What are some of the realities we to do so. As we read the news or lie awake face? at night thinking of the realities of the con- We live in a world confronted with the temporary world, we find ourselves trying to possibility of destruction. No longer do we decide which values will enable the United have a complete sense of mastery of events.

Kimball Wiles.In 1964, Professor of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville and ASCD Vice President

18 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 7

One night in the summer of 1962 Istood on Science is a central force in shaping the Through sci- our lanai in Honoluluand looked southwest lives of all men now living. forces and machines over Diamond Headwatching the sky to entificinvestigation, nuclear explosion at have been developed that carry withinthem see the high altitude A Johnston Island 800 miles away. It was my the power to destroy freedom of choice. expectation that if we were able to seethe given choice may lead to total destruction de- blast we would see only a fireball.Instead, with no future choices possible. Many scientists as the countdown wasconcluded, the sky cisions are now being made by turned a ghastly green, faded to arose-pink, without reference to the electoratedeci- which and then to a blood-red that covered thesky sions that start chains of events over control. from horizon to horizon for a periodof five the individual feels no possibility of he minutes. A new radiation belt wasadded Huxley stated this problem well when in to the earth's atmosphere. No onecould live said that our procedures for participation through that expericnce without anincreased decisions need to be revised so that indi- different realization of the forces released bynuclear viduals can see the alternatives of choices in the scientific area and regain some explosions. of their feeling of having some control over Two major countries hold intheir their destiny. world. This hands the power to destroy the Many persons find themselves con- responsibility was described forcefully to me fronted by forces which threaten their sense by the students in my class atthe University the Johnston of worth. The population explosion causes of Hawaii the morning after restriction of population. from small some to advocate Island blast. Many of them came of the way Others talk glibly about the destruction countries who have little or no say in thought the power hundreds of millions with the imr Ned the two major countries will use without these for destruction that they have.These stu- that the world would be better bluntly, "We humans. Millions exist in situations where dents said to me quietly, but thcir welfare or hold you responsible for our fate.Unless no one seems to care about their rights. Person after person isfinding you discharge yourresponsibility with states- efforts we that he is not worth as much in the economy manship and good judgment, any technical machines that man exert are futile. We need tobe constantly as some of the has produced. If this continues, willsociety reassured of your integrity and yourlead- reach the point where it ceases to regard the ership skill." human person as being of ultimate value? of de- We live with the possibility We live in a world with vast differ- Radio veloping a worldwide community. ences in resources and thedevelopment of isin- communication around the world human potential. All of these conditions and stantaneous. People in one partof the world others must be faced as we attempt to de- of the know what others in the remainder cide which are the values on which America's world are saying. With the adventof Telstar, destiny depends. intercontinental communication bytelevision is a reality. Men move easilyand quickly from one part of the earth toanother. Inter- Values and Destiny mingling and cultural diffusion areoccurring at a very rapid rate. In a veryreal sense the We must begin in our thinking to at- population of the entire earth hasbetter tempt to put a priority onvalues.The means of communicatingthanthe inhabitants consistency that we seek must be in terms value and of a state had a century ago. of which value is our fundamental 19 8 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era which other values contribute to its attain- strating our belief in this through the aid ment. programs that we have provided, through thedevelopmentofthePeaceCorps, Maintaining mankind: Our first value through our support of the Commission on must be the continuation of the human race. Human Rights, and through our deep con- If human life is blotted from the face of the cern for the right of certain individuals tobe earth there is no point in discussing other enrolled in American institutions of higher values. learning. Yet we must see these actions as Some will consider this statement de- steps in our manifestation of a fundamental based. They will say, "I would rather die commitment, not as strategy in a cold war. than live without freedom." Individuals or If America's destiny is to be one of groups of men have made this choice.They world leadership, we must implement our are our heroes.There isreal purpose in concern with the development of the poten- laying down your life for freedom if there tial of the individual by placing a top priority are to be some survivors to enjoy it.Yet, on equality of opportunity.If the United if humanity is cAtinguished, the sacrifice is States is to continue its historic tradition, we an exercise in futility. The choice today is must be concerned with guarding the rights survivalthroughinteractionand mutual of the individual. This concern for protec- modification or annihilation. We must see tion of individual rights and opportunities of power as something to be used to create a all individuals everywhere is the essential situation in which people can think and plan difference between totalitarianism and de- together, rather than as a way of conquering mocracy. We must be concerned with the and subjugating other peoples. civil rights of every man, woman, and child Development of the potential of each in the United States, but we cannot stop here. individual: Our concern must be for the To the extent that we condone alliances with development of the potential of each human governments that deny the rights of the indi- being. Simply maintaining mankind is not vidual, we tarnish our ideals in our own eyes enough. The value of the human being over and in the eyes of human beings throughout other living matter lies in his potential for the world. development. Justification for making main- As we look back at the period since tenance of human existence the primary the end of World War II, it is easy to see value is our dedication to provide the en- that many of our difficulties have arisen out vironment and education that will enable of our compromises of this criterion for men to fulfill increasingly theirpotential for strategic military reasons. Because we have constructive and creative activity. failed to keep the torch of liberty for all We are so interdependent that poor burning brightly as the symbol of the Ameri- health practices in Nigeria or New Zealand, can spirit, we have openedourselves to the and underdeveloped technical skills and eco- propaganda attacks of the Soviet Union in nomic understanding in the Congo or Poland all of the underdeveloped countries of the adversely affect individuals in the United world. Since we are an affluent society, at States. No man is an island to himself. The least for the main portion of our population, value that we place on developing the po- the difference between the averageincome tential of the individual, whether he be in of Americans and the averageincome of the United States or in Indonesia, affects the individuals in many regions has been glar- destiny of America. ingly apparent. Through CARE and our We must be concerned with the welfare assistance programs, we have taken a step of each person in the United States and in in the direction of demonstrating our con- India and in Africa. We have been demon- cern for the equality ofopportunity for all, Vaiues: The Challenge, the Dilemma 9 but we cannot stop here. When wetake our We must see difference and the ex- insight, stand for equality of opportunity, we must ploration of it as the doorWay to new recognize that this is now a worldculture not as a threat to ourcherished values. The flag is "Strength and must stand for equality ofopportunity motto on the Indonesian Through Difference." Unless we acceptthis throughout the world. orientation, we will be increasinglybewil- A single moral community:Funda- dered by the diffusion of cultures. We are at mentally, the issue on which thefuture of the point in history when we mustinteract If we assume that we theworld depends,includingAmerica's wit.i other cultures. destiny, is exclusiveness orinclusiveness. If must now educate the rest ofthe world, the we hope to survive, wtmust make the in- result will be disastrous for us.Our values clusive approach, which acceptsall men as and our leadership will berejected. Instead, being important and provides waysin which we must see theinteraction of peoples as the all cultures can participatein the creation mutual seeking of more insights. leader- of a world culture. If we are to fulfill a destiny of We must not attempt to getall people ship in helping to achieve a worldculture, to accept the Americanculture. We must we must free ourthinking of ethnocentric work to develop a single moralcommunity valuation and the impact of cultural stereo- where allpossess the samefundamental types. We must become more openrather really be- rights and obligations.At present, some than more protective. We must countries want the rights and not theobliga- lieve that our cultural values areworthy of open tions.Others, because they assume extra enough to stand in the marketplace obligations, want special privileges.What examination. Our desire for inquiry mustbe we must value is aninclusive approach that coupled with the readiness toundergo un- will assign all men the samerights without restricted objective comparison.We have insisting that they live by the samelights. moved this far in the scientificfield, and we think of innovators in therealm of tech- Objectiveevaluationofideas and nology as inventors and pay tribute tothem. values: W e must value and stand forfreedom We have not gone this far insocial matters. of thought,worship,press,and speech. We must stop thinking ofinnovators in a These ideas are basic in our Constitutionand social system as rebels orrevolutionaries. our social ideals.They must continue to be We must see them as making a mostvaluable so. There is an ever-presentdanger of losing contribution and seek to join theirranks. the opportunity for choice ofvalues. Our We must stand for free thinking,free speech, preoccupation with external danger hasled and unrestricted objectiveevaluation of ideas us to take ourlead increasingly from those and values. we fear. Out of a desirefor national defense, Participation in decisions: The New we have, in the nameof security, permitted of free- England town meeting has beenviewed by erosion of our fundamental values democracy, and the information. many as the symbol of dom of inquiry and access to and to opportunity of right of all to express their opinion Unless individuals have the confront the com- stating their values and letting themstand vote on the issues that all opportuni- munity has been a basic valuein our tradi- in the common marketplace, decision today are ties for improvement of the presentsituation tion. Yet some levels of Many will be lost. If America is tofulfill its destiny, broader than the small community. A commu- we must continue toreaffirm and manifest decisions are national in scope. freedoms and seek them nity in Virginia cannot decidewhether it our belief in these A city in for all people. will provide public education. 21 10 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Florida cannot decide what airroutesa utes." We have moved into an epoch when plane will fly to enter it. we al.1 die or all live together. As we have come closer together by For many the change has produced improved communication and transporta- hopeless pessimism, which has grown out of tion, problems involve people in wider and our loss of a feeling of adequacy todeal with wider geographic areas.Decisions must be the forces that have been unleashed by tech- made at a level that covers the entire area. nological inquiry. Many problems are concerns of the entire We must return to a state of optimism. earthhealth, education, and nuclear war- We must believe that the future can be fare, to mention a few. The question, if the bater. We must see change as progress world continues, is not whether we will have because we can make intelligent choices and world government. This is a certainty. The take each action as a move in the direction question is whether it will be a totalitarian of our destiny. Unless a given step is final, one or a government inwhich people have each advance can increase our vision and opportunitytoparticipatethroughtheir make possible more intelligent planning of representatives. We need to put a primary our future. value on participation and constantly seek Unless Americans see the future as an a form of international governmentin which opportunity to evolve an even better society, participation in making decisions that will instead of a continuous battle to hold to the affect them is a right of all individuals. To way of life we have had, we willlose our hope to achieve a world government that will sense of destiny and our leadership.A sense incorporate this value means that we must of destiny comes from a belief in better demonstrate that it works by being sure that things in the future. Leadership is provided it functions in our schools and in every town, by those who seek to help others obtain a county,state, andnationalgovernment better future. operation. These valuescontinuation of the human race, development of thepotential of An open future: It is impossible to hold each individual, a single moral community, onto the past. The explosion of knowledge objective evaluation of ideas and values, has been unbelievable. From 1900 to 1950 participation in decisions, and an open fu- we doubled the knowledge that mankindhad turemay not be your list or your priority. accumulated during all preceding centuries. If they are not, you should state yours as From 1950 to 1960 we doubled this again, forcefully and frequently as you can. If the and will continue to multiply this at an in- destiny of Americans and the world is not to creased rate in each decade of this century. be destruction, we must use the present to We have changed from "around the world seek mutually the insights that will provide in 80 days" to "around the world in 80 min- the opportunity for an open future.

22 Values:The Challenge, the Dilemma 11

EL 21 (8): 509-14, 554; May 1964 (i) 1964 ASCD

A Strategy forDeveloping Values

JAMES D. RAMS

THIS paper deals with a strategy process.Therefore, value development, it for helping children to developtheir own seems, should be one ofthe many central concerns of teachers. values.Recognition of the importance of children's values has been with us for years. While the area of value development educators for "A great and continuing purpose ofeduca- has been a major concern of tion has been the development ofmoral and many years, thepublic and many profes- spiritual values" (5). With this pronounce- sional people, too, have had afeeling that have not been too ment, the EducationalPolicies Commission our efforts in this area opened its 1957 report. Asimportant as effective. The studies summarizedby Jacob developing values seem to be to theDAR in his Changing Values inCollege tend to and the VFW, to the FBI andLe HUAC, support this hunch (8).Teachers have been the area is even moreimportant to us as unable, it seems, to translate theirgenuine educators, it seems to me,because of its concerns about the valueproblem into effec- implications for the learning process.Let tive patterns of action in theirclassrooms. me briefly spell out someof these implica- Essentially, there are four basic approaches to the development ofvalues cur- tions. First, Kubie (12) suggests that learn- rent in our schools. Thesemethods include lecture method, ing is swift, spontaneous, and automatic.At the teaching of values by the by fmd- times, learning is blockedmanytimes by by the use of peer-group pressure, children to re- what Kubie calls preconscious motivesand ing or setting examples for drives. He recommends that teachers con- spect and emulate, and by areward and These methods are cern themselves withdeveloping self-knowl- punishment rationale. exhaustive of edge on their students' part to removeblocks neither mutually exclusive nor to learningto free children sothat they all the approaches we use inschools, but may iearn in a spontaneousfashion. Second, they seem to me to be among the most Ginsburg (7) suggests that good mental prevalent in our classrooms. health, assumed to be a necessarycondition for learning, is merely a process ofliving up Methods in Use several research- to a set of values. Finally, is ers, following the ideasof Louis Raths, have Perhaps the most common approach Teachers seem identified pupil behaviors associatedwith a the use of lecture methods. students what they should lack of values (9, 11, 13, 14).These class- ever ready to tell It is easy including over-conforming, believe or how they ought to act. room behaviors, in harsh tones. indifference, flightiness, and severalothers, to burlesque this method Actually, it may be employed by thekindest, itisargued, interfere withconcentration, involvement, and openness in thelearning most sincere teachers as well asby the overly

Educational Research and Field James D. Raths, Professor ofEducation and Director, Bureau of Services, University of Maryland,College Park 23 12 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era sulf-righteous, would-tr, reformers found on successful in some cases, but it has some some school faculties. While it is possible to disturbing by-products. The most distressing cite cases in which a lecture or even a of these is the tacit approval by the teacher "bawling out" did bring about changes in of the notion that group consensus is correct students' values, basically this method is not or at least worthy of very serious considera- too successful. Attesting to this is the com- tion.This method, in effect, helps develop mon cry of many teachers"You can't tell "other-directed" persons.Another disad- those kids anything." In general, this reniark vantage inherent in this group technique is has been found to be accurate. the passive role of the teacher. In a sense, Teachers' judgments and convictions the insight,experience, and skillsof the seem, from a student's point of view, tobe teacher are muted. In their place, naïve stu- out of the framework of things.(Anal- dents play the dominant role in value devel- ogously, it may be akin to the feelings teach- opment, and they do it quite unconsciously. ers in the field have of the"should's and A third approach for developing stu- should not's" of professors from schools and dents' values is one of acquainting students colleges of education.) Jones (10) has sug- with examples of exemplary behavior.In- gested a basis for explaining the ineffective- stances of model behavior may be drawn ness of the lecture method. He statesthat a from history, literature, and legend or, more teacher must be emotionally accepted by his directly, from examples set by teachers. students before he can contribute much to Literature for all levels of schooling their development of self. By their moraliz- has been selected for the past several hun- ing and preaching, teachers may set them- dred years on the basis of the ethical and selves apart emotionally from their students. moral lessons with which it dealt.As in To the extent that teachers are not accepted other methods discussed previously, some by their students, it can be presumed that students are truly inspired by these vicarious they will have little effect upon students' experiences, but we have little evidence that values.Students may leave the lecture all attributes found in a student's reading are full of enthusiasm about what the teacher readily transferred to daily life. said, but they may not internalize what they Teaching values by a living example is admire and all too often they do not. a related tactic. Here itis assumed that A second approach to the value devel- "values are caught, not taught." It is argued opment problem has been in the main popu- that as teachers demonstrate values, students larized by exponents of the core curriculum. will learn to prize these values. Surely peo- During a special period of the school day, ple have been inspired by the goodness of a students address themselves to self-evalua- teacher with whom they have had the good tionsand group evaluations.They are fortune to be assocated. However, teachers, encouraged to speak free!,y,frankly, and especially in secondary schools, have little openly to the entire class judging their own opportunity to demonstrate many key values. behavior,criticizing groupperformances, Problems that represent the real issues of life and perhaps pledging themselves to future rarely present themselves in a 50-minute improvements. In general, such statements subject-matter period in such a way that are accepted by the teacher with little or no students can observe their teacher's handling comment while other pupils are free to make of them.It would truly be unfortunate if suggestions,recommendations,and com- we had to rely on this approach asthe only ments. positive way teachers can help youngsters The pressure of group approval or dis- develop a set of values. approval isa powerful force in bringing A fourth method deals with indoctrina- about changes in values. This method seems tion and habit formation. Here itisas- 24 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 13 sumed that when students arerequired to Use of Clarification Procedures follow rules and regulations, whenthey are The teacher's role in this methodis for punished forinfractions and praised neither that of preacher nor that ofpassive obedience, they will take on thevalues asso- Instead the teacher strives to (a) We areall listener. ciated with the requirements. establish a climate of psychological safety, students do familiar, however, with what and (b) apply a clarification procedure.An when they are free not to obey therules. elaboration of these procedures follows. Itis my contention that thesefour methods are rather ineffective. Perhapstheir Establishment of Psychological Safety arises partiallybe- relative ineffectiveness It has been cause they are based onthe assumption that Nonjudgmental attitudes. responding the knowledge of ethical andmoral choices said that teachers have difficulty to an idea without saying,"That's good," necessarily leads to ethical and moral con- is it?" To As pointed out many years agoby "That's bad," or "What good duct. children John Dewey (4), this assumptionhas little provide an atmosphere in which will feel free to express themselveswithout basis in fact. teachers must Yet more important, thesemethods threat of ridicule and derision, refrain from making harsh unnecessaryjudg- seem intent onutilizing external factors, such ments. Of course at times somejudgments as lectures or peer-grouppressures, to de- become necessary in situations in whichthe velop values. Friedenberg (6)analyzes the health and/or safety of students isthreat- current problems indeveloping values as ened in any real sense. follows: Manifestations of concern. While the ...it is the inner discipline that islack- it is impor- ing; the school fails to provide abasis for it. teacher may be nonjudgmental, with the ideas The undisciplined behavior whichsometimes tant for him to be concerned results is often a sign of theanguish which expressed by his students.If the concern is results from having no core ofone's own. apparently lacking, then often thenumber [Emphasis added.] of student ideas shared with ateacher tends to diminish. Perhapsstudents are reluctant would The most promising approach to share their ideas with someonewho is not seem to be one thatattempts to help each interested in them. One of the mosteffective student build his own value system.This for a student's ideas is who as- ways to show concern idea is supported by Allport (2), to listen to them.' Busyteachers sometimes serts that no teaching is moreimportant than overlook this basic and effective technique self. that which contributes to astudent's for communicating interest to theirstudents. Clearly, this statement echoes theideas of Another method for a teacher's communi- Kubie mentioned in the openingparagraphs. cating his concern for a student's ideasis to Are teachers able to helpchildren in this remember them. As a teacher is able tocite way? a student's idea in alater conversation, the B. 0. Smith has said thatteachers student cannot help but feel genuinelyflat- knowledge beyond use little psychological tered and impressed. that found in common sense.What knowledge can we, as teachers, usein this area? Opportunities for the sharing of ideas. Louis Rathshasdeveloped ateaching Teachers must organize their coursesin such method designed to provide somedirection a way thatchildren have the opportunity to for teachers who are interestedin helping express their opinions, purposes,feelings, about students develop their own valuesystems beliefs, hunches, goals, and interests, These attitudinal-type state- (15, 16, 17). moral issues.

25 lit 14 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era ments may then be examined by the child said with distortions and add, "Is that what who expressed them, with the teacher acting you mean?" somewhat as a catalytic agent in the process. 3. "How long have you felt (acted) that Some methods used by teachers in various way?" researches by classroom teachers include: 4."Are you glad you think (act) that (a) question-answer discussion periods in- way?" volving moot questions for the class to con- 5."In what way is that a good idea?" sider; (b) special written assignments; (c) 6. "What is the source of your idea?" role-playing techniques; (d) behavior mani- 7."Should everyone believe that?" festations of individuals or groups that may 8."Have you thought of some alterna- indicateattitudes,e.g., cheating or being tives?" tardy. 9. "What are some things you have done The task of finding issues that children that reflect this idea of yours?" may react to is no small problem. While our 10. "Why do you think so?" lives are filled with many, many moral and ethical questions to consider, even within 11."Is this what you really think?" our formal disciplines, it isdifficult to find 12."Did you do this on purpose?" these issues in our textbooks or Weekly 13.Ask for definitions of key words. Readers. Alexander (1), a textbook con- 14. Ask for examples. sultant for the New York City schools, has 15. Ask if this position is consistent with found that "few or no serious problems" are a previous one he has taken. present m our current tritbooks. It is important that teachers ask these Ci:rifying Strategies questions of students who express ideas with which they agree as well as of those stu- Asking questions. The teacher may at- dents who express ideas with which they tempt to clarify the ideas elicited from his disagree. students by asking probing questions. The key criterion for selecting these questions is Coding written work. Researchers have that they must be questions for which only found the coding of written work very effec- the student knows the answer. Of course, to tive in value clarifying. Whenever students be effective they must be asked in a non- seem to express an attitude,belief, goal, pur- judgmental manner. If a student seems seri- pose, interest, or aspiration, teachers may ously challenged by one of the questions, mark a V+ or V in the margin to reflect the teacher should make efforts to "save this idea back to the student.This code face" by accepting his bewilderment. For works much like other more familiar codes example, the teacher may pass on by saying, we already use in our schools, e.g.,WW for "That'sa hard questionfor anyone to wrong word, or SP for misspelledword. answer, isn't it?" "Let's think about it for a There is one crucial difference.When a while and maybe an answer will come to us teacher marks WW in the margin, there later." A list of questions that a teacher may usually is a wrong word. When a teacher ask is included below. Of course, this list marks V+ in the margin, it is understood is not exhaustive, and teachers may add to it that she is really asking, "Do you believe as they become more fluent in the use of this this?" or "Do you want to change it?" procedure. Acceptance without judgment.It has 1.Reflect back what the student has been found that teachers feel awkward trying said and add, "Is that what you mean?" to drawtheclarification exchange to a close. 2.Reflect back what the student has The verbal interaction between teacher and 26 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 15 student is not to win an argument or togain Without trying to lecture the student like, without a debating point. The purposeof the ex- about what he "ought" to in not change is to clarify students' ideas.It is preaching about the dangers inherent help important that teachers find a way to accept liking math, the teacher is attempting to the students' ideas withoutcommunicating the student understand his ownpreferences agreement or praise of them. In a sense,the and values. appropriate to exchange does not have an ending.Neither In passing, it may be 13, 14) the teacher nor the student arrives at a con- add that several researches (9, 11, clusion. Neither is there a need for sum- have successfully attempted totest these State and marizing.Questionsleftunanswered are ideas in classrooms in New York thought about and dwelt on by the student Wisconsin.Other studies are needed, of (and perhaps the teacher) at nightbefore course, to test furtherthe efficacy of this going to sleep, or during moments of quiet procedure. The experiences of anumber of during the day. Some ways that have been researches inthisfieldsuggest also that found successful in closing an exchange are learning to use the process of clarifyingis as follows: not easy.It is clearly a difficult matter to enter into a significantinteraction with a 1.Silence with a nod. student. The problem is much less thatof 2."Uh-huh." identifying with a student than one of iden- 3."I see." tifying with the student's concerns, of listen- 4."I understand you better now." ing, and of taking seriously what he has 5."I can see how you would feel that said and reacting thoughtfully to it. way." It must be clear that teachers who apply the clarification procedure must have a 6."I understand." tremendous respect for their students. As 7."I can see that it was difficult for you to decide that way." teachers agree or disagree with students' expressed ideas, they must be able to con- In sum m ary, the clarification procedure sider them as tenable ones to hold. If teach- developed by Louis Raths attempts to elicit ers believeitistheirrole to "convert" from students statements of an attitudinal students to a "right way" of thinking, then nature and to clarify these statements forthe it seems they must basically disrespect the student. By developing an emotional accep- views their students hold now. Thedistinc- tance of himself on the part of his students, tion I am trying to make is onebetween and by asking students questions which will accepting and respecting.It would seem serve to clarify their own purposes,goals, possible for me to respect the views of a attitudes, beliefs, etc., teachers can play an colleague, let us say, without accepting those effective role in developing values in their views. This is the spirit that I believe must classrooms. dominate a teacher's 'conversations with his This procedure can be time consuming students. Of course, this statement mustbe or it may also take just afew seconds. For modified to the extent that a student's views example, consider the following hypothetical may threaten the health orsafety of himself exchange: or society.It is my contention that such Yet there Student: I hate math. cases are rare in our classrooms. differ- Teacher: You have never liked math? is still plenty of room for many safe between stu- Student: Well, I did like it at one time. ences of opinion and behavior Teacher: What changed your mind? dents and teachers. Student: I don't know. Most of us have become accustomed to in Teacher: Oh. the association of teaching with changes 2 7 16 CurricularConcerns in a Revolutionary Era studentbehavior.Too frequently,quite Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1955. without being aware of it, we look for "in- 3. Norman Cousins."Hoffa, Hegel, and stant" changes. We hope for miracles on Hoffer." Saturday Review 46: 26; April 20, 1963. the "values front." We do not pay enough 4. John Dewey. Moral Principles in Edu- cation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1909. attention to the fact that it took many years 5.Educational Policies Commission. Moral for our students to learn their present almost and Spiritual Values in the Public Schools. Wash- valueless behavior, and that it may take a ington,D.C.:National EducationAssociation, long sustained effort to help studentsto 1957. develop serious purposes and aspirations 6. Edgar Z.Friedenberg.The Vanishing through the clarifying processes. For a free Adolescent. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. society,opportunitiestoclarifyandto 7.Sol W. Ginsburg. "Values and the Psy- choose must be created again and again. chiatrist."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Norman Cousins (3) has whtten about 20: 466; July 1950. 8.Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in his concern for the predatory quality of life College, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, in human form. He suggeststhat what Inc., 1957. makes our society so much like a jungle is 9. Arthur Jonas. "A Study of the Relation- the misfits who exert power over honest men. ship of Certain Behaviors of Children to Emotional Needs, Values, and Thinking." Unpublished Ed.D. There are those ...who insist on pro- thesis, New York University, 1960. jecting hei: warped ideas to the people around 10. Vernon Jones. "Character Education." them. lney are the agents of chaos. ...Maybe In: Chester Harris, editor. Encyclopedia of Edu- this is what makes a jungle a jungle. cational Research, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960. Cousins continues to say that the way 11.Albert Klevan, "An Investigation of a out of the jungle is not just emptying it of Methodology for Value Clarification: Its Relation- these misfits."There must be some notion ship to Consistency of Thinking, Purposefulness, about what is to take the place of the jungle. and Human Relations." Unpublished Ed.D. thesis, That is why ideals and goals are the most New York University, 1958, practical things in the world. They conquer 12.Lawrence Kubie. "Are We Educating the jungle, make men mobile, and convert forMaturity?" NEA Journal 48(1):58-63; January 1959. humans from fawning and frightened animals 13. James Raths. "Underachievement and into thinkers and builders." As teachers learn a Search for Values." Journal of Educational to develop the ideals, goals and values of Sociology 34: 2; May 1961. students by applying the clarification pro- 14. James Raths."ClarifyingChildren's cedures outlined in this paper, they may Values."National Eletnentary Principal 62:2; perhaps become truly "influential Ameri- November 1962. cans." 15. Louis E. Raths, "Values and Teachers." Education Synopsis, Spring 1957. References 16. Louis E. Raths."Clarifying Values," In: R. S. Fleming, editor, Curriculum for Today's 1.Albert Alexander."The Gray Flannel Boys and Girls. Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Cover of the American History Text."Social Books, Inc., 1963. Education 24: 11; January 1950. 17.Louis E. Raths et al. Values and Teach- 2. Gordon Allport. Becoming: Basic Con- ing. Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Books, Inc., siderations for a Psychology of Personality. New 1966. 0

2 8 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 17

EL26 (1): 31-33; October 1968 1968 ASCD

A Curriculum of Value

CHRIS BUETHE

QUESTIONS th at are raised and and demands upon them. But if one asks in fears that are expressed by young people what way the disadvantaged are disadvantaged, we are told they lack the means toachieve who seek their own identities apparently are whatseems suspiciouslylikemiddle-class similar, whether in Harlem, Haight-Ashbury, val ues.1 or in Hobbs, New Mexico.Forms of questioning may differ between the hip urbanite As Dr.Broudy has suggested,the and his country cousin, but the underlying sources of values are varied; they are inthe problems of teens and pre-teens are much artsand thesciences,indiversesocial alike regardless of geographic, ethnic, or cul- classes. tural differences. It is important that curriculum leaders The young have increased in numbers, speak out for their beliefs in the virtues of but have not felt a corresponding increase in casteless man, just as the youngin their self-identity, security, and power. A grow- waystand up for ideals that they believe ing technocracy continues to tell young peo- carry no middle or other class labels.No ple that there is little they can contribute to age group conflict should exist; the young themselves or to man. Many young respond may find a renewed security in learningthat to a frustratingly complex societyby "drop- school leadersshare most of their own ping out" in various ways. Perhaps they are views on what is of value. only emulating their elders who drop out of Curriculumdecisionmakersmust confrontations and intoescapism, out of choose the "new" essentials, value essentials, cities and into suburbs.The young say: as the basis of school curricula.The fact "Down with sham. Lead us to that which is that it may be difficult to agree upon a set of value." of fundamental values as the focus of new When their elders, through the law, tell curricula does not negate the need to define the young to attend school, the expected fundamental values and their supporting cur- and deserved experience to be gained in ricula. When the young ask "What is of schoolisaserious exposure toreality value?" the older must be available to help through an honest curriculum of immediate distinguish the valuable. and high value. Yet the curriculum actually One major pitfall in developing a value- found in the school is too often a planned based curriculum isthat when the young exercise in inertia instead of a confrontation fail to find enough values for stability, they with reality. One major part of the problem attach themselves to the elusive norms of is the dilemma of the middle class syndrome society. There they find themselves tread- that is described by Professor Broudy: 1 Harry S. Broudy. "Art, Science, and New We are to redeem the disadvantaged but Values." Phi Delta Kappan 49 (3): 115; Novem- not presumably by imposing middle-classvalues ber 1967.

Chris Buethe, Associate Professor of Education,New Mexico State University, Las Cruces 29 18 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era ing ina kind of quicksand of popular tions, talents, drives, and needs. This includes mental health behaviors.2 an attempt to build one's own Yet curriculum specialists may resist survival kit, to learn to give and to accept love the development of a curriculum that is pur- and respect. posely based upon a set of value statements. 2.Living and dying.Theapparent Perhaps they do so because of the overem- meaning of life plus guesses about the "leap phasis upon objectivity that is the curse of into the dark." Comparative religion studies their professionalism. Do educationists, like are a must for pliblic schools.It is important the other social scientists who were recently to know what words and ideas lead and sustain criticized in Saturday Review's Education people of differently labeled faiths. Supplement,3 set themselves up as amoral 3.Thecooperation-competitionspec- technicians who regard value judgments as trum.Comparative studies of Eastern and "unprofessional"? Westerncustoms,language,literature,and In the view of this writer, value judg- thought not only help a student to see his own identity by way of contrasts (e.g., who he is ments are being made by educators. Such not), but also reveal the knowledge that is judgments are made, for example, when they needed in order to exist on this planet with decide not to include in the curriculum op- those who ax different. "Alternatives to War" portunities for experiences that are thought would be a starkly appropriate label for a sec- to be too mature, too controversial, or too tion of the curriculum. frivolous for the young. 4.Sexuality and family responsibility. Attempts at sex education as a high school Components of a Value Curriculum instructional unit in physical education, biol- What would a value-oriented curricu- ogy, or home room are distressinglyinadequate when the breadth and importance of sexuality lum be like? How would a "value" curricu- are considered.Like the other facets of the lum differ from the usual discipline-oriented value-based curriculum, this one should en- curriculum? The following is an attempt to compass all grade levels and most faculties. define representative elements of such a curriculum by beginning with the questions, 5.Future orientation. The conservation "What do young people value?" and "What of natural, including human, resources is too important to be left principally in the hands of do they feel a need to know?" club sponsors, and meritsspecial emphasis As a start, the young value life, ideal- (e.g., waste control should be taught by schools ism, sexuality, themselves, and others. They as well as by Ralph Nader andtelevision news want to know who they are and what alter- staffs). nate routes they may chart for their lives. They want to compare "truths" and values 6.Growth of American technocracy. Examples of bigness in government, urban with others, not to avoid these. A valid cur- sprawls,media,data handling, productivity, riculum for young people is one that directly and economics lead to Orwellian value-laden approaches the questions of their age and questions about our country that should have time. ample consideration in the schools. Major portions of a value-based cur- is,of course, riculum should focus upon: 7.Self-discipline.This what schools have alwaysclaimedtobe 1.Self-knowledge. Knowledge of emo- aboutto give each student a start on an adaptive path that he will be willing and able to 2 EugeneF. McKibbon."Touching Base follow on his own after graduation. Yet this With Our Youth." School and Society 95 (2296): may be judged to be the area mostneeding 424-15; November 11, 1967. improvement when the behaviors of graduates 3 Peter Schrag. "Voices in the Classroom." Saturday Review 51 (7): 63; February 17, 1968. are considered. 30 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 19

The partial list here may be labeled as dren leads to a critically low ratio of realin- rather idealistic, but the school should be a come per child? bastion of idealism. It is critical that the cur- With respect to human conservation: riculum be flexible enough to include topics 1.Whatarethecurrentincidence based upon the serious questions of students. counts of tobacco, alcohol, and drug use? Teachers should be encouraged to explain, 2. How many time.; per day is sufficient but not to sell, their personal values. They exercise pursued to make the heart pound? should not be asked to wear the impossible With respect to self-knowledge andmental mask of classroom neutrality that is usually health: called for today. I. What do standardized test scales tell us of the graduate's personalqualities and ad- Evaluating Results justment? How can the effectiveness of a value- 2. What is the graduate's history to date based curriculum be judged? As with any on incidence of health needs orreferrals? curriculum, the proof exists in the product. 3. How does employment status relate to The product that should be observed most measured traits? closely is the school graduate who has spent School graduates can be asked many some years being directedby his own in- other questions that will yield quantitative internal guidance system. dicators of behavior. Behavioral patterns for Examples of behavior-revealing ques- graduates of value-based and traditionally- tions that should be asked of the school's based curricula can then be compared.It graduates are these: would be expected that such research would With respect to sexuality and family roles: show that schools can teach towardbehavior- ally-defined value-laden goals. 1. How do marriage and divorce rates compare to those of graduates oftrad.Lional It is time for this nation's currkulum leaders to identify their profession with value curricula? definitionsleading to value-oriented cur- 2. What is the record in terms of preg- of disease, and ricula. The young, as the human products nancy outside marriage, venereal the set paternity cases? the schools, deserve nothing less than 3. As a measure of responsibility for ofopportunitiesforschoolexperiences children, what percent of the graduates' chil- judged to be of most human value. [1]

31 20 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

EL28 (7): 714-20; April 1971 01971 ASCD

Teaching Without SpecificObjectives

JAMES D. RATHS

A CENTRAL issue in the cur- a program, a majorproblem is that of justify- riculuin field is the dilemma, perhaps over- ing the activities children are asked to ex- simplified, between discipline and freedom. perience.Clearly,theselectionprocess Lawrence S. Kubie stated it most clearly: always involves subjective and value-related judgments. To put the question even more specifically, Consider the junior high school teacher the educator must ask, "How can Iequip the child with the facts and the tools which hewill of science in his efforts to defend the be- need in life, without interfering with thefree- havioral objectives of his program. He may dom with which he will be ableto use them argue that a particularobjective is justified after he has acqui7ed them?" We havelearned on the grounds that it isrelated to student that both input-overload through the excessive success in senior high school;that the ob- use ofgrill anddrill, and input-underload jective has traditionally been taught as a part through excessive permissiveness, maytumble of the curriculum; that it reflects thebehavior the learner into the same abyss of paralysisand of scientists and as such is important tohis ignorance (1). students; or, more simply, that the objective The aim of this paper is to argue that by is "in the book." None of thesejustifications, accepting the basic assumption that the pri- either singly or collectively, seems especially mary purpose of schoolingis to change the convincing. behavior of students in specific predetermined The problem is seen most clearly in the ways, schools are onlymaking the problem affective domain. Lay persons and profes- defined by Kubie more acute. In addition, sionals alike have long asked, "What values this paper asserts that activities maybe justi- should be taught?" Krathwohl, Bloom, and fied for inclusion inthe curriculum on Masia (2) have argued that one reason grounds other than those based on the efficacy which partially accounts for the erosion of of the activity for specifically changingthe affective objectives in our schools is that behaviors of students.It is also proposed teachers hesitate to impose values on their that schools, while accepting a mi&mum students through the lever of giving grades. number of training responsibilities,should On the other hand, teachers seem to feel that take as their major purpose one of involving manipulating students in the cognitive do- students in activities which have no preset main isethical.For instance, a science objectives, but which meet other specified teacher may want his students to acquire be- criteria. haviors associated with the scientific method. Manifestly, there is no one scientific method, Teaching for Behavioral Objectives just as there is no one view of justice, yet Regardless of the underlying bases on teachers seem to feel no compunction about which curricula are selected for inclusion in "forcing" students to learn the scientific

lames D. Raths, Professor of Education and Director,Bureau of Educational Research and Field Services, University of Maryland, College Park 32 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 21 method they have in mind while shying away objectives, who could argue that such a pro- from teaching one view of justice. gram would be other than tedious andulti- It is important in terms of the central matelystultifying? Thislastcomment thesis of this paper to consider the long range applies both tothe students and to the implications a teacher and his students must teacher. Usually, teaching for objectives is accept once it has been decided that all stu- dull work. Most of the student responses dents are to acquire a specific instructional are familiar ones and are anticipatedby a objective. The teacher's task becomes at once teacher who is fully aware of the range of difficult and tedious. He must inform his possible problems students might meet in students of the objective to which they are acquiringthebehavior.Hopefully, both expected to aspire; he must convince them of teachers and students aspire to something the relevance of this objective to theirlives; other than this. he must give students the opportunity to practice the behavior being taught; he must Teaching Without Specific Objectives diagnose individual difficulties encountered by members of his group; he must make pre- To suggest that teachers plan programs scriptions of assignments based on his diag- without specific instructional objectives seems noses and repeat the cycleagain and again. to fly in the face of many sacredbeliefs Needless to say, this "method" of instruction those dealing with progress, efficiency, suchas proved itself effective, if not provocative. cess, and even rationality.On the other It is the training paradigm perfectedduring hand, such a proposal evidently does not fly both World Wars and utilized extensivelyin in the face of current practices. Much to the the armed forces and in industry to prepare distress of empiricists (3, 4), teachers do persons for specific responsibilities. from time to time invite children to partici- It is the rare teacher who implements pate in activities for which specificbehavioral this procedure with the precision implied by objectives are rarely preset.Examples of taking field theforegoing description.Few teachers some of these activities include have the energy, the knowledge important for trips, acting in dramatic presentations, hav- making diagnoses, the memory needed to ing free periods in school, participating in recall prescriptions, or the feedback capabili- school governments,putting outa class ties of a computer. The ultimate training newspaper, and many others.While teach- program is the research-based IPImodel used ers evidently hope thatstudents, as indi- experimentally in a few schools throughout viduals, will acquire leamings from these the country. This observation is not meant to activities,the learnings are generally not fault teachers as a group but merely to ob- preset nor are they imposed on allthe chil- serve that in terms of the waysschools are dren in the class. Instead, teachers may intend that these organized,forexample,teacher-student ratios, availability of special technical as- activities will provide students with someof sistance, etc., only the most gifted anddedi- the skills they will need in life, eitherthrough cated teachers can offer an effectivetraining the direct experience they undergoin the procedure to students. So instead of arigor- classroom in carrying out the activity or In ous training paradigm, moststudents are through subsequent follow-up activitiJs. presented with "grill and drill" techniques, addition, teachers learn to expect that some single as cited byKubie, repetitious to some and children will become bored with any meaningless to others. Yet even if all pro- activitywhatever it is.This response can grams could be set up onthe basis of be- be found in most classrooms at any onetime havioral objectives and even if stricttraining and teachers simply make plans toinvolve paradigms could be established to meetthe those students suffering from momentary

3 3 22 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

ennui in other provocative activities later in might be altered. For instance, if a teacher the day or week. were to consider an absignment which re- While carrying out a program composed quires students to write a report on Brazil, he of such activities, a teacher must perform might revise his assignment to include one or many important and difficult tasks, but the more of the value dimensions suggested by functions seem less perfunctory and more thecriteria.With all otherthings being challenging than those carried out under the equal, the revised assignment would be con- traini1A ,1regimen described previously. A sidered, according to these criteria, more teacher must listen to the comments and worthwhile than the original one. questions of his students with the intent of A relevant question to raise at this point clarifying their views and perceptions; he is, "Worthwhile for whom?" The answer must encourage students to reflect upon their necessarily is for the child and for society. experiences through writings, poetry, draw- While there can be no empirical support for ings, and discussions; he must react to their this response, neither can any other activity responses in ways that suggest individual or behavioral objective be justified through activities students may consider in following data. up on their experiences.In these ways, 1.All other things being equal, one teachers provide an environment thatis activity is more worthwhile than another if sufficiently evocative to encourage children it permits children to make informed choices to become informed and capable, but in indi- in carrying out the activity and to reflect on vidual ways that would be difficult to antici- the consequences of their choices. pate either in the central offices of a board of education or in thetest construction An activity that requires children to laboratories located at Palo Alto or Iowa select topics for study, resources for use, or City. media for the display of ideas, after some exploration of alternatives, is more worth- Criteria for Worthwhile Activities while than one that provides children with no opportunities or another that gives choices If we accept the argument that the ma- at rather mundane levels, for example, a jor focus of our schools should be away from choice of now or this afternoon, or using a activities designed to bring about specific pen or pencil. behavioral changes in students, then on what 2.All other things being equal, one ac- basis can activities be justified for inclusion tivity is more worthwhile than another i/it in the curricula of our schools? This section assigns to students active roles in the learning advances some criteria for identifying activi- situation rather than passive ones. ties that seem to have some inherent worth. An activity that channels students' ener- The criteria set down here for identifying gies into such roles as panel members, re- worthwhile activities are not advanced to searchers,orators,observers, reporters, convince anyone of their wisdom as a set or individually, but merely to suggest value interviewers, actors, surveyors, performers, statements that might be used to justify role players, or participants in simulation exercises such as games is more worthwhile the selection of particularactivities in a than one which assigns students to tasks curriculum. such as listening in class to the teacher, filling The value statements are couched in out a ditto sheet, responding to a drill ses- terms that can best be used in the following sion, or participating in a routine teacher-led manner. As a teacher contemplates an activity for his classroom, each of the value discussion. statements may suggest ways the activity 3.All other things being equal, one ac- 34 Values: TheChallenge, the Dilerona 23 tivity is more worthwhile than another if it activity is more worthwhile than another if asks students to engage in inquiry into ideas, it asks students to examine in a new setting applications of intellectual processes, or cur- an idea, an application of anintellectual rent problems, either personal or social. process, or a current problem which hasbeen An activity that directs children to be- previously studied. come acquainted with ideas thattranscend An activity that builds on previous stu- traditional curricular areas, ideas such as dent work by directing a focus into novel truth, beauty, worth, justice, or self-worth; locations, new subject matter areas, or dif- one that focuses children onintellectual ferent contexts is more worthwhile than one processes such as testing hypotheses,iden- that is completely unrelated to the previous tifyingassumptions, orcreatingoriginal work of the students. (This position is an pieces of work which communicate personal example of one that is impossible to build ideas or emotions; or one that raises questions into every activity presented to students. Ob- abo,it current social problems such as pollu- viously a balance is needed between new tion, war and peace, or of personal human areas of study and those which are related to relations is more worthwhile than one that previous work. Value dimension number six is directed toward places (Mexico or Africa), asserts the need for some continuity in a objects (birds or simple machines), or per- program.) sons (Columbus or Shakespeare). 7. All other things being equal, one ac- 4.All other things being equal, one tivity is more worthwhile than another if it activity is more worthwhile than another11 requires students to examine topics or issues it involves children with realia. that citizens in our society do not normally An activity that encourages children to examineand that are typically ignored by touch, handle, apply, manipulate, examine, the major communication mediainthe and collect real objects, materials, andarti- nation. facts either in the classroom or on fickl trips An activity that deals with matters of is more worthwhile than one that involves sex, religion, war and peace, theprofit mo- children in the use of pictures, models, or tive, treatment of minorities, the workings of narrative accounts. the courts, the responsiveness of local governments to the needs of the people,the 5. All other things being equal, one social responsibilities of public corporations, activity is more worthwhile than another if foreign influences in American media, social completion of the activity inay be accom- class, and similar issues is more worthwhile plished successfully by children at several than an activity which deals with mundane different levels of ability. "school topics" such as quadratic equations An activity that can be completed suc- considered cessfully by children of diverse interests and or short storiestopics usually intellectual backgrounds is more worthwhile safe and traditional. than one which specifies in rigid terms only 8.All other things being equal, one one successful outcome oftheactivity. activity is more worthwhile than another if Examples of the former are thinking ascign- it involves students and faculty members in meats such as imagining, comparing,classi- "risk" takingnot a risk of life or limb, but fying, or summarizing, all of which allow a risk of success or fa:lure. youngsters to operate on their ownlevels Activities that may receive criticism without imposing a single standard on the ilom supervisors and parents on the basis of outcomes. "what's usually done," that may fail because 6.All other things being equal, one of unforeseen events or conditions, are more

3 5 24 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

worthwhile than activities that are relatively grams is that of minimizing the chance for risk-freeusing approaches which are con- children to work in groups and to learn the doned openly by the community and the problems inherent in any situation that calls school administration and which have served for individual desires to yield at times to teachers well in the past. group requrements. An activity that asks children to play a role in sharing responsi- 9.All other things being equal, one bilities with others is more worthwhile than activity is more worthwhile than another i/it requires students to rewrite, rehearse, and one which limits such opportunity. polish their initial efforts. 12.All other things being equal, one Rather than having students perceive activity is more worthwhile than another i/it assignments as "tasks to complete," activities is relevant to the expressed purposes of the should provide time and opportunity for stu- students. dents to revise their themes in the light of While a prizing of children's purposes criticism, rehearse a play in front of an audi- might well be protected by the value dimen- ence, or practice an interviewing technique sionpreviouslyexpressed,ofproviding to be used in a project so that they will begin choices for children, it is important enough to see the value of doing a task well. Activi- to stress in a value dimension of its own. As ties that communicate to students that their students are invited to express their own efforts are approximations of perfect work interests and to define problems in which and that efforts can be made to improve their they feel a personal involvement, and as the workare more worthwhile than ones that activities of the curriculum reflect those in- merely suggest that once an assignment is terests, the ensuing activity will be more completed the first time, it is finished. worthwhile than one that is based on at- 10.All other things being equal, one tributions of interests and concerns made by activity is more worthwhile than another i/it teachers. involves students in the application and mas- Obviously, not all of the value compo- teryof meaningfulrules,standards,or nents identified in this section can be built disciplines. into a single activity. Also, not all the values Using standards derived from students listed deserve the same amount of emphasis as well as authorities, panel discussions can in terms of time within a given program. be disciplined by procedures; reporting of For example, some assignments involving data can be disciplined by considerations of "risk" may be titillating for students and control; essays can be regulated by consid- teachers, but a program which has more than erations of style and syntax. Activities which a few activities reflecting the "risk" value foster a sense of meaningful discipline, either would probably be out of balance. Finally, imposed or chosen by the children them- the list above is not exhaustive. It is meant selves, are more worthwhile than ones that to illustrate values that might be used in ignore the need for the application of mean- defining a program of worthwhile activities. ingful rules or standards. The value-criteria are merely working hypotheses at this time, subject to analysis if 11.All other things being equal, one not empirical testing. Others are encouraged activity is more worthwhile than another i/it to develop their own set of criteria. gives students a chance to share the planning, the carrying out of a plan, or the results of an activity with others. Caveat One facet of the current trcnds in indi- It must be emphasized that all teachers, vidualizing instruction found in somc pro- whether working at the first rade level or in

36 Values: The Challenge, the Dilemma 25 graduate school, generally need to do some Column 1:This column would simply teaching for objectives as well as some teach- number the activity for purposes of identifica- ing without specific objectives.Whitehead tion. has suggested that in terms of the rhythm of Column 2:This notation would place the education, many more of the tasks assigned activity in the sequence of activities carried out to younger children should be justified on during the reporting period. non-instrumentalvalues,while thoseas- Colwnn 3:This entry would be another signed at the upper levels might reasonably way of labeling thetopics under study for contain moreperformance-relatedactivi- purposes of identification. ties (5). Column 4: The number of students who successfully completed the activity would be Evaluation entered here to communicate the extent to which all students in the class were involved All of the foregoing is not to suggest that with the activity. school pi.ograms need not be evaluated. As Column 5:To give emphasis to the cen- in the past, those activities which are justi- trality of the activity to the scope of the course, fied in terms of the objectives they are de- the estimation of the average number of hours signed to meet can be evaluated through students spent on the activity would be entered criterion-referenced achievement tat s. Other in this column. procedures need to be developed to describe Column 6: In this column, teachers would school programs in terms of the character- check those components of the activity which istics of the activities which comprise the in their eyes serve to justify it in their program. programs. The followingprocedure might In the example entered in the table, the teacher serve as a way of comm unicatinginformation has justified an activity, not in terms of what about a given course or program which would students can do on finishing it that they could be meaningful to administrators and parents. not do before, but on the grounds thatit gave Assume that a teacher accepted as the students a chance to make a choice ( # I ); in- major values of his program those nrevi- volved them in active roles ( #2); included ex- ( #4); provided various ously identified in this paper. (Presumably, periences with realia levels of achievement which could be judged this procedure could be used for any set of as successful (#5); andrequired students to values.) He could periodically describe his apply meaningfuls'andardstotheir work program using a chart similar to the one ( # 10). presented in Table 1. The chart could be completed according to the following ground If each line of every teacher's log were rules: punched on a computer card, a program

Unit: Dates: From To Sub 145c.. Teachers Name: (3) (8) (1) (2) (3) (4) Number of Estimated number students of hours of Justified by criteria participation (Chock those relevant) Activity completing per student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 number Dtes Till* of activity activity XX xx Jan. Experiment with 15 2 hrs. electricity

Table 1.Teacher's Log 37 26 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era could easily be written which would yield for describing programs in terms of those output describing the percentage of time criteria, and issued an invitation for others spent on each activity, and the number of to present alternative criteria. Most of all, it children who were involved with programs has asked that some concern be directed under each value dimension. At present, no toward the quality of opportunities for ex- generalizations are available which could be periences offered through our schools. used to rate definitively a given course description as adequate or inadequate, based Referencss science pro- on these data. Nevertheless, if a I.Lawrence S. Kubie, M.D., D.Sc. "Re- gram profile indicated thatalmoFt. no time search on Protecting Preconscious Functions in was spent with students in activeroles, if Education." (n.d.)Mimeo.p.4.Also see this students were almost never involved with paper in:A. Harry Passow, editor.Nurturing realia, and if students had few opportunities hulit.idual Potential.Washington, D.C.: Associa- to apply meaningful rules or standards to tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1964. pp. 28-42. their work, then a person shariag the values 2. D. R. Krathwohl,B.S. Bloom, and espoused in this paper would have serious B. B.Masia. Taxonomy ol Educational Objectives reservations about the quality of that par- Handbook 11: Aflective Domain.New York: David ticular science program. McKay Company, Inc., 1964. p. 16. In summary, the argument has been 3. W. James Popham.The Teacher-Em- piricist.Los Angeles: AegeusPress,1965. presented that an activity can be justified in 4. Henry H. Walbesser.Constructing Be- terms other than those associated with its havioral Objectives.College Park: Bureau of Edu- instrumental value for changing the behavior cational Research and Field Services, University of students. In addition, this paper has pre- ofMaryland.1970. sented a set of criteria for identifying worth- 5. A. N. Whitehead.The Aims of Educa- while activities, proposed a modest procedure tion.New York: Mentor Books, 1929. pp. 27ff. 0 INDIVIDUALIZATION: THE PUPIL ASPERSON

The time has come to acceptindividual differences in children as a realityand to work with them without trying toblame them on anyone or to feelguilty that they exist. Resistance to easy modifiabilityis man's insurance of stability, and thepossibility of change his hope for the future.Individual differences among people are aprecious asset. A constructive program to meetthem promises large returns.Olson, p. 37.

39 EL 25 (7): 616-24; April 1968 k) 1968 ASCD

Individualized Instruction*

ALEXANDER FRAZIER

You must know what you want to hear. must succeed in teaching what there is to be -EDWIN ZILZ 1 learned. When poetsrepairtothe enchanted 2.Nature of the learner. We now be- forest of language it is with the express purpose lieve that learners start out with much less of getting lost; far gone in bewilderment, they difference in capacity than we once thought. seek crossroads of meaning, unexpected echoes, If at any given point in time learners seem strange encounters; they fear neither detours, unequal, it means that native capacity has surprises, nor darkness.PAut.VALERY 2 not been properly developed, perhaps that FOR half a century we have been we did not get to some of them early enough, or that we do not yet know how to tap the committed to individualized instructionas the answer to the problem of how to teach capacity that is there. At any rate, the idea everybody what everybody needs to know. that capacity is fixed is much in question. Yet only now have we been able to put Some people are sayinr, "Don't tell us about together the elements that will enable us to their YQ or their home background or any- act on our conviction with the prospect of thing else. Just tell us what you want them to learn, and leave the rest to us." success. 3.Content analysis. We know better Elements of Success what to teach. Part of our problem has been that we have somedmes tried to teach what is Here are sorie of these elements: untrue or incomplete and therefore very hard to learn. The more scientific analysis of the 1.Goals. We have revived mastery as a goal. No longer is it possible, politically nature of knowledge that has come out of or professionally, to accommodate our be- the emphasis on its structure is promising to havior to inequities assumed to be bcyond help us identify what is learnable. The teaching of modern languages has been revolution- our control.Inside as well as around thc school, an incrcasing number of tough- ized by the reexamination of content as well minded persons are demanding that where as by the redefinition of the goal as mastery. thc road to mastery can be laid down, we The teaching of mathematics and of science are being similarly affected. As we learn !low To Whistle Songs: An Easy, Enjoy- how to put the pieces together again in our able Guide to Beautiful Whistling.Los Angeles: competing analyses of beginning reading, we The Stanton Press, 1961.p. 19. may anticipt te that we will be increasingly Jackson Mathews, editor.The Collected successful in teaching the first steps of that 1V4;rks ol Paul Valery.Volurm 13.Aesthetics. Translated by Ralph Manheim.Bollingen Series Reprinted by permission from theCalifor- 45.New York:BollingenFoundation.Copy- nia Journal for Instructional Improvement,a quar- right (0 1964.p. 48. By permission of the Bol- terly publication of the California Association for lingen Foundation and Princeton University Press. Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Alexander Frazier, Prolessor of Education. The Ohio State University, Columbus

28 40 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 29 mostcomplexandmysterious setof pendently. The new care in spelling out of study le a rnings . specific objectives; the elaboration materials, with built-in feedback of some 4.Materials. We havediscovered kind to the learner; and now the computer how to prepare materials that are much more all have helped or will help tomake the studyable. These materials are precise and flow of evaluative information not only con- detailed and geared directly to eliciting the tinuous but, in terms of quantity and pre- responses needed for learning,much more cision, more than we can handle. Infact, in so than anything wewould have been able to s9me situations, clerks arebeing employed imagine in the past as possible, necessary, or to manage and control theflow so that it will perhaps desirable. A recent brochure3 on become most useful. 20 programs designed to teach pieces or the segments of knowledge describesthe re- 7. Organization. We have solved in- usable booklets as containing "tenshort sets problem of organizing for individualized learners of 25-50 frames, each designed to beworked struction. The matter of grouping has been the in 15 or 30 minutes." The bookletshave for individualized instruction problem above all others been developed in terms of two conditions: one clement of the historically most at- "(1) satisfactory terminal behavior (mastery to which we have been of the subject) and (2) an error rateof less tentive. We have tried anything and every- than 10 percent."Topics for which pro- thing.Now, however, we have suddenly alternatives, grams are available include"Cells: Their found ourselves with a choice of and Function,""Latitude and partly perhaps because of our inventiveness Structure the prob- Longitude," and "Figures of Speech." but also because other elements in lem have been clarified. 5.Methodology. We now know how We can organize our pupils in relation- to provide a one-to-one relationshipbetween ship to successive levels of progressthrough teacher and pupil. For a long time, we have a well-defined sequenceof study materials. used as a kind of symbol of individualized Or we can organize them in largerunits of instruction the apocryphal image of a student 100 or so,with an augmented staff and on one end of a log andMark Hopkins on plenty of open space, and leave theinternal tht. other. Now we are faced with the pros- grouping and scheduling to the teaching pect of having a student on oneend of the staff. Or we car, run students throughstudy line and, by computer, who knows whom or learning centers more orless at random, on the other. That part ofthe problem of leaving their assignments and supervision to individualizing instruction represented by the whoever is in chug:: of their stations.In need for providing a one-to-one correspon- the latter GR.Se,where fora portion of the dence of teacher and learner, however eerie day the learner is working on his own with or unearthly or unheavenlytheir relationship programmed materials or working under the may strike us as likely tobe, is i esolved. tutelage of a remote computer, groupingis merely a question of housing. 6.Evaluation. We can keep track of independent learning better than before. One Source of Discomfort of the chief worries in individualizing instruction has been to find out when help How surprised we are, when weview was needed and in general tocheck on prog- the present situation in this way, tofind that ress among 25 to 30 learnersworking inde- we really have triumphed overthe problem of how to tench everybody whatthey need 3 Coronet Learning Programs."20 Learn- to know. We can truthfully saythat when ing Programs from Coronet." Chicago:Coronet whistler, Learning Programs. 4 pp. it comes to thc education of the 41 30 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era we know what we want to hear. And we can Goals.For the larger learnings, the teach just about anybody to whistle "Yankee goal is not mastery. There is no reachable Doodle" or "Dixie." end-point on the way to which highly specific Still, we may wonder at what we have steps or objectives can be spelled out. Con- paid or seem willing to pay for the prospect tinuous growth is the goal. of such success. We know, when we think Nature of the learner.The question of of the realm in which success is to be ex- equality of capacity is not central since mas- pected, that in order to succeed we have tery is not the goal.What isof concern is altered our conception of what education is "an ability, a power ...the possibility of all about, limited it, reduced it, fundamen- growth." 4 talized it. Thus, we are at this moment uneasy. Content analysis. With the emphasis To some zealots of the new era, it would on the development of powers or their seem right and proper that the realm ofwhat growth, analysis of what needs to be learned everybody needs to know should be extended is very different here.It is concerned with to everything that anybody might ever want the nature of the process through which to learn. They seem to be saying thai if we powers develop. in- can, through the use of this process of Materials.The total environment is of struction, succeed with a piece of tne pro- greater concern than any piece of material. gram, why not move ahead to all of it? The concern is for richness and diversity Yet while we may be surprised that rather than precision. anybody would conceive of the total curriculum as lending itself to such treatment, Methodology.Powers are personal. most of us are puzzled by andapprehensive Their growth comes necessarily from indi- about something much more likely to be vidual use. The concern is #o provide many hard to accept. We believe we can trust to opportunities for their responsible exercise. the general good sense to take care of ex- Evaluation.Since growth or "carry- cesses of zeal in the routinization ofteaching. ing power forward" 5 is the goal, evaluation But are we ourselves ready to assume re- is concerned with the individual rather than sponsibility for redesigning our program to the group and is likely to be seen in global larger provide more adequately for the rather than concrete terms. aspects of learning that successful routinization Of the facts and skills segment is going Organization.While room needs to be to give us? made to ensure independent functioning, We have had to spend so much time many personal powers require the presence on this segment in the past that wehave of others in the picture for their proper not done what we would have liked with the development. The isolation booth is an in- rest of the curriculum. Now the prospect of appropriate site for the larger learnings. success in teaching the facts and skills means Now such a contrast serves to make that we will have the time and space to do plain that we are still dealing with indi- more with the rest. vidualization of instruction. However, here What we are faced with, at the prospect we talk of the person and of his powersand of succeis in individualizing instruction, is of their growth. At this point it might be the necessity of redeveloping the curriculum. useful if we were to propose two definitions What is involved in this task? The first thing is to clarify the differences between the lesser 4 John Dewey. Dimacracy and Education. arthe larger learnings in terms of the ele- New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916. p. 49. ments already defined. 3 Ibid., p. 61. Individualization: The Pupil as Person 31

follow for the individualization ofinstruction: (a) take. This is the program I would the individualization of instructionthat leads if I were a great artist." 7 to the achievement of ,,tasteryin the lesser Let us try to say what such larger learnings:and (b) the individualizationof learnings are, and, with more attention from instructionthat leads to the development or us, might be. growth of power in the largerlearnings.The Physical Being former aims at success despite individuaidif- ferences; the latter aims at success in terms We my begin with the power ofphysi- of individual differences, perhapsactually cal being.If we had more time and space seeking to extend them toward a greater in the curriculum to attend tophysical range of human variability, atleast in all the growth and development, what mightthat generally desired directions or arenasof mean? growth. For one thing, it would encompassbut But the distinction attempted inthese go far beyond masteryof skills, although definitions may still strike us as abstractand skills would certainly be thereskillsof poorly expressed. What we mayneed in walking andrunning,of throwingand addition is the exemplification of thelarger catching, of surfing and sailing, of skiingand learnings.If we are going to have to rede- hiking and dancing. Information wouldhave velop the curriculum to make good useof its place also, of courseaboutdiet and the newly vacated time and space, what are safety, physical structure and function, drugs we going to be trying todo? The growth and diseases. of which personal powers are we to try to But in our enlarged program, much forward? What is the nature of the realmof more time and space wouldbe provided for the larger learnings? free play, for self-chosen games,dancing, swimming, and gymnastics; and forloafing Realm of the Larger Learnings for refreshment and relaxation. Theenviron- ment would be designed forphysical func- Perhaps what we are moving into now tioning and physical freedom all day long is the education of the poet ascompared to and the school would extend itsresponsibility the education of the whistler. to outdoor sites for hiking,camping, pack "I believe in individuals."0 This is trips; for visits to the mountains butalso to the way Anton Chekhov responded to a the desert and the beach. correspordent inquiring about his politics. The expanded program would focus on "I see salvation in a few people livingtheir more opportunitiesfor physical develop- own private lives," hecontinued, "scattered ment, for enjoying theexercise of physical throughout Russiawhether they be Intel- power andforexperiencing the world lcctuals or muzhiks, the power is in them, through the body, including not onlythe though they are few." Elsewhere Chekhov, natural world (air breathed in deep,the feel whom we may take to stand for the poet, of sun and wind and rain) but theworld of defined the realm of personal powers:"My otherpersonsthroughracing,tagging, holy of holies is the human body, health, wrestling, helping up, forming circles, team- intelligence, talent, inspiration, love, and the ing up, pairing off. most absolute freedomfreedomfrom vio- We have never had time really to cele- lence and lying, whatever forms they may brate the p:iysical powers and theirgrowth and development. Now we well mayhave. 6 Anton Chekhov. The Personal Papers of :ntroduction by Matthew Joseph- Anton Chekhor. Ibid., "L:iterto A. N. Plesbcheyev, Oc- son.New York: Lear Publishers,Inc.,1948. "Letter to I. I. Or1ov, 1899." pp. 194-95. tober 1889." p. 154. 43 32 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Sensibility ings would be needed if we were to value responsiveness to the broader environment "Experience is never limited, and it is in terms of the visual artsgraphic arts but never complete," begins Henry James, in his famous definition of what it means to be also sculpture, architecture, landscaping, and town planning? If we were to take films and fully conscious of one's own existence; "it is an immense sensibility,a kind of huge television seriously? If we wanted to increase awareness and enjoyment of the world of spider-web of the finest silken threads sus- music old and new, Eastern as well as pended in the chamber of consciousness, and Western? catching every airborne particle in its tissue." If we were to venture deeply into the This mechanism of sensibility "takes to itself realms of human awareness outsidethe the faintest hints of life, it converts the very artsthe world of feelings and values per- pulses of the air into revelations."Such sonally expressM, the verbal and nonverbal sensibility is "the power to guess the unseen from the seen, to trace the implication of clues to feelings and values? What changes in environment, what things, to judge the whole piece by the pat- additions to specific learnings, the inclusion tern, the condition of feeling life in general of what kinds of in- and out-of-school ex- so completely that you are well on your way periences for the exercise and development to knowing any particular corner of it...8 of sensibility might we have if we were to Education of the power or powers of sensibilityof responding fully to experi- redesign the curriculum to make use of new ence, of being thoroughly conscious of the time and space forthisfield of larger learning? world about one in all its manifold mean- ingsincorporates mastery of certain skills Love and information, itis true.Being able to How does one learn to love? It is some- identify the structure of the cell or the figures of speech may help. But the development thing that can hardly be spelled out, detailed, of the powers of consciousness and respon- programmed. Yet the power to empathize, reach out, relate, identify with, to seek com- sivenessnecessarily comes through many munity of some kind in increasingly wider encounters with rich, raw experience and the chances one has to respond to these en- circles is surely among the larger learnings with which we will want to do more as we counters, the demands made upon awareness. make good use of our new time and space. The message of Marshall McLuhan is highly relevant here. We live in an image- Perhaps love as we are thinking of it begins with simple wonder at and respect btAring environment so rank and dense with mai-layered meanings that we must learn for the force of life.Marian Catlin in Wal- lace Stegner's new novel,All the Little Live to respond to it all at once. Today the school is often less stimulating than the out-of- Things,represt .ts such an aspect of love. Cancer-ridden and pregnant, hoping to live school environment, more restricted, blander, relatively impoverished. to bear another child, she expresses, through her care that nothing living be uprooted or What would the school look like to the destroyed, an obsession withlife, an ob- learner if it were designed to be experienced sessive love.Her husband, an ethnologist, as were the exhibits of Brussels and of mentions that the baby California gray whale Expo '67? gains a ton a month, and the narrator won- What kinds of new and specific learn- ders: "What inhell isin whale's milk?" Looking back after Marian's death and re- Morton Dauwen Zabel, editor. The Port- ahk Henry James. New York: The Viking Ness, calling that metaphor for her agoniang effort 1951. 'The Art of Fiction." pp. 401-402. to survive with her baby's birth, the narrator

44 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 33

but to supposes her to besaying to him: "You problem is not to know its objective, wondered what was in whale's milk.Now give it one." " lesser you know. Think ofthe force down there, While thereare specific and just telling things to get born, just tobe!" ° learnings that need to be there to be called The narrator, an old man arousedfrom upon, the development of the powerto deal search what he comes to call a "twilightsleep" of creatively with fresh experience, to detached retirement, would amendher feel- it out (to "seek crossroads of meaning, un- ingbut it remains as a symbol oflove. expected echoes, strange encounters"), and And love extends to and encompasses to work with it(fearing "neither detours, yields a death as well as birth. In grieving overand surprises, nor darkness") until it kind of reflecting on his mother's death at80, Sean union of form and substancethis O'Casey 10 comforts himself by seeingher development depends on openness to new as having passedinto the endless stream. experience and a great freedom of experiencing. When what is to be knownis all It wouldn't do to say that eachdiffered laid out for the learner, the power ofinven- from each in some trivial, imperceptible way, tion gets little enough exercise. blade of grass from blade of grass; leafof tree Providing in the new curriculum more from leaf of tree; human face fromhuman time and space for richer experiencing that each face. Who is he who having examined will stimulate the learner to alter oramend, would blade of grass, every leaf of every tree, compose, design, discover, recast,reorder, say no one of them waslike its like?And though human faces might differ, anddid, the shape, and reshape his world would seem darkness of hatred, the light of love, theglint extremely important. shone of fear, the lightning flash of courage Endurance the same from every human eye,and the thoughts surrounding them were, in essence, Grace Norton, afriendof Henry the same in every human heart. James, who in his words seemed to"make all the misery of all the world" her own(she Between the emergence of life and its "suffered," as they said then), received a extinction or translation lies the great range letter of consolation from Jamesunder the of occasionsfor valuing and supporting date July 28, 1883: others and expressing love in its manyguises. needs to Sorrow comes in great waves ...but it Is this a field in which our power smother With time rolls over us, and though it may almost bc extended and strengthened? us it leaves us on the spot,and we know that enough and space, what more can bedone if it is strong we are stronger, inasmuch asit with love in the redevelopedcurriculum? passes and we remain. It wears us, uses us,but we wear it and use it in return;and it is blind, Invention whereas we after a manner see.12 For the poet, the power to shape and Years later, James wrote to Henry reshape his experience is that which heneeds Adams, who had sent him a "melancholy most of all to test andextend. What Sartre outpouring"of"unmitigatedblackness" says of the meaningof history, the poet about their being "lone survivors":"I still would say of the meaning of life: "...the find my consciousnessinterestingunder cultivation of the interest." And he suggests WallaceStegner. AlltheLittleLive Things. New York: The Viking Press, 1967. pp. 11 lean-Paul Sartre.Situations.Translated 66, 344. by Venita Eisler.New York: George Braziller, 10 Sean Otasey.InishIallen:FareThee 1965. "Reply to Albert Camus." p. 103. Well. New York: The Macmillan Company,1949. 12 zabci, op. cit., p. 650. p. 38. 34 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era that perhaps this survival of interest comes gruity, lacking in immediate mcanings. To "because I a that queer monster, thc artist. learn to live in this world one needs to be an obstinate finality, an inexhaustible sen- in it, with it, so to speak. sibility." '3 Can we sct thc school scene for ad- Of his rcaction to thc first-night failure ventur:s into this world, a world that has to of The Sea Gull. Chekhov wrote to a friend: be accepted first to be experienced, has to "Whcn I got home I took a dosc of castor be endured to bc shaped, to be loved, to be oil, and had a cold bath, and now I am rcady responde.1 to. to be physically enjoyed? The o write another play." " education of the poet really begins as he is In his account of thc San Francisco willing to risk his life, so to speak, in ven- earthquake, William James," who wcnt into turing into thc enchanted forest. Pcrhaps we thc city from Stanford whcrc hc was spend- can help him develop the power not merely ing a fcw months, remarked on thc resilience to endure thc darkness, the detours, thc sur- of thc victims, of thcir "healthy animal in- prises hut even to welcome them as thc cross- sensibility and heartiness." roads of new meanings. One of the powers, then, that wc know we need to include among the larger learn- A Sense of Urgency ings is the power to endure. In a television interview with Ernest Jones some years ago. What we have tried to do here is first Lionel Trilling asked the aging biographer to celebrate the prospect of success in indi- of Freud how he would summarize the lesson vidualizing instruction under what we have of the master.Jones' reply was this: "To chosen to call definition (a): the individuali- look life straight in the faceand endure it." zation of instruction that leads to the achieve- We might find this meswge a little blzak our- ment of mastery in the lesser !earnings. selves, but we would have to concede that Then we have noted that this prospect physical being, sensibility or cuasciousness, means that our curriculum will be open to love, and shaping and reshaping our experi- redevelopment. The teaching of facts and ence rcst as powers on this rock-bottom skills will occupy less time and space than hardiness, this power simply to be and to in thc past. continuc to bc. Wc have proposed that wc use this An environment arranged or prepared time and space to individualize instruction for learning, an environment ordered for undcr definition (b): the individualization simplicity and ccrtainty toward prescribed of instruction that leads to thc development ends, a failure-free environmentwhatever or growth of power in the larger learnings. its usesmay be inadequate for developing We haw. tried,overgrandly perhaps fully the powcr to endure. Much of life "out and certainly too vaguely, to identify some there- beyond the school or around the of these powersthe powers of physical school, before and aftcr school,is disar- being, of responding, loving, creating, and ranged and unprepared, disordered and com- enduring. plex and uncertain, formless or littered with We have tried to imbue our analysis discarded forms, ambiguous, full of incon- with a sense of urgency. If we do not see and accept the challenge of curriculum re- "Ibid.,p. 675. development on some such terms as thtse, 14 Chekhov,op. cit.,"Letter to A. S. Souv- there may be those less broadly based than orin, October 22, 1896." p. 173. ourselves who will move into the freed time 111 William James.Mernarks and Studies. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company. and space with something or other, probably 1912. "On the Mental Effects of the Earthquake. more and more of less and less. p. 226. 46 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 35

EL 24 (3): 239: December /966 C.! 1%6 ASCD

Please Stop and See

JOAN L. RAWLY

I am me. am me, but what will I he? I am not you or her or him or it. (Please Amp and see ) I am me. see. I am a Atory told, a picture seen, the flash (Please stop and se2.1 of a swing, a flip on the bars, a smack 1 am slow. I am forgetful. I amoften wrong. of a hallI did it all!That's me! I am silly, and sad, and afraid.How wrong is am a messy room, a voice tooloud, a turned- wrong? How sharp a tone' Howdark is down lip. a cry, a frownI did it all.Set! night? How alone is alone? I am in need to know. how far is out and up know. (Please stop and see.) and downhow far can I go. I need to I am a thrilltouch andbethe rock, the (Please stop and see.) lizard, the butterfly. I am in need to be free. Accept me.love me, I am a questionhow far to the star:why uncle:stand me. Set me free for mow the lawn; how cloI yawr.: why a I am meand I am in the process ofbecoming. haircut; why do you say "yes. but--; there's a fair in town you know; willI go? (Please stop and see.) Concord. California Joan L. Raiky. Fifth Grade Teacher.San Nfiquel Elementary School.

EL 15 (3 ): '4143: Decem lu.r 1957 C 1957 ASCD

Individual Differences:A Precious Asset (AnEditorial)

W11.LAPD C. OLSON

INDIVIDUAL differences among precious asset.In providing for individual differences in children in schools we need to children have sometimes beenregarded as a the attitudes nuisance in educational programssince they take into account the facts, classification, curricu- toward these facts, and the implicationsand prevent uniformiiy in of view lum, methods, and results.After we have practices which follow from points First, let us take a quick look avoided the great hazards of deprivationand about them. damage, we may be able to moveahead at some of the facts. provided farther faster by cultivatingdifferences as a A century of research has

D7-ire. Ann Arbor. Michigan:Dean Emeritus, School of Willard C. Olson. 301 Barton Shore of Michigan, Ann Arbor Education. and Professor Emeritus.Education and Psychology. University 47 36 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era ample documentation of individual differ- larity as well as for thc enoromus variability ences in every dimension--physical. social, in specific aspects. emotional. and intellectual. Many of these Wc should not he misled into believing arc observable and measurable at birth and that we have created homogeneous categories bc'ore. At each age they represent an end by identifying groups of gifted and mentally productindevelopment of the numerous retarded children. While average effects arr permutations and combinations of genetic present. the differences in children within and nurtural factors. Development must be cach group remain striking.Each person nurtured. hut individual differen:es persist still has unique qualities and patterns. under all conditions that man is able to pro- Thcrcarclargedifferences among s-1de. communities in health, economic, and social Most widelstudi,Al have beenthe indices: aid these have been found to coexist differencesbetween individuals whereall with measured intellectual, behavioral, and have had the benefit of common experiences educational characteristics of the children. or materials for growth. Qualitative differ- Within each city with neighborhood schools. ences between individuals may regularly he persistent systematic differences arc found found in areas of presence and absence of among them. experience. e.g.. literate and illiterate.Well Differencesamong communitiesare established also arc intra-individual differ- revealed inthc values placed upon edu- ences in thc amount of various achievements cation. in what they seek for their chil- prcscnt. Changc with timc at different rates dren. in willingness to support and in thc and with unique designs is adequately docu- acceptance of changes. Schools at the best mented.Contiruity over thc years isthe arc sensitive to and build upon the varying rule. with systematic changes in individuals. needs presented as well as on thc common The longer children attend school the more requirements for a citizen. unlike they ficrome in achieveme, t in areas What ar .!. some of the attitudes toward of common experience.If adjustments arc thc foregoing facts?Facts arc not trans- madc fk,r the increasing averages, the retative latable automatically into implications and variability shows more constancy. practices.This isbecause thcrc are also Consistentdifferencesbetween thc differences in attitudes toward thcm among sexes arc regularly found in many school responsible people. Values intrude to deter- Persons hold achievements. The differ:nee in rcading aec. mine the course of action. originof for example. is about six months or one-half dicferent hypotheses aboutthe individualdifferences.The bare facts of grade in favor of thc girls at cach age in thc variability do not describe the process by growing period. This makes a sufficient dif- which thcy came about. Extreme views may ference at the lower end of thc distribution be held, for example. that all thc variation to load clinics and remedial classes with four among childrenisattributable to the en- or five times as many boys as girls. The dif- vironment, on the one hand, or isall at- ference of six months at the averaec is over- tniluiable to heredity, on the other. The truth shadowed by a standard deviation of two probably lies between. Scicncc does not have ycars and a rangc of tcn years for each CC:t a perfect answer to this problem in multiple by the sixth erade. causation.Social stratification and political It remains true, whether for biological. deologies produceemotionallycolored cultural, or statistical reasons, that children points of view which make for programs viewed as wholes arc more a!ike tt.-ar, when which are different in operation. The demo- a single attribute is considered.Education craticidealof providing opportunity for should provide for thc core of relative sirni- maximizing thc growth potential of all pro-

4 8 lnd:vidualization: The Pupil as Person 37 duces a different program than thc exclusive able for each class group. Thc marking or ideal of the education of a select fcw. descriptionofindividual differencesin At times the evidence on one course of achievement takes on more thc character of action or another ic unclear. The evidence a nurturing than a punishing process.Re- may be balanced at thc level of "coin toss- ports to parents reflect thc same character- ing- or chance. The pre. ailing climate of istic.%ith a healthy respect for individual opinion may precipitate a decision without differences, child participationin planning valid support. and thc attitudes of individuals becomesmoreacceptable andneedful. reflectuninformed disagreement.To say Mechanical common assignments give way that where wc do not know thc answer we to more dynamic nractices which permit should he flexible and experimental reflects seeking. self-selection. and creative solutions. a bias in favor of thc scientific method. Children may thcn properly occupy various The democratizationofeducational roles in a group. have interests which differ. opportunities has caused a gradual shift in and be in the process c finding a place in a attitudestoward individualdifferenccrin society which survives and prospers because large numbers of people from suppression. to individuals fit into its varied needs. toleration, to cultivation.If one accepv Thc time has come to accept individual capitalization on differencesbetweenindi- differences in children as a reality and to viduals and building on strengthwithinan work with thcm without trying to blame them individual as desirable practices for schools. on anyonc or to feel guilty that they exist. certain consequences follow. The curriculum Resistance to casy modifiabilityisman's becomes broad rather than narrow. The ex- insurance of stability, and the possibility of pected achievement is at the level of the change his hope for thc future.Individual child's ability rather than at the average. differences among people area precious norm, or standard for a group. Instructional asset. A constructive program to meet them materials with a rangc in difficulty arc avail- promises large returns.

EL 24 I 71 6410-/503: April 196 7 196- ASCII

"Hey, You!"

ROBERT W. EDGAR

Hey. You.' It was a 'mergcncy. Somebody had da Wha'cha want? pa.ss . You. What are you doing in the hall? What's your homeroom number? Goin' to the barroom. Seven twelve. Where's your pass? Look. Get back to your class immedi- I don't got none. ately.I'm sending a note to your homeroom What's your name? teacher, telling him you were in the hall with- foe. Joe Doc. out a pass. Why haven't you rota racs? O.K.. teach.

Robert W. Edgar, Professor of Education, Queens College of ThcCity University of New York, Flushing 43 38 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

'Teach- encounter% "you- inalarge In the economists' model of thc efficient city school.Wes his name really Joe Doe7 society, humanityis ignored.People arc le'athishomcrooninumberreally seven like magnctic counters, attracted and repelled twelve? Did he really have a "'rnergency".' by wages and profits as the market com- What tracher has time to dicover the niunicates information concerning supply answers7 Thirty-fiveAidsinaclass.five and demand. Love of place or pride in skill clases a day. and these only a minor handful is irrelevant.Inthis world of quantities. of the thousands that throng the corridors, fill human attributes and feelings arc more often the classrooms. and jam the sidewalks.Who are they7 What are they doing? Why? Who obstacles than aids. knows? Who caret? Impersonalefficiencyprobablyde- serves its high place in the economic order. OUR societyishaunted by a But to give it the same priority in thc orga- sense of despair arising from the lack of nization of moi-al enterprises endangers these meaningful contact among people. Seventy institutions.Schools aim to develop good years have passed since Durkhcim. in his mcn for the good society.In their realm. study of Sukide. used thc word "anomie- to efficiency is a minor virtue.Yet even here designate the rootlessness that characterizes its influence is difficult to resist.Its per- thc lives of many people in urbanized, indus- vasiveness is seen even in the writing of a trialized. and bureaucratized societies. man like James B. Conant, whose creden- Our greatest American playwrights. tials as a civic-minded teacher-scholar arc Arthur Miller, Tennzssec Williams, and Ed- beyond reproach. ward Albee, have made this the central Conant, in prescribing a program for theme of their best works. Willy Loman in secondary schools in The American High Death of a Salesman, fulfilling Durkheim's School Today,' puts the elimination of the thcsis, concludes a life dedicated to being small high school at the top of his list. The "well-liked- by suicide: Blanche Dubois, in prospect of limited course offerings and only A Streetcar Named Desire, dispossessed partially qualified teachers is so horrifying from her ancestral home and defeated in that he cannot even notice in passing the her efforts to establish meaningful relations vit2I social role which the small school has with others, chooses the fantasy world of played in the life of its community. Conant, insanity; while the family and friends in concentrating on the efficient deployment of A Delicate Balance, thrown together at a teachers and facilities, forgets that the small timc of crisis. arc unable to be genuinely school satisfies human needs that the larger concerned witheachothcr'sfate. The one often overlooks. authors of the novels Catch-22, The Invisible However, this paper is not addressed Man, and Nobody Knows My Name reiterate to thc small school in the rural area, but to the same thcsis. For all the car-clogged high- the mass school in the metropolis. These ways, thc crowded multi-dwellings, and the schools have never been troubled by the jammed supermarkets, the people of modern absence of pupils sufficient to justify the Amcrica find life lonely and meaningless. employment ofspecialists.Rather, their story is onc of trying to accommodate more-, The Dominance of the Economic Model children in buildings already filled beyond capacity. Today the typical New York City America is dominated by its economy, producing more goods for more people at high school has in excess of 4,000 pupils, less cost per unit than any other society sincc 1 James B. Conant.The American High man first gathered berries and lived in caves. School Today. New York: McGraw-Hill Book in this activity the greatest good is efficiency. Company, Inc., 1959.

50 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 39

knowledge, some over 6,000; while thctypical junior fifties where people intcract with high school has between 1,400 and1.800 respect, and affection. School people have not been unmind- pupils. organizational In these schools, specialistsabound: ful of this problem. Various Thc self-contained principals and thcir assistants,department patterns have been tried. schools have chairmcn, guidance counselors,attcndancc classrooms of thc elementary relationships between officers. school-community coordinators. de- always madc close The primary velopmental reading teachers, remedialread- teachers and children possible. ing teachers, and a host ofspecialists in failure in human plations has been thc secondary school. Here thc greaterneed for subject matter. specialists and the greater maturityof the reshuffling both Danger of Depersonalization youth have madc constant necessary and possible. In such schools, interpersonal relations To counteract thc ensuingimperson- become more and more attenuated.The alization, educators have establishedhome- typical clascroom teacher has from150 to rooms and core programs.However, few 200 different pupils per y.If hc teaches schools have been able to makehomerooms music or health education, he probablyhas anything more than places to listen to an- 600 different pupils per week.Pupils are nouncements, while core programs seemto reshuffled among the teachers each year, have defects which have led togradual perhaps each semester. Who is who isoften elimination. lost in the process. The consequence is depersonalization. The Ilmali-fIchool-Withln-a-School Marks, test scores, and section numbers begin to replace living pupils.Incidents like A more radical reorganization must the following occur: A mother, asked about be tried.Small units within the setting of each con- her daughter, told me that for the firsttime the large school muct be created, organized in seven years of schooling her daughterhai sisting of a limited group of pupils Six years ago, failed a subject. She said she had gone to around a core of teachers. study the needs see the guidance counselorabout it."Of in designing an experiment to schools, course," she added, "the woman had never of beginning teachers in slum-area Educa- actually seen my daughter.She had her four members of thc Department of formed such a unit.2 folder and knew she had failed, but she had tion of Queens College Three recent graduates of the college never talked with her aboutit." in the project. For a Such schools endanger the develop- were selected to teach ment of their pupils as persons.Children three-year period these tRree young teachers in which they can have taught 85 youngsters four subjects:English, need institutions sci- meaningful relations with adults. Theyneed math, science, and social studies (the math). In addition, to be known, to beprodded, praised and ence teacher also taught remedial punished, laughedat and laughed with, they acted as homeroom teachers, greeted and watched over.Modern psy- teachers, and general advisers to the group. chology has taught us that children canlearr Their daily schedules were entirelydevoted to lovc only by beingloved. What makes to these children. Thepupils spent two- us ti..nic that they canlearn other human sources? City 2See Gertrude L. Downinget al. The Prep- virtuesfromimpersonal Culturally from aration of Teachers for Schools in schools will have to be transformed Deprived Neighborhoods.(The BRIDGE Protect places where "Hey, you!" and "O.K.,teach!" Flushing. New York: Queens College ofTheCity are typical exchangesinto humane commu- University of New York, 1965. 51 40 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era thirds of thcir day with them. The teachers school-within-a-school was a human institu- taught as a team under a coordinator, meet- tion, approving and disapproving,sometimes ing regularly to share their knowledge and warm. sometimes harsh,but never imper- to study improved methods andmaterials. sonal. never remo:e. The teachers reported many advantages in this novel organization.They felt Integrating Human Needs their planning was much improved.They and Specialization discover that wcrc pleased and stimulated to The small-school-within-a-school is a these pupils could retain some !earnings over feasible pa!tern for the large city high school. the summcr. Thcy reported that the timc It organizes teachers of subject matterin needed to train pupils in classroom routines a way which encouragesthem to sec children was substantially reduced after thefirst v6.ar. as total personalities.Though it focuses on They felt that their adaptations to individual the moral and emotional aspects of thechil- differences became better as time passed. dren's development, it also capitalizes onthc In addition. their team responsibilities gave special competencies of theteachers.Of them opportunities to capitalize on the in- course.. specialization is broadlydefined and sights of their colleagues and to participate applied. Teachers teach the whole gamut of in administrative decisions, such as deter- thcir subject arca and the coordinator finds mining membership of class groups and himself acting as both supervisor and guid- individual pupil assignments. ance counselor. Such breadthis not impos- To the observer, a salient feature of sible, and it has great meaning for children. small-school-within-a-school wasthe the In this organization, teachers and coordina- depth of understanding which characterized tor learn to accept their responsibilities not not only the relations of teachers topupils. only as specialists hut, more important, as but also of pupil to pupil and of tcachcr to genuine leaders of the young. teacher. Stresses and strains were not elim- Reflection on the problems of the ur- inated, but they could ilot t-e attributed to banized, industrialized, and bureaucratized the frustrations of impersonality.Anxiety society of today highlights its necd for "bite- de- among both groups was considerably size- institutions.The need in the school creased. Pupils. who wcrc accustomed to a is even greater than in thc society at large, school which seemed to use every oppor- for children need to be known and appre- tunity to expose their ignorance and inade- ciated if they are to flourish. Wc must resist quacy, began to lower their defenses. the tendency of our over-rationalized society Intimethc teachers were ableto to sec the solution to every problem indivi- demonstrate, through deed 2.nd not just by sion and specialization.Children arc more word, rhat they wanted to help the pupils. than the sum of thcir parts.If we are to not hurt them.Thc tcachcrs themselves. preserve their integrity, then schools must sustained through difficult times by the co- organize in ways that recognize integrity. ordinator, came to azeept cach other in spite Thcsmall-school-within-a-schoolis one of failures and weaknesses.Tliesmall- effort to meet that challenge. El

52 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 41

1.11.:() (5 ?v4.96. R. I chrtmry 19A3 1%1 AS( I;

The Dropout-Our GreatestChallenge

EARL Ckn.! F v

THERE is much interest pres- so many of our youngleave school is a cmly concerning the young people who are serious one. and I. for onc. am gratefulfor leaving our high schools before graduation. the increasing interest of lay people init. This is known as the "dropout problem.- The problem is quite humiliating to school Concern with this problem is not confined to people. because these youths leave uswith school people. but appears in all the mass nothing else in mind.If there were plenty medianewspapers. magazines.television. of jobs for our young. this would constitute Especially at the close of summer, news- a choice. but when thcvleave us for nothing papers often run articlesexhorting our young eke, it is hard to take.I question whether to go back to school. They quotestatistics any commercial enterprisecobld continue as to show how much betteroff thc holder of a going concern if it lost over athird of its a high school diploma isthan the person who business every year. docs not have one. The appeal Wails to state that if a young person will justhang What Is the Cost? on grimly until the bandplays Pomp and Circumstance, doors to thc good lifewill Thc cost to society and to individuals swing wiJe. of so many leaving our schools is hard to Some of those who decry the dropout calculate.Some of the dropouts. having situation arc the same people who tell us nothing to do, become delinquent: others that wc give out too many high school withdraw into mental illness. The economic diplomas to students who do not deserve loss to society for delinquency andmental them, and who complain because, they say. illness is staggering, and getting worse every the diploma has no meaning any more. Some year. The loss inself-respect suffered by suggest meeting this problem by givingthe those who find no place in our culture may unworthy ones special diplomas that will cripple them for the rest of their lives.Who show that thcy are inferk r.Sometimes we can compute 'he costof a life wasted in even establish an inferior colored paper so comparison wi h alife well lived? How that the quality of the diploma can be de- calculate the damage done to familyand tected from afar. At this moment it occurs friends? 12, to me that we might at last havefound a use The Saturday Evening Post (March for the skin of the black sheep. We could 1962) published an article by Kohlerand Kids give these youngsters black sheepskins. This Fontaine entitled, "We Waste a Million idea falls down because there are not enough a Year.- Some of theselive in your own black sheep to supply diplomas to all who home town. Human waste is our greatest do not deserve regular oncs.Perhaps the ex travagance. geneticists could solve the problem. However, we are here concerned with Nevertheless, the problem of having the large percentage of o'ir young whohave

Michigan Earl C. Kelley.In 1963. Professor of Edit( anion.U'aync State Unirersity. Detroit. 53 42 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era dropped out but arc still in school.If wc Response to Pressure visit a secondary school class and look atthe Why do these dropouts stay in school? faces of the young people, we ssII see that Mainly. I think, hecausc of the enormous in many cases the outstanding characteristic parental and cultural pressure.Itis "the of the members is that they arc notirwolved thing to do."If they leave school, their in what is going onMost of thcm arc going fathers and mothers would be too embar- through motions to please their elders. Some rassed. The neighbors would wonder about arc just sitting. Some arcengaging in be- their basic intelligence and whether or not havior which can only he interpreted as a the condition is hereditary. There isn't any- Thelatterarcour"discipline protest. thing else to do anyway. SO, all things con- problems." sidered. they decide they may as well stay in While we have many studies of drop- school, hoping that the teachers won't bother outs, we do not know much about the mattcr. It seems that the quiet, because we have no way of including thc them too much. well-behaved ones have entered into an un- dropout who stays in school. An w.! seem spoken trucc with their teachers: "If you able to do is to coint bodies. but physical don't bother mc. I won't bother you." presence does not mean presenceof the The adult reaction to the young people whole person. who cannot become involved with what we These young people are doing very is little, learning very little; at any rade they have decided they should care abnut "If they were any good are not learning much ofthe curriculum. usually blamefol. they would like what I've planned for them." We hear a good deal about how much home- We reward the ones who can and are willing work a high school youth should do, but to do what we want, and punish thosewho studies have shown that these youths do not will not (cannot). Thus while these drop- do any homework. They have lost contact outs continue to stay in school, their concepts with what is going on in school, and are just of self continue to take a beating, so that it passing tir, is possible that they are actually less able for It is concerning this group that we get the complaints of employers and college having stayed. I do not think there is vcry much that teachers about the yoliths slho hold diplomas we adults do unless we seethe reason for but do not know anything. These arc the doing it, feel able to do it, and preferatly has been ones for whom the curriculum have had some small part in thc planningof "watered down."It seems never to have it.I nelieve that young people arc quitelike occurred to adults that if a soup does not us in this regard.They need to be able to of taste good in the beginning no amount see that theit school work isworth doing, and water will improve the flavor. Theneed is that it comes within the scope of whatthey for a fresh and different soup. feel able to do. They do not have tohave It is good that these dropouts have their own way, but, like us, they are more stayel in school, because they have to be enthusiastic about what they have had a somewhere, and even though they eschew hand in planning than they are aboutthings the curriculum, they are better off in schoo' that adults plan for them. This is especially than they might be if they removed their true since it seems to them thatadults really bodies.They get good out of associating live in another world. with theirpeers. They can enjoy many If involvement is necessary, then we activities which are cbsed to the physical must involve these younpters.This will dropout.But thi.,is not enough.They call for the abandonment of many of our desperately need an education too. sacred cows, because when young people 5 4 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 43 choose, there is no guarantee that they will If he stays. hc will of course get a choose what we had in mind. As for myself. "credential'or diploma which may be of have some things I think all people should sonic use to him.Itisa poor substitute know. But they don't and they obviously arc for an education.This isespecially true not going to. so I might just as well relax. if. as sometimes happens, wc thcn give him Not only must each learner he in- a spurious diploma. saying in effect, that hc volved but hc must be free to be involved really did not graduate after all. in his own way.Perluips the best-proven fact in educational research is that cach hu- Why Not Try? man being is unique. Wc will have to makc it possible for unique learners to do different ihereis nothing new in thefore- things and to come out with different !earn- going, certainly nothing new to supervisors ings. Thcy come out with different learning% and curriculum directors.Ifitis true that now, and always have. but we teachers have people have to he involved, that learners not yet accepted this fact.This failure to are unique, that goals have to be reasonably accept the obvious and inevitable spoils the near. why don't wc do more about it? What lives of many teachers. are we afraid of? People do things with goals in mind. I have asked this questiou many times. The envisioned goal is the valid reason for Often thc answer is, "Wc don't know how." doing anything.Children and youth are Superintendents and principals tell me they people. In general, the younger the person. would like to have good core classes, for thc more immediate the goal must be. When example. but they do not have anybody who we tell an elementary or junior high school knows how to do it. child that if he does not do what we tell him It seems to me that if our profession to. he will not be able to go to college. he is requires us to do something we do not know not likely to be impressed. Hc has to have how to do. then we must learn how. This a bctter reason than that, and it seems likely applies to the tcaching profession as a whole. that wc may have to modify what we are We will have to be satisfied with small be- doing. ginnings at first because, not knowing how, When wc urge youth to stay in school. wc must learn in small ways at first. We can or to return to school to do what hasalready expand on these small beginnings until we been found wanting, we sell a shabby piece do know how. of goods.I would like for all of them to The dropouts, in school and out, are stay in school, if for no other reason than legion.In some ways. they seem faceless. there is no other place in our society for Our society being what it is, they have no them. Just to "stick it out." however, will place init,except inschool.They are not do them very much good. What we could wasting their time. often deteriorating rather say is that "if you will stay with us. wewill than improving. They constitute our greatest trysomethingdifferent..omethingthat waste. They can give us our greatest oppor- makes sense to you." tunity. 44 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

1- L. 01 Frhrtrar,Ico.(0$ c iit!t6 ASCII

Creativity and Its PsychologicalImplications

MMUE I. RASE'S'

AUNT Eliza madc piricushion; the process, even practice long hours on for old and young in the village whereI skills thcy dislike for the sake of the product. grew up. She begged forbroken lamp chim- The psychological implications are bound to neys, which were plentful inthat day. Shc hc different ones fo, these two situations. broke away the pcarkd tops to use for thc For the purposes a this brief discus- base and bound Small cushions on the jagged sion, we shall define the product aspect of edgec. When cvcry man. woman. and child creativity as any form which results from the in the village hadt least two, it occurred to individual's energies that are expended over someone to ask her: "Aunt Eliza.why do patterns which are new to him.Neither you keep making pincushionswhen we all process nor product need bc new in the have so many?" After a thoughtful pause. world. It is his creation if it is new to him. she answered: "lust for a bein' a doiff. This breadth of concept will contain guess. She was probably right.It pleased Aunt Eliza's pincushions and Dr. Marlowe's her to be busy with the process.It did not bulletins, and a myriad other formulations much matter to her that she cared as little in between. Cakes and pies, pictures and for the product as did thc recirient.s. poems. blueprints for architecture, social or Then there was old Professor Marlowe. material, all these arc products of the crea- long retired and much belovedHis fertile tor's process. As "The Monk in the Kitchen" okl brain kept right on wrestling with current says of the orderly state he has createdthere: "Lo. what was not. is." problems.Reading. analyzing. formulating his opinions, there resulted a sort ofSo- By the proccss aspect of creativity, we ciological Bulletin much sought after byhis shall mcan the outflow of energy ofindi- former students and highly valued by them. vidual or grotp through which a product is Doubtless he, too. enjoyed the doing. structured. As matter is defined as outflow yet it was clear that it was the bulktin,thc of energy slowed down to materiality, so the end product. which was his primary concern. creative process slows down to product.It The enthusiasm of his forme- students also is a total process, but a complex one.Its added its piquancy.Whatever the varied oneness is structured of part-proccsscs one satisfactions which triggered his doing, his of whic'n triggers anothcr.As the process major objective was the thing created, and proceeds the playbacks rcport the degree of the process by which it was created was of achievement. The sight or thought of food This process triggers the secondary importance. triggers salivation. Such examples arc to be found in most next as the food progresses withthe rhythmic fields of creativity. Some creators are un- movements of throat andgullet. Th2 sight concerned with the product, once created. or thought of a gauntMack tree against a paints, Others who create in the same area.: tolerate setting sun may trigger the artist to his

Marie I. Rasey. in 1956. Professor of Edricatiorand Soda: Psychology, Wayre StateUnfversity. retroit. Michigan. and Director. RayswiftGables Horne for Exceptional Children

56 IndMdualization: The Pupil as Person 45 thc musician to his score, thc poet to his in the opposite direction.He breaks his words, and a mothcr to thc crcation of a vase. He destroys his script.Rarely, it ap- hearty warm soup against thc autumn chill. pears, is thc creator able to look uponhis Now thc successive processes become creation and say: "It is good." more apparent.That which was so lately a perception or idea,existing only in that Ever-Widening Areas of Experience nehulow area, begins to take on thingncss. As we observe these moving proccsscs, lt becomes real.Its reality consists in thc thcy parallel or perform which is emerging from formlessness. wc cannot but note that haps arc identical with those ofgrowth of it is a recipe, a tentative sequence ofsounds. in words, or melodies. It is a basic skctchlaid tissue which result in physical structure those of in on canvas. But the flowcontinues.It is the human individual and also learning which result in understanding.At no longer plan or vision.Its reality begins It has become actual. one time we mighthave objected: "This may to be acted upon. being crea- There is now soup to eat, a symphony to be true when new knowings arc in which hear. There arc poems or pictures tostir ted, hut what of those processes a young organism islearning what those the heart. But But thc crcator has rnade anearlier before him have created or reiterated?" His perception of his externality this position is no longer tenable. creation. cach of is his crcation too. And itis uniquely his. It now appears that whatever by his selection His perception of thc item is peculiarly his us learns, hc must first create thc inter- own, an emergent out of thcexperiencing of of items out of the whole, and by perceiving. his yesterdays. compounded upon thoseof pretation hc puts upon or into his his his species, since time began. He secsand What hc sees comes from him. What creative perception maker of whathc sees hears and feels, literally andfiguratively. Hc for produces fresh patterning whether inclay or makes of an experience whatever it is always in color or sound. He accomplishesactuality him. He and his creating are pointcd out, per- creative word upon process. for as Ames has as hc pronounces his own for It is this word which estab- ceptionis never more than prognosis his substance. thc acting which makcs thc lishes an order upon those itcms which wcrc action.ltis actbality. Whatever that action establishesis otherwise unrelated and chaotic. sun." Whcn thc kitchen is thc studio, eges. for him "somcthing new undcr thc To whatever extent this point ofview sugar, and flour march at thecommand of thcir thc creative fiat. "let there be cakc.- And proves valid, to that extent all mcn arc creation is the there is cake! Some artists use less concrete own creators. Their primary Musician self cach is.This crcation does not get materials than eggs and sugar. It is a and poet may create from within,soundlessly finished and done with once for all. with pencil on paper, hcaring their creations never-ending process. With cach new-made only on their own resouncrng ears. Yet these, self, thc created becomes creator upon the too, must have spoken thcir own typeof stuff of his externality. He establishes con- "Lct thcrc be." tinually new relatednesses between himself Sometime the crcator must pass judg- and the whole and thc parts of his externality. he ment on hs work. As heworks in quiet Since thc human specimen is what What confidence or frenzied haste, thecontinuing thc process of creating is inevitable. depend to playback will satisfy or frighten him.He the process yields is not. That will building blocks se- may be easily pleasedand far less than per- some extent upon thc lected. and those available for selectionin his fect creations result.It looked promising. It fell short. Somctimcs his judgmcnt may crr externality, as well as upon the uniquenesses 5 7 46 I, "`.31.3 ileb,4 'I,t ,J1`

.4!he 1,hsla01.4f .whis.h hri 4 ar Wo .. .wh protcina hu Id kw. tells. uLtii,n A.c. P'`,' theh 1-4,141 the sameput pg ries ,fik, , nom, esperienkeit konian'..Flown 11 oh whatewr stuff he twit hand.andto put into heads Ind Nandi reales, the Lrcation will Iv the ohiectitit. thc tiit11 le.antnit I hc,..returnwitha lion of thecorresps,ndences set up between commonality of t 11NA-tenseto%hirend tt,ereator and that which he thoo..i:s understand his esternality ups,n which to fccd I hose who willrecallthehlm of IS the recognition of these facts. how %Atil,aid fireI /tree R vwill rememher ever vaguel±,conecIvcd. which lies behind howMhs I empledrew from the ehildren's so-calledmodern education.Inorder to ownfreshexperiencingthewordsthe!, know, the learnermust doAs adoer. he is learnedtospellandread Shemerely a creator. As a creator he becomes aknower. wrote upon the hoard the signs and symbols Such practices and concepts as are useful tor their knowing..It was created hy all and stem from these principles. Such as are less read hy all.Presently they will also learn than useful come either from inadequate or to do their own writing, too, although they misdirected creation on the one hand, or on willlikelyinalltheiradult life speak a the other from a misconception of the sig- thousand and read a hundred for the one nificance of the principles. word they write. In "premodern days" education was Experience tends to waken interest and also concerned with doing.But the con- provoke wishes and desires. Wishes and deception was somewhat different. The learner sires drive to purposes.Purposes demand "did" his examples in arithmetic. He "did" fulfillment.Purposes carried out become his assignments. By these repetitive doings, experience. Experiences prompt further ac- it was thought that he increased his skills and tion, and fresh energy is released for further broadened his knowledge. When he was a learning. free creator fulfilling his own drives and No detailing is necessary of the ma- purposes, he learned and learned richly. terials and practices by which the child When he was motivated only by the pur- creates his knowing. Paint and clay, words poses of others for him, many of which he and stories, excursions, real and play occu- could not espouse, he learned slavish com- pations are his "chaos." The creator does pliance or slavish rebellion. In arithmetic he and knows. He becomes and comes to be. "did" so many examples and had so little More Than a Kitten experience in problem solving that he most often became a chronic collector of right In a recent experience in India, part answers, and seldom a problem solver or a of our class of Head Masters of High Schools mathematician. While he is practicing exer- had gone on a trip. Those who could not cises, he cannot grow into a problem solver. afford the trip were making teaching aids of While he is slavishly driven by the purposes one kind and another. There were contour of others, he cannot grow into a free man. maps, bulletin boards, dioramas, three-di- The modern teacher, in the elementary mensional pictures of high moments in Indian grades at least, has caught this vision. She history and literature.It was planned that takes her pupils out of the school building when the travelers returned we would have into the flux of living.They visit adult an exchange session. The travelerswould activities.They go to dairies and firehalls describe their experiences and explain how and into stores and courts. The teachers take they intended to use what they had learned their children out, not alone to give them on the trip when they recurned totheir some freedom from the unnatural confine- schools. Those who had remained would 58 At. oft ,s ii Oltlft

rst.t Vie rr c hid h yf ?Indio,/ .4h,: I 4- 1: .tle MO h.i! .hc forh ..0411 r he in. n.!r Ng,*itAtsi ne ind iisk ,,t-en ririwst .1 1 .1.,ru,t know this, intcnded wie itn their re Ts elial it ir,,eh k. J /V1 tb.1; turnedIntl I at.h PitIrsot hi% iiwts /sr f Khcn I !hos,: who had ,..tught the sons. err ,fto. he was pushmo, ,..,tr.11 into it with the 0:thernessigimed for,cswithi aher.And hutt of his pcn ih.ired the taskSonic kw Lould n.t et Quite kitten,I onnnsentcd IA hen hong the-nisi:1%c. to do this andk. t11\l: I make them I Alw-1have trouble with thr that they could do hy themwlses As they nis:k I don't get enough %cuffing tn. and th,' rummaged thrisugh the materialstheyitin head tips vcr exthed some patterns for stuffed toys,which 1 shall stuffit well. and I shall do it had gotten in with our materials somehow. .1 beard," he answeredthen it was time for I hese patterns seemed poorly suited tohigh the reports.%%hat would Mohan have to school boys and girls. say about the uses of a stuffedkitten with What was my surprise asIni,wed secondary schoolpupils'?When histurn about among the 65 to find Mohan sewing came he strode to the center of thecircle.In "Friends," he togetherthepieces of what would be a his hand he held his kitten. stuffed toy kitten.I was not surprised that cried in a challenging tone. "You may think he worked alone.I had not thought that hc it strange that I make a stuffed kit-ton toy would want to work with anyone. He had to use with high school boys.I will explain been our despair thc first two weeks.Fic you." There followed a meticulous descrip- was a little man, and hisdignity had not tion of cuaing and sewing.He made no been quite tailored to his sizc.It sat a little mcntion of his own error.He told the large on his narrow shoulders.He kcpt process down to the last stitchin putting in stuffing his stuffed shirt attitude to hold It a pasteboard base, "that thekit-ton may together.He uscd complaints about food stand." and service,the songs we sang and thc "And Ishall use it," hc continued, things we did and didn't do. Yet here he "as I have learned here to saypleasantly sat with the most beatific look onhis face, what might otherwise be unpleasant. When and had sewed the two picces of white cot- the boys have made their notebooks messy, ton all around leaving no opening io turn or have grown too noisy,I shall take kit-ton and stuff it. How was I to show him what from my pocket and I shall say: `Kit-ton, needed doing without spoiling his state of thc boys are too noisy aren't thcy?' And U-ton will say 'yes,' " and he nodded the bliss?I paused by his chair, and with one of his most infrequent smiles, he said:"I kitten's head with his forefinger. make a kit-ton because I can sew." He A titter went round the group.It was pronounced it sue. "My mother died when partly in recognition of the good perfor- I was young. I can sew and also cook." If mance, and partly surprise athis unwonted his kitten had come alive it could not have gentleness.For a second the old pattern purred more complacently. How was one flared. A frown more appropriateto a to correct without wrecking thejoy? The Grecian Jove sat on his bantam brow. "It is stitches were a bit longer on the tiny ear, my kit-ton.I have made it. Let no one say and I :eized on that. "I'd hate to try to turn that it is his." There was a rocad oflaughter that from that tiny ear. I'd expect it would and the cloud lifted. ravel out." And I passed on quickly. "I wish to say more," he continued. As I glanced back, I saw that he had "I wish to say that thisis more than a discovered his error, and sat there glaring kit-ton and a way to say things.Itis at his kitten.He who was so skilled in also a miracle. At first I have thoughtthis 59 41

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. 1f,'d I )11 aa:t1 '''t ,.( 1 . h, !: a. ta,a, !1'14; ohaik wiz ,1110. h, r Kaik ' 4111 ta.:11 ,f1 itl.111:Is, 441 1114,1110.11n Ifh ht.(' . t1C,- %Al t, ,aParlil laughed %hen we ',any,:14I !condom,- Ht 11111p man mto 1.1 under aandinbz te l her while we ..ineth.it we were .iwtulk the d'a...00nv, pr, at es. tn.v. the le.khcr I saw and I Aso laughed!hen I hevan a,anic% the ,..r;.0..ar ri,le, \CAW% t11 "-et: how th,:laughing sn,.11Cd !th:impat ter a fk Ilk ,,AL'OVV,Ifindeed %he !hen the reptrts wc wade together the ni.in e.r qicceeded ii diaing it uals we wrote ihe e '.a. tit stow, thes I he function becomes rather that of slicked us cli,ser together about more iniplr st.n:e manager and Neon: shifterShe moves tant things. up circumstancesa littlenearer or Itghts "Behold me.I am not a voting man. some obscure eon, She does not try to I am lecturer in a teacher training college put knowledge into anyone. She tries to lead Yet I, even I have made such a kit-ton from him into areas which ;ire rich and inperience- khadi cloth.I wed it well, and I am proud. laden.She trusts him to create his own and I shall use it to teach my young teachers knowing.Sheisnot so much concerned how to say unpleasant things pleasantly. But with his habit, as with his hahitat. "that state as this cotton became kit-ton in myhands. of nature in which a species is at home." something happened to me.I became my She does not attempt to feed him. She under- own creation, something other thanI was. takes to make reasonably safe and highly I cannot name it, so I shall call it the miracle inviting the ever widening areas of his aware- of thekit-ton, and I shall not again be the ness so that he can "go in and out, and find same man." pasture."

EL 24 (6): 493-96: March /967 "0 1967 ASCII

Uniqueness and Creativeness:The School's Role

E. PAUL TORRANCE

THROUGHOUT the history of "No." Creative individuals have almost al- education, in a diversity of ways men have ways had serious difficulty in surviving in the asked,"Shouldthe school assume more re- schools of theirday. sponsibility than it now does for the identi- Many rationalizations have been offered fication and cultivation of uniquenessand for the negative answer. Some people say, creativeness in and among its pupils?" Usu- "There is noway of identifying a creative ally, the answer has been a very definite individual." Others say, "It is not possible

L. Paul Torrance, Professor and Head, Department of EducationalPsychology, University of Georgia, Athens

60 0-' 4. 4 ,1

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itIf itII 4,011 toy p111Clit 1814: runt , 14 Mild a tili V1-4 !eV '14 .4 Ii tfl and ple¶tlIC itut i5 ,n114..f /4 6.61 'S if t 4.in ?Ptit ITU' Nilo s!clignicl Ai liar r pay- 6. ,K,06; /6, pntu,t1 funch,,nini nt!,, 7 ,G.7 she tLille,rc,3tIvItv 41. ther fhe lc cvett.pnient rrivt %ha-neverinvAlpeat,nr human behavior is rernt rtt1 ft.,111the re.ilm of my-4 3.Assess...one instruments terv, edth.ation.11pr.3itsce ,irteatiti varteivof4.:4c1:rilentinstrument. .111cmpting to ,sperationalui. thc aholeJeri 2. A Definition Operationalized 111114,t1 h aloe been developed After nine );cars of devel,,prnent. one achwvement in this area and developmental In my research is the publication of aresedirch (-dawn of work, I have maintained that emit c think- alternate forms of hoth verbal and figural responds construc- ing occurs when a person batteries of tests of creative thinking.Thr tively to a situation that calls for nonhahitual technical-norms manual for these batteries. behavior, solution,. for which the behav cr offers a variety of test-retest reliability, inter- I have been con- has no learned response. scorer reliability, and validityinformation. among cernedprimarilywithcreativity Progres.: has also been made on thc school children, in classrooms, and among development of measures of creative mva- I have chosen, therefore, to define teachers. tion,preferencesfor learningin creative creativity as a process whereby one becomes ways, and procedures forhelping teachers aware of problems, difficulties, gapsin infor- identify creative potentialities. mation, and disharmonies for which he has Whatever thc limitations of thcsc tests for clues in thc no learned solution; searches might bc, thcy can help cducators become situation and existing knowledge; formulates aware of potentialities thatmight otherwise hypothcscs, tests them, modifies thcm, and go unnoticed. Theseinstruments may also rctcsts thcm; and communicates thc results. provide models for developing mcasurcs of If onc accepts this definition, he can subject mattcr achievement, and sequences thcn ask what mental abilities or kinds of of learning experiences that provide experimental functioning are brought into play in ence in creative thinking. the proccss; what personal qualities facilitate the process; what kinds of teaching methods, 4.Not Necessary To Leave to Chance classroom procedures, and instructional materials will facilitate the process. The defini- The work of my associates and me, Con can also be used to guide evaluations of Crutchfield and his associates,6 and dozens the products that result from the process. of others has demonstrated thatcreative The process can be replicated in classrooms functioning and development among school children can be facilitated by deliberate 3B. F.Cunnington and E. P. Torrance. methods, sequences of guided experiences. Imagi/Craft Materials (10 albums and teacher Instructional materials developed through guides). Boston: Ginn and Co., 1965. these projects give classroom teachers some 4 R.E. Myers and E. P. Torrance. Can You ready-made helps which, if used intelligently, Imagine?; InvitationstoThinking and Doing: Invitations to Speaking and Writing Creatively contribute to creative development. This, of (pupilideabooks and teacher guides).Boston: Ginn and Co., 1965. 6R. S. Crutchfield."Creative Thinking in P. Torrance. Rewarding Creative Be- Children: Its Teaching and Testing." In: 0.G. 5E. Holtzman. havior:ExperimentsinClassroomCreativity. Brim, Jr., R. S. Crutchfield, and W. H. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,Inc., Intelligence: Perspectives 1965. New York: Har- 33-64. 1965. court, Brace & World, Inc., 1966. pp.

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tignItN,And mcn' iihiilth 1 ourprescnt F orin.3nyvvart.ins:litigatorsh.sve No. Ictv found that drops in ,rrativc functioning and participation in creativeJ::'14 triesccur at In ,:onclusion. nunv miles have equa hout age rive, the fourth grade, and thc ted%:reative w.tto: leaning with progressive seventh grade.It was generally assumed education,permissiveness. and LiA:kof dis that these drops or discontinuities werein ,tplinc evitabicand healthyaspects A development A 4..areful'samination of the meth- My assOelates andIhavebeenunwilling ods .mdmaterialsthat havebeer. developed to accept this assumption. and evaluated reveals that such a conclusion In a seriesofstudies, wc have is grossly inerror. shown thatthese discontinuitiesdo not oe. The most semitive and alert kind of cur undcr teachers who deliberately build guidance and direction is required. Although upon skills already acquiredandmake usc there arcmoments cf play, thc mostrigorous ofactivities that give opportunities for the kinds of discipline arc required.Learning practice of the creative thinking abilities and in creative ways requires expensive energies creativepersonality characteristics.Com- andemphasizes theself-acting rather than parative developmental curves in several dif- thc receptivenatureof thc mind. Thc im- ferent cultures have shown that thc shape portanccof theinformedmind and thc of thc developmental curves differs from acquisition of authentic informationarc cen- country to country and that drops tcnd not tral thcmcs. to occur in cultures that have been dcscribcd The creative mind wants to know, digs as continuous. We have also shown that in- deeper, gcts into dccp water, and encounters telligent use of well-prepared instructional closed doors.It makes and corrects mis- materials makcs the influence of the school takes, builds sand castles, cuts holes to see strong enough to offset the effects of cultural through, "sings in its own key," and "has a discontinuities.8 ball." To failto recognizethis complexity 6.Children Learn in Different Ways reflects a misunderstanding of the creative process and the educational practices neces- To me, the most exciting insight thatsary to identify, acknowledge, and develop that has come from creativity research is creative potentialities through education. 1::] different kinds of children learn best whcn given a chance to learn in ways best suited 9E. P. Torrance. "Different Ways of Learn- ing for Different Kinds of Children."In: E. P. 7A. Binet. Les Idées modernes sur les en- Torrance and R. D. Strom, editors. Mental Health fants.Paris: E. Flamarion, 1909. and Achievement. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 8E. P. Torrance and R. Gupta, op. cit. Inc., 1965.pp.253-62.

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learnmg OurDifference

*h.si the *,,r!t114 IA.:and the pcovie 4111t wh it in if Stmh li,astirrtatqlsArt'part the s.nd Aboutindoodu.d h oft:;h.is h.oc morc to do with thc sinienc,t le.un rris itc de,.elored .1 ts.,sictet .ss cr.*thanwith dItTcrcnscsWm., norm; heing an .ind st.mtlard scores all seem tolumr lc.irners .urriptit,ns, the aim atcd huni.m through continuing Together rather than tre.itthemas uniqui.- e wand his Assumption Ihecuntinuing fhis as onls pArtis hecause t.ichersJo n.,t cv ablation of csperience CI'licetang datisome understand the science of measurenwnt es aluation w allanv.)11, of which is quantified. And testing ne sfeed- intheircommunications,measurers prey iouslearrungs ! *nder themselves oftenhavenot carefury sep- back against suchas therapyor arated their measurements fwm thevariables some circumstances. trauma, changescan push into the basic set being measuredThey have allowed teach- is ers to develop rigidinterpretations of mea- of a.sumptions; but for each of us there about human behavior surements as though they were-real-- -for a core of -knowledgewhich instance. teachers have been allowed tothink almost not available to evaluation but influences all children "have-IQ's.And teachers have affects evaluation becauseit even been urged touse statistics about groups criteria, values, and motivation. as though they weredata about individuals. Since all learning involves evaluation, and since evaluation springs from anindi- humanness,all Learning Assumptions About vidual's assumptions about learning involves significant elements unique Human Behavior and unmeasurable. Traditionally,school In order to escape this paradox, itis procedures have left to chance the develop- important that teachers reexamine whathu- ment of these basic assumptionsabout human difference reallyis.It is essential that manness. teachers do this task for themselves. Learners were not being helped to In our living experiences there is per- evaluate anything so personal, sointrinsic tells vasive feedback for each of us which to the self. At best, ctudents wcrctold what us that all humanbeings arc different. We assumptions to have. each know vaguely that we are all a part of Now educators arc recognizing thatif other, but we know indeed that eachof us we facilitate thedevelopment of each learn- is unique. The samc living experiznceswhich ignore the of differ- er's full potential we must not teach each of us the universality with him. And deal with unique others core from which we start ences also teach us to tell by making assumptions about them.These slowly we are admitting that we cannot assumptions are part of each self's concept a learner what tovalue, by what to be moti-

San Francisco, Rodney A. Clark, Professor of SecondaryEducation, San Francisco State College, California

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EL 16 (4): 232-42; January 1959 1959 ASCD

Significant Learning: In Therapyand in Education

CARL R. ROGERS

PRESENTED here is a thesis, a more than an accumulation of facts.It is point of view, regarding the implications learning which makes a difference--in the which psychotherapy has for education.It individual's behavior, in the course of action is a stand which I take tentatively, and with he chooses in the future, in his attitudes, and some hesitation.I have many nanswered in his personality.It is a pervasive learning questions about this thesis.Yet it has, I which is not just an accretion of knowledge, think, some clarity in it, and hence it may but which interpenetrates with every portion provide a starting point from which clear of his existence. differences can emerge. Now it is not only my subjective feeling that such learning takes place. This feeling Significant Learning in Psychotherapy is substantiated by research. In client-cen- Let me begin by saying that my long tered therapy, the orientation with which I experience as a therapist convinces me that am most familiar, and in which the most re- significant learning is facilitated in psycho- search has been done, we know that exposure therapy, and occurs in that relationship. By tosuchtherapy produceslearnings,or significant learning I mean learning which is changes, of these sorts:

Carl R. Rogers, Resident Fellow, Center for Studies of thePerson, La Jolla, California.In 1959, Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin,Madison Individualization: The Pupil as Person 57

factual knowledge withammuni- The personconies to seehimself dif- comparing tion. He wound up his littlediscourse with ferently. damned ammu- He accepts himself and hisfeelings more the exhortation, "Don't be a nition wagon; be a rifle!" Ibelieve most edu- fully. sharethissentimentthat He becomes more self-confidentand self- catorswould knowledge exists primarily for use. directing. educators are He becomes more the personhe would To the extent then that interested in !earnings which arefunctional, like to be. which make a difference, whichpervade the He becomes more flexible,less rigid, in person and hisactions, then they might look his perceptions. psychotherapy for leads or He adopts more realisticgoals for him- to the field of ideas. Some adaptation foreducation of the self. learning process which takes placein psycho- He behaves in a more maturefashion. therapy seems likea very promising pos- He changes his maladjustivebehaviors, even such along-established one as chronic sibility. alcoholism. He becomes more acceptantof others. The Conditions of Learning in Psychotherapy He becomes more open tothe evidence, of himself, both to what is going on outside Lct us then see what is involved, essen- and to what is going oninside of himself. tially, in making possible thelearning which personality char- He changes in his basic occurs in therapy.I would like to spell out, acteristics,in constructive ways.1 as clearly as I can,the conditions which I think perhaps thisissufficientto seem to be presentwhen this phenomenon indicate that these are !earningswhich are occurs. significant, which do make adifference. Facing a Problem Significant Learning in Education The client is, first of all, upagainst a situation which hc perceives as aserious and I believe I am accuratein saying that meaningful problem. It may bethat he finds educators tooare interestedinlearnings himself behaving in ways whichhe cannot which make a difference.Simple knowledge control, or he is overwhelmed byconfusions of facts has its value. Toknow who won and conflicts, or his marriageis going on the the battle of Poltava, or whenthe umpteenth rocks, or he finds himself unhappyin his opus of Mozart wasfirst performed, may work. He is, in short, faced with aproblem win $64,000 or someother sum forthc with which he has tried to copeand found possessor of thisinformation, but I believe himself unsuccessful. He is therefore eager educators in general are alittle embarrassed to learn, even though atthe same time he is by the assumption that theacquisition of frightened that what he discovers inhimself such knowledge constituteseducation. Speak- may be disturbing. Thus oneof the condi- ing of this reminds me of aforceful state- tions nearly always present is anuncertain ment made by aprofessor of agronomy in and ambivalent desire to learn or tochange, my freshman yearincollege.Whatever growing out of a perceived difficultyin meet- knowledge I gained in his coursehas de- ing life. parted completely, but Iremember how, What are the conditions whichthis with World War I as hisbackground, he was individual meets when he comes to athera- pist? I have recently formulated atheoretical 1 For evidence supportingthese statements, picture of the necessary andsufficient condi- see references (7) and(9). 69 58 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

tions which thetherapistprovides, if con- wonder if he knows what he really feels, structive change or significant learning is to recognizing that he may be quite unaware occur (8).This theory is currently being of the feelings he is actually experiencing. tested in several of its aspects by empirical With such a person we tend to be cautious research, butt must still be regarded as and wary. It is not the kind of relationship theory based upon clinical experience rather in which defenses can be droppedor in which than proven fact.Let me describe briefly significant learning and change canoccur. the conditions which it seems essential that Thus this second condition for therapy the therapist should provide. is that the therapist is characterind bya considerable degree of congruence in the Congruence relationship. He is freely, deeply, andac- If therapy is to occur, it seems neces- ceptantly himself, with his actual experience sary that the therapist be, in the relation- of his feelings and reactions matched byan ship, a unified, or integrated, or congruent accurate awareness of these feelings and re- person.What I mean isthat within the actions as they occur and as they change. relationship he is exactly what he isnot Unconditional Positive Regard a façade, or a role, or a pretense.I have used the term congruence to refer to this A third condition is that the therapist accurate matching of experience with aware- experiences a warm caring for the clienta ness.It is when thc therapist is fully and caring which is not possessive, which de- accurately aware of what he is experiencing mands no personal gratification.Itis an at this moment in the relationship that he is atmosphere which simply demonstrates "I fully congruent. Unless thiscongruence is care"; not "I care for you if you behave thus present to a considerable degree, itis un- and so." Standal (11) has termed this atti- likely that significant learning canoccur. tude "unconditional positive regard," since Though this concept of congruence is it has no conditions of worth attachedto it. actually a complex one, I believe all ofus I have often used the term acceptance to recognize itin an ityuitive and common- describe this aspect of the therapeutic cli- sense way in individuals with whom we deal. mate.It involves as niuch feeling ofaccep- With one individual we recognize that henot tance for the client's expression of negative, only means exactly what he says, but that his "bad," painful, fearful, and abnormal feel- deepest feelings also match what he isex- ings as for his expression of "good," positive, pressing. Thus whether he isangry or affec- mature, confident, and social feelings.It tionate or ashamed or enthusiastic,we sense involves an acceptance of anda caring for that he is the same at all levelsin what he the client as a separate person, with permis- is experiencing at an organismic level, in his sion for him to have his own feelings and awareness at the conscious level, and in his experiences, and to find hisown meanings words and communications. We further- in them. To the degree that the therapist more recognize that he is acceptant of his can provide this safety-creating climate of immediate feelings. We say of sucha person unconditionalpositiveregard,significant that we know "exactly where he stands." learning is likely to take place. We tend to feel comfortable and secure in An Empathic Understanding a relationship. With another person we recognize that what he is saying is almost The fourth condition for therapy is certa;nly a front or a façade. We wonder that the therapist is experiencingan accurate, what he really feels, what he is really experi- empathic understanding of the client's world encing, behind this façade. We may also as seen from the inside. To sense the client's

70 individualization: The Pupil as Person 59 private world as ifit were your own, but his experience are looked at, and he finds without ever losing the "as if" qualitythis himself questioning many of the "facts" of is empathy, andthis seemsessential to his life, discovering they arc only "facts" therapy. To sense the client's anger, fear, because he has regarded them so. He dis- or confusion as ifit were your own, yet covers feelings of which he has been un- without your own anger, fear, or confusion aware, and experiences them, often vividly, getting bound up in it, is the condition we inthetherapeutic relationship.Thus he are endeavoring to describe. When thecli- learns to be more open to all of his experi- ent's world is this clear to the therapist, and encethe evidence within himself as well as he moves about in it freely, then he can both the evidence without. He learns to be more communicate his understanding of what is of his experienceto be the feelings of which clearly known to the client and can also voice he has been frightened as well as the feelings meanings in the client's experience of which he has regarded as more acceptable.He the client is scarcely aware. That such pene- becomes a more fluid, changing, learning trating empathy is important for therapy is person. indicated by Fiedler's researchin which The Mainspring of Change items such as the following placed high in the description of relationships created by In this process it is not necessary for experienced therapists: the therapist to "motivate" the client or to supply the energy which brings about the The therapist is well able to understand change. Nor, in some sense, is the motiva- the patient's feelings. tion supplied by the client, at least in any The therapist is never in any doubt about conscious way.Let us say rather that the what the patient means. motivation for learning and change spring3 The therapist's remarks fit in just right from the self-actualizing tendency oflift: with the patient's mood and content. itself, the tendency for the organism to flow The therapist's tone of voice conveys the into all the differentiated channels of poten- complete ability to share the patient'sfeel- tial development, insofar as these are experi- ings (3). enced as enhancing. I could go on at very considerable Fifth Condition length on this, but it is not my purpose to A fifth condition for significant learn- focus on the process of therapy and the learning in therapy is that the client should ex- ings which take place, nor on the motivation perienceorperceivesomethingofthe for these learnings, but rather on the condi- therapist's congruence, acceptance, and em- tions which make them possible. So I will pathy. It is not enough that these conditions simply conclude this description of therapy exist in the therapist. They must, to some by saying that it is a type of significant learn- degree, have been successfully communicated ing which takes place when five conditions to the client. are met: When the client perceives himself as faced The Process of Learning in Therapy by a serious and meaningful problem When the therapist is a congruent person It has been our experience that when in the relationship, able to be the person he is thesefiveconditions exist,a process of When thetherapistfeels an uncondi- change inevitably occurs. The client's rigid tional positive regard for the client perceptions of himself and of others loosen When the therapist experiences an accu- and become open to reality. The rigid ways rate empathic understanding of the client's in which he has construed the meaning of private world, and communicates this

71 60 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

When the client to some degree experi- of which the Sputniks are but one observable ences the therapist's congruence, acceptance, example. and empathy. So the first implication for education might well be that we permit the student, at Implications for Education any level, to be in real contact with the relevant problems of his existence, so that he What do these conditions mean if ap- perceivesproblems and issues which he plied to education? Undoubtedly the reader wishes to resolve. I am quite aware that this will be able to give a better answer than I implication, like the others I shall mention, out of his own experience, but I will at least runs sharply contrary to the current trends suggest some of the implications. in our culture, but I shall comment on that later. Contact with Problems I believe it would be quite clear from In the first place, it means that signifi- my description of therapy that an overall cant learning occurs more readily in relation implication for education would be that the to situations perceived as problems.I be- task of the teacher is to create a facilitating lieve I have observed evidence to support classroom climate in which significant learn- this. In my own varying attempts to conduct ing can take place. This general implication courses and groups in ways consistent with can be broken down into several subsections. my therapeutic experience, I have found such an approach more effective,Ibelieve, in The Teacher's Realness workshops than in regular courses, in exten- Learning will be facilitated,it would sion courses than in campus courses.Indi- seem, if the teacher is congruent. This in- viduals who come to workshops or extension volves the teacher's being the person that he courses are those who are in contact with is, and boing openly aware of the attitudes problems which they recognize as problems. he holds.It means that he feels acceptant The student in the regular university course, toward his own real feelings.Thus he be- and particularly in the required course, is apt comes a real person in the relationship with to view the course as an experience in which his students. He can be enthusiastic about he expects to remain passive or resentful or subjects he likes, and bored by topics he does both, an experience which he certainly does not like. He can be angry, but he can also not often see as relevant to his own problems. be sensitive or sympathetic. Because he ac- Yet it has also been my experience that cepts his feelings as his feelings, he has no when a regular university class does perceive need to impose them on his students, or to the course as an experience its members can insist that they feel the same way. He is a use to resolve problems which do concern person, not a faceless embodiment of a cur- them, the sense of release and the thrust of ricular requirement, or a sterile pipe through forward movement are astonishing. And this which knowledge is passed from one genera- is true of courses as diverse as Mathematics tion to the next. and Personality. I can suggest only one bit of evidence I believe the current situation in Rus- which might support this view. As I think sian education also supplies evidence on this point. When a whole nation perceives itself back over a number of teachers who have as being faced with the urgent problem of facilitated my own learning, it seems to me being behindin agriculture, in industrial each one has this quality of being a real per- production,inscientificdevelopment,in son.I wonder if your memory is the same. weapons developmentthen an astonishing If so, perhaps itisless important that a amount of significant learning takes place, teacher cover the allotted amount of the

7 2 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 61 curriculum, or use the most P npro ve daudio- niques, of theory, which cons 'itute raw ma- visual devices, than that hc be congruent, terial for use.It seems to mt. that what I real, in his relationship to hisstudents. have said about therapy suggests that these materials, these resources, be madeavailable Acceptance and Understanding to the students, not forced uponthem. Here Another implication for the teacher is a wide range of ingenuityand sensitivity is that significant learning may take placeif the an asset. teacher can accept the student as heis, and I do not need to list the usual resources can understand thefeelings he possesses. which come to mindbooks, maps, work- Taking the third and fourth ronditionsof books,materials,recordings,work-space, therapy as specified above, the teacherwho tools, and thelike.Let me focus for a can warmly accept, who canprovide an un- moment on the way the teacher useshimself conditional positive regard, and who can and his knowledge and experience as a re- empathize with the feelings of fear,anticipa- source. If the teacher holdsthe point of view prob- tion, and discouragement which areinvolved I have been expressing, then he would in meeting new material will havedone a ably want to make himself available tohis great deal toward setting theconditions for class in at least the following ways: learning. Clark Moustakas, in his book,The He would want to let them know of spe- Teacher and the Child (6), has given many cial experience and knowledge he has in the excellent examples of individual and group field, and to let them know they could call situations, from kindergarten to highschool, on tkis knowledge. Yet hewould not want in which the teacher has workedtoward just them to feel that they must use him in this this type of goal.It will perhaps disturb way. holds such atti- He would want them to know that his some that when the teacher field, and of tudes, when he is willing to be acceptantof own way of thinking about the organizing it, wasavailable to them, even in isnot onlyattitudestoward feelings,it lecture form, if they wished.Yet again he schoolwork itself which are expressed,but would want this to be perceived as an offer, feelings about parents, feelings of hatred for which could as readily be refused as accepted. brother or sister, feelings of concern about He would want to make himself known selfthe whole gamut of attitudes. Do such as a resource-finder. W:latevermight be seri- feelings have a right to exist openly in a ously wanted by an individual or by the whole school setting? It is my thesis that theydo. group to promote their learning,he would be They are related to the person's becoming, very willing to consider thepossibilities of to his effective learning andeffective func- obtaining such a resource. tioning, and to deal understandingly and He would want the quality of his rela- acceptantly with such feelings has a definite tionship to the group to be such that his feel- relationship to the learning of long division ings could be freely available to them, without restric- Pakistan. being imposed on them or becoming a or the geography of tive influence on them. He thus couldshare Provision of Resources the excitements and enthusiasms ofhis own learnings, without insisting that the students This brings me to another implication follow in his footsteps; the feelings of dis- whichtherapy holdsforeducation.In interest,satisfaction, bafflement, or pleasure therapy the resources for learning one'sself which he feels toward individual or group lie within. There is very little datawhich activities, without this becoming either a carrot the therapist can supply which will be ofhelp or a stick far the student. Hishope would be since the data to be dealt with existwithin the that he could say, simply for himself, "Idon't person. In educationthis is not ',rue. There like that," and that the student with equal free- are many resources ofknowledge, of tech- dom could say, "But I do."

73 62 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Thus whwever the resource he sup- understand the feeling which had arisen in pliesa book, space to work, a new tool, the group, since his response totheir feelings his an opportunity forobs.m.vation of an in- and attitudes would take precedence over dustrial process, a lecture based on his own interest in expounding material. study, a picture, graph, or map, his own I have not included any programof emotional reactionshe would feelthat evaluation of the student's learnings in terms these were, and would hope they wouldbe of exteinal criteria.I have not,in other perceived as, offerings to be used ifthey words, included examinations. I believe that in were useful to thestudent. He would not the testing of the student's achievements feel them to be guides, or expectations, or order to see if he meets some criterion held commands, or impositions or requirements. by the teacher is directly contrary tothe He would offer himself, and allthe other implications of therapy for significant learn- resources he coulddiscover, for use. ing. In therapy, the examinations are set by life. The client meets them, sometimes pass- The Basic Motive ing, sometimes failing. He finds that he can It should be clear from this that his use the resources of thetherapeutic relation- basic reliance would be upon theself-actu- ship and his experience in it to organize him- alizing tendency in his students.The hy- self so that he can meet life's tests more pothesis upon which he would build is that satisfyingly next time.I see thisas the students who are in real contact withlife paradigm for education also. Let me try to problems wish to learn, want to grow, seek spell out a fantasy of what it would mean. to find out, hope to master, desire to create. Li su,:h an education, the requirements He would see his function as that ofdevel- for many life situations would be a partof oping such a personal relationship withhis the resources the teacher provides. The stu- students, and such a climate in his class dent would have available the knowledge room, that these naturaltendencies could that he cannot enter engineering schoolwith- job come to their fruition. out so much math; that he cannot get a in X corporation unless he has a college Some Omissions diploma; that he cannot become a psychol- These I see as some of the things which ogist without doing an independent doctoral are implied by atherapeutic viewpoint for research; that he cannot be a doctor without the educational process. To make them a bit knowledge of chemistry; that he cannot even sharper, let me point out some of the things drive a car without passing an examination which are not implied. on rules of the road.These are require- I have not included lectures, talks, or ments set, not by the teacher,but by life. expositions of subject matter which are im- The teacher is there to provide the resources posed on the students.All of these pro- which the student can use to learn so as to be cedures might be a part of the experience able to meet these tests.There would be if they were desired, explicitly or implicitly, other in-school evaluations of similar sort. by the students.Yet even here, a teacher The student might well bc faced with the fact whose work was following through a hy- that he cannot join the Math Club untilhe pothesis based on therapy would be quick to makes a certain score ona. standardized sense a shift in that desire. Hemight have mathematics test; that he cannot develop his been requested to lecture to the group (anci camera film until he has shown anadequate to give a requested lecture is verydifferent knowledge of chemistry and lab techniques; from the usual classroom experience), but that he cannot join the special literature sec- both if he detected a growing disinterest and bore- tion until he has shown evidence of dom, he would respond to that, trying to wide reading and creativewriting.The

7 4 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 63

in natural place of evaluation in lifeisas a conventional class in personal adjustment, ticket of entrance, not as a club overthe self-initiated extracurricular learning, in crea- recalcitrant.Our experienceintherapy tivity, in self-responsibility. would suggest that it should be the same way I have come to realize, as I have con- in the school. It would leave thestudent as sidered these studies and puzzled overthe be a self-respecting,self-motivated person, free design of better studies which should to choosp whether he wished to rutforth the more informative andconclusive, that find- effort to gain these tickets of entrance.It ings from such research will never answer would thus refrain from forcing himinto our questions. For all suchfindings must be conformity, from sacrificing his creativity, evaluated in terms of the goals we have for and from causing him to livehislife in education. If we value primarily the learn- terms of the standards of others. ing of knowledge, then we may discard the I am quite aware that the two elements conditions I have described as useless, since of which I have just beenspeakingthe there is no evidence that they lead to a lectures and expositions imposed bythe greater rate or amount of factualknowledge. teacher on the group, and the evaluation of We may then favor such measures as the one the individual by the teacherconstitutethe which I understand is advocated by a num- two major ingredients of currenteducation. ber of members of Congressthe setting up So when I say that experience inpsycho- of a training school for scientists, modeled therapy would suggest that theyboth be upon the militaryacademies.Yet if we omitted, it should be quite clear that the value creativity, if we deplore the factthat implications of psychotherapy for education all of our germinal ideas in atomic physics, are startling indeed. in psychology, and in other sciences have been borrowed from Europe, then we may Probable Outcomes wish to give a trial to ways of facilitating If we are to consider suchdi astic learning which give more promise of freeing changes as I have outlined, what wouldbe the mind. If we value independence, if we conformity of the results which would justify them?There are disturbed by the growing have been some research investigations of knowledge, of values, of attitudes, which our the outcomes of a student-centered type of present system induces, then we maywish to teaching ( I, 2, 4), though these studies ar:. set up conditions of learningwhich make for far from adequate. For one thing, thesitua- uniqueness, for self-direction, and for self- tions studied vary greatly in the extent to initiated learning. which they meet the conditions I havede- scribed. Most of them have extended only Some Concluding Issues over a period of a few months,though one recent study with lower classchildren ex- I have tried to sketch the kind of edu- tended over a full yea- (4). Someinvolve cation which would be implied by what we the use of adequate controls, sonicdo not. have learned in the field of psychotherapy. I I think we may say that thesestudies have endeavored to suggest very briefly what indicate that in classroom situationswhich it would nean if the central focus of the teacher's effort were to develop a relation- at least attempt toapproximate the climate I have described, the findings are asfollows: ship, an atmosphere, which was conducive Factual and curricular learning isrough!- to self-motivated, self-actualizing,significant equal to the learning in conventionalclasses. learning. Yet this is a direction which leads Some studies report slightly more, some sharply away from current educational practices and educational trends. Let me men- slightlyless.The student-centered group and shows gains significantly greater thanthe tion a few of the very diverse issues

7 5 64 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era questions which need to be faced if we are school students, "You simply cannot expect tothinkconstructivelyabout suchan kids of those ages to determine the sort of approach. education they need unless they have some In the first place, how do we conceive guidance" (12). This seems so obvious i. the goals of education? The approachI most people that even to question itis to have outlined has, I believe, advantages for seem somewhat unbalanced. Even a chan- achieving certain goals, but not for achieving cellor of a university questions whether free- others. We need to be clear as to the way dom is really .7K;cessary in education, saying we see the purposes of education. that perhaps we have overestimated its value. What are the actual outcomes of the He s'tys the Russians have advanced mightily kind of education I have describeu? We need in science without it, and implies that we a grea' deal more ofrigorous, hard-headed should learn from them. research to know the actual results of this Still another issue is wheel] .r we would kind of education as compared with',:on- wishto opposethe strong current trend ventional education.Then we can choose ti ward education as drill in factual knowl- on the basis of the facts. edge.All must learn the same facts in the Even if we were to try such an ap- same way. Admiral Rickover states it ashis proach tc the facilitation of learning, there belief that "in some fashion we must devise are many difficult issues. Could wepossibly a way to introduce uniformstandards into permit students to come in contact with real American education. .. .For the first time, issues? Our whole culturethrough cus- parents would have arealyardstickto tom, through the law, through the efforts of measure their schools.If the local school labor unions and management, through the continued to teach such pleasant subjects as attitudes of parents and teachersis deeply 'life adjustment'. ..instcad of French and committed to keeping young people away physics, its diploma would be, for all the from any touch with real problems.They world to see, inferior" (12). This is a state- are not to work, they should not carry re- ment of a very prevalent view. Even such a sponsibility, they have no business in civic friend of forward-looking views in education or political problems, they have noplace in as Max Lerner says at one point, "All that a international concerns, they simply should be school can ever hope to do is to equip the guarded from any direct contact with the real student with tools which he can later use to problems of individual and groupliving. become an educated man" (5, p. 741).It They are not expected to help about the is quite clear that he despairs of significant home, to earn a living, to contribute to sci- learning taking place in our school system, ence, to deal with moral issues, Thisis a and feels that it must take place outside. All deep-seated trend which has lasted for more the school can do is to pound in the tools. than a generation.Couldit possibly be One of the most painless ways of in- reversed? culcating such factual tool knowledge is the Another issue is whether we could per- "teaching machine" being devised by B. F. mit knowleke to be organized in and by the Skinner and his associates (10). This group is individual, or whether it is to be organized demonstrating that the teacher is an outmoded for the individual. Here teachers and educa- and ineffective instrument for teaching arith- tors line up with parents and nationalleaders metic, trigonometry, French, literary appre- to insist that the pupil must be guided. He ciation, geogr aphy, or other factual subjects. must be inducted into knowledge wehave There is simply no doubt in my mind that organized for him. lie cannot be trusted to these teaching machines, providing immedi- or mize knowledge in functional termsfor ate rewards for "right" answers, will be fur- himself. As Herbert Horivor says of high ther developed, and will come into wide use. 76 Individualization: The Pupil as Person 65

will suffice.I Here is a new contribution fromthe field a time when timid answers which we have tried to give a definition ofsignificant of the behavioral sciences with and must come to terms. Doesit take the place learning as it appears in psychotherapy, described, or is it a description of theconditions which facili- of the approach I have tried to indicate supplemental to it? Here is one ofthe prob- tate such learning. I have face toward some implications ofthese conditions for lems we must consider as we education. I have, in other viords, propos,x1 the future. one answer to thesequestions. Perhaps we I hope that by posing theseissues, I can use what I havesaid, against the twin have made it clear that thedouble-barreled backdrops of current public opinion and question of what constitutes significantlearn- current knowledge in thebehavioral sCle.ICes, ing, and how it is to be achieved, posesdeep as a start for discovering somefresh answers and serious problems for all of us.it is not of our own.

References Child. New York: McGraw-Hill BookCompany, 1. Volney Faw."Evaluatior of Student- CenteredTeaching." Unpublishedmanuscript, 1956. 1954. 7.C. R. Rogers. Client-Centered Therapy. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. 2.VolneyFaw. "A Psychotherapeutic C. R. Rogers. "The Necessary and Suffi- MethodofTeachingPsychology."American 8. Therapeutic Personality Psychologist 4: 104-109; 1949. cient Conditionsof Change." Journal of Consulting Psychology 21: 3.F. E. Fiedler. "A Comparison ofThera- 95-103; 1957. peutic Relationships in Psychoanalytic,Non-direc. 9.C. R. Rogers and R. Dymond, editors. tive and Adlerian Therapy." Journal ofConsulting Psychotherapy and Personality Change. Chicago: Psychology 14: 436-45; 1950. University of Chicago Press, 1954. 4.John H. Jackson. "The Relationship Be- 10.B. F. Skinner. "The Science of Learn- tween Psychological Climate and theQuality of ing and the Art of Teaching." HarvardEduca- Learning Outcomes Among Lower-Status Pupils." tional Review 24: 86-97; 1954. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 11. Stanley Standal."The Need for Posi- 1957. tiveRegard: A Contribution to Client-Centered 5. Max Lerner. America as r Civilization. Theory." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Universityof New York: Simon & Schuster, !!;31. Chicago, 1954. 12. Time, Decembei 2, 1957. 6.Clark Moustakas. The Teacher and the 0 3 SOCIALINVOLVEMENT: THE ISSUES, THE IDEALS

Grappling with the many socialissues confronting us, we as school people must realize that we dare tint leavethe course of revolution to others if our idealsfor education are to count.Why must we be so involved? We cannot afford theluxury of the revolution's threshing out its own des, my in termsthat will negate the ideals thatgenerated it. Lceper, p. 69. EL22 (1): 5-7; October 1964 1964 ASCD

Schools and the Social Revolution (An Editorial)

ROBERT R. LEEPER

THAT a social revolution is now represents. This movement is at once local, under way cannot be denied.Its existence state, national, and worldwide. is documented in each day's headlines and Scholars have studied and analyzed the broadcasts. Through sit-ins, picketing, drives onset, the middle period, and the outcome for voter registration, protest meetings, peti- of many revolutions.They recognize, in tions for redress of grievances, and otLer retrospect, the severity of circumstance and nonviolent demonstrations, we are having condition which brings about a popular re- the needs of hitherto silent minorities laid volt. They also recognize the critical points squarely upon the consciences of all citizens. at which the original motives of the revolu- The burden of the haunting freedom songs tion hang in balance.At such points the cannot beignored.Symptomatic of the ideals of the revolution either are adhered to revolution, too, are many of the more violent or are reshaped, subverted, or abandoned. events, such as the riots in several of our Such scholars, with the clarity of hindsight, cities,the bombings, and the mysterious can note also the manner in which the revo- disappearance or death of persons working lution works itself out in line with the ideals for civil rights. which inspired the revolt at its beginning, We are conscious today, as never be- or along new lines which may in fact deny fore, of the intensified efforts of individuals, the original purposes. of groups, of peoples to improve their lot. The social revolution today is in full They seek to enhance their condition in life, course.Whether or not we areactively to attain for themselves and their children involved in the struggle, the sounds of con- a better chance than might otherwise be flict and the acts of contest are all about us. theirs.Only such an idealistic goal could We are, whether we will it or not, concerned justify the hazards and the sacrifices entailed in the outcome of the struggle.This is a in suLh a revolt against "things as they are." revolution which must not be captured by In a very real sense, the social revolu- criminal or negative forces. tion we are now experiencing is part of the The question is, do we in education recognize our responsibilities in the revolu- long and continuing struggle of man for free- tion now under way? What is the role of the dom and for the right to guide his own des- schools in this revolution of people within tiny in concert with his fellow human beings. the framework of our democracy? A definition of "revolution" is "a sudden, radical, or complete change," Such is the na- Role of the Schools ture of the present phenomenon that in some respects it is difficult to gauge its depth and We believe that school people cannot the far-reaching quality of change that it stand idly by while the storm works itself out

Robert R. Leeper, ASCD Associate Secretary, and Editor, ASCDPublications, Washington, D.C.

. 68 '7 9 Social Involvement: TheIssues, the Ideals 69

of the schools. Sometimesthe school people in abandon and possiblyin meaningless fury. that does not Dig deep into the purposesof the revolution wait for a "go ahead" signal come; while at the sametime the citizens and we will discoverthe ideals that have may wait for andwould welcome signs of always given the oppressed,the underpriv- support for and desperation wholehearted approval of and ileged, the moral strength desegregation on the part ofthe school needed to resist injustice.As school people, we must do ourpart in helping allcitizens people. to see these basicideals with clear eyes and We can act at all levels tostrengthen to hold fast to thebeliefs that have made us the person-to-personrelationship in school- the inheritors of a wayof government that ing. The forces which nowtend to deper- protects and enhances thestatus of the indi- sonalize theschool and to advocatethe vidual as he joins his lotwith his fellow men. treatment of individuals on a massbasis must There are many thingsschool people be recognized for whatthey are: suitable can and shoulddo if we are to help shape only for manipulation ofthings, of objects. the torrent of events nowsweeping us toward They are not appropriate for usewith people of a different tomorrow.Many of these possi- engaged in the very human processes bilities and necessities havebeen before us teaching and of learning. for longer than we wouldlike to acknowl- We must act to create bettermental edge. Mostly, though, we haveignored these health conditions in ourschools. A setting or temporizedwith the need for their intro- conducive to emotionalstability should be duction. Some of the things we cando are provided for all pupils andteachers. Ade- the following: quate psychiatric helpshould be available when needed, even at anearly age.This We can develop a wayof working need becomes so evident to uswhen we see within and among schools thatwill bring all that one psychopathicindividual can lead persons who willbe affected by decisions whole decisions are made. a modernnation to war upon the into the process in which world, or that anotherunstable individual We can make the learningand use of can perpetrate adeed that can bring people the methods of intelligence,of critical think- throughout the world intomourning. ing, and of experimental processes apart of Grappling with the many socialissues the continuing experienceof learners of confronting us, we as schoolpeople must whatever age. realize that we dare not leavethe course of We can teach effective useof and re- revolution to others if our idealsfor educa- spect for all areas ofknowledge, and for the tion are to count. Why must webe so values and ideals that strengthen ourcom- involved? We cannot affordthe luxury of mon and unselfishendeavor. the revolution's threshing outits own destiny the ideals that gen- We can stop waiting forthe reluctant in terms that will negate community to take the leadin desegregation erated it.

80 70 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

EL 26 (2): 135-38; November 1968 0 1968 ASCD

A Cultural Enrichment Project Pays Off

I. B. BRYANT

TRADITIONALLY, America experiences were designed to introduce the has been considered a land of freedom. Nev- students to unfamiliar cultural, technological, ertheiess, one can easily observe that a large and scientific areas. segment of the American population has been economically, educationally, and cul- The Problem turally deprived, with little or no opportunity for exposure to experiences which would The specific problems of the study, enrich life. Some school people, genuinely then, sought to answer the following ques- concerned about the achievement of their tions: students, have come to believe that experi- 1. What are the present opportunities mentation may be a vehicle for discovering for cultural experiences offered by the school? ways or means of motivating culturally de- 2. What are some of the out-of-school prived pupils. activities and experiences that can be offered Some educators believe that a pene- by the school which might enhance cultural trating look should be taken at our present growth and increase academic achievement? level of achievement so that a program 3. To what extent will exposure to cul- might be formulated that would give greater tural experiences increase the IQ score? motivation to the disadvantaged and the de- 4. Do extra-class experiences, such as prived child.It has even been suggested visits to industry and planned occupational inthat more exposure to the American main- formation, affect occupational choices? stream or white world, to nongraded classes, and administrative imagination might be How This Study Differs helpful in the motivation of the deprived. After two years of exploratory study, This study differs from similar studies educators in one school system decided to which did not indicate that attention had set up an experiment with volunteer stu- been directed toward the Negro pupil in a dents.' The purpose of the experiment was completely segregated school in the South, to determine whether academic achievement where Negro children were deprived of cul- could be improved when these students were tural opportunities sometimes by tradition, exposed to a variety of cultural experiences sometimes by custom, and sometimes by law. scheduled to take place before and after Thus, the present point of departure regular school hours. The opportunities for from any literature presented on the cultural deprivation of Negro pupils is the emphasis 1 Mrs. V. Besselle Attwell was Director. the present investigation will place on efforts

I. B. Bryant, 3319 Holman Avenue, Houston, Texas; Professor of Secondary Education, Texas Southern University, Houston. ln 1968, Professor of Education, Dillard University, New Orleans, Louisiana, and former Principal, Kashmere Gardens Junior-Senior High School, Houston, Texas SocialInvolvement: The Issues, the Ideals 71 designed to overcome the cultural deficien- effort by the teacher can supplement the cies due largely to the segregation system. holding power of the school and decrease the The investigation also was an attempt dropout rate. to determine what can be done toenhance cultural growth within the framework of the Academic Grades and Honors present school facilities without a financial grant, since most schools will hardly receive It was found that academic achieve- extra fmancial assistance from any source. ments appeared to have increased due to Further, the investigation was an at- out-of-school activities and experiences. At tempt to determine the extent of parental the completion of the study, 16 of the pupils cooperation with school efforts that make participating in the program gained mem- extra-school experiences available to their bership in the National Honor Society, and children, even though thereisan added 41 were consistently on the school's honor expenditure of time and money. roll.In order to get on the honor roll a pupil must make all A's or a minim= of Procedure 4 A's and 2 B's, with E in conduct in each subject. For the purposes of this experiment the According to the record only six stu- highi. h grade was dividedintotwo dents made an average of D; 35 a grade groups: (a) a comparison group and (b) an average of C; 33 a grade average of B; and experimental group. One half of the high 26 a grade average of A. The registrar's ninth grade students were used as a com- records also indicate that over a 31/2-year parison unit.They were not permitted to period the academic grades of the experi- attend or participate in ally of the planned mental group were much better than those activities of the experimental group. of the comparison group. The second half of the high ninth grade students were used as an experimental group. Increasing the IQ Score One hundred and fifty pupils pledged themselves to participate in the project, 100 as Since IQ tests are essentially cultural full participants, and 50 as alternates. tests,it then appears that such exposure might change the IQ of the project students. Attendance Mayer, in his book The School, observes that: One of the hypotheses of this investigation was that interesting out-of-school A child's environmentthe toys he has experiences possessed holding power that had, the challenges he has metwill certainly influence his score on any test. Nobody can might be exerted on the participants to the separate a child's intelligence from his experi- extent that they would be influenced to re- ence, his "thinking ability" from the informa- main in school for a longer period of time. tion available to him when he thinks....All The records indicate that 86 percent of intelligence tests then are measuring a child's the pupils remained in school as well as a past opportunity for learning as well as his part of the experimental project, while only inherited gift for learning.2 14 percent were replaced. On the other hand, 74 percent of the comparison group re- Davis claims that: mained in school and 26 percent dropped 2 Martin Mayer. The Schools. New York: out and had to be replaced with alternates. Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1961.Excerpt Thus, it appears that the participation in in: "What IQ Tests Do Not Tell." Science Digest interesting extra-classactivities and extra 50: 14; December 1961.

E2 72 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

...all responses to all items in all tests Off-Campus Activities of general intelligence are inevitably influenced by the culture of the respondent.3 These volunteer students have been given an introduction to the arts. They have This experiment proposed to test this attended the opera, the symphony, and the hypothesis by exposing the youngsters to a ballet. They have been taken to see the col- wide variety of cultural experiences that are legiate world on campuses both inside the not generally available in the classroom. city and out. These young people have been According to the data, the average IQ taken to eat in restaurants which they nor- of the experimental group increased to 100.5, mally could not afford and from which they an increase of 7.6 for the two-year period. were formerly barred. According to the results of the second test, The off-campusactivities made the the comparison group showed a gain of 3.0, participants conscious of their personal ap- thus raising the group average to 92.4 dur- pearance, their conduct, and social graces. ing the same period. It is significant that these youngsters, who The slight increase in IQ average by prior to this experiment would have snick- the experimental group over the comparison ered, if not laughed, while watching a woman group can probably be attributed to the dance in leotards, today show appreciation extra-class experiences. for the ballet and other forms of art.

Occupational Aspirations College Entrance This phase of the study was an attempt Three years after the young people to answer the question: "To what extent do volunteered toparticipate inthe project, extra-classexperiences, such as visitsto they graduated from high school. One of the industry and planned occupationalinfor- by-products of the project was to determine mation,affectoccupational choice?" A the extent to which the students might be questionnaire was submitted to the students motivated to continue their education be- of both groups when the experiment began, yond secondary school. in order to determine their occupational choices at that time. A second question- According to the record, 29 percent of naire was submitted to the experimental the project participants and 17 percent of group after the pupils had been exposed to the comparison group enrolled in college much occupational information through lec- the following September.It appears that tures and to new occupational opportunities college campus visitations may have been a through visits to industry. contributing factor in motivating a larger The data of the first questionnaire in- percentage of the experimental group to dicated that the youngsters were leaning to- enter college. ward those occupational areas which Negroes Emerging from the data are the fol- traditionally enter.The second question- lowing conclusions: naire indicated that the experimental group 1. The usual out-of-school activities of showed a drastic change after business and the schools are too meager and too limited. industrial visitations and lectures on occupational opportunities. 2. More could be done to motivate deprived pupils, through planned out-of-school 3 Allison Davis, Kenneth Eells, Robert J. cultural enrichment activities, within the frame- Havighurst, Virgil E. Herrick, and Ralph Tyler. work of the present curriculum. Intelligence and Cultural Diflerences.Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1951. p. 25. 3. Cultural enrichment experiences can

8 3 Social Involvement: The Issues,the Ideals 73

achieve should only to want to 5. The pupil's capacity to help disadvantaged pupils not IQ score, as is so often remain in school, but also toimprove their not be "pegged" by an done. attendance. 6. According to thedata, the IQ of 4. There are manycommunity resources through extra effort classroom ac- pupils can be increased that can be used to supplement on the part ofteachers and through planned tivities, with great profit tothe child, at rela- extra-class experiences. 0 tively little cost.

EL 22 (8): 540-42,618; May1965 0 1965 ASCD

Poverty andReeducation

P. F. AYER

quality." Had I writ- im- particular element or POVERTY and reeducation would have said of poverty, ply that those who are poormay possibly ten a dictionary I who are ig- "Any state of being atless than the best become rich and that those individual and for the Yet pos sible for every norant may perhapsbecome wise. which each is one composite equality in time anddegree and entire mass of creation of by everybody, one by oneby one for the essential factor." Less of what? Less ofmaterial goods, whole mass, is impossible!Of course. What especially money, and allthe other elements is there to be said,therefore, which has not overuntil we of what we in theUnited States call the already been said over and "good life" is the usual answer.Yet this now live by itsimplication as if we truly and As a matter of fact, wish to take answer is incomplete. consciously believe it? Do we of our and reeducation for what this answer itself is a valid measure a look at poverty lack of vision, our lack ofdesire, our lack of they really are and forwhat they actually of hope, our lack of"education"meaning mean and, bydoing so, run the risk and of spirit and development. Poverty of mind coming face to face with consequent of means to supply ought are related to poverty inescapable indications of what we However, poverty therefore to do? I believe we do. material needs and wants. of mind and spirit areelemental and basic aad of prior concern in anyhope or plan of Of Mind and of Means successfully involving manin a search for fulfillment which will eradicatethe poverty Who is poor? He whohas less than of each day just pastand will create new another? He who hasless than he might each new day to possibly acquire? wealth by comparison in wish to have and might of course, because the comparative term. come. This is true, Poverty is by definition a won! Webster says poverty is "Anydeficiency in battle is never permanently If povertyand ignoran:eis poverty of what is desired" and alsois "Lack of some

Southern Mountains, Inc.,College Box P. F. Ayer. In 1965, ExecutiveSecretary, Council of the 2307, Berea, Kentucky 84 74 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

the most basic sortis any deficiency in When this inborn motivation has atro- what is needed and desired, then man will phied or has been practically destroyed, we always be poor today in terms of what he must then rearouse in mankind, one by one should have and should become tomorrow. by one, a new version of what he may per- Similarly, he may, if he chooses, always be haps now becomeand, of course, have rich today compared with what he had, and which he now is not and does not now have. compared to what he was, yesterday. We must develop effective functional inter- All this has been said before.Itis relationships between every man and his implicit in what we write and in what we environment, including his friends and also say and in what we hold up as the ideals and those he believes to be his enemies and those goals of organized educationthe school he despises for no real cause except that he system. Yet we persist in a myopic and un- does not know them and erroneously imag- dignified scramble toselect and graduate ines himself to be in competition with them only those who will do us and our methods even unto the death of one or the other. and our system honor x.their graduate If I have not lost your interest and achievement, by their professional status, hopefullyyour partnership already, think or with their vocational earnings. with me briefly about the specific problems Operating within this habitual reaction about which one would be expected to write pattern, reeducation is taken to mean simply under this topic.Poverty in all its easily the retrgning of people. Through such re- seen aspectsinadequate diet, poor housing, training, they are expected to react without wretched clothing, no spending money, lim- too much thought to new circumstances as ited experience in the realm of concepts and they occur and to perform skillfully and for communication of abstract ideas, uniform the highest pay possible new and routine upper and midti:c goals beyond mental tasks, while remaining unconcerned about reach and any reasonable hope of practical any great human purpose or ultimate human achievementis the great factor of discrim- destiny. Thus poverty, deep poverty of the ination in this nation. Lack of intellectual mind and spirit, may become the normeven potential is not disproportionately thenorm when and where economic prosperity and among the poor and the children of the poor. material security have been temporarily Rather an environment favorable to achieved. the development of intellectual potential does not exist for the poor either in pre- To Nurture Life school years or in early school experience or in the home and the community.Social Fi,st,then, we must recognize and acceptance is denied by the peer-age group. really understand and believe that eagerness Faith in and shared responsibility for the to see and to experience with all the senses, recognition, development, and appropriate to know, to dream, to try and to fail, and to reward of full development of those who try again is synonymous with being alive. live in poverty are not universally evident Thus our businessif we are to combat pov- among professional educators and the eco- erty with anything like an even chance to nomically and socially secure segment of prevailis to nurture this basic and almost the whole population to whose position of but not quite indestructible life factor. This advantage most education and reeducation we must do throughout lifefrom birth are oriented. Poverty, therefore, is both the through early childhood, in "preschool" situ- cause and the result of povertypoverty of ations, in "schools," among dropouts, for the mind, of the spirit, and of material teachers and parents and people of every goods. kind and condition. "Reeducation," quoted straight from

85 Social Involvement: The Issues, theIdeals 75 the title of this statement, means"reeduca- individual and to understand the total inter- We tion" of those whose formalschoolingor relationship and interdependence of all. the lack of it in either time orquality, or must begin to dream ofwhat society must bothleaves them at this moment inhistory now do to make life a processof t,ecoming and effec- rich tomorrow compared with ourindividual unable to be needed, functional, to tive participants (for pay) in thissociety. and mass poverty today. We must come tomorrow It means compensatory education inthe so- be concerned about our poverty and social called preschool years, as a part ofthe public compared with our individual school responsibility and function orother- "wealth"body, mind, and spiriton the wise provided by society.It means a new next day after that. by those faith in the possible intellectualnotmerely I am often called an idealist "vocational"potential of each child and who mean to render a aegativejudgment honor, though adult and therefore adaptations andreadap- by this term. They do me alter- tations in our methods until wediscover the unwittingly, because there is but one continuing native to idealism and that isacquiescence key to the ongoing interest and I am development of each and every one. It means to poverty in its broadestmeaning. easy!" To working with the individual in school,after also often told, "It is not that he has graduated, while he isemployed, this I reply, "Who said it is easy?Nobody, while he is unemployed, as he functions as a that's who!" ig- parent and a citizen, and ashe tends to sign Must the conquest of poverty and only alternative off and coast the rest of the way. norance be easy to be the I purposely do not propose a plan or a todefeat?Must povertyabsolute and and be- curriculum because the irresistible andoften relativebe accepted as inevitable merely be- valid response to specifics is "thatwouldn't yond all hope of improvement of values and our work here"; and with this attitudeit would cause our present system that we arouse present habitual andrelatively comfortable not work. What is required is either to ourselves out of our satisfaction with our methods have not yet been able from here ac- alleviate it or to recognize ourresponsibility poverty of ideas and go on reached the end of his cording to each particular 3ituation andthe to do so? Has man by invalid possibilities it offers and will tolerate. road because we excuse ourselves the ignorant? Reeducation under the compelling pres- cliché:, about the poor and deep poverty also means Mankindone by one by one and en sures of vast and and spirit reeducation of those of us who havebeen masseis poor in body, mind, but may right here on the job while this presentsitu- compared with what he could have, Just 7.s the underedu- yet, become, Poverty (inpersonal income) ation came to pass. be temporarily cated and unemployed andunneeded and and therefore retraining (to be reeducated in order competent in some new"job"for pay) are poor person must give thought to in to become again a neededand a contributing matters of importance to society, so this world of increasing numbersof people and a self-supporting member of what they also must the educated andthe employed faced by a decreasing need for be re- have always been needed todo.Genuine and the economically secure person and ef- educated to understand the true natureof understanding of man's inadequacy fective reeducation which amounts to adaily poverty. becoming something more nearlywhat man was created to be arethe two factors basic To Begin the Dream to any hope of overcoming grosspoverty education We must come to understandthe true both specific and generalby and relatively unlimitedpotential of each worthy of the name. 86 76 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Materials the Disadvantaged Needand Don't Need

MARTIN HABERMAN

WHAT makes a book, a film, or school, the materials, media, and methods a live fireman instructional material? Waat we seek are predictable. makes particular material of special use to A cohesive view of the disadvantaged the disadvantaged? shouldincludetheoreticalunderpinnings The disadvantaged are often defined from which to derive action programs. operationally as those less predisposed, than Actually, experts in human develop- some equally vague group of "others," to ment hunch that lower class children are benefit from school programs. The causes likely to be exposed to even more stimula- of this condition are usually attributed to tion than middle class children.' inadequacies at homee.g., few material Researchers also have suggested that goods, sensory deprivation, a lack of basic there is no evidence of real differences in information about the world, an absence of rate of development during the first two successfuladultmodels,and inadequate years, when such differences in stimulation amounts of loving care. For older children, would have to occur to have a lasting impact the school program, with its overemphasis on development.2 on reading and on abstract content, is often The source of much of the impetus for cited as the source and perpetuator of its thesensory deprivation approach comes own problems. from those who emphasize superficialities Given such assumptions, it is easy to e.g., the inability of many youngsters to at- understand the present search for preschool tend to the teacher's voice.Yet whether materials to rep,ac what youngsters have couched in terms of scholarly research ef- missed.If they lack commoditiesthings, forts to explain the neurological develop- pictures,noises,smells,and even body ment of infants, or programmed into tape warmththen these materials are sought recorders to help four-year-olds pick out the out and provided.For those already in teacher's voice in a noisy classroom, sensory school the causes of disadvantagement be- dePrivation is an insufficient explanation. come subsumed under the rubric "under- Perceiving disadvantagement as an ab- achievement," ;Ind the search for materials becomes a gr&ping at systemsi.e., ap- 1 J. McV. Hunt. "How Children Develop proaches guaranteed to teach basic skills, Intellectually." Merrill-PalmerQuarterly 10: notably reading, to all but the most severely 209-48; 1964. 2HildaKnoblochandB. Pasamanick. disturbed or retarded. Once we have ex- "Environmental Factors Affecting Human Devel- posed our assumptions about what puts opment, Before and After Birth."Pediatrics26: certainyoungsters atadisadvantagein 210-18; 1960.

Martin Haberman, Professor, Curriculum and Instruction, Universityof Wisconsin-Milwaukee. In 1967, Professor, Administration and Suxrvision 87 Social Involvement:The Issues, the Ideals 77 sence of concrete and lifeexperiences can self-perpetuating restrictions, or propel them result in a shallow emphasis on fieldtrips, into lifelong elaborations, provides abasis color cards, and geometric biocks. Yet just for both understanding and planning pro- The sug- as scholars offer little,beyond their conflict- grams for the disadvantaged.4 ing opinions, regarding which concepts are gestions for materials which follow derive "keys" to their disciplines, psychologists can from this belief that adding to children's suggest little regarding which concreteand language ccdes should be the critical purpose life experiences are critical to normalde- of special programs. velopment. When is lack of knowledge or experience merely ignorance and when is it An Approach to Materials the cause of subsequent and cumulative re- and Experiences tardation in the ability to form concepts? I recently had two opportunities of Teachers indicate more pervasive andlasting benefits for children who learn to use "or, working with six-year-olds. On an individual but, how, if, and when"in any content area basis, I took children who had not yet spoken than any information gained from scurry- in school or who were speaking in very restricted, limited ways to do the following: ing around on field trips. Bereiter makes the most cogent argu- Feel carpets lack of concrete ment for deemphasizing the Taste fruits and vegetables experiences as the causal explanation. Visit a motel swimming pool Blind children, on the average, show little Throw rocks into Lake Michigan or no intellectual andacademic deficiency, whereas deaf children are typically about ten Steer my automobile around a vacant points below normal in I.Q. and show gross field. inadequacies in academic achievement. ...this As a group, using private cars, we finding may be interpreted as meaning that deaf children are culturally deprived in much the took a whole class of almost nonverbal six- The way that lower-classchildren are deprived, year-olds to visit a suburban school. regardless of their home backgrounds. It would children observed classroom activities, disappear from this that socialclass opportunities plays of children's work, and physicalfacili- for concrete experiences either do not exist or ties. are not important, whereaslack of opportunity While there is much to criticize inthese for language experience has seriouseffects that activities, I found that using these materials closely correspond to those found incultural and experiences stimulated the youngsters depr ivation.3 to talk more than ever before.They were encouraged to describe and react, and even My basic assumptic a is that those who more, to compare, contrast,explain, and are less able to move fromthe social uses summarize. We began with no commitment of language to the levelsof conceptuali- to any material or subject matterbut with zationandtransmission willbedis- a behavioral objectiveto getyoungsters to advantagedin schools and in American express and to share ideas. society generally. Bernstein's formulationof Once children reach the agewhen the how linguistic codes can trapchildren into teachers feel pressured to teach reading,

4 Basil Bernstein. "Elaborated andRestricted 3 CarlBereiter and Siegfried Engelmann. Conse- Teaching Disadvantaged Children in thePreschool. Codes: Their Social Origins and Some Inc., quences." American Anthropologist 66 (6):55-69; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, "The 1966. pp. 30-31. © 1966. Reprinted bypermission December 1964. Special Publication, Part 2. Ethnography of Communication." of the publisher. 88 78 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era search for materials often deteriorates into ment in the room, nor the development of a search for a systematized reading program. specific kinds of experiences will guarantee While no reasonable person is against the maximum intellectual growth in the children. teaching of reading, the critical question is This can only be accomplished by the teacher's the degree to which each child will have a synthesis of a variety of experiences and the use of many kinds of materials concentrating hand in expressing his need, his readiness, on specific learning.° his way of learning. Those who unC .rstand the nature of development and the struggles The School Learning Center of the disadvantaged recognize that language development is broader than reading and One effective approach to developing that intellectual development is more per- and using materials with the disadvantaged vasive than the ability to call the written is the creation of a learning center.'Since word at the earliest possible age. this approach involves three full-time teach- Representatives ofprivateindustry, ers using three classrooms to cover only two foundations, publishers, and funding offices teaching loads, it may very well be that the of government have introduced the concept significant factors that have been added are of "teacher-proof packaging of systems," to teacher time and attention.But the addi- indicate their search for materials which will tion of a listening center,films, pictures, guarantee the teaching of reading by even filmstrips,records,transparencies,science the least able teachers.Field tests report materials, language kits, and a wide variety the hotable success of using S.R.A., Lubach, of additional materials seems to be part of i/t/a, Sullivan, Words in Color, the Detroit what is making the difference. Series,the Bank Street Readers, pocket Youngsters are not plugged into sys- books, and local ethnic newspapers. tems with "no-exit do-loops," but work with It is difficult to deny this "evidence" materials in small groups and on an indi- on the basis of feelings and hunches of class- vidual basis.Materials are prescribed for room teachers. Yet it seems to me, and to and chosen by youngsters. This may sound those who make detailed analyses of all ma- like a mushy, poorly controlled approach, terials for teaching the disadvantaged, that but recent research is supporting many of there is no ultimate system for teaching read- our experiential beliefs. A recent study of ing or anything else; that what is needed is over 600,000 youngsters indicates that the a variety of approaches and materials in disadvantaged feel helplessand that this each class.5 perception of powerlessness is not removed Theinterests,predispositions,and learning styles of youngsters can help them by innovations which others initiate. to select materials. While there is no best Itappears that variations infacilities material for all, there are better materials and curriculums of schools account for rela- for individual pupilsand the "better" ma- tively little variation in pupil achievement as terials are those which pupils and teachers measured by standardized tests....A pupil help to select and control. 0 Helen F. Robison and Bernard Spodek. Although the availability of certain kinds New Directions in the Kindergarten. New York: of materials in the classroom is a necessary part Teachers CollegePress,1965.p.145.Copy- right © 1965 by Teachers College, Columbia Uni- of a program for intellectual development, versity.Reprinted withthepermission of the neither the existence of certain pieces of equip- publisher. 7The Howell Elementary School, Racine, 5 Conversation with Rose D. Risikoff, Cur- Wisconsin, is a good demonstration of the learning riculum Consultation Service, Bank Street College center approach.J. Sullivan, A. Hovgaard, and of Education, New York City. J. Ban are the teachers involved. SocialInvolvement, The Issues, the Ideals 79 attitudefactor,which appearstohavea result, the pupils received real letters asking stronger relationship to achievement than do for more information about themselves, their all the "school" factors together, is the extent activities, and their community. to which an individual feels he has control over This example supports what we all his destiny....Minority pupils, except for know; that 10-year-old youngsters deal more Orientals, have far less conviction than whites easily with the real than with the imaginary that they can affect their own environments and and prefer to be in the present rather than futures. When they do, however, their achieve- in the future.It also suggests that materials ment is higher than whites who lack that con- which are authentic will involve pupils.It is viction.8 the need for honesty rather than merely con- If feeling powerful is central to what creteness that is the critical element. The the disadvantaged learn, then what better time capsule was a contrived experience but means for building in feelings of control over the balloons were real. their environment could they have than participation in the selection of materials? A Centralized but Teacher-Controlled Materials Center Real vs. Fake Materials Another materials program that seems As part of the learning center described to work effectively is a centralized materials here, we tried two experiences that have im- center which caters to the needs of particular plications for determining what causes cer- teachers and classes. Individual teachers can tain materials to be effective. First, we tried receive literally crates of materials containing to involve some fifth graders in a unit that books, pictures,films,filmstrips,objects, would tell us about their interests and self- transparencies, and other materials organized perceptions by asking them to filla non- around some unit of study. existent time capsule. We told them that This means that available material has people would dig this capsule up in the been organized around some topic and future and learn all about themprovided drawn together, rather than separated on they stocked it with pictures, songs, stories, the basis of whether the material is a film, tapes, and whatever they wanted to use in a book, etc. The real values of such a pro- order to preserve themselves for posterity. gram are that each teacher can receive sev- There are many good reasons why the chil- eral crates of materials each week and keep dren did not become involved in this unit, the material for a full week to use at the but one of the better explanations is that most opportune time. Yet even more, indi- there was not really a capsule being sunk vidual teachers can and do request the pur- into the school yard. chase of new materials and the discarding of outdated materialsand have their advice The second attemptatgettingthe pupils to describe themselves was to have acted upon. each youngster write something on a card, The most efficient such materials cen- place it into his own special balloon, and ter I have visited is in Racine, Wisconsin. allow it to float away. The balloons went Here an interview revealed: for hundreds of miles and came down in Teachersofthedisadvantagedhave the eastern United States and Canada. As a markedly increased their requests for materials in the past few years. 8 James S. Coleman et ai. Equality of Edu- Materials used by teachers of the disad- cationalOpportunity.Washington, D.C.:U.S. vantaged aresoon requested by allother Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, teachers. 1966. pp. 22-23.Superintendent of Documents Catalog No. FS5.238:38001. Whereas the main source of new mate- 90 80 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era rials for the system used to be the needs and schools and more than 1,200 teachers, cen- recommendations of teachers in suburban-type tralization is used as a force for individual- schools, the teachers of the disadvantaged have izing teacher requests. Some believe it would become the source of introducing materials be better for each school to duplicate minia- into the district. ture centers. Actually the economies effected The drive for new materials is greatest by one main but efficient depot enable the among classroom teachers and more common center to have the means to be responsive to among consultant supervisors than building individual teacher requests. Finally, this ap- principals. proach has resulted in a large urban system's The teachers of the intermediate grades not having to rely on packaged systems or make the most requests, but primary level re- "teacher-proof" materials.Rather, this ap- quests are catching up. proach has created a situation in which indi- Secondary teachers make few if any re- vidual teachers are requesting ever increasing quests for materials and seem to rely on an amounts of more varied materials. occasional film and texts. Film ordering and use have leveled off And So ... and requests for a wider variety of materials have become more usual. We now, I believe, have had sufficient Themulti-mediaapproach,including experiences with gadgeterial seduction, with tapes,strips,transparencies, and slides, has packaged teacher-proof systems and pro- replaced the overdependence on films.° grams of step-by-step control of materials, The director of this center indicates as means for involving and teaching the some outstanding strengths of this approach disadvantaged. We seem to be entering a to be: the ongoing ordering which enables more professional phase in which the differ- teachers to make requests for new purchases entiation of pupil activitiesis once again at any time in the school year; the multi- becoming accepted as the critical criterion of media materials included in the crates; and teacher effectiveness.In order to execute the fact that while social studies, language such differentiation, each teacher needs a arts, and science are the most popular con- variety of materials which he can help the tent areas, art and music materials are being pupils to mediate and control on the class- requested more frequently.It is also note- room level. worthy that sinceteachersexplaintheir Computers have been proposed as the problems when they call up to place orders ultimate media for reaching all youngsters. for materials, they are revealing decreasing Yet while computers may individualize in- amounts of prejudice and an increased un- struction in the sense of differentiating tasks, derstanding of the disadvantaged.It may they cannot personalize. If our assumptions seem like hairsplitting, but when teachers that a variety of language forms and the change from seeking materials that will force power to help shape one's situation are the or guarantee learning for all to the requesting most critical needs of the disadvantaged, of materials for eliciting individual develop- then plugging people into walls may be a ment, this would, I believe, indicate a change cure-all for a nonexistent disease. in their influence on pupils. Living and learning are synonyms and The key organizational point in this all the "stuff" of life is instructional material. example is that in a system covering 40 The development ofthinkingprocesses neither precedes nor follows language devel- Conversation with William D. Grindland, cpment, but occurs as an oscillation; new Director, Instructional Materials Center, Racine terms trigger new relationships which lead PublicScaools,Racine,Wisconsin,December 1966. to other words for handling new concepts. 91 Social Involvement: The Issues, the Ideals 81

All youngsters need to develop a language advantaged. Yet language is not merely a that will go beyond immediate social and ma- tool, and improving the language of the terial needs to usages that will help them to disadvantaged isnot simply tofacilitate share ideas, control their own behavior, and learning in the rest of the curriculum. Quite engage in the processes of thinking. the contrary, the curriculum, itsmaterials Materials which foster growth of multi- and experiences, is the instrumentality for ple language formsin a variety of content teaching a variety of subject matter lan- areasare of particular benefit to the dis- guages in their several forms.

EL27 (5): 446-48; February 1970 Cy 1970 ASCD

When Students Teach Others

JOHN W. LANDRUM MARY D. MARTIN

A BASIC tenet of compensatory made available by the Office of Economic education is that the academic potential of Opportunity through the Economic and poor children is depressed by an inadequate Youth Opportunities Agency of Greater Los self-concept and weak motivation. Primarily Angeles as a part of the War on Poverty the school, rather than the community or the made a testing of the above hypotheses pos- parents, creates theenvironment within sible. The program exceeded expectations in which the child perceives himself as unable the initial year and was expanded in subse- to succeed and protects his battered self- quent summers to 18 school districts with image by choosing not to try. additional support through Neighborhood Youth Corps and ESEA Title I funds. "One-to-One" Project Initial performance objectives of the One-to-One project were stated as follows: The "One-to-One" tutorial project of 1.Upon completion of the six-week ses- the Los Angeles County Schools Office posed sion, the tutors' mean reading grade placement three hypotheses regarding the solution of score will be increased by six months as mea- these problems: (a) that the process of teach- sured by a standardized reading achievement ing is an extremely effective method of learn- test. ing; (b) that one's sense of power and worth 2.Upon completion of the six-week ses- is enhanced by success in a teaching role; sion, the tutees' mean reading grade placement and (c) that this success will motivate be- score will be increased by three months as havior suitable for maintenance of a more measured by a standardized reading achieve- positive self-image and iniproved perform- ment test. mice in school. 3.Following participation in the pro- Funds for summer programs for youth gram, the number of days that tutors are absent

John W. Landrum, Director, and Mary D. Martin, Consultant, Federal Projects Task Force, Office of the Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, California

92 82 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era from school will be 50 percent of their ab- each unit added considerably to the cost of senteeism for the previous school year. the project, but was essential to ensure that 4.Following participationin the pro- the tutors would experience success. The gram, 95 percent of the tutors will complete teacher-supervisor trained the tutors in the the subsequent year of school. use of a variety of materials, equipment, and methods. He reviewed each tutor's lesson Other purposes were related to the em- plans and helped the tutors to assess the ployment of low-income youth, the involve- progress of their tutees. The tutors received ment of the community, and demonstration wages both for a week of preservice training of the model to school districts. and for a daily hour of planning time. This Only three factors were considered in extra time also was utilized for home visita- the selection of tutors: (a) scores two years tions by the tutor. or more below actual grade placement on standardized reading tests; (b) either drop- ATypical Tutor outs of high school age or those who were To illustrate how One-to-One typically dropout-prone as indicated by absenteeism, affects participants, let us review the case of failing grades, or stated intent; and (c) low one tutor. Maria, at 16, had just completed family income in conformance with the poli- her sophomore year in high school. She in- cies of the funding agency. formed the Neighborhood Youth Corps co- Tutors were aware of the income re- ordinator that she probably would not return quirement, but the popularity of Head Start to school in the fall. She had failed sopho- and the Neighborhood Youth Corps for more English and she felt that repeating the which low income was also a qualifying fac- course would be very distasteful to her. Be- tor had long since offset sensitivity about sides, she viewed her own future exclusively being identified as poor. Tutors were not in terms of marriage. apprised of the other two requirements, She felt that her rather heavy household but instead were honestly assured that we responsibilities in caring for younger children believed in their potential for teaching read- and cleaning and cooking while her mother ing to younger children. worked were more than adequate prepara- For the successful student, the oppor- tion for a nomemaking career.She had tunity to function as a tutor involves status fallen into the habit of missing a day of and consequently may be motivating in itself. school each week, usually with the complaint For the potential dropout, the opportunity to of a headache or toothache. earn money is a more realistic inducement. Maria applied for a summer job with Consequently, the tutors were offered hourly the In-School Neighborhood Youth Corps. wages at Neighborhood Youth Corps rates. She wassurprised,butself-consciously The project was scheduled during the pleased, when asked to be a tutor. She ap- regular summer school program, which per- proached the first training sessiun with care- mitted use of the facilities and services at ful diffidence.The teacher-supervisor did elementary school sites. Each tutoring unit not comment on the rollers in her hair and was assigned oneteacher-supervisorand also ignored the burgeoning beard sprouting from five to seven tutors. During the fi; st on the chin of a fellow tutor. At the end of two-hour period, each tutor was assigned the second day, Maria borrowed an individ- one elementary studenta fourth, fifth, or ual tachistoscope and practiced using it with sixth grader who was behind in reading. her younger sister. During the second period, the tutors worked On the day that work was to begin with a second group of tutees. with the tutees, Maria was frightened. How- Employment of a teacher-supervisor for ever, her tutoring group had planned activ-

9 3 Social Involvement: The Issues, the Ideals 83 ities for the first day which would put the A variety of strategies may be intro- tutees at ease and get everyone acquainted. duced to meet objectives which may readily She had helped arrange the room and knew be reduced to measurable performance terms how to use the equipment and she felt a ner- and ultimately examined in terms of their vous eagerness to show all this toher tutees. relative costs and effectiveness. Such an ap- At the end of that first day, a fifth grader proach may permit school managers to gain looked up at Maria and asked, "I'll see you experience with the emerging planning-pro- tomorrow, huh?" Maria promised thathe gramming-budgeting system (PPBS). would. Participating school districts have varied Maria's teacher-supervisor understood the model for incorporation in the regular the tutor's need for support and encourage- school year. One particularly successful ap- ment. He insisted that Maria be preparedfor proach appears to be tutoring of elementary each day with a variety of activities and students during the regular school day for helped her assess the reading growth of her which the tutor receives course credit. Pro- tutees.As her charges learned, her own grams which tack tutoring onto theschool confidence expanded and she saw herself day as a volunteer activity have had only differently than she had before. The teacher- limited success. supervisor cautioned her about being too de- One district has developed objectives manding in her zeal as a tutor. related to the problems of desegregation and Maria was fastidiously groomed on the integration. The close, personal tutor-tutee day of her first visit to the home of Billy, one relationship provides anopportunity for of her tutees. The poverty criterion did not children of different ethnic and racial back- apply to the selection of tutees, and this child grounds to share experiences which are genu- lived in a middle class neighborhood with ine and meaningful and which effect more homes quite different from those Maria knew positive intergroup attitudes on the part of in the barrio. Billy's mother had heard glow- both children and parents. ing accounts of Maria and had observed with Plans are being made to expand One- delight her son's eagerness to go to school to-One tutoring in mathematics and other and his new interest in reading. Maria was subject areas. received as a very special guest. Assessment of the One-to-One Model Although Maria's malingering had previously been a problem, during thesix The Los Angeles County Schools tu- weeks of tutoring she did not miss a day. torial model has been tried under the varying In fact, she usually arrived early to review circumstances of 16 school districts over a her lesson plans and often walked home with period of three years.Gains in reading one of her tutees. achievement scores have consistently ex- Maria returned to school that fall. At- ceeded our expectations. Figure 1 indicates tendance was never again a problem, and the gains achieved by tutors and tutees dur- she received no grades below a "C." Recently ing each summer of the program. she talked to her counselor about becoming Funds were not provided to conduct a a teacher. Tutors Months asin Variations on One-to-One Summer 1967 69 8 months Summer 1968 343 8.5 months Many variations of the one-to-one, stu- Tutees Months Gain conceptarepossible, Summer 1967 78 4.6 months dents-teach-others 686 4.8 months given two constants: (a) tutors who have had Summer 1968 Figure 1.Gains in Reading Grade learning problems, and (b) assignment of Placement Scores During a Six-Week tutors on a one-to-one basis. One-to-One Tutorial Program 94 84 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era follow-up study of tutors. District procedures problems who do not have the tutoring for collecting such data were neither uniform experience. nor thorough and did notallow for the highly When students who are near casualties mobile character of the target population. of the education process teach others through Nevertheless, such data as are available make One-to-One, conditions are provided which it apparent that the tutor is more apt to maximize participants' opportunities for in- attend school regularly, to obtain passing volvement. Tutors, in fact, become teachers. grades, and eventually to complete high They quickly recognize that their roleis school than are the studeirLs with similar genuine and not contrived. 0 THE SEARCH FOR THEORY

The tnyths I have talkedabout are in a sense descriptive theories thathave been used to prescribe practice. It is notthat the theory is necessarily wrong butthat the use of these theories is sometimesunintelligent. What we need are more andbetter theories, not less theorizing.Macdonald, p. 96.

96 EL22 (8): 571-76, 609-17; May 1965 1965 ASCD

Myths About Instruction

JAMES B. MACDONALD

R. G. H. SIU says: "The Ameri- for this behavior, which I no longer remem- can way of life is a doing way....The ber, was a perfectly understandable and ac- guiding axiomisseldom:'If you don't ceptable (from their point of view) one. know what to do, do nothing.'Itisin- The "Troubles with Education," by stead:'If you don't know what todo, analogy, may be that it is already dead as a do something.' " 1 meaningful enterprise, and the efforts of the It is the "doingness" of us all that is "establishment" are not attempts to cure essentially the root of instructional myth- symptoms at all, but really a series of epi- ology. We are impatient, pressured, anxious; sodes of digging up and reburying the corpse and we have lost our sense of humor and so that society won't find out. therefore our perspective. We are pushed, If this is in fact true, most of us are not driven, and compelled beyond the usual willing to admit it. We have accepted the "doing" to a sort of frenetic activity. We are, social diagnosis of illness rather than demise, in short, a group in search of prescriptions and we are busy listing our symptoms and for symptoms of problems we perceive and prescribing for them. The area of instruction symptoms we are told we possess. reflects this attitude and activity as do most Our symptoms are practically endless other areas of concern in education. and are called a variety of names.For We have in effect accepted automatic- example: mediocrity in the schools; senti- ally the view that we are sick and need new mental and softheaded philosophies of edu- prescriptions to make us well rather than cation; technological foot dragging; bureau- either acknowledging our own demise, on cratic short circuitry of innovation by the one hand, or suggesting that the social per- "establishment"; intellectual myopia; and so spective that defines our symptoms may be on. ... what is indeed "sick," rather than the enter- In fact, as I witness the onslaught of prise of education itself. social forces upon professional educators It is the prescriptions we desire that I have been reminded of a wonderful motion generate our need for myths and, for pur- picture I once saw called "The Trouble poses here, specifically our myths about with Harry." I have forgotten much of the instruction. Whether or not these prescrip- specific plot, but what remains in mind is a tions are really a process of digging up and delightful sequence of scenes involving New reburying, or a social game imposed on us England citizens spending a period of tit= from the outside, or an actual attempt to digging up and burying "Harry" in order tilat right real ills will be left up to the reader his demise not be discovered. The mliartive to decide. We live in a world of metaphors. Our 1 R. G. H. Siu."The TAO of Science." Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology word and other symbolic pictures help us Press, 1957. make sense out of potential chaos.The lames B. Macdonald, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. In 1965, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison 86 91 The Search for Theory 87 simplest sem,.9tics primer tells ushowever "non-instructional" motivating forces of con- offered as that the word is not thething.Yet man siderable import, and all are being instruction. These myths must be constantly remindedthat his symbols a prescription for correspondence with are: the myth oflearning theory, the myth are not in one-to-one of the reality. He must be continuallyhalted from of human development, the myth prescribing action on the basis of his meta- structure of the disciplines,the myth of analysis phors as if they were reality. modes of inquiry, the interaction decision Our metaphors become ourmyths in myth, and the myth of rational the sense used here whenthey are accepted making or technical efficiency. uncriticallythat is, when metaphors are All of these myths share a common instruction. accepted without subjectingthem to some place in our prescriptions for prescribing reasoned, or phenomenologicr i, orempirical Each has been used as a basis for instructional practices; each is a possible process of validation. instruction; each has an All metaphors are possiblyvalid. But way of looking at unknown probability of being a validview as Erich Fromm 2 hasremarked, the differ- of instruction; and each possessespowerful ence betwecn pathologicalthinking and sane motivating forces for acceptance as abasis thinking rests on the differencebetween what for prescriptions which emanate from sources is possible and what is probable.Our instructional metaphors are possible,but are they outside the context of the instructional setting. probable? explana- When metaphors are possible The Myth of Learning Theory tions but are accepted uncritically as prescriptions for action, they are myths.They Professor Bruner 3 has already exposed wide are in realityrationalizations which, because the myth of learning theory to a of their possibility for explainingsomething, audience.In St. Louis two years ago, he can be attached toinstruction for reasons commented at length about the meaningof which may have little to do with theactual learning theory for instruction. Hisbasic nature of the situation. Ourmyths about point, as interpreted by me for my purpose instruction are more or less of this nature. here, was that learning theory isdescriptive. We, in effect, prescribe instructional prac- It is after the fact.It tells what happened. tices on the basis of possibility butunknown As such it is not necessarily a basisfor pre- probability of validity, and the motives or scribing what to dofor in Bruner's terms moving forces for prescription areprobably an instructional theory mustbe a prescriptive not central to the natureof instruction itself. theory. His example will bear repeating here. Common Myths Simply because learning can bedescribed as, or be said totake place in, small incre- I should like to discuss sixprevalent ments which are built upby processes of myths of instruction to illustrate mypoints. follow I mean the reinforcement, it does not necessarily When I speak ,of instruction that this is the best manner in whichlearning actual classroom interaction ofpupils, teach- points The myths are more or tasks should be presented. It certainly ers, and materials. this is so, but it says less probable in their truthvalue, yet all out the possibility that little about the validated probabilityof this are still moreclearly in the realm of possibility only. All these myths alsohave other being true. Prevail. New 3 Jerome Bruner."Needed: A Theory of 2 Erich Fromm. May Man Educational Leadership 20(8) : York: Anchor Books, Doubledayand Co., Inc., Instruction." 523-32; May 1963. 1961.

98 88 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

The appearance of a profusion of proof psychological metaphors, such as learn- grammed materials in the past two years ing theory, is primarily an act of faith.It is witness to the use of reinforcement theory can be as readily explained by the climate as a basis for prescription in instruction. The of acceptance of psychology in our culture, reasonable success of these materials is then or the need for educators to present "re- said to validate the theory behind them as a spectable" rationales, or perhaps the more basisforprescription.Thereare many recent effrontery of psychologists, as it can problems in accepting this position. If rein- by the empirical validity of its use in in- forcement theory is a valid description of struction. learning, and if programmed materials are a valid operational instructional form or The Myth-of Human Development embodiment of reinforcement theory, then The myth of human development refers resultsshould demonstrate the technique to the promise of sound prescriptions for to be far superior to the usual approach. instructional practice which grow out of our Consider, for example, the usual sched- understanding ofthe development of the ule of reinforcement given by teachers. As human. We are all quite willing to admit the Skinner 4 has remarked, in the usual opera- possibility that developmental knowledge has tion reinforcement is not systematic; itis relevance for instructional practice, but a often absent or delayed to the point where problem arises when the probability of its the relation between stimulus-response and relevance is considered.It should be clear reinforcement is impossibly polluted by in- by now that a prescription for practice that tervening experiences. This being acknowl- is acceptable to all should have a reasonably edgedhere,theresultsof programmed high probability of being valid. Most devel- materials, if this approach is really modeled opmentally based instructional prescriptions after the nature of learning, should surpass do not achieve this state of grace. those of the usual approaches by extremely Ausubel has remarked, with reference large actual as well as statistically significant to therelevanceof human growth and differences. To date there is no evidence to development knowledge for instruction, that, indicate this overwhelming superiority, or "unfortunately, it must be admitted that at even a consistent statistical superiority. present our discipline can offer only a limited May I remind the reader that pro- number of very crude generalizations and grammed instruction is not the issue here. highly tentative suggestions bearing on the What is at issue is the claim that reinforce- issue." 5He suggests the need for much ment theory is a valid basis for prescription engineering level research before we embark of instructional practices.So far, the in- upon any wholesale prescriptions or applica- structional form, programmed instruction, tion to practice. does little to validate this claim. According to Ausubel, the concept of The leap from description to prescrip- readiness is one such generalization that suf- tion is a leap of faith based upon factors not fers from lack of particularizing its meaning necessarily relevant to instruction. There is in curriculum contexts. He points out the no good purpose to be served, here, by confusion between the concepts of readiness quarreling with the good intentions of the and maturation and remarks that the un- prescribers or their prescriptions.Never- folding or "internal ripening" concept fits theless, the wholesale adoption of instruc- well with sensorimotor and neuromuscular tional prescription in education on the basis 5 David Ausubel. "Viewpoints from Related 4 B. F. Skinner."The Science of Learning Disciplines: Human Growth and Development." and the Art of Teaching." Harvard Educational Teachers College Record 60: 245-54; February Review 24 (2): 86-97; 1954. 1959. 9 9 The Search for Theory 89

said to be those persons sequences during theprenatal and early in- case the scholars are However, he believes that primarily involved in the businessof creating fancy periods. knowledge of a given there is an unwarrantedextrapolation of the and transmitting the and variable discipline. knowledge to more complex hinted at in components of latercognitive and behavioral This concept was clearly Bruner's The Process ofEducation and has development. of self-selec- been developed in somedetail by Schwab The instructional process it is proposed that tion is another unwarrantedextrapolation, and others. Essentially Logical deduction each discipline has a setof fundamental ideas according to Ausubel. about which thefabric of from nutritional studiesin early infancy are or principles knowledge in each disciplineis woven. This not sound reasoningventures.Thus, itis select a balanced being so, the logic goes,what is needed is a interesting that infants will of a program to diet if given the opportunity.Yet this fact well planned development provision of self- communicate this structure tothe student. is not generalizable to the that "anything selection activities in theinstructional pro- Bruner's stated assumption, worth teaching can be taughtin some form cess. the spirit of this con- As a matter of fact, it seemshighly at all levels," catches knowledge, ceptualization well.It is suggested from this unlikely that any developmental form it in for example Gesell's agesand stages, has that we identify the structure, Even the fact meaningful terms at all levels,and proceed direct use for instruction. content. of individual differencesis only descriptive to prescribe instructional findit does not The basic fallacy of thisconclusion is of what we may expect to criticism of learning prescribing instruc- similar to the previous offer a specific basis for after-the-fact descrip- tional procedures. On thecontrary, our theory. Structure is an has most tion of the way knowledge canbe organized knowledge of human development It is not the basis from probably had its greatesteffect upon our by mature scholars. And it might well which the knowledge itself wasdeveloped. attitudes toward children. of organizing a for the individual Further, as a coherent way be argued that our concern necessarily intohuman development field of knowledge, it does not wasprojected organize studies out of the value matrixof Western followthat thisisthe way to setting. culture. knowledge in the instructional The point made here is that ourde- Ortega y Gasset,7 in anothercontext, velopmental metaphors areinteresting and talks in a similar vein.In an cssay "On reasonably valid within the contextsin which Studying and the Student," he says(I para- they were developed. When thesemetaphors phrase) : are extrapolatedand projected onto instruc- A-truth does not exist inand of itself but tional settings they lose aconsiderable por- rather it exists for thosewho have need of it, tion of their validity and becomemuch less a science is not ascience except for thosewho probable as valid bases for prescribingin- eagerly search for it. . structional practices. 0 Joseph L. Schwab."Structures of the Dis- In: G. W. The Myth of the Structureof the Disciplines ciplines: Meanings andSignificances." Ford and Lawrence Pugno,editors.The Structure to contend of Knowledge and theCurriculum.New York: As if it were not enough Series in Curriculum, prescriptions, we Rand McNally, Paperback with behavioral science 1964. are at presentbusily prescribing for instruc- 7 Jos6 Ortega y Gasset."Sobre el Estudiar tion in terms of the pressuresand recom- y el Estudiante."La Naciónde Buenos Aires, mendations of academicscholars.In this April 23, 1933. n 3 90 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

...For those who do not need it, science of objects in interaction. As a framework (or truth) is a series of words or, if you wish, this can be elaborated in specified terms ideas, which although they are not understood when we are dealing with electricity, levers, one by one they need, in short, a meaning. To or any other of the usual physics units. Kar- truly understand something one does not need plus prescribes that we teach these basic con- talent or previous knowledge. What is needed cepts in the primary school as a basis for is an elemental but fundamental condition, that making the physical world more meaningful which one needs is to need it. or perhaps as advance organizers for the ...What is a student? The student is a human being, male or female, upon whom life physical science program. has imposed the necessity of studying ideas It could be argued however that these which the student himself has not included concepts are more in the order of a structure among his true necessities.With rare excep- of knowledge than a structure of one disci- tions a student merely feels a sincere but vague pline. As such, it is as useful to organize necessity to study "something," to "know some- knowledge about language or social phe- thing." It is evident that such a spiritual state nomena in these terms as it is the physical asthis has not created knowledge, because world. For example, words could be seen knowledge is always concrete,itis knowing as objects, sentences described as systems, precisely this or precisely that; and according and varietiesof grammatical construction to what I have previously saidThose who proposed as the interactions of objects in created knowledge, created it because they felt, not a vague desire, but the concreteness of tak- systems. If this is the case, then the structure of ing advantage of some determined thing. ... The creator did not encounter the science first a discipline is really a generalized structure and then feel the necessity of possessing it, but of knowledge. And if this follows, then the rather he first felt the vital and not scientific disciplines are not truly separate, or have no necessity to search for his satisfaction. distinctive structure. In either case the con- ...On the other hand, the student en- cept of structure becomes less tenable. counters the science already made. As a ridge Ortega y Gasset might well argue that of mountains rising up before him, it closes the structure of knowledge iscreated by that vital road... .Thus, it deals with an ex- man, not discovered. Thus the structures ternal necessity which is imposed upon him. we are busily finding today are akin to Jung's By putting a man in the position of being a collective myths. They are basic substances student one is obliged to do something false, to pretend that the student feels a necessity of human potential for thought thatare which he does not feel. available to all disciplines under the proper circumstances. There are further puzzling questions The concept of the structure of the that arise when the structure notion is ex- disciplines in no way avoids the criticisms amined indetail.For example,Robert that have been leveled at subject matter Karplus 8 had described the basic structure curricula for the past fifty years, although it of the physical world in terms of the con- is perhaps a more efficient and useful way of cepts of objects, systems, and interaction. thinking about knowledge. As a metaphor Thus, all physical phenomena can be con- itsuggests interesting possibilities for in- ceptualized in terms of systems composed struction. As a prescription it has much less probability of validity for instruction than it 8 Robert Karplus. "One Physicist Looks at has in the realm of philosophical discourse Science Education."In: A. Harry Passow and about the nature of knowledge. Robert R. Leeper, editors.Intellectual Develop- We should also be alerted to the fact ment: Another Look. Washington, D.C.: Associa- tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development, that there is some concern among academic 1964. pp. 78-98. scholars about the concept of structure in

10 1 The Search for Theory 91

one? the disciplines. We would probablybe well they are prone to respond withwhich advised to let the scholars decide theissue, Does a biologist never use anexperimental it behooves us to follow theirinner procedure? What modes of inquiry are ap- but The squabbles carefully.It would not do to be propriate only to political scientists? mode with caught prescribing practice wholesalefrom attempt to associate one unique the concept of structure about thetime each accepted discipline is fraught withdiffi- scholars finally decided that there was no culty. However, if we admit that modesof productive use for the concept of structure inquiry are not inherent in any given discipline, the casc for distinct modes ofinquiry in at least some of the disciplines. It is, in fact, We should also be cautioned bythe fact at all becomes less tenable. bethat we are quite willing to adopt this con- difficult to get agreement and specificity generalization, if cept because it has academicrespectability. yond a reflective thinking necessity of what one No matter what validity there is tothe con- we once allow for the cept, we must realizethatprescriptions could call adjunct technical skillswhich vary growing from the structure idea areapproved among the disciplines. of generally by critics of education andwhen There is much talk about the modes we, as educators, acceptthis language we inquiry, but little specification in concrete reduce the chances of criticism andbecome terms of wha, these inquirymodes look like perhaps more respectable.Further, the critics and in practice. Richard Suchman ° has "outside" newcomers to educational pre- presented us with the most concretemodel I per- scriptionare vocal andpowerful.Itis in his Inquiry Training procedure. important to reaffirm that under these cir- sonally find this procedure intriguingand cumstances the concept of structureisa usable. Yet what discipline is thisspecifically believe that a per- metaphor of unknown validity as aprescrip- a model for? Are we to followed tive base for instruction. ceptual or ideational discrepancy by a simulated "TwentyQuestions" pro- The Myth of Modes of Inquiry cedureis unique to physics?Chemistry? The modes of inquiry fall into the same Economics? History? Or what? general category of criticism as structure. The point here is not a criticism ofthis Modes of inquiry are, I suppose, what ma- procedure, but an illustration thatthe most ture scholars say they do, afterthey have prominent and widely knownspecification done it and reflected upon what theydid. of an inquiry practicecourageously es- fit any given They are abstractions from behavior.Would poused by Suchmandoes not they have done the same things,discovered discipline. the same things, if their own instructionhad Indeed, we are most likely witnessing been ordered specifically by the use ofthe an example of a concreteformat to allow Dewey called concept of the modes ofinquiry? There is, for the appearance of what in other words, no necessary logicthat says reflective thinking.A reflective thinking that, because man can be said todiscover metaphor returns us to a previouslyespoused knowledge in a given way, ipso factohis position and therefore adds nothingstartling instruction should be organized and pre- or revolutionaryideationally for serving as sented for learning purposes in the same a basis for prescriptivepractices. This very observation might serve to fashion. with There is considerable difficulty and the inquiry 9 Richard J. Suchman. "The Child this concept. How many modes of Inquiry Process." In: A. Harry Passowand Rob- are there?Does each discipline have its ert R. Leeper, editors.Intellectual Development: own unique mode ofinquiry? When scien- Another Look.Washington, D.C.: Association for 1964. tists are asked what the scientificmethod is, Supervision and Curriculum Development, 102 92 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era enlighten us about the possible motivations A confusion has arisen however in the for the rather positive acccptance of the idea meaning of interactionanalysis.The de- of modes of inquiry among educators. Modes scription of what is going on in the class- of inquiry are processes of discovering or room has become fused with the prescription creating knowledge. They arc dynamic con- of what ought to be going on in classrooms. ceptsaction concepts.There is an easy Thus, if we select Flanders' direct and in- possibility of correlating modes of inquiry directteacher behavior categoriesas an and activity curriculums.The concept of example, we see a schema for looking at modes of inquiry may have gained in accep- teacher behavior which is being misused by tability simply because the "establishment" is many people as a rationale for prescribing comfortable with this terminology and finds indirect teacher behavior. In this particular it to be more easily incorporated into pre- case, the Flanders' categories, the misuse is existent metaphors. partially due to the way in which the frame- In any case the probability of provid- work has been presented by the developers. ing reasonably valid instructional prescrip- Nevertheless,acarefulreadingofthe tions from the concept of modes of inquiry authors' statements underscores the concept is not necessarily high, even if the possibility of the analysis as being one source of feed- is an intriguing one. back, with the judgment of performance, or "oughtness," being left up to the teach er. The Myth of Interaction Analysis The framework of categories iself is admittedly intimidating. Having revealed my thoughts about the This is pr marily imposed myths from behavioral scientists true because it grew out of the older authori- and other academicians, I would like to turn tarian versus democratic value matrix and we stillsuffer from collective guilt about ..ny attention to our own scholarly mythology. I refer to the myth of interaction analysis being authoritarian. and, later, thc myth of rational decision mak- However, this is not the intention of the originators of these analyses, nor is it neces- ing.Interaction analysis has an interesting and vital history of scholarly activity cen- sarily embodied in the assumptions of the tered rather directly in the field of education, methodology. Rather,thesecategories, with concomitant activity in the area of the which are essentially descriptive, are having, group dynamics of small groups. A number and have had, values attached to them his- of interaction frameworks have been devel- torically and in the present by users who are oped. Some familiar educational examples prescribing instructional practices. arc in thc work of Flanders,'" Mitzell and As long as we appreciate the fact that Medley," Withall,12 Perkins," and others. any system of interaction analysis is a meta- phorthat it is a created realitythat the 10 Ned Flanders. "Intent, Action, and Feed- categories we use were put there and labeled back: A Preparation for Teaching."Journal of by us, and not necessarily "natural" phe- Teacher Education14 (3):251-60; September 1963. nomena, then there is no problem.Obvi- 11 Donald M. Medley."Experiences with ously,then,there areas many possible the OSCAR Technique."Journal of Teacher Edu- systems of interaction analysis as we can cation14 (3): 267-73; September 1963. reasonably create, and we are not in danger 12 John Withall."Mental Health-Teacher Education Research Project."Journal of Teacher of prescribing from a metaphor of a low Education14 (3): 318-25; September 1963. order probability that has some possibilities 13 Hugh Perkins. "A Procedure for Assess- for explaining the instructional process. ing the Classroom Behavior of Students and Teach- We are motivated to accept the inter- ers."American Educational Research Journal1 (4): 249-60; November 1964. action analysis for many reasons, of which The Search for Theory 93

eval- the valid portrayal of instructionis only one Laming experiences, organization, and uation is the core of this myth. possible base.Interaction analysis provides research The basis for considering thisapproach conceptual tools for research, and in the land of is the basis upon which ourprofession has for an appropriate niche recently chosen to play the game of progress. mythology is as follows: It is possible that Thus, the aura of science and thepride of teaching can be viewed as a rationaldecision- origination cling tenac iously to these systems. making process, but the action probability Any given interaction system is a myth, of Midity is rather slim. The centralpremise however, if used to prescribepractice,at of ratimality cannot withstand careful scru- hu- least in the sense that myth isbeing used tiny. We have learned too much about 100 years to reject here. man nature in the past offhand the irrational and/or unconscious The Myth ol Rational DecisionMaking aspects of human behavior. On a practical basis alone, however, be The interactionanalystsmight is difficult to see how meaningful,inte- is an- it called instructional empiricists. There grated behavior could result from aformal instruc- other school of what could be called series of sequential rational decisions. The latter tional rationalists. Let us turn to this forces of society, both within and withoutthe group for an examinationof the myth of person, embodied in personalityand social rational decision making. roles, are not accounted for in any appre- been One variant of this approach has ciable manner. associated withpersons suchas Ralph Let us look, for example, at the prob- Tyler " and Virgil Herrick.15 lem of objectives.Objectives are viewed Their writings are clear and consistent as directives in therational approach. They in the embodiment of a rational decision- are identified prior to theinstruction or ac- making approach to instructional problems. tion and used to provide a basis for or a Faith in the rational man, the liberal man, screen for appropriateactivities. is the cornerstone of this set of assumptions. There is another view, however, which This rationaleis an impressive one. has both scholarly " and experientialrefer- From an aesthetic viewpointit could be ents. This view would state that ourobjec- called beautiful.Further, the use of this tives are only known to us in anycomplete rationale is an inherently efficientoperation, sense after the completionof our act of providing one accepts the necessary prem- instruction. No matter what we thought we ises.First select our objectives; then select were attempting to 'do, we canonly know an activity from among anumber of alterna- what we wanted to accomplish after the tives; next fit this activity (calledlearning fact. Objectivesbythisrationaleare experience) into a scope and sequence pat- heuristicdevices which provide initiating tern, then evaluate the outcome. sequences which become alteredin the flow Although the presentation of decisions of instruction. to make has beenunnecessarily sequential In the final analysis, it could be argued, here, the proposal that the teachers make a the teacher in actuality asks afundamentally objectives, different question from "What am I trying series of rational decisions about to accomplish?" The teacherasks, "What am I going to do?" and outof the doing 14 Ralph Tyler.Syllabus of Education 364, Basic Principles of Curriculumand Instruction. comes accomplishment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950. The 15 Virgil E. Herrick,Toward Improved Cur- 16 See, fur example: Florian Znaniecki. Chapter III. Chicago: University Cultural Sciences: Their Origin and Development. riculum Theory. Urbana: The University of Illinois Press, 1952. of Chicago Press, 1950. 10 4 94 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

The use of this rationale is technical in ones mentioned, and their probability of nature. It is a mechanical concept of human being valid might even be greater.I should action. It assumes a means-ends relationship like to reflect briefly upon each of these for behavior which points toward the most metaphors and to suggest why each is not efficient way to achieve our goals.It is, of presently elevated to the level of instructional course,this mechanistic rationalposition mythology. which is the underlying premise of any national curriculum or national testing pro- Aesthetic Metaphors gram.As a myth for guidingplanning Huebner points out that it is possible activities, it has power and clarity; but as a to talk about instruction in aesthetic terms. prescription for action it leaves much to be To do this it is necessary to remove instruc- desired. tion, however, from the world of use.In- struction isthus not seen in terms of its Alternatives usefulness, but rather is seen in terms of its wholeness, its design, its symbolic meanings. In summary, then,I would like to Instruction is, in other words, talked about reiterate my position that the six myths I as we might talk about a work of art. have mentioned (learning theory, develop- The aesthetic activity of instruction mental theory, structure, modes of inquiry, stands apart from the world of technical interaction analysis, and rationaldecision means-ends relationships. Educational activi- making) are metaphors created to describe ties become objects in their own right the instructional process. As such they are objects which may have beauty.Further, possible ways of talking about instruction. aesthetically appraised activity has a totality As a basis for prescribing instructional prac- and unity of its own which can be talked tices they have unknown probabilities of about in terms of wholeness and design. being valid. The balance,flow, rhythm, composition, The identification of the mythological themes, major and minor keys, and other character of these prominent working con- aesthetic concepts become the ways of ap- ceptualizations in instruction has value if it praising the qualities of the activity. simply reminds us that we are dealing with Suppose we talk for a moment about things and ideas that are not sacred. We instruction in terms of movement. When need not accept any metaphor about instruc- the dancer moves we may perceive and tion uncritically, and we may feel free to appreciate among other things the rhythmic create other possible metaphors which may patterns, the beat or emphasis of the move- prove to have even better probabilities of ment, the use of horizontal space and ver- being valid. tical levels, and tempo. The dance has a Dwayne Huebner 17 has suggested two patterned wholeness.Itis experience of other possibilities, which he describes as the some deeper meaning, it is symbolic of hu- aesthetic and thc moral.It appears to me man reality. that each of these metaphors has as much Does it seem so unreal to think of reasonable possibility of providing prescrip- instruction as having patterns or forms? tions for instruction as any of the previous Cannot instruction have differing tempos, differing beat or emphasis? Would it be 17 Dwayne Huebner. "Curricular Language possible to describe the use of horizontal or and Classroom Meanings." In: James B. Mac- physical space and vertical levelsperhaps donald and Robert R. Leeper, editors.Language psychologicalspace?And what ofthe and Meaning.Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1966. rhythm of activity? As expressive activity, pp. 8-26. could instruction be seen as symbolic of vio TheSearch for Theory 95 the meanness or meaningfulness of much art is (or can be) a way ofremoving teach- human activity?Or, perhaps, symbolic of ing from the realm cf reasoned analysis. This the beauty and glory of highest human as- would be contrary to what is being proposed pirations? I think it couldif we wished to here. describe it this way. Moral Metaphors It is a fact that aestheticallyoriented metaphors are not prevalent in our instruc- What of the moral realm? Are moral tional talk.If we grant the possibility of values relevant sources of instructional meta- using such metaphors, the question ofwhy phors?Is it not possible to conceptualize we have not raised them tothe category of instruction in moral terms? prescriptive myths becomes an interesting When we speak of morality we are puzzle. One answer surely rests in the ex- immediately confronted with a possibility of amination of their usefulness as rationaliza- misunderstanding.Just as the word culture of a peo- tions.I would suggest that they are not may mean the mores and customs useful or at least as useful as ones we pres- ple, or the preferred sophisticated aspectof ently cling to. a culture, morality may refer to apervading Consider the climate of our times. condition of human relationships, or a spe- Science is dominant and mathematics is its cial section of prescribed behavior, such as tool, with technology the logical outcome. sexual relationships.Itis, of course, the The humanities are considered court jesters former with which we are concerned here without serious purpose. They entertain and the basic quality of interpersonal confronta- help us over the dull moments in the serious tion pervading all human relations.Thus business of life. The "Two Cultures" '8 are each encounter between man and man has a not equal partners. moral quality and potentiality. In this climate aesthetic metaphors are As with aesthetic activity, a morally not respectable. They are notuseful to edu- perceived activity is an end, not a means to cators simply because they are not accep- an end. Yet unlike theaesthetic it does not table in the broader community.Further, symbolize or express deeper meanings, it is. the artist is humble, at least in hisstriving The encounter is the morality. Nor is it used for individual expression and iiisemphasis to produce change, or to developskills or upon the unique in existence.He is humble knowledge. It is complete in its being. because he does not propose the general or In moral encounters the person is no: universal. The community of scholars im- seen as an object, but as another person.No mersed in the realm of aesthetics appears to status or role, no purpose or categoryin- lack the need, the desire, or themotivation trudes upon the person-to-person contact. to project their metaphors onthe instruc- Relationships are said to be more or less tional setting in the same manner that the authentic. psychologists have.Thus, aesthetic meta- In moral discourse we are concerned phors about instruction have not reached the about the responsibility of thestudenthis ability to confront himself, others, and the status of myths. world and to be a fully functioning person. When I speak of aesthetic metaphors is I mean the use of aesthetic metaphors to Morally, it is recognized that instruction a condition in which persons areinfluenced. describe the actual instructional situation. about The teacher accepts the responsibility of this This is not the same thing as talking influence and the collateral willingness to be is an the "art of teaching." To say teaching influenced by other persons. The contrast, an attempt to change pupils'behavior, can 18 C. P. Snow.Two Cultures: A Second Look. New York: Mentor Books, 1959. bc justified outsidc the limits of the act itself,

1ncl 96 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era but to influence others means we are fully prescribe patterns for instructionwhen in responsible in the present for our relation- reality they are only possible ways of view- ships. ing, with uncertain probabilities of validity. Huebner suggests that the terms prom- I mentionedthe myths of learning ise and forgiveness are crucial and that it is theory, developmental ;theory, the structure through true conversation that men confront of the disciplines and modes of inquiry, in- each other. A conversation means, of course, teraction analysis, and rational decision mak- an exchange of words on a basis of mutual ing; and I suggested possible reasons for their respect and mutual informativeness. Perhaps acceptability in today's educational world of this is what we mean when we plead for the instructional mythology.In contrast, I fur- teacher to listen to the student. ther suggested thepotential use of both Further, in the use of influence lies a aesthetic and moral discourse for instruction moral promise.It is a promise of worth in and also indicated why I feel they are not the doing, of personal reward or intrinsic utilized as contemporary myths. meaning in the contact with knowledge, ma- The myths I have talked about are in terials, and other people. Yet with influence a sense descriptive theories that have been also comes the possibility of error, and it is used to prescribe practice.It is not that the this possibility from which only forgiveness theory is necessarily wrong but that the use can free one. To forgive and be forgiven of these theories is sometimes unintelligent. are necessary in the moral realm. What we need are more and better theories, Paul Goodman 1" has said that the not less theorizing. The field of medicine, school is a place where students waste time for example, would still be in the stage of usefully, and perhapsthis summarizes in nostrums and incantations (would we then capsule form the moral dilemma of school- callitthe art of doctoring?) without the ing.It is wasting that is immoralimmoral theory and research which have resulted in because itis a refusal to face the responsi- the major steps forward. Germ theory was bility of conversation, confrontation, and just that, a theory.It was fought vigorously influence. bythepractical man.Immunization by Moral metaphors also lack acceptabil- vaccine began as a theoryit was also fought ity in our society. We have encapsulated vigorously by the practitioner.It would be man and surrounded him with behavioral a tragic mistake to sever the head of the terminology which will not allow us to speak educational establishment from the body in acceptable ways of human conditions of under the mistaken notion that the hands and existence which are not caught in our be- feet would be freer, or the heart would behavioral nets, thus limiting our kind of dis- come more functional in the process. course. We ignorc what Millard Clements 2" I suppose, in the end, the message that calls the unintended consequences of the edu- is intended here is quite simple.It is a re- cational enterprisethe moral dilemmas. minder of the tentativeness of our inEtruc- In conclusion, in thisarticleI have tional language and the suggestion that we attempted to say that we may utilize many enrich our present conceptualizations with metaphors in our talk about instruction. varieties of discoursc. For example, Thomas Some of these metaphors have been raised Szasz,2' a psychiatrist, criticizcs the use of to thc level of myths. They are myths by mental health metaphors in instruction. He definition here because they are used to attacks what would be called here a mental

" Paul Goodman.Compulsory Miseduca- Thoma. Susz.'Psychiat:yinPublic lion.New York: Horizon Press, Inc., 1964. Schools."Teachers College Record66 (1): 57- :0 In conversation. 63; October 1964.

1M11 The Search for Theory 97

slam health myth of instruction.His point is an logical possibility which will effectively illustrative one.His concern is with the the door on future progress. separation of psychology and state.Just as For as Whitehead has remarked: we separate onebrand of religion from the I emphasize the point that our only exact public school, Szasz believes thereis great data as to the physical world are oursensible danger in the establishment of onebrand perceptions. We must not slip into thefallacy given of psychology in education.In a broader of assuming that we are comparing a plea for the sep- world with given perceptions of it. Thephysi- sense this is my pleaa cal world is, in some general sense of the term, about aration of a limited brand of thinking a deduced concept. instruction from the schools.It is perhaps Our problem is, in fact, to fit the world to best interpreted as a plea forconceptual our perceptions, and not ourperceptions to the pluralism and prescriptive variety ininstruc- world.22 0 rather tional programs, lest we are aroused 22 Alfred North Whitehead.The Aims of startlinglyin the not too distantfuture, Education and Other Essa)s.New York: The tightly enmeshed in the grip of some patho- Macmillan Company, 1959.p. 247.

EL 20 (8): 523-32; May 1963 01963 ASCD

Needed: A Theory of Instruction

JEROME S. BRUNER

OVER the past several years it better theory about the natureof man, one has become increasingly clear to me, as to would indeed want a theory of instruction any thinking person today,that both psy- as one of theinstruments by which one chology and the field of curriculum design understood man and how he was shaped by itself suffer jointly from the lack of a theory his fellow man. of instruction. Such a theory ofinstruction Yet we also realize that a theoryof would indeed be interesting just for its own instruction is about as practical a thing as sake, fo, purely theoretical reasons. There one could possibly have toguide one in the cannot be, for example, a theoryof develop- process of passing on theknowledge, the ment which leaves somehow tochance the skills, the point of view, and the heart of a question of the way in which societies pace culture.Let us, then, see whether we can and structure the experiences withwhich set forth some possible theoremsthat might children come in contact; and to talk about go into a theory of instruction. the nature of development withouttalking about the way in which society does and can Elomnts of a TImory structure the sequence is to be asintellectu- ally foolish as it is to be morallyirrespon- What do we mean by a theory ofin- sible. So even if onc were seekingonly a struction?I found myself beginning this

Cognitive Studies, Jerome S. Bruner. Professor ofPcychology. and Director of the Center for Harvard University. Cambridge. Massachusetts

1nei 98 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

exercise by putting down theorems that tried where in the evidence upon which such a to separate what we might mean by a theory theory is basedand it is only partial evi- of instruction from other kinds of theories dencenowhere is there anything that says that have been current. The first thought that simply because learning takes place in that occurred to me is that in its very nature small steps theenvironmentshould be ar- a theory of instruction isprescriptiveand not ranged in small steps. And so we set up a descriptive.Such a theory has the aim of curriculum that also has small steps.In producing particular ends, and producing doing so we fail to take sight of the fact that, them in ways that we speak of as optimal. indeed, organisms from vertebrate on up It is not a description of what has happened through the highest primate, man, operate when learning has taken placeit is some- by taking large packets of information and thing which is normative, which gives you breaking these down into their own bite size something to shoot at and which, in the end, and that unless they have the opportunity to must state something about what you do do that, learning may become stereotyped. when you put instruction together in the At least itis a worthy hypothesis about form of courses. Now, this is not a very instruction. surprising thing, yet I am struck by the fact A theory of instruction must concern that many persons in the field of education itselfwith the relationship between how have assumed that we could depend on other things are presented and how they are kinds of theories than the theory of instruc- learned. Though I myself have worked hard tion to guide us in this kind of enterprise. and long in the vineyard of learning theory, For example, I find that the dependence I can do no better than to start by warning upon learning theory among educators is as the reader away from it.Learning theory touching as it is shocking. The fact of the is not a theory of instruction.It describes matter is that the learning theory is not a what happened. A theory of instruction is a theory of instruction; it is a theory that de- guide to what to do in order to achieve cer- scribes what takes place while learning is tain objectives. Unfortunately, we shall have going on and after learning has taken place. to start pretty nearly at the beginning, for There is no clear-cut way in which one there is very little literature to guide us in can derive wisdom, or indeed implication, this subtle enterprise. from learning theory that will guide him in What shall a theory of instruction be the constructing of a curriculum. When I about? I would propose that there are four say a theory of instruction is prescriptive, aspects of such a theory. First, a theory of I mean it isbefore the fact.Itis before instruction should concern itself with the learning has taken place and not while and factors that predispose a child to learn effec- after learning has taken place. Let me give tively; and there are many such factors that you an example of the k'md of difficulty you predispose. These are factors which, on the get into when you assume that you can use whole, precede the child's entry into our the slender reed of learning theory to lean scholastic care. These factors relate to his on.Take, for example, the case of pro- earliest childhood; and indeed one might grammed instruction. say that we should provide some theorems There is in the current doctrine (I will for a theory of toys, and for a theory of call it) of programmed instruction the idea family, and for a theory of stimulation, bethat somehow you should take small steps, cause the thing that comes to mind here is that each increment should be a small step. the question of what kind of stimulation Now, this idea is derived willy-nilly from a ought a child to have before he is faced theory of learning which states that learning with this formidable thing we call a schoolis incremental and goes in small steps. No- room and a teacher. What sorts of identill-

10 1 The Search for Theory 99 cation might he best form? How shall we these things are relative to a learner. Itdoes bring his linguistic level up to a point where not do to say simply that,because physics and able to handle things symbolically? has great economy, great productiveness, he is Feinman or a I shall not treat further these predispositions great power as practiced by a because what I want to do after this intro- Purcell,therefore you have children ape the duction of the different aspects of the theory those distinguished scientists. You take is to go back and have a look at each oneof child where you find him and give himthe these in detail, so let me pass on now to structure that is economical,productive, and a second aspect of a theoryof instruction. powerful for him and that allows him to It should concern itself with theopti- grow. mal structuring of knowledge. Bythis, I A third aspect of a theory ofinstruc- of knowledge there tion deals with the optimal sequencethat is mean that for any body do we is a minimal set of propositions, or state- required for learning. In what order ments, or images from which one canbest present things?If you are presenting the If generate the rest of what existswithin that Napoleonic Period, where do you start? of the 16th century, field.For example, from the conservation you would give a sense theorems plus a little more, a great dealof do you begin with the fact thatmercantile physics can be reconstructed.This is the prices and prosperity were going up at a "guts" of physics. booming rate, whereas the rents that were Now, I think when we speak of the got by the landlords were notgoing up You optimal structuring of knowledge, we prob- because there were long-term leases? ably have three things in mind about this set might. If you want to produce drama, you They should would. But we will return to thatbecause of underlying propositions. learner have the power of simplifying the diversity there is a question of how to give the of information within the field,somehow a place from which totake off, something rendering the particular redundant, making upon which to build. Inwhat order do you it clear that this case is just a sub-caseof do it? What exercises do you givehim to something else, that one fact is not the same strengthen the sinews of his ownthinking? as every other fact.I speak of this power What type of representation do you use? of simplification as the economy of a struc- How much particular? How much gen- ture.Second, such a structure would en- erality? able you to generate new propositions, to go Finally, a fourth aspect of a theory of beyond the information given. This I would instruction should concern itself with the and punish- speak of as the productiveness of a structure. nature and pacing of rewards And finally, there is another aspect to thc ments and successes and failures. structure of kn3wledge which has to dowith To sum up then, a theory of instruction the extent to which it increases the manipu- should be constructed around four problems: lability of knowledge.It is classically the predispositions,structures, sequences, and case, for example, that when you put some- consequences. thing into words, it now becomes possible for Predisposition you to take that thing which before youonly intuited in some rough way and to subject it Wbat can we say about the factors learner? to the combining% and recombiningsthat are that predispose a :tudent to be a made possible by the transformative powers Let us begin with the followingsimple of language. And this I want to speak of as proposition: that in order to learn or tosolve the power of a structure.In thinking of problems, it is necessary that alternatives be structure, then, we shall want toconsider explored, and that you cannot have effective economy, productiveness, and power.All of karning or problem solving withoutthe FO 100 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era learner's having the courage and the skill to reduce the confusion thatis produced by explore alternative ways of dealing with a picking a wrong alternative.One of the problem. things that, I believe, keep us from exploring It scems that if you take this as the first alternativesisprecisely the confusion of proposition concerning predisposition, there making the wrong choice. are three things that immediately canbe said. Still another goad to the exploration First,if thisis the case, learning in the of alternatives is through the encouragement presence of a teacher, or a tutor, or anin- of "subversiveness." I mean that you must structor should somehow minimizethe risks subvert all of the earlier established con- and the severity of the consequence that straints against the exploration of alterna- follow upon exploration of alternatives.It tives. This kind of subversiveness has to do should be less risky for a child to explore with a healthy skepticism toward holy cows, alternatives in the presence of a teacher than prefabricated doctrines, and stuffed shirtli- without one present. It is obvious that, at the ness. Let there be no question ordoubt that level of coping with nature in the raw, the is "not nice to express." The moment you child searching for food on his own would as teachers lose your roleof subversives in stand more risk of eating toadstools and this respect, you arc doing the child an poisoning himself, and thereby bringing ex- injusticeand yourself aninjusticeasa ploration to a close. teacher.I want to rescue the word "sub- Yet there are other less obvious things version" from the wrong senses to which it that have to do with the closing down of the has been put in recent years. exploration of alternatives. A teacher or When we think about predispositions parent can instill the fear of being a fool. to learn, we have to bear in mind thatthe That can surely paralyze the will to explore very relationship that we havewith our alternatives, for the moment an unreasonable pupils is a privileged relationship involving alternative is made to seem like a foolish one, authority and direction; that is to say, the the inner freedom to explore is limited by the exchange is uneven. We know; they do not. requirements of face saving.The encour- Since that is the case, it becomes very neces- agement of exploration of alternatives re- sary for us not to use this implicitauthorita- quires some practical minimization of the tive relationship as a means of establishing severity of consequences following explora- truth and talsity.It is so easy in the mind tion. of the impressionable child to equate truth It seems to me, further, that one of the with Miss Smith! ways in which a sense of alternatives to be The nature of learning in a school situa- explored can be opened is to increase the tion requires at least a dyadic relation; at informativeness of crror. To increase the least two people arc involved, and usually informativeness of error essentially involves many more than two. This obviouspoint making clear to the child what produced a requires that there be some set of minimal failure. One of the major functions of a social skills that a child brings with him to a teacher is to lead the child to a sense of why learning situation. We do not know much he failed.I do not mean why he failed in about the nature of these social skillsthat terms of a characterological analysis; I mean arc reo,:ired for anexchange of information. in term.; of the nature of what it is that he is The a,:t of exchanging information mutually, doing.If you can somehow make the child or even of acceptinginformation and work- aware that his attempted answcr is not so ing on it until you make it your own, is not much a wrong answcr as an answe7 to an- well understood.In addition to minimum other problem, and then get him bac ( on the social skills, there arc elementary intellectual track, it becomes possible for the child to skills that are necessary for a firs encounter The Search for Theory 101

efforts, that things with school learning. We "know"this, but you can do by your own investigate these ele- happen to a considerable extentby luck. The we do little either to the idea that mentary skills or to devise waysof strength- business of applying the mind, if he will use his mind, is ening them.I am thinking principallyof man has a chance an attitudewhich is not frequently present linguistic skills.Where a child has been This is an socially underprivileged in his early years,it and which has to becreated. look extremely difficult thing todo and I hope no may be necessaryfor example to I do This child, one asks mehow do you do it, because squarely at the situation and say: quite clear that we must before he can go on in thesesubjects, simply not know. Yet it is all of our use the mostintelligent opportunism we can needs more linguistic training or to get the idea words will be just mere windgoing by his muster, to do anything we can but, rather, started that by the use ofmind one can in- ears.I do not mean vocabulary any other desired the development of the fulltransformative crease effectiveness or which our linguists are state. We alsoknow :hat different ethnic power of language different attitudes toward the understand. groups have only now beginning to and again, I do not think we It is necessary for thebeginning child use of mind, of manipulative and take full advantage ofthis. The Muslim- to have certain kinds has an attitude almost intuitive geometric skills.We have African culture, for example, the borders of toward the use of mind that itshould be used started studies of children on that has the Sahara in the interiorof Senegal. We principally for grasping the word difference in the behavior been passed on. This is notthe kind of we are struck at the might be called of American children andchildren in the of mind that makes for what African bush who do not have toyswith a very active,vigorous mind. mechanical or geometrical constraint toplay with. We take it for granted that ourchil- Structure of Knowledge forms, put dren can deal with geometrical question of the them together and take them apart, ycithe Now let us turn to the its economy, pro- fact of the matter is that itshould not be structure of knowledge, experience of ductiveness, and power asrelated to the takenforgranted. The point relates manipulating materials gives our children a capacities of a learner. The first transforma- to theorem in thetheory of computation pro- stock of images and geometric that any tions that permit thcm to workgeometrically posed by Turing. Turing proposed African problem that can be solved canbe solved by and mechanically in a way that our Out of subjects cannot. Thece elementaryforms of simpler means. That is the theorem. this theorem has come thetechnology of intellectual skills are essential.Is there more saysand it that we can do that we are notdoing? computing machines. What it My last point before passing on tothe says this only forso-called well-defined prob- do with lems with unique solutionsisthat however topic of structure in learning has to break it attitudes toward the use cf mind.These are complicated the problem, we can elementary opera- predisposing factors of an enormouslyim- down into a set of simpler amplc, wc know that tions and finally end up withoperations as portant kind. For mark, take these vary to some exten,,speaking socio- simple as: make a mark, move a by cul- the mark out, put the markback, ctc. These logically, by class, by ethr.ic group, thcn combined ture. There is no question,for example, that elementary operations are into subroutines that arc morecomplex and in terms of social class, veryfrequently you class an attitude thcn these are combined, etc.The machine will find in the lowest social interesting be- toward life that is governed by the conceptof succeeds in being practi :ally can run off so manyof these opera- luck. This mcans that thcrcis really nothing cause '

1 1 2 102 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

tions in so short a time. Turing's theorem Finally, a third way in which knowl- has a certain relevance to the structure of edge can get represented is symbolically. By knowledge; it, in a sense, is another way of this I mean in words or i -1 those more power- stating what by now I am afraid has become ful versions of words, pJwerful in one way an old 'saw: that any subject can be taught in any case, mathematical symbols.I think to anybody at any age in some form that is you can turn around the Chinese proverb to honest. There is always some way in which the effect that one picture is worth a thou- complicated problems can be reduced to sand words. For certain purposes one word simpler form, simple and step-by-step enough is worth a thousand pictures. For example, for a child to grasp. draw a picture of "implosion"; and yet the Now, to move ahead one step, I believe idea of implosion as such was one of the it can be said that knowledge about anything basic notions that led to the idea of thermo- can,generallyspeaking, berepre3ented nuclear fusion.Implosion is the concept in three ways, three parallel systems of that results from the application of a con- processing information. One of these is what trast transformation on the more familiar I call the enactive representation of knowl- concept of explosion.The word was so edge. How do you tie a running bowline? important that it was classified as top secret You will reply that you can't quite say it or during the war.It is this capacity to put draw it, but that you will show me by tieing things into a symbol system with rules for one. Try to tell somebody how to ride a manipulating, for decomposing and recom- bicycle, or ski.Itis knowing by doing. posing and transforming and turning sym- It is the way in which the young child on a bols on their heads, that makes it possible seesaw "knows" Newton's Law of Moments. to explore things not present, not picturable, He knows that in order to balance two chil- and indeed not in existence. dren on the other side he has to get farther Now the three modes of representation out on his side, and this is the Law of do not disappear as we grow older; quite to Moments, but known enactively. Only with the contrary, they remain with us forever. time do children free themselves from this When we speak of the application of Turing's tendency to equate things with the actions theorem to the question of structuring of directed toward them. We never free our- knowledge, it is in reference to the repre- selves from it completely. Let me now speak sentation forms we have been discussing. of ikonic representation. If somebodysays Early in life and also early in our mastcry to me, for example, "What's a square?" of a subject we have to represent things I might say, "Well, a square is a set of sets in terms of what we do with themin much such that the number of elements in each the same way as a child "knows about" set is equal to the number of sets." This is a balance beams by knowing what to do on a good definition of a square, formalistically. seesaw. We may then emerge with an image Yet the fact of the matter is that there is of it, however nonrigorous the image may be. another way of representing a square, byan Then and only then can language and symbol image.It isn't a square, it's an image ofa systems be applied with some degree of square, and it's a useful imagewe can start likelihood that their reference will be under- with it. Many of the things we use in rep- stood.I do not think I can say anything resenting knowledge have this ikonic prop- mc re important than that. You create a erty.I use the word "ikonic" because I do structure, not by starting off with the highest not really mean a kind of imitation of nature. hrow symbolic version, but by giving it in the Let us not run down the importance of these muscles, then in imagery, and then giving it useful images. They have limits, these repre- in language, with its tools for manipulation. senting pictures. The basic task is to orchestrate the three 11 3 1

The Search for Theory 103

kinds of representations so that we can lead underlying regularity.If you want the child the child from doing, to imaging what he has to transfer his learning to newsituations you done, and finally to symbolization. had better give him some practice intransfer Usually in a college catalog when a while he is learning. is the course is listed it will saysomething about a The second thing you might try "prerequisite." Let me urge that any topic use of contrast in your sequence.The fish also has internal prerequisites in addition to will be the last to discover water.Economy the things that you are supposed tohave of representation often makesit necessary mastered beforehand.The internalpre- for the child to see the contrasting case. requisites may indeed be just precisely the Often concepts are structured in termsof easier modes of representation that get one contrast and can only be fullyunderstood in to a less rigorous, more imageful orenactive terms of them. To graspthe meaning of grasp of a subject beforeit gets converted commutativity in arithmeticthat 3 .4= into either ordinary or mathematical lan- 4 . 3often may require that werecognize guage. The way you getahead with learning the non-commutative case ofordinary lan- is to translate an idea into those non-rigorous guagethat for quantifiers, for example, forms that can be understood. Then one "very much" is not equal to "much very" or, can, with their aid, become moreprecise and as a little girl once putit, "black shoe" isn't powerful. In mathematics such techniques "shoe black." is are called "heuristics."Their use often con- Third, if one wants a sequence that stitutes a prerequisite to grasping a subject going to produce powerful learning,avoid in its full depth.This is most of what is premature symbolization. Do notgive them meant when we speak of "spiralcurriculum." that word to parrot before they knowwhat it is about either by manipulation orin Optimal ikquonce images. Ask yourselves how much you understand about simultaneous equations. With respect to the sequence in which Fourth, you might try to give the child material is presented, different sequences are practice at both leaping and plodding.Let obviously needed to achieve different objec- him go by small steps. Then let him take tives. The idea of one right sequence is a great leaps, huge guesses.Without guessing myth. You have to be quite clear about he is deprived of his rights as a mind.We what kind of learning you are trying to pro- cannot get all of the evidence.It is often by duce before you can specify what is a good guessing that we become aware of what we i sequence for presenting it.There are se- know. quences that can be describedfor the pro- Another question related to sequence duction of parrots. We use them all the time. has to do with what I would call "revisiting." But there is also a sequence that is particu- Rarely is everything learned about anything larly interesting in that it seems to increase in one encounter. Yet we seem tobe so the likelihood that knowledge will be con- impelled to cover, to get through the Eliza- verted into a structure that is economical, bethan Period, and on throughsuch-and-such productive, and powerfuland therefore period that we forget the obviouspoint transferable. It is worth pausing over. that the pot is rarely lickedclean at one I would like to suggest that if you swipe. Perhaps we would do well totake wanted to do this, the first thing that you music listening as a model. It is notsimply might do is to try leading the child to grasp from particular a matter of masteringthis subject, or even of a structure by induction form. instances. You would give him lots of par- convertingitintomore powerful ticular instances and let him recognize their Rather, revisit means an opportunityof con- 114 104 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era necting what we have learned now with punishes himself by judging the adequacy of what else we know. Why is such an obvious his efforts.Equip him with the tools for point so often ignored? thinking and let him be his own man.

Reward and Punishment Some Conclusions Now the question of pacing reward and I should warn you, in conclusion, to punishment for success and failure.First beware of the likes of us. We do not have distinguish two states. One is success and a tested theory of instruction to offer you. failure; the other one is reward and punish- What is quite plain is that one is needed and ment. By success and failure, I mean the I would propose that we work together in end state that is inherent in a task. The its forging. problem is solved or not solved or close to I warn you for a good reason. Educa- solved. By reward and punishment, I mean tors are a curiously doctrinal or ideological something quite different.It relates to the kind of people. You are given to slogans and consequences that follow upon success and fight and bleed in their behalf. You have failureprizes, scoldings, gold stars, etc. looked te psychology for help and have often It is often the case that emphasis upon been misled into accepting mere hypotheses rewarc and punishment, under the control as the proven word. It is partly because it is of an outside agent such as a teacher or par- so hard to test the adequacy of ideas in an ent, diverts attention away from success and educational setting. failure. In effect, this may take the learning Now we are living through a great initiative away from the child and give it to revolution in education. Our survival may the person dispensing the rewards and pun- depend on its successful outcomeour sur- ishments. This will be the more likely if the vival as the human race.I know no group learner is not able to determine the basis of in our society more devoted to the common success and failure. One of the great prob- weal than our educators. In this era of new lems in teaching, which usually starts with curricula, new teaching arrangements, new the teacher being very supportive, is to give automated devices, your best rudder isa the rewarding function back to the learner healthy sense of experimentation backed by and the task.Perhaps we can do this by a skepticism toward ednational slogans. rewarding good errors so that the child be- If we are to move toward a serviceable comes aware of the process of problem and sturdy theory of instructionand I think solving as worthy as well as the fruits of we arethen your greatest contributionwill successful outcome. In any case, I wish to be a willingness to give new ideas a try and mention these matters to suggest that old full candor in expressing your reactions to dogmas about the role of "reinforcement" how things worked. The prospect is strenu- can be looked at afresh. The independent ous, but gains to be won are enormous. I problem solveris one who rewards and wish you well.

1 1 r The Search for Theory 105

El. 21 (1): 5-7; October 1963 (0 1963 ASCD

The Nature ofInstruction: Needed Theoryand Research (An Editorial)

JAMESB.MACDONALD

develop- FOR well over a decade therehas through the curriculum setting and to understand thc ing activities in the school ycaritself. Ideally, been a renewed effort learn- Sparked by intellectual curriculum finds its fruition in student nature of instruction. considerable curiosity and practical needs,and fanned by ing, hut in actuality there is a the scientific segment of what wc talkabout in curriculum the winds of recent pressures, from class- study of instruction has grownproportion- that is prior to and/or removed research con- rooms. ately larger than most other is the most during this period. Thc concept of teaching cerns in education Teaching may Supervision, teacher pre- andin-service restricted of the three terms. takc place without relatedlearning; that is, programs,andadministratorjudgments educational a person may bcsaid to be performing the about teachers arc examples of whether or not thcrc is re- especially dependent upon act of teaching concerns that arc The teacher be- instruction.The knowl- sultant student learning. our knowledge of bc, and edge about instruction that we possesswill havior in the classroom has been, can is being studied as a separatefunction. be closely related to thc adequacywith which Instniction, then, would bethe active wc engage in thesetasks; and there is con- that we do proccss of goal-orientedinteraction between siderable evidence and agreement materials, andfacilities. deal of common knowl- pupils,teachers, not yct have a great ongoing class- Knowledge, in this This is meant to describe the edge about instruction. entirety, which includes context, refers to theinformation obtained room situation in its teacher behavior and reflectscurriculum de- by empirical or scientificmethods which provide valid and reliableexplanation, predic- cisions and activities. tion, and control of the processof instruction. of dis- Needed: Adequate Models In order to clarify terms, a useful Instruction tinction can he made between curiculum, instruction, and teaching.Whether itis Instruction, like any humanactivity, possible to hold these boundariesin actuality is a complex phenomenon.In order to un- is another problem,hut for the sake of derstand this activity it is necessary tocon- sharpening our focus here a distinctionwill ceptualize its boundaries anddescribe the that have been he madc. relationships of the variables instruction needs Of thc three, curriculum hasthe great- identified. Some model of behaviors and relation- est scope. Our understandingof curriculum to bc used to locate extends from the politics of lcgislativebodies ships that can be described.

Wisconsin-Mitwaukee. In 1963, at the James 11. Afardonald, Protector ofEducation. University oi University of Witrontin-Maduon .11G 106 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

At present itere arc no generally ac- physical science concepts of objects, sys- cepted research models for thc analysis of tems,andinteractions;fromprimarily instruction.Each researcherappearsto behavioral science concepts of human devel- have an implicit or explicit model which hc opment,learning.perception,group dy- uscs to collect descriptions of the process namics, etc.; and from philosophical sources of instruction. carrying heavy psychological overtones. At One of thc earliest of our more recent thc present time there is a confusing mixture models conceptualized instruction in terms of overlapping and/or unrelatable terms and of authoritarian versus dcmocratic behavior conccpts from these sources. One greatly and its resultant effect on pupil behavior. needed task in the near future most certainly This trcnd has moved to morc neutral ter- is thc systematic application of these con- minology such as dircct mid indirect, struc- flicting models and the resultant sifting out tured or flexible, etc., tcachcr behavior in of overlapping concepts and thc clarification thc past few ycars. of common units or referents for model con- Some models deal with verbal behavior struction. only; others attcmpt to include gestures, Morc than a few researchers seem voice tones, and other nonverbal behavior. to have thrown in thc towel on this task and Models often seem to be centered upon returned tothe raw data of experience. teacher behavior with less emphasis upon Using a minimal group of concepts, they pupil initiated situations, peer group inter- have begun cataloging the nature of instruc- action, curriculum, or the tasks involved. tion as they find it. Although it is difficult to Certainly one pressing need for fur- see how this activity will be profitable in the thering our understanding of instructiod is long run without the concomitant activity of the task of developing theories, paradigms, model building as they go along, it does have or models for conceptualizing instrucdon. a valuable place at the present time.The These models, to be adequate,ought to attempt to systematize our way of thinking provide for the descriptiod of the crucial about instruction in an objective manner is elements and thcir relationships in the in- in itself a major step forward. structional process.It is difficult to conceive how adequate models can be proposed with- Needed: The identification and out accounting for purpose, media and mate- Description of Criterion Variables rials, teacher and pupil behavior. Sooner or later the modem resurgence Needed: Empirical Analysis and Theory in research will need to concern itself with Sifting from Other Areas evaluation of instruction. From the practitioner's standpoint the valuing of behaviors Models usually do not spring solely and practices is of central importance. As fromspontaneousintuition. More than crucial as this may be, there appears to be a likely a usable model will suggest itself from task of clarification needed before this step models used in the ighavioral, biological, can proceed with any certainty. or physical sciences; and/or a model may It has always been assumed that the appear out of the empirical analysis of the basic criterion of instruction is the learning instructional activity itself. The instructional which takes place in the classroom.As process is being examined from both orienta- difficult as it is to move away from this con- tions at the present time. viction, there may be sound reasons for call- Models have appeared during the past ing it to question. This conviction may in few years utilizing the basic biological sci- fact be the major reason why we have gained ence concept of homeostasis; from primarily so little usable knowledge about instruction 11 7 The Search tor Theory 107

What is In our hurry to evaluate in- a morc reasonableexpectation. over the years. and destruction in terms of studcntlearning. we needed now arc the identification variety of usable criterion have overlooked some basicpossibilities con- scription of a cerning thc reasonable relationships among variables. instructional elements, and in thc process These criterion variables will have to and testin2, of have discarded fruitful ideas in apenny-wise. emerge Com the development theories throughresearchable hypotheses. pound-foolish manner. practitioner needs to hc An illustration of thismight be thc Meanwhile thc honestly willing to face thc uncertaintvof study of teacher behavior.Why. for ex- not knowing and to participateactively it. the ample. do we expect teacherbehavior to he development of theory and research inthc directly connected withstudent learninr With so many other relevantfactors inter- field of instruction. vening between thc teacher andstudent, it does not seem reasonable to expectlearning Moeda!: Answers to Wootton. to be directly affectedby teacher behavior to field an) considerable extent. Needed theory arid research in the What we need to find out is what we ofinstructionshould eventuary provide can expect to be direct!)affected h) teacher answers to some of thefollowing questions behavior. Wc need, in other words, awhole as well as many others notmentioned here. help to set of criterionvariables (perhaps inter- As a summary, these questions may mediary variables in the long run)that can focus our thinking upon the taskahead. be looked at directly. From thepractitioner's How can we conceptualize the iwoceks viewpoint, rather than slip into a "my opin- of instruction? What are productive sourcesof ion about teacher behavior is asgood ac concepts for use in our analyses? and yours" situation. we need to identify What actually goes on during an instruc- look forthosethings which are directly tional sequence? What are the importantele- affected by teacher behavior. There it"gold ments or variables and how arethey related? in them-thar hills"; but we will neverfind What are the criterion variables ininstruction? it unless we know where to look.As abhor- rent as it may be toevaluate teaching in Until we have discoveredcommonly other ques- terms of the -discipline (quiet.order. etc.) accepted answers to thcse and limitations and in a classroom, this practicedoes illustrate tions, we must recognize our facilitate thc recognition of the possibilitythat some do everything within our power to criterion other than studentlearning may be the search for knowledge. c'; INTEGRATION: THE UPREACH, THE OUTREACH

If the little man of our day ever makes his full upreach and outreach to selfhood, his first job will he to Nat down the mythologies the scholars hare created about him. In the name of scholarship they would hang him on a cross of validated hypotheses. Dodson. p. 111.

a EL 26 12 115-17; Noirmlla / 968 mit ASCD

From Debate to Action (An Editorial)

DAN W. DORSON

NOTHING has so challenged the The Interredal Encounter educational establishment of America as the The following positions are stated as civil rights revolution. When the U.S. Su- conclusions reached from the experience of preme Court reversed the Plcssy 1.Ferguson the interracial encounter: doctrine of "separate but equal" in 1954. the focal point in race relations became the 1. There is no substitute for defegre- schools. The first big challenge was desegre- gallon. gation. The second was to compensate those The genius of American public educa- who bore the scars and trauma of discrimination is the "common school.- When local tion. schools have an untoward concentration of The past 14 years have been character- one group, so that one becomes "ours"and ized by debate, dialogue, and sometimes another "theirs." they cease to be common opcn hostility. Few educational leaders sup- schools and becomeschools ofspecial ported the courts intheir rulings against interests. apartheidcducation.Most arguedthat Equalityof educational opportunity schools were not instruments of reform.If cannot be provided in such a situation. Two housing were segregated, they saw no re- schools cannot be exactly equal. hence to be assigned to one as against the other deter- sponsibilitytodesegregate schools. The mines what is expected of both the teacher neighborhood school became sacred.The and the pupil. One may as well ask a layman social class limitations upon ability to learn on the street to rate a community'sschools were used to exclse educators from teaching in status as to ask the achievement scores of slum children.Although almost half of the pupils, so nearly do teacherc' and pupils' America's children ride buses to school for performances conform to the community's offer reasons, bussing for desegregation be- expectations of them. Hence, the only way came an anathema. to make schools equal is to make all schools We must now move from debate to equally accessible to all. action. The future of public education is at The dominant power group in a com- stake in the inner cities of this great coun- munity will not provide equal opportunity so try.Education must become dynamic, an long as its children live with privilege they instrumentality of change, and must bring the do not have to share. The Hobson v. Hanson minority groups of the country into full- tcstimony in Washingten, D.C., indicated scaleparticipation,or clsc the COMITIC11 that some status white schools received al- school is doomed. most twice as much support per child as did

Dan W. Dodson, Professor of Education, Director, Center for HumanRelations and Community Studies, and Chairman. Department of Educational Sociology andAnthropology, New York University, New York City 110 120 Integration: The Upreach, the Outreach 111 some inner city al' black schools.In these Thc literature is filled with cliches of situations itis impossible to tcach commu- thc researchers and the apologists for thc nity. for the living arrangement out-educates non-performance of such children."Low thc educators. I()." "low social class," "weak cgo strength," If Black Separatists do not have power "lack of father image with which to relate," enough to commandresourcestoserve "inability to forego immediate pleasures for "theirs- in situations where there is some long-range goals,- "matriarchal domination," leverage to require sharing, it is a foregone "cultural deprivation.- and now, "lack of conclusion they will not have power enough preschool stimulation," all suggest thc extent to require resourcesif thcy arc forced to to which we have madc thc human potential fend for themselves in apartheid educa!ion. the scapegoat for our failures.If the little The hope resides in (-Air staying engaged in man of our day cvcr makes his fullupreach thc encounter until wc have forged the new and outreach to selfhood. his first job will designs of a viable society. rather &an in hc to heat down thc mythologies the scholars pulling apart in resegregated education. This have created about him.In thc namc of latter road will pr(we nothing.Itis where scholarship they would hang him on a cross Booker T. Washington and "separate but of validated hypotheses. equal- started almost 100 years ago. We The blatant truth is that tire teachers know where that road leads. and thc researchers found what thcy started out to look for, that is, what was wrong with 2.There must he more accountability. thc human potential--not what was wrong Educators have contended that what with the institution. Occasionally some local they do is so special that it cannot be evalu- school achieves performances which indicate ated. Hence, neither teachers nor their lead- that these children arc educable, and that ers arc accountable if children do notlearn. thcy can bc taught. They also demonstrate In thc ghetto communities, children often that no magic gimmick is needed to turn this make no measurable progress from the be- trick.It only requires teachers who believe ginning of a term until it ends. Negro lead- these children can learn, principals who help ersoftenrefertothisas"educational create learning situations by good super- genocide.-Teachers cannot claim tenure. vision. and a leadership within the com- and all the privileges they enjoy in large city munity to support the endeavor. These arc systems, and be no more accountable for thc major ingredients. their performance than they are now. 4.Better school-community relations. 3.Educators should concentrate less The Ford Foundation leadership be- on the limitations of the humanpotential, lieves the removal of schools from respon- and more on the limitations of the establich- siblc parental and community participation ments through which they operate. is the real malaise besetting the inner city The excuse to the present has been schools. Thcy have recommended that New that thc limitations were in the human po- York City's system be broken up into 60 tential.This was scapegoating.It took autonomous districts, and control turned many forms.At firstit was claimed the over to the local community and the parents. limitations were biological. Some still make While this is perhaps a simplistic solution. such dastardly claims.Others contend the it does indicate the need for a real partner- limitation is not innate, but the slum milieu ship between die school and its community. permanently (or almost so) impairs their Despite all the literature on school-commu- sensory mechanisms. so they areunable to nit) relations, a demonstration of a viable learn. relationship between the school and the

121 112 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era community in low-income neighborhoods is The time for debate is past. We arc a rarity. This is an urgentmatter today. if engaged inthereal confrontationtotest the schools arc to regain relevancein the whcthcr education can serve equally an the children of the community. or whether it is an ghettos. inert institutional arrangement designed to dominant The Real Confrontation serve the power interests of the society.It is eac to become weary with thc Unless school systems can move on cncountcr and wish to disengagefromit. Such retreat at this late hour in history would theseissues posthaste. thc Separatist segment of the Negro communitywill persuade be a trasesty on our heritage.Let us join parents to accept apartheid. and returnto thc the encounter and forge the new designs of ancicnt doctrine of "separate but equal.-In a program commensuratewith the challenges this move. the Separatists and thc hack- of our era.,Anything less is unwo:thy of lashers will have won, and the structure will American professional educational leader- be set for a new era of tribalism ineducation. ship.

El,S /3 i 2R5-8R. Mr( ntyr /968 toraR AMA)

Integration...A Curricular Concern

CosiFt An F. TOEPFFR. JR.

PROI3LEMS of racial integration The main points to be considered hcrc inpublic schools continueto command arc: increasing attention in professional eduzi- 1. integration of information and learn- lion writings.Attempts to ameliorate and ers is invariably a curriculumplanning process. eliminate racial imbalance in thc schools arc 2.ilescgregation of racially imbalanced schools cannot he considered in itself as causing literally Unfortunately. the majority of these racial integration in schools. 3.integration of learning for black stu- plansprovide onlyfor desegregationof dents inracially balanced schools must he racially imbalanced schools and. in them- achieved through curriculum planning to com- selves, cause no effective integration of edu- municate their enieriential background with cational experience for students in newly that of the white, middk class orientation. desegregated schools.In many instances. 4.Failure to follow up desegregation however, it has been erroneously assumed with curricular integration will present a criti- that desegregation efforts automatically pro- cal problem. vide an integra'ed educative experiencefor 5.Resources and means are available to thc students involved. begin organizing integration programs.

Conrad F. Toepler. Jr.. Associate Professor ofEducation. Department of CurriculumDevelopment and Instructional Afedia, State Universityof New York at Rutlalo 2 r...1 Integration The Upreach. the Outreach 113

Curriculum Planning succeeded. teachers have inv art ibl organized tor Integration programs toprovide students from wide ability ranges the opportunity to compete and Prior to the problem of f.icial balance. achieve individually. Thus an integration of integration had important meaning for cur- learning has been achieved and for a range riculum planningKrug has statcd the fol- of students with widely varying backgrounds ios,. mg and capabilities.'

Although the subject organization is the usual and to some people the inesitablc pattern Desegregation and Integration tor classroom studies,ithas been criticized. It is suggested hcrc that integration as Tho Ke who do so contend that it results in the like- splitting up of human knowledge and skill into a curriculum planning procedure can arbitrars segments and that thc student who wise mcct the needs of racial and social class pursues it comes out with piecemeal education. integration in public schools today. There Such criticisms hase led to efforts to modif arc differences between the situationsde- suhiect erganization along the lines of "broad scribed in the foregeing section and needs fields.-1 he term -integration-is somewhat for racial integration in schools, but these used to describe these efforts. although there should properly be recognized as differences arcthose who contend thattrue integration of dcgrcc and not of kind. Some planned takes place in the learner rather than in the improved educational experience must be reorganization of content) developed as a second step aftcr desegrega- Thc concept of subject matter correla- tion.This integration process must design tion 21 suggests that integration of learning curricular programs and opportunities for ex- within learners best evolves whcn the organi- periences which communicate to thc cultural zation of subject matter helps learners sec the relevance of subject materials to cach and experiential backgrounds of all students in that school. Failure to achieve this second other andinrelatiorshiptothcir own ens ironment. The development of homogenc- stcp will cause impoverished students to be olls grouping and "track- programs for spe- exposed once more to instructional programs cific ability levels has requirci. on paper at as meaningless as those formcrlyexperienced least, the planning ef special curricula for in segregated schools. these diverse groups, including organization My own son attended an elementary of subject matter, gradedinstructional school into which black children wcrc bussed materials,and differentiatedinstructional to combat de facto racial segregation.When techniques. Wide gaps among groups of intel- thc program began in September 1965, the lectually superior children, slow learners, and black children would gathcr as.1 separate special class groups have long posed prob- group in thc school playgrounddespite thcir lems tocurricularintegrationinthcin- agc rangc from kindergarten througheighth structional program.Where efforts have grade.Through the autumn this condition changed, with increasing evidences of white 1 Edward knig. Curriculum Planninr. Re- and black children playing togcthcr. By the %iced edit on. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1957. cnd of thc school ycar there was almost com- p.103. integrationthrough personal clarold Alberty.Rroreani:ing du' Nigh pletexocial School Curriculum.Third edition. New York: The Macmillan Company. 1962.pp. 204-10. 4 Nelson Henry. editor.The Interralion of 3 Roland Faunce and Nelson Bossing. Dr- Educarivinal Erperiencc.c. Part III. The 57th Yea t.clopinc thr Carr ( urrieulum.Second edition. book of the National Society for the Study of Fnglewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc.. Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958. 1958.

r's 114 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

for the impoverished will he much the same friendships.It has become common to 5CC black and white children in "arm-around- as programs inmiddle class environments. However, thc jump from beginning to endin each-other" buddy friendships.However, the environment of poverty is far too bro d for there has been no attempt to develop inte- the majority of learners to comprehendand grating curricular programs upon this base accept. The cnd objectives are sofar removed of social integration.Yet many educators from thc learner's experience and so abstract feltthat totalintegration had thus been from his own environment that he rejects them achieved. They failed to see that develop- because of their remoteness and because he ment of new curricular programsinthis cannot see how he can ever achievethem. To encouraging social climate could build edu- counteract this,ra...w sets of vital and imme- cational integration upon the foundatkm of diate objectives, objectives which are so con- desegregation and correction of racial im- crete thatyou "can taste them.- musthe balance. oevelopedto provide a continuumfor the learner to reach toward the end objectives of Curriculum Planning for a better life for himself.7 Racial Integration Failure to work at this problem has re- curriculumvoids such asthc If curriculum planning is to be success- sultedin ful in effecting educational integration, it following: mustidentifythe basicproblemwhich The poverty-stricken child needs to learn plagued education in segregated schools. The to read hut not initially to read about amiddle- learner in that setting was isolated from the class world in which he cannot even fantasy white, middle class values and background himself. His own environmental needs toread upon which thc curriculum wasbuilt.Be- are critically important tothe point of life and causethisisolation made the curriculum death but are typicallynot noticed by the remote and meaningless, impoverished chil- schoO. This child needs to learn to read and dren, both black and white, had extreme underdandthemeaning of "danger- and difficulty in achieving the desired ends of "poison" on cans of rat poison, "pure"and learning in the curriculum.Research has "safe' on other containers. Other things tobe revealed that compensatory education de- read and understood include signs on con- signed to help students in segregated schools demned buildings with words andexpressions with heavy racial and social class imbalance like "condemntd," "under razing.""structure are"; but the is largely ineffective!'4 not safe," "symptoms of rabies Planning integrating curricularpro- reading materials used in class talk about aboy, grams requires a philosophical commitment. a girl, and their dog andtheir environment in Such efforts must eventually develop teacher alf-Caucasian suburbia.* skills and perceptions through in-service edu- Unless such approaches develop, the cation programs and must create instruc- gains in learning for former ghettoschool tional materials which will teach skills in children will be limited to meresocial accul- terms of the environmental experiencesof turation through their associationswith a black and othcr impoverished children. predominance of white, middle classclass- The end goals of educational programs mates.

New 7 Dorothy Rosenbaum and ConradToepfer, 5 Kenneth B. Clark. Dark Ghetto. School Psychology: York: Harper & Row, Publishers.1965. Jr. Curricnhon Planning and The C,,ordinated Approach. CambridgeSprings. " A. Harry Pessow. Education in Deprected Pennsylvania: Htrtillon Press, 1966.p. 136. Areas. New York: Teachers College Press. Colum- bia University. 1965. p. 137. Integration: The Upreach, the Outreach 115

Dilemma of Desegregation Without monies still offer promising resources to un- Curricular integcation derwrite such beginning efforts. In theory and practice, curriculum plan- Inraciallyimhalanccd schools,thc ning offers succinct means for actualizing black student was exposed to a curriculum effective integration programs in schools. with learning situations pared to white, mid- Such efforts must identify and organize ap- dle class race experience.While such ex- propriate instructional objectives, content, perienceswere oftennonintelligibleand materials, methods, and evallating devices rejected, the blackstodentstilihad thc for improved learning experiences to follow security of his cosn culture. In schools whcrc the correction of racial imbalance. Two re- integrating curricular programs do not de- cent innovations seem to hold broad promise velop upon the correction of racial imbal- for integrating curricular patterns. The non- ance, hc will still bc as isolaicd fromthe graded school offers a flexif ility which could curriculum as hc was in ghetto schools.In well accommodate the wide ramzes of student the desegregated setting, however, the ma- background andabilityindesegregated jority of his classmates will unde,-mand the schools in designing improved learning ex- whitc, middle class orientation of the cur- periences. The importance of individualizing riculum because they arc whitc. This may instruction for all students recommends the well provide theblackstudent within- computer-based resource unit concept " as a creased cultural insecurity. succinct means to integrate educational ex- Thus, curricular isolation of students periences in desegregated schools. Curricu- will continue in racially desegregated schools. lum planning in desegregated schools must but now with the pernicious danger of mis- interrelate the facets of classroom experi- taking racial desegregation for racial integra- ence. special services, and co-curricular action.Ifthe curriculumindesegregated tivities in creating a new and vital all-school schools is not planned to integrate the life program whichwillfacilitatecurricular experience of both black and whitc students, integration in its most specific applications. supporters of racial segregation who preach The factors considered herein point black inferiority may falsely seem correct. to this single need and fact:Whatever is Continuation of desegsegation-only programs developed for those students in racially de- could facilitate such a catastrophic miscon- segregated classrooms must be definitively elusion. different from present and existing curricular programs. To provide student more of Resources and Means To that which was a meaningless failurein Solve the Problem racially imbalanced schools will be tragically myopic. Furthermore, it will candidly indi- Organization of both preservice and cate that the problem of racial integration in graduate teacher cducation sequences to de- schools has either not been recognized and velop tcachcr awareness as well as plan- defined cr that we do not know how, or care, ning and teaching skills must be a primary to deal with it effectively! step. Likewise, needs for in-service programs which focus on similar teacher skills in ac- °Robert S. Harnack. "Resource Units and tual school scttings rate high priority. Despite the Computer." The High School Journal 51 (3): cuts in federal government support, federal 126-31; December 1967.

175 116 Curricular Concerns m a RevolutionaryEra

I:7 (.% 471-74. 1 chruary 1971) I9141 AS( 1)

Whose ChildrenShall We Teach?

WAIF° ELDRIDGL P1111_1.11's

children of all THE writer recently serve-cl on a and completely "teach- all the the public! Lct us cite someobservations to panel with a political scientistand a sociologist. The topic for the evening wasgiven support this hypothesis. Polarization in Our Many white Americans havecontended thc ambiguous title. "The cities to "get Society.- Our assignment was toad lih ,s to that they dJ not leave the large hut because of this phenomenon. away- from black Americans. our perceptions education for The sociologist gave an analogyof the they desired a better quality of hand, many social stratification within theAmerican so- their children. On the other neighborhood dissertation chose to live in a particular ciety and delivered an excellent quality of and cnculturation. because they. too. desired a better on acculturation If a person's The political scientist, who has adegree education for their children. income permitted him. thc movementbe- in divinity, outlined thewhys and where- One must remember. fores of the American political systemand came a living reality. given area how the church fits into it. however, that an exodus from a a ghost town.To the The writer supported thepontifications does not render it contrary. living bodiesremainand in large of the two speakers. However.I stated that the public schools are the onlyplaces where numbers. sojourn college professors. Let us follow the public school the sons and daughters of moved to a pimps.prostitutes.and of a child whose parents have maies.janitors. a typical college preachers are found.In a typical college certain neighborhood in is amazing how shortsighted we town where there is only onesenior high town.It school, they are found in the samebuilding. can be. When one moves into a "certain-neigh- with those Teaching All the Children borhood, it is his intention to bc of his kidney, that is. at hislevel within the It would appear nlausible thatthe sons bourgeoisie.!I is reasonable to assumethat and daughters of employers andemployees the schools will be populated withthese types meet on a continuum ofsociality daily. To of children.This assumption is one-third look at this conglomerate of upper.middle. accurate: the middle-juniorhigh school will and lower income youths, onerealizes that have children from severalneighborhoods: children from the public schoolistruly an arena. The the senior hign school will have writer submitted then and submits nowthat all neighborhoods! in a circle. the home and church haveabdicated their It appcars that the runner ran daugh- individual responsibility to the youngpeople If onc hae wanted to expose a son or the public schools ter to the "best- families,it would appear of this nation. Therefore, of early by inheritance and default r.i must really that this should be during the period

Kalamazoo College. Kalamazoo.Michizzu Romeo Eldridge Department of Education. r. ) Integration: The Upreach, the Outreach 117 pubcscence whcn discriminate taste develops. Types of Teschers During this period. itis not what Mom or Thcrc arc five types of teachers cur- Dad desires, it is what "I- want. We call this rcntly drawing wages in the public schools. thc period of adolescent rebellion. It is logical Each is easily recognized. to conclude, then, that only thc elementary school can supply the "quality of education- 1.Thc Rchclis against the cntirc sys- sought by thc mover-runner. Lct us look into tem, hut has no suggested plan of changc. thc high school whcrc all thrcc "typcs" arc 2.The Rctrcatist wants out of teach- houscd. ing. is constantly seeking other employment, Thc teaching.. mores. fears, prejudices. and !caves, usually, with his or hcr Ic lye hank etc.. of parcnts arc placed on publicdisplay cmpty. in the scnior high school.It is in thc scnior 3. Thc Ritualisthas rctircd on thc job, high school that thc 14-or-so ycars of neigh- and continues to repcat the same lessons year borhood valucs training hcar fruit. It is in thc in and ycar out. This tcachcr can quotc pagc, senior high schrsol that the realities of hetero- paragraph, and scntence of thc text. gcncous livi .12,arc tried.Truly, thc senior 4.Pic Conformistgoysalongwith high school is an educational arena. The pub- what is currcnt without making an cffort to lic schools havc been givcn thc task cithcr of contribute. In many cases this person and thc curing all the social ills or of serving as a ritualist arc related. dctcrrcnt. For some 1 80-odd days each ycar 5.Thc Innovatorsces thc needfor thepublicschoolsfacetheseprGblems change and seeks to bring it about without hcad on. antagonism.This effort ranges from his/hcr Oftcn potential teachcr.: are hcard rc- classroom to the district. pcating statements of veteran tcachcrs about One who teaches must be conditioned certain schools in ccrtainschool districts. to accept thc following subroles: They may express a dcsirc not to work in certain schools in certain school districts. 1. A mediator of learning Whcn reminded that they are sceking a cer- 2. A judge 3. A disciplinarian tificate to teach in thc public schools and not 4. A confidant in ccrtain types of public schools, expressions 5. A parcnt substitute of ambivalence about teaching pour from 6. A surrogate of middlc class valucs. their lips.The shock of being expected to tcach all thc children of all thc publicin- If, in fact, wc havc fivc types of teach- cluding poor whitcs, blacks, American In- ers currcntly in thcpublic schools and if dians, and Spanish spedkingcreates a form teachcrs should subscribc to these sixsub- of academic amitosis. One would guess that rolcs, wc must look at thc tcachcr-prcparing when they are reminded of this, the potential institutions. teachers may experience a form of amctropia. Since thc orbiting of Sputnik 1, men with Sometimes it appears that such beginners no names such as Bcstor,Rickover, Conant, longer see public school teaching as before. Clark, Malcolm X, and McKissick have Yct and still, a horrible disservice would be chargcd that thc teacher education institu- created if thcy were not madc to acknowl- tions arc not doing their job. Of thcsc various cdgc such a commitment as being realistic. charges, the one heaid most often is that The writer has often been asked these potential teachers are being prepared to work questions: What types of teachers arc in thc with just one segment 6f our societythe public schools?What subrolcs must wc middle! play, since the church and home no longer The truth of the matter, they arc saying, appear to rcally care? is that one does not rcally teach, per se, th..1

1.2. 118 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Eri

middle segment. This highly motivated seg- praised; when he works under the basic ment neLJs only guidance. Teaching must be standards he is moved. at the extremes of the continuum. Because of A teacher is protected by state law plus this fact many veteran "teachers.' obtain and a master contract. However, unlike the mem- seek assignments in such schools. Knowing bers of labor unions, a teacher has no de- this, potential teachers seek such non-avail- mands made on him to produce. He is not able assignments. Teacher education institu- accountable and accepts all pay raises with tions contribute to this dastardly deed by no scruples of conscience. Knowing this to holding back two-thirds of the information be true, citizens have resorted to extralegal neededthe fact that we have three types of means to gain teacher accountability. communities within the public school arcna. In the suburbs, parents often check the It is inexplicable why neophyte teachers must content of their children's assignments. The develop this awareness by empirical design. same is true in "choice" neighborhoods in Too many teacher education institutions large cities and college communities. It is not have developed what the writer calls "slogan unusual for Bobby's father, who is a profes- shibboleths." Many of these are really polite sor of math at the local college, to challenge euphemisms, for thcy appear to be evasive the teacher's math competency. Knowing the in nature. One docs not talk about "teaching level of academic sophistication of his stu- the whole child" only to point out negatives, dents' parents, the teacher usually shapes up for example, "low IQ sco,:es," "a product of or ships out. an illegitimate affair," and "too much free- The ghetto poor lack academic sophisti- dom and money." Children may be dumb, cation; they measure results. They know that but they are not stupid. They need not be they send their children to school for an edu- told which type of teacher so-and-so is. They cation. The children may remain for some know that actions spcak louder than words. 13 inclusive years only to emerge lacking the For potential teachers not to be prepared to ability to read. Parents are not stupid. They teach all the children of all the publicis are now seeking methods of community con- malfeasance. Potential teachers must be told trol via the purse strings of school employees. what is expected of thent and the professor They measure step-by-step what their chil- is professionally obligated to "tell it like it is"! dren learn.Ifitisadjudicated that the learning did not take place, they want the Problem of Accountability teachers' wages affected, union master contract to the contrary notwithstanding. The problem on hand now is what must When the ghetto poor rise up, it is un- be done to teach students currently enrolled. usual. A case in point is the Ocean Hill- The problem is compounded by the fact that Brownsville fiasco in New York in the fall of 1968. The public schools can expect more many teachers are aware of these differences of the same as parents, ghetto poor parents, but choose not to adapt their presentations to demand education of a quality comparable fit the experiences of their charges. What to that found outside their community. In can be done to rectify this situation? the process the teacher education institutions Teachers unions appear not to be con- will not come out unscathed. After all, it is cerned about making teachers accountable. they who trained the present cadre so inade- If a teacher is accountable, itis a personal quately. Pedagogics must expand to include desire. Accountability in labor unions known the three socioeconomic levels.Teachers to the writer revolves around wages. As a must be, so to speak, educational chameleons. worker produces so is he paid.When he The business of teaching in this coun- works up to expectations he is,naturally, try is now, more than before, very serious Integration: The Upreach, the Outreach 119

desire and business. Politicians no longer canafford to of the middle and upper classes, results from their chil- use the publicschools as vehicles for reelec- arc now demanding Adequate funds are needed, andall dren's education, the public schoolarenahas tion. havethe three groups are united in thiseffort.Poli- become a battleground. The "haves" resources to supplementvia the tutoring route ticiansreact favorably topressure.The without a that which the public schools fail to accom- ghetto poor know that a person the re- marketable skill is a drain on society.They plish. The "have .nots" do not have sourccs, but they azedemanding the same expectthe public schools to providethe made aware results within the same period oftime. Since training. Our country has been the of the reality of the waste ofbrain power both sets of children are to competein is fair that both be given by not tapping the resourcesof the poor. same society, it equal opportunities.The only "resource" available to the "have-nots" isthe ability The Answer Is Easy to destroy. We need not gointo the psycho- is used, Whose children shall we teach?It ap- logical reasoning why this "resource" is used. We must con- pears that the answerisquite easy. We for we know that it allthe public, regard- centrate our efforts so thatthe ghetto poor teachallthe children of this less of circumstance of birth, statusof par- will feel that there is no need to use If we donotbelieve "resource." Although they have nothing to ents, and innate ability. using in public education, we hadbetter say so and lose, likewise they will not gain by for those who will be this "resource."It is better for the "have- commence to provide fair shake than forthe eliminated.If we believe that the public nots" to gain a "haves" to be reduced to the status of"have- shouldhave the opportunity to beeducated, then we had better act that way. nots." This means that the power structure, The acculturation and enculturation role commencing with the teachereducation in- outlined by the sociologist, as well as the society stitutions, must make the presentand future of the church and the politics of our Ivan Pavlov used food outlined by the political scientist,highlight cadre accountable. No with his dogs; perhaps moneywould be a the responsibility of the public schools. about the need viable control stimulus for humans,that is, matter how lucid the oratory education for pay would be determinedby the quality of for a high quality of public the work. No workno pay!After all, we every child, it boils down towhat was said by "Either must stop the brain drain. If we canput men the late Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.: should be able to we're going to live together as brothersand on the moon, surely we like work with the known. Our greatestinvest- sisters or we're going to die together It appears that the cnly light in the ments are our children.Allof them must be fools." lighthouse to guide our society is the public taught! Since the ghetto poor, like themembers school. This light must not go out. 120 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

LI, 26 (2): 129-34; November /968 196X ASCD

Instructional Materials Can Assist Integration

M. LUCIA JAMES

THERE islittle wonder that a The school should be a major social in- 21-year-old middle class white college grad- stitution for achieving integration. IIowever, uate would ask, "What do I teach a group of the integration process is effective only when 13-year-old Negro, American Indian, Puerto the educational experiences of the students Rican, Oriental, or Mexican American inner- are designed with the intent to develop an city children?" His Negro counterpart rakes und n-standing of all groups, and to provide a similar question, "What should I teach adequate opportunities for each individual to these 13-year-old middle class white youths acquire positive relationships and mutual about the Negro and other minority groups: respect for each other. These changes can be the Puerto Rican, American Indian, Oriental, initiated and implemented through the use or Mexican American?" of instructional materials, as well as through Questions such as these are to be ex- course content, methods of instruction, and pected when one analyzes the present school teacher attitudes (4). situation.The averageminority child the Negro,Oriental, Mexican American, A Lasting Impact Puerto Rican, or American Indianattends a highly segregated school in which the char- Until recently, textbooks and other in- acteristics of the student body are predomi- structional materials which most school sys- nantly the same as his (1 ). Likewise, of the tems across the nation used were often void 2.4 million white school children, 2 million or grossly inadequate in their treatment of attend schools in which 90 percent of the minorities;othersreflectedethnoceiltrism students are of the same race (2). (5). As the most universally used instruc- "What we know about anything relates tional material, the textbook has significant directly to the way we behave about it." Para- influence.It suggests not only the organiza- phrased, "What racial groups know about tion and content of a course, but also the each other is reflected directly in the way collateral readings,activities,and experi- they relate to each other." From this, one ences (6).This makes one cognizant of may infer that unuerstanding and knowledge how inextricable methods and materials are, among racial groups will help immeasurably and how the textbook perpetuates many of toward achieving integration.Integration is the attitudes that are prevalent in our society. more than physical presence. It exists when people of all races accept themselves and Until recently, few texts featured any each other, recognize the value of their dif- Negro personalities. Few books used or courses ferences, know thecontributionsofall offered reflected the harsh realities of life in the groups, and have an opportunity to inter- ghetto, or the contribution of Negroes to the act (3). country's culture and history (7).

M. Lucia Jaws, Professor, Library Science Education, and Director, Curriculum Lab( ratory, University of Maryland, College Park 130 Integration: The Upreach, the Outreach 121

Instructional materials must be pro- fiction, poetry, short stories, drama, etc., that duced to create ncw conditions and to pro- present minority groups in an authentic, con- vide vicarious experiences for those who, temporary setting with which they can identify or from which the majority group cangain because of de facto or de jure segregation of insight into the social pressures that minorities schools, are deprived of the opportunity to endure. Stereotyped illustrations or distorted have direct contact with or to learn about pictures of minorities should be avoided. An minorities. Instructionalmaterialsare example isthe illustration of Pedro sleeping needed also for use by minority groups who, under the yucca, which has become the stereo- regardless of sociai class, are bound by a typed picture of the Mexican American. color-caste complex that affects their self- Newspapers, newsletters, periodicals, and concept (8), and who, because of the ab- journalssources for current happenings and sence of or paucity of materials relevant to analysis of news items regarding minorities, their environment, culture, or contributions their economic and social problems.Ebony, of their race, have become hostile toward so- Afro-A inerican, the Pivsburgh Courier, South- ciety and question the utilityof what is ern Education Report, and the Journalof Negro being taught (9). History areamong suggestedtitleswhich It is not to be assumed that materials should be available for all students, not just can substitate for direct experiences and con- Negroes. tact among racial groups. They do, however, Films, fihnstrips, records, tapes, micro- have a significant and lasting impact. When forms, television, and radio programsauthen- placed in proper perspective and used intel- tic, up-to-date productions to provide historical ligently, a wide variety of well-selected multi- as well as current information andsufficient media,multi-ethnic instructionalmaterials facts to negate the stereotypes, myths, and fal- can become creative and effective instru- lacious generalizations about minority groups. "History oftheNegro Emphasis The NET Series, ments for fostering integration. People," or the filmstrip,Values, by Louis should be placed on utilizing an abundance Raths are examples. of up-to-date materials rather than a single type. As is true of the textbook, no one Pamphlets and leafletsbrief, current dis- type can develop adequately all aspects of cussions of related topics about minorities. a concept; achieve the various purposes for Flat pictures and photographsoutstand- which individuals use the materials; and still ing ;ndividuals of minority groups, especially provide for the complexity of needs, indi- personalities of contemporary :.,ociety; and pic- vidual differences, experiences, and interests tures of integrated scenes portraying the natural of the users. everyday life of minorities who are not "tan- Among the types and forms of instruc- Nordic" or middle class. tional materials to which students and teach- Teacher- and pupil-prepared materials ers should have access, in addition to the creative art and writing, flat pictures,trans- textbook, are the following: parencies, etc., are often indispensable sources in the absence of appropriate instructional ma- Reference booksbasic, accurate, objec- terials about minority groups. tive sources about minority groups,as The Speeches, reports, diaries, songsauthen- Negro Almanac, or the International Library of tic, documentary, source materials.President Negro Life and History, which can provide Lyndon B. Johnson's speech, "To Fulfill These authentic historical and contemporary informa- Rights," or William Katz's Eyewitness: The tion. Negro in American History are among recommended sources. Literarymaterialsbiographies(other than those of Booker T. Washington, George Professional materialsbooks, as Heller's Washington Carver, and Marian Anderson), Mexican-American Youth: Forgotten Youth at

12 1 122 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

the Crossroads, courses of study, curriculum norities, should be discarded. This is essen- materials prepared by the Regional Labora- tial if materials are to assir. in integration. tories,researchstudies,andbibliographies. Examples of selective bibliographies are: The Dignity and Worth Negro American in Paperback; Building Bridges of Understanding; Intergroup Education: Meth- As was evident from a cursory exami- ods and Materials; and Reading Ladders for Human Relations. Many school systems have nation of several recent curriculum guides, developed comprehersive lists, as the Cultural many elementary and secondary schools are andHistoricalContributionofAmerican introducing courses in humanities and an- Minorities, by the Buffalo Public Schools, and thropology. In many of these programs the Intergroup Relations, produced jointly by the basic concepts from the study of "man as a New York State Education Department and the human being" are being developed, and the State University of New York. fundamental dignityand worth of every individual, regardless of race, color, or creed, The social trend of rapid change is re- are emphasized as a solution to our societal flectedincreasinglyintheavailabilityof problems. multi-ethnic materials. This trend is evident Realizing the value of a variety of in- in materials prepared for use in many of the structional materials to support the curricu- subject fields.In the social studies, as an lum, publishers are producing different types example, Land of the Free places Negroes in of materials and media that can be adapted the mainstream of American history and cul- to new educational strategies. Critical think- ture; in the Holt, Rinehart and Winston ing and inquiry, role playing, and other group Urban Social Studies Series, children can process and problem-solving skills are only identify with the incidents and verbalize their a few of these strategies which can and emotions from the integrated photographs. should be used with instructional materials Basal readers, as the Skyline Series and to foster intergroup relations and racial un- the Chandler Reading Program, introduce derstanding.Critical inquiry and thinking, multi-racial groups in normal school and in-depth studies, role playing, scientific anal- play situations; an inclusive, rather than an ysis, and discovery methods should help stu- exclusive society is reflected. The new Steck- dents and teachers to evaluate objectively, to Vaughn Human Values Series helps to de- distinguish fact from fallacy, and to acquire velop the concept of self and stress the inner reactions shared by all children. This trend new truths from which they can generalize. is reflected also in trade books and other Although not designed solely to pro- types of instructional materials, yet there is mote integration, many of the picture sets and still a dearth of well-developed, accurate, profusely illustrated books can also oe used: multi-ethnic materials that present the life Discussion Picturesfor Beginning Social experiences of minorities, or present them Studies, Words and Action, The Family of in a natural realistic setting. Man, The Color of Man, and Picture Packets. In contrast to the popular belief that Since pictures can be used effectively to social studies is the logical phase of the cur- communicate attitudes,facts, and feelings riculum to discuss minorities or intergroup (10), the picture sets suggested may be used relations, every 'subject and experience of to stimulate creative writing and art, as well the educational program should include such as to develop role-playing and problem-solv- relations, and should utilize up-to-date mate- ing skills.In either of these activities the rials.Obsolete, outdated instructional ma- student may reveal his feelings and attitudes terialswhich omittopicson intergroup toward minority groups. living, or which present stereotypes of mi- If instructional materials are to be used 1 2 ntegration: The Upreach, theOutreach 123

criteria for their The use of instructionalmaterials is not to foster integration, some facts or materials are in- selection must be based on thefollowing: a panacea; mere sufficient to change persons who havestrong 1. An accurate, adequate,objective pre- prejudgmentsandprejudices. Materials, sentation of basic concepts of raceand culture however, can provide newinsights, and ex- 2.Sufficient facts to eradicate the pretend and expand knowledge andappreciation judgments and generalizationsabout minorities of others. They can alsoprovide the infor- 3.Emphasis on human values-thedig- mation neededtoallay the unwarranted nity and worth of each individual fears and insecurity, destroy themyths and 4. The diversity of Americanlife in a stereotypes, and eradicatemisunderstand- meaningful,realistic, unbiased manner, with ings. Yet it is the teacher whoseizes every interaction among multicultural,multiracial, opportunity to help his studentsdevelop a and multireligious groups measure of sensitivity, to create aclimate in 5. An objective treatment ofthe prob- which a change of attitudes,feelings, and lems and obstacles, as well as thecontributions understandings is possible, and whoin the of each minority group end will determine howeffectively instruc- 6.Welt-developed content, with the basic tionalmaterialsassistintheintegration concepts and principles ofthe particular subject expressed adequately. process.

References

for Schools and the Treatment ofMinorities.89th 1.James S. Coleman.Equality of Educa- Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- Congress, Second Session, 1966. tional Opportunity. Revolution in the partment of Health, Education,and Welfare, 1966. 6. M. Frank Redding. Washington, D.C.: National p. 183. Textbook Industry. Education Association,1963.(Occasional Paper 2. U.S. Commission on CivilRights.Racial Washington, D.C.: No. 9.)p. 8. Isolation in the Public Schools. 7. Report of the NationalAdvisory Com- Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government New York: Bantam Printing Office, 1967. p. 1. mission on Civil Disorders. Books, Inc., 1968. p. 434. The Teacher and Inte- 3.Gertrude Noar. 8.Jean D. Grambs. "The Self-Concept: gration.Washington, D.C.: National Education Basis for Reeducation of NegroYouth." In: Wil- Association, 1966. p. xi. liam C. Kvaraceus and others.Negro Self-Con- 4. Gordon Klopf and Israel A. Laster,edi- cept.New York: McGraw-Hill BookCompany, tors,Integrating the Urban Schools.New York: Inc., 1965. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,Colum- 9.Ibid.,p. 434. bia University, 1963. p. 97. 10.Rollyn Osterweis. "Pictures as Inspira- English Journal57: 93-95; 5.U.S. House of Representatives, Commit- tion for Creativity." tee on Education and Labor.Hearing on Books January 1968.

Author's Note Holt Ur- which Peter Buckley and Hortense Jones. The following is a list of materials New York: Holt, Rine- the author suggested in the above article: ban Social Studies Series. hart and Winston, Inc., 1966. A fro-American.Baltimore, Maryland. (Na- Buffalo Public Schools.Cultural and His- tional, state, and city editions.) toricalContributionsof AmericanMinorities. V. Clyde Arnspigeret al.Values To Share. Buffalo, New York. (n.d.) Austin, Texas: Steck-Vaughn Company, 1967. Lawrence. W. Carillo, editor.Chandi^r Lan- Readers. SanFrancisco: Virginia Brownet al.Skyline Series.New guage-Experience York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965. Chandler Publishing Company, 1965. 123 124 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

John W. Caughey, John Hope Franklin, and Beifinning Social Studies.New York: Harper & Ernest R. Mly. Land of du. Free: A History of Row. Pubfishers. 1967. the United S:a:es. New York: Benringer Brothers, Joseph Penn et al. The Negro American in 1966. Paperback.Washington. D.C.: National Educa- Robert Cohen.The Color of Man. New tion Association. 1967. York: Random House, Inc., 1968. Picture Packets for Primary Social Studies. Ebony. Chicago, Illinois. New York: Silver Burdett Company, 1967. Jean Grambs. Intergroup Education: Meth- Pittsbur,q1(*Maier. Pittsburgh,Pennsyl- ods awl Materials. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: vania. Prentice-Hatl, Inc., 1968. Harry A. Floski and Roscoe E. Brown, Jr. Celia S. Heller.Mexican-American Yotith: The Negro Alnumac. New York: Bellwether Pub- Forgotten Youth at the Crossroads. New York: lishing Company, Inc., 1967. Random House, Inc., 1966. Louis Raths, editor.Values; a series of film- The Intemational Library of Negro Life strips.Pleasantville, New York: Warren Schloat and Hiswry.10 vols.Washington, D.C.: United Productions, Inc. Publishing Corp., 1968. Fannie Shand and George Shaftel.Words Lyndon B. Johnson. A President's Commit- and Action; Role-Playing Photo Problems for ment: Four Statements on Human Rights and Young Children. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Equal Justicefor A IIAmericans. (Privately Winston, Inc., 1967. printed.) Southern Education Report. Nashville, Ten- The Journal of Negro History. Washington, nessee. D.C.: Howard University. Edward Steichen. The Family of Man. New William Loren Katz. Eyewitness: The Negro York: Museum of Modern Art, 1955. in American History. New York: Pitman Publish- State University of New York and the New ing Corporation, 1968. YorkStateEducation Department.Intergroup Charlotte M. Keating. Building Bridges of Relations: A Resource Handbook for Elementary Understanding. Tucson, Arizona: Palo Verde Pub- School Teachers, Grades 4,5, and 6.Albany: lishing Co., 1967. State University of New York, State Education Raymond Muessig. Discussion Pictures for Department, 1964. El ETHNIC STUDIES: THE RICHNESS OF PLURALISM

Surely at this point in time we have learned that democracy is based on differences rather than sameness. Only upon the acceptance of differences can we grow toward an awareness of the value of cultural diversity in a society which is only beginning to realize that it is pluralistic. Miller, p. 140.

125 EL 27 (2): 222-.14; December /969 1969 ASCD Teaching Afro-American History with a Focus on Values

SIDNEY SIMON ALICE CARNES

A FAIR treatment of the black room if they knew some techniques for work- man's role in history is long overdue. More ing with values in more systematic ways. a.id more material is available to teachers Perhaps, too, they would avoid those typical to make the black experience really come pitfallsof moralizing,indoctrinating,or alive.It cannot be taught without emotional preaching. The sad truthis that thereis reaction, however.Inevitably, the student's probably no worse way to grapple with values own racial values will get in the way of level- than to insist that every student come out headed consideration of innocent enough with the accepted set of values.What we historical facts, but to teachit with uttcr advocate is the search for values, and our blandness would be all wrong. Negro history entire approach is focused upon the process is too viable to justify name-dropping Crispus which teaches how to build values, rather Attucks and then rushing on to the next than memorize them.' Negro in order to make sure we get through Take the following, for example. We the Coolidge Administration so we can men- call it "rank ordering." tion Malcolm X in time for the fmal exam. The study of Afro-American history is 1.Rank ordering. Put questions like particularly ripe with values implications be- tl-ese to one student at a time. Write alterna- cause the jump between then and now is too tives on the board and ask him to rank them often not very startling. Many of the white 1-2-3. students will not find it very hard to think You are a slave who has been promised a like a plantation owner, and a fair percent- brutal whipping. After thinking out the con- age of the black students may do everything sequences, do you: but call the teacher Mistah Charlie. Working 1.Run away on black history will bring to the surface 2.Fight the master many of the conflicts which too often only 3.Take the whipping? break out on the playground. It is these very values conflicts which You are a slave woman with children who need to be aired, faced, and clarified if we has a chance to escape. Do you: ar to have hope for some racial peace in this 1.Escape alone country. 1 For a fuller explanation of the theory supporting this approach and for other values strate- The Hot Passion of Values gies, see: Louis E. Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon.Values and Teaching. Colum- Teachers would be more willing to deal bus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Com- with the hot passion of values in the class- pany, 1966.

Sidney Simon, Professor of Humanistic Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; and Alice Carnes, Teaching Assistant, Department of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

126 126 EthnicStudies: The Richness of Pluralism 127

2. Stay with the children white man, attending secret church services, 3. Take them along? escaping via the Underground Railway, in- You are a plantation slave whose ma:ter forming on other slaves, etc.). The students has fled before the Union Army. Do you: individually or as a group try to place these 1. Try to carry on the work of the plan- and other alternatives along the continuum. tation (It isn't as easy at it looks!) 2.Ransack the place Now, some teachers would then be 3. Run away to the Union lines? content to move on to the next topic of study. Others would, perhaps, try to takeit up It shouki be apparent that these rank another notch in the process of value clari- orders can involve students almost immedi- fication. Such teachers might ask: ately.Although they are supposedly rank- ordering what they would do as a slave who I.In your way of dealing with teachers, has been promised a whipping, their own where are you on the continuum? lives and their own values are what they are 2. Make a rank order of the various really talking about. stances people take when black people move Briefly, the aim of this approach to into a previously all-white neighborhood. values is to direct the student toward the 3. What do you really want to achieve examination andclarificationof his own in terms of race relations for America? What values. A "value" is defined operationally are you willing to do about it? as something freely chosen,after due reflec- It is important to stress that if the tion, from among alternatives; itis, more- 'teacher is really to help search for values, over, something which is prized,publicly he must not punish those students who give affirmed, and acted upon. Students are en- him the "wrong" values and reward those couraged to apply these criteria to the beliefs who feed him the party line. On the other they voice in class. hand, he is not to remain chameleon-like and As students learn to apply these criteria agree with everything. He mayhave a posi- consistently in their study of history, they tion which he states sti ongly, but he offers it become skillful in carrying these standards as only one alternative, forconsideration, not over to their understanding of current events for adoption. and to those more personal things which In fact, just to keep the issue alive and, surround their daily living.For example, in a sense, confused, he may play devil's take the technique we call the values con- advocate to great advantage. tinuum. 3.Devil's advocate."Put on your 2. The values continuum: the image of horns" and challenge the class to disagree, the slave. as you play the devil's rolebroadly and "Sambo" and Nat Turner are at op- sardonically. "What was wrong with slavery posite poles, and while polar thought is anyway? Why, the slave worked in the fields useful at times, in the case of slavery it is only fourteen hours a day, which was two probably a distortion of reality. To help hours less than his white counterpart in the students imagine the shades of grey between factories. He had housing, sometimes even two stereotypes, draw a line on the board to with windows and floors; he got half a pound represent a continuum of values. of meat a week; and after he was old enough to work he'd get a new pair of jeans every "Sambo" Nat Turner year. The slave had noresponsibilities. He (complete submission) (open revolt) didn't have to marry or stand trial in court. Make a listing of alternative positions And his kindly ol' massa took care of him in (aiding fugitives,playing a rolefor the his old age." 12 7 128 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

4. Open-minded question. Give as an I. When was the last time you were on essay assignment: "If I were in charge of the a merry-go-round? Freedmen's Bureau I would..." 2.If you happened to be in line and overheard the incident that takes place in the 5. Role playing. Establish a plantation poem, is there anything you might have said system in the classroom. (The teacher should to that little boy? immediately volunteer to be a slave.) Set up situations:the slave too sick to work, the 3. Have you ever experienced anything similar to that boy's feeling? father who watches his son get whipped, the master'samorousoverturestoaslave 4. What prejudice, subtle or otherwise, woman.Introduce alternatives by bringing have you ever personally faced? in other characters.Have students switch 5.Y.f you wanted to do something about roles within the same situation. the problem of "civil rights," what are some things you could do: 6. The values sheet. Here is a sample a.Right in this school, through some values sheet taken from Values and Teach- school group ing.2 It can be assigned in class or as home- b.In your town, with some commu- work. It is important to give students time nity organization to think. Later, the sheets may be used as the c. On the national level? basis for discussion; or the teacher can sim- 6.Perhaps youbelievethatnothing ply leave them in the hands of the students. needs to be done about this problem.If so, Merry-Go-Round state that position clearly and forcefully. by Langston Hughes These are not techniques which "reach" Where is the Jim Crow section every child; but they have a marked effect On this merry-go-round, Mister? upon some. A child who expmsses racist be- Cause I want to ride. liefs may come to see that his belief was Down South where I come from accepted per se from his parents, friends, White and colored and other persons, without questioning or Can't sit side by side. consideration of alternatives.students who Down South on the train profess liberal or militant views may begin There's a Jim Crow car. to weigh the extent to which they are willing On tne bus we're put in back to act upon them.If nothing else,these But there ain't no back strategies encourage studeznts to think. To a merry-go-round! The teaching of Afro-American history Whcre's the horse is a trend we can little ignore.Riots are a For a kid that's black? 3 reality we had better heed, but more token- ism is not what we need. Black history must 2 Ibid. be taught as more than a reluctant submis- s Langston Hughes. Selected Poems. New sion to a fad. York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1959. Specified ex- Giving it the highly charged cerpt from: Ralph Ellison.The Invisible Man. focus of the search for values could make the P. 7. difference.

13 Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 129

EL 27 (3): 218-21; December 1969 q) 1969 ASCD

The Case for Black Studies

ClIARLFSE.WILSON

CURRICULUM developers, edu- misconceptions. The social myths concern- cators, and school officials are not too dif- ing blacks, for example, range from notions ferent from Americans in other walks of life. of the "happy docile slave" of yesterday School officials prefer to take the easy way to the wistful yearning for thc "black urban out. They take this easy way whene ver con- primitive" of today.The appeal of these fronted with alternatives to thc nation's long- stereotypes is buttressed by the broad con- term mistreatment of black people in the viction that nonwhites simply have no his- study of history. tory, no accomplishment worth mentioning, At this stage in American history it is no past, and no future. After all,isn't every- easier, for instance, to discredit as "separa- one alike? America's racial mythstransform tist" the emergence of a black community ethnic differences intominorinconveniences. than to deal with the demands of the ethnic Victimized by suchdistortions,thc group for an end to a regime of cultural American collective spirit is just as unable domination.It is easier to confuse tokcnism to consider the need for a curriculum geared (the perfunctory acknowledgment of non- to blacks or other ethnic groups as its educa- whites) with genuine racial integration.It tional establishment isunwillingto develop is easier to denigrate the ideas of those out- such a course of study. skiers with whom the educators disagree, by For what Americans of almost all strata callingthe outsiders"dirty names"like cannot face is that, if America is to be, she "militant"than to try to understand the will have to become a multiracial society- ideas themselves. -that schools must be involved in the From this frame of reference, too, it is preparation of people for life in that kind of far easier to challenge the dissatisfiedto society. present constructive,affirmative proposals than to recognize the destructive nature of that neither white nor black Ameri- current offerings. And, finally,it is far, far cans can proceed into the challenging eraof easier to talk and write about some mystical multiracial socicty with a legacy of misinfor- curriculum approach to democratic values mation, half truths, and white propaganda than to face the strain of fantasy and the fantasies, which has impeded their progress narcissistic predisposition to European cul- in the past. tural values which undellie much of today's school curricular offerings. It is important here to recognize that Captured by the philosophy of the easy the largely local thrusts for black studics arc way, it is not a great step to perceive that no longer aimed at saving oreducating white thc minds of many Americans arc therefore America at the expense of black America. easily the prisoners of myths and popular The local demands callfirst for ridding

Charles E. Wilson, Senior Research Sciemist, New Careers TrainingLaboratory, New York City. In 1969, Unit Administrator, I.S. 201 Complex, New York City 130 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era blacks of the consequences of the racist op- The costumes, gyrations, antics, and pression. This approach will just have to be phrases of some of those who "favor" the different from the approach adoptedfor adoption of this ethnic kind of curriculum those whites who willingly or unwittingly approach often call much attention to them- al; numbered among thc oppressors. selves as individuals and divert the attention Black curriculumblack studiesthen of many from the basic issue.While pic- speak to a basic humane notion that rejects turing America as a racist society whose European cultural superiority, accepts hu- educational system reflects and sharesits man difference without implying inferiority, deeply rooted racism, some of the loudest and accepts each group's unique character, sponsors of black curriculum offer little more viz., cultural pluralism. Over and above that, for consideration than white droppings col- black curriculum speaks out harshly against ored over to hide the fundamental deficien- the homogenized American melting pot fic- cies. tion which seeksLo dissolvethe diverse Flamboyant spokesmcn have tried to American communities into an undifferen- suggest that black studies may be the easy tiated mass all for the sake of "educational answer to the racial tension or to theprob- uniformity." The young people of America lems of black education.This misguided have grasped this profound danger and they reasoning has been echoed by the pragmatic speak out against homogenization intheir conservatives in the white majority who wish own words. to limit the sectors of change in urban education to the leasz costly and least threaten- "There are indeed different strokes for ing areas. As one rcactionary expressed it to different folks." this writer"We'll give you all black studies "Different ways on different days." but no arithmetic, science, or reading." "No strokes for some folks." As viewed by the pragmatic conservatives and the super salesmen for black stud- Fears of Change ies, the demands for widespread educational restructuring offer an easy alternative to real The basis for the demands for black change. This approach shows just how im- studies has often been obscured by those who portant it is to avoid the lure of status with- reject the notion as well as by the very ones out substance. Thc flamboyant spokesmen who claim to "support" the idea. The re- for change and the pragmatic conservatives sistance of the educational establishment to who wish to limit the changes are both vul- black qudies is rooted in its own collective nerable to the charge that they are advocates fears of change, its conviction that the self- of the unwise, the unsound, and the poorly same educational establishment really knows conceived. Martin Kilson, a black professor what the power order will permit, and finally at Harvard, dismissed these kinds of efforts the educational establishment's wish not to when he wrote: have to examine its own assumptions and Efforts by many advocates of the Black beliefs about the value of the current offer- studies movement to portray Afro-American ings (an example of the easy way out). The studies as the educational salvation of Black arguments of this segment arc rooted in a men display a deficiency of thought and com- cliché-filled rhetoric about the existence of mon sense.' some special American racial ethic to be established in the by and by. More important 1 ArthurW. Lewis. "TheRoad to the Top Is Through Higher EducationNot Black Studies." this rhetoric calls into play a group of sacro- New York Times, May I I, 1969. Reprinted from sanct rules and priL..,tices which just do not University, A Princeton Quarterly, Spring1969. seem to exist in the real world. Copyrighte1969 by Princeton University.

141 Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 131

Other opponents of the current system of domination, suppression, compression, of things suggest that the present offerings and repression of black and othcr nonwhite arc largely irrelevant. Thoscwho maintain people. that position point to the traditional Dick and What educators must face is that this Jane stories as classic examples of the fact demand for ethnic studies is a product of that the stories and approaches are foreign long years of maltreatment. The maltreat- to the experiences of urban lower classchil- ment is a measure of a "racism of contempt dren. But these allegations arc only the most that is anti-human, dangerous, that mini- apparent and the most obviousconclusions mizes what it hates and devalues what it to be drawn from the materialgiven to stu- would exploit."In education this racism dents from which to learn. hides behind a group of mindless, ritualistic Curriculum fifferings at their present practices; behind an assumption-mask that level are irrelevant, not because they arc induces continued victimization,that sug- white or because they are middleclass, as gests that somehow the victims arc either many charge, but because theydo not present less intelligent, less capable, or less moti- readings and situations which deal with life, vated, and that the institution somehow has life's real options, its dreams, its problems,its nothing to do with the condition. realities, its beau ties, and its uglinesses as Many of thc members of the education life cxists here in America. These current establishment, themselves, function toward offerings are irrelevant because theymake the nonwhites and the low income victims the black man seem like a kind of"white of the system much like thc Britishcivil man incomplete"incomplete notonly in servants of yesteryear, doing timein one of his own eyes, but incomplete in the eyes of the far-flung colonies. To these assumptions his fellow men as well. the demand for black studies is a threat, but The case for black studies is obscured the course of study is a logical response to then by this kind of verbiage, sentiments, the racism and to the handmaiden of racism, posturcs, self-indulgent pursuits, myths,and "educational colonialism." folk tales.But there is a genuine case for It is for this very reason that a black black or ethnic studies, a case found within curriculum is essential for the black student. the very needs of people black and white. No amount of pious rhetoric about the values And where else should the basis for curricu- of integration, or talk of the dignity of man, lum be found but in the needs of the people? can equip black people toface the challenges, realities, and contradictions of America as it Studies of Other Groups is. To attempt to limit such studies programs to the college level because, onthat level, While the racial romantics, on the one black studies somehow seem easier to pro- hand, the cynics in the middle, and the provide, is both unrealistic and shortsighted. fessional education skeptics on the otherend Black studies arc required by black people of the continuum discuss theirnotions of on each and every levelforthe educational black studies, a firm case can be constructed colonialism is itself found on all levels. for black studies and multi-ethnic group If the goal of education is to trulylib- studies. The case is rooted in thc dualreality erate people and to equip them asindividuals of this nationa nation which at oneand "de- and as members of society, with thecapacity the same time is the world's foremost society as mocracy" yet which from its birth possessed be able to function within this strain of racism em- well as to possess the capacity tochange the a consistent virulent their bedded deep within her vitals; a nation with undesirable and the unfair elements of a verbalized creed offreedom but a history environment, then black studies do present

141 132 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era some valuable 'ools. Black studies are not a for a chance to join the rest of the American substitute for Qing in the arts and sci- community in the enjoyment of the bounty ences nor a substitute for orientation in the and beauty of this land. skills that will equip a person, child or adult, to function in this complex, technologically Forging a New Partnership advanced,but morallybankruptsociety. Black studies are a complement or a supple- Unfortunately, disputesof race and ment and, for many black students, may be social class are seldom solved hy dispassion- a point of contact with an educational pro- ate discourse or reason. The currcnt con- cess that has tried up to now to give them facts troversy over the demand for black studies without helping them to gain a sense of self. is not a discussion of separatism asit has Black studies can attempt to redress the been portrayed but a demand for cultural injustice perpetrated by the centuries-long pluralism; not a romantic notion but a cul- record of cultural domination and systematic tural necessity; not a threat to the status quo exclusion of black people from the pages of but a threattothe assertion of cultural American history. As a part of a broau and superiority; not a threat to peace and order effective course of study, black studies may but a thrust toward justice and dignity. go a long way toward putting substance into The case for black studies on the vari- the shadowy talk about the dignity of "all ous levels of education, not just exi tl:c! uni- men." versity level, speaks effectively to the needs As areflectionofthesociety-deep of black children and adults who so des- concern for defining 'man and citizenin perately need to know alternatives to the broader terms than those of18-century cultural dominance that has been a part of European nationalism, black studies may be- the Amcrican past. For America must come gin to focus their attention on the need for to face herself as she really isincreasingly a new model of man, a model unbound by two hostile camps, one black and one white the need to make, label, and exploit those and then do something to heal the breach. whom we may classify as non-men. The hostile camps are the product of For the opulent descendants of Europe, the centudes of domination and exploita- a familiarity with the contents of a black tion. To seek to perpetuate the domination studies course on terms established by black only increases the polarization. To under- people might be useful and extremely bene- stand the growing world demand for the de- ficial to their own understanding of who we velopment of a truly multiracial society is to are and what we are as a nation, and what recognize that the current "status quo white we must bc about, if we are to achieve a truly studies"or do we call them colorless stud- humane destiny. iescannot continue without change. Edu- If this nation is to take its place in a cation must begin to prepare our citizens for world increasingly aware of and sensitive to a truly brave and a wide new world. That the reality that whites are in fact a numerical preparation will have to be designed to meet minority in the world, thcn Americans might the needs of the different groups who must be more willing o give up their racial hybris. comprise this new multiracial society. The slogan "Blkick is beautiful" does not If those who read this article and those mean that "white\ is ugly." For man is beauti- who make key curriculum decisions can be- fulblaek studies, Chinese studies, Hispanic come convinced that black studies are an studies,ethnicstudiesarealllegitimate opportunity rather than a threat; that black sources of studies so that each child may in studies are a hope rather than a sign of hope- fact never have to trade a part of his heritage lessness; that black studies can inject life 142 Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 133 into what is now the sterile recapitulation of black studies and the thrust of othcr ethnic tired old white middle class racial fantasies groups demanding studics programs reflect then a new healthy human partnership be- the fact that a new partnership will have to tween the black and thc white of America be forged in this society. For blacks and other may be forged. And Americans at all levels groups will no longer settle for a junior must come to understand that the thrust for partnership. (=]

Needed: Ethnic Studies in Schools

GENEVA GAY

A MAJOR concern in the cur- sumed to be ethnic studies simply because rent reevaluation of American education is more information about Blacks, Mexican how to provide a high quality of education Americans,Indians,andotherminority for minority youth. Members of ethnic mi- groups is beginning to appear in school cur- norities have attacked traditional educational ricula. Yct most of these programs arc hastily policy designed to perpetuate only one cul- organized, based upon a mistakcn belief that tural heritage as being inherently ethnocen- historical facts constitute ethnic studies, and tric, unjust, and unrealistic in a culturally likely wcrc motivated by desires to improve pluralistic setting. academie performances of minority students. Demandsarebeingwidelymade In sonic ways such programs arc similar to for opportunities Jarning experiences their forerunner, compensatory education. and for programs which arc designed spe- The concept ofcultural deprivation cifically for, are sensitive to, and are designed which laid the philosophical foundation of to reflect the needs, attitudes, and the cultural compensatory education proclaimed that the conditioning particularly of Blacks, Mexican ghetto child's academic failures resulted from Americans,Indians,and PuertoRicans. his cognitive limitations, his deprived back- Many school systems have responded to these ground, and his stunted personal, social, and demands byinstituting "minoritystudies cultural development.It was beP,-ved that programs" invarious forms and degrees, these deficiencies could be corrected and the from integrating American history courses child's readiness for formal education ac- to creating completely separate departments. celerated by providing compensatory stimu- Yct most such programs seem designed to lation. be introduced in the curriculum via social The result was numcrous programs of studies and literature courses of study. reading readiness, guidance counseling:and These minority studies programs arc culturally enriching experiences (including too often taken at face value. They are as- field trips, concerts, and visitors).

Geneva Gay, Assistant Professor of Curriculum ana Instruction and Ethnic Studies, and Acting Chairman of Afro-Atnerican Studies, The University of Texas at Austin 143 134 Curriculak. Concerns in a Revolutionary Erc.

Minority Studies which to facilitate their participation in society.Nevertheless, education largely has TI currentemphasisinminority had the reverse effect on minority people and studies has shifted somewhat. More atten- their culture. tion seems given now to the child's percep- In a sense, the emphasis on one system tions of himself and to how these lfiect his of education for all has caused a kind of relations ul and adaptations to society. Negi- cultural genocide and has made minority tiveself-conceptsand identity crisesarc studonis feel alienated and isolated in middle considered majorobstaclestosuccessful class schools.It has ignored both thc treat- academic performance.To correctthese ment of thcir culture in courses of study and problems, schools have launched programs the perspective from which they view educa- designed to help minority students find out tion. Black life styles, ;or example. have been inore about their own cultural heritages. considered as merely iimdequate and mal- Most of these programs fall into thc category adjusted-lanifestationsofmiddleclass of "minority studies" such as Black studies, norms. Black students have be.m taught to Afro-American studies, Mexican American question the worthiness of their social life studies, and Latin American studies. patterns and to dismiss thcir training and Social studies and literature courses of experiences prior to entering school as a study are especially susceptible to revision to conglomeration of deviances and deficiencies. accommodate thc new trends.Itis much easier to add namr.s of Negroes to the list of Authentic Programs heroes studiedinAmerican history than it is to introduce courses which capture thc Schools have operated on thc premise essence of minority cultures. This maneuver that the influences of these students' pre- to "integrate" fte study of clinic groups into schooli nd socialmiseducationhad to bc the existing curriculum structures appears eradicated before thcy could proceed with to be the preferrcd technique becauseit classroom activities with any degree of suc- ccmcs closer to approximating the ideal of cess.Such attitudes have been communi- unanimity or the melting pot myth among cated to students in numerous ways. Cur- Americm; peopk than does any other. This riculum materials have treated minorities explains the current emphasis on selecting very stereotypically.Authentic information textbooks and courses of study which arc has been distorted, ignored, and/or omitted. integrated and well bil!anced in their treat- Myths, prejudices, and stereotypes have been ment of different ethnic groups, rather than perpetuated through school programs. Even treating thent as separate cultural entities. the few Blacks who "made" the history books Unquestionably these changes are nceded to were treated either as an afterthought or in a update curricula. However, they do not con- condescending manner. stitute ethnic studies, nor are they enough to These attitudes are so f rmly entrenched meet the educational needs of minority stu- in the educational system that they are ex- dents. tremely difficult to change.Yet educators Minority studies, irrespective of how seem all too unaware of the effects thcsc numerous, will continue to be incapable of attitudes have had and continue to have on meeting the needs of minority youth as long minority students. They are quick to believe astraditional educational philosophy and that change can be effected and positive self- policies remain essentially the same. Presum- cuncepts developed met ely by integrating ably American education is designed for thc American history and literature. They seen, perpctuation and transmission of cultural to fed that if Black students are given a few heritage and to give students the tools with more Black heroes to emulate, their identity

14 4 Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 135 crises will be solved, they will develop pride grams must rely heavily upon thetheories in themselves and their culture, they will and methodology of the behavioral sciences, achieve higher levels of academic success, especially social psychology, sociology, and and they will be able to function more effec- anthropology, and use their techniques in the tivelyinsociety.Having thusinstituted pedagogic processes. They must capture the minority studies, educational systems ap- essence of the culture of theparticular ethnic plaud the mselvcs and receive plaudits from a group for which they aredesigned. variety of groups for having gallantly risen to This means that one ethnic studies pro- the challenge of what to do aboutthe edu- gram will not suffice.Itis impossible to cation of minority students. Yet Negro his- create a single program to serveall minori- tory is not enough to meet the needs ofBlack ties. This is one of the major weaknessesof students. Nor arc Mexican American studies the current minority studiesthat is,the adequate for Chicano students. Needed is the belief that thc same Black studies programs institution of authentic and comprehensive can serve both black andwhite students programs of ethnic studiesin schools. equally well. Consequently, there must be as Granted, revision of history courses to many ethnic studies programs asthere are reflect the true role of minority citizens in ethnic groups. This innovation must be per- the development of American culture is a ceived as more than a series of culture-bound step in the right direction. Yet atbest it is courses.It must also, and most important, only a teetering step.Black an(' other mi- include the frames of reference, the philo- nority studies programs are a beginning, but sophical outlooks, and the methodologies there is still a great deal more to be done with which the teaching of minority students before education can be said to have been is approached. made relevant to minority youth. One answer These programs must operate from the to the dilemma isasserted to be ethnic position of a Black, a Mexican American, a studies. Unfortunately, minor ity studies have Puerto Rican, or other specific frame of ref- beenmistakenly perceivedtobe ethnic erence, approaching hiseducation through studies. Black studies and Negro history do his outlook and world view, and reflecting the not of themselves constitute ethnicstudies, understanding of why and how he has been The concept of ethnic studies is much more conditioned to function as he does.Inte- complex than the assumptions underlying grated American history simply cannot do minority studies. this. Nor can minority studies as presently conceived. Knowing that a Benjamin Banne- A New Perspective ker or a Charles Drew was a famous Black man will not help a Blackghetto student Ethnic studies, as suggested here, would survive in today's world.Simply knowinp begin with the development of a new perspec- these facts is not any guarantee that he will tive from whii:h to approach the process of be proud of being Black or know who he is teaching minority students, Attitude changes after he learns these little tidbits. are as important to itsimplementation as Before the child learns, he must be able new content, if not more so. Tobe realistic to identify with the situaticii, and sec some and successful, ethnic oidies will befully possibilities for transference or application cognizant of and sensitive to all the ramifi- of the knowledge to his daily life. To create cations of what it is like for a people to exist this atmosphere, the child's background ex- in a perceived oppressive society, the mech- periences and cultural heritage must become anisms which have evolved to facilitate adap- the structural framework and the unifying tation and survival, and the culture that has forces which give order, purpose, and direc- resulted from these experiences. The pro- tion to the educational activities designed for 145 136 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era minority youth. Once these attitudinal and tion of lack of academic motivation, alien- philosophicalchangeshavetakenplace ated and disenchanted youth, or irrelevant within school policies and personnel, edu- education. cators can begin to talk in realistic terms Students shouldbeinterestedand about improvingthe educationof ethnic achieve more academicl,Ilv.Ethnic studies minorities. Until then, we will continue de- should allow students the ,nportunity to be luding ourselves into believing a high qua'iLy actively and intimatelyinvo: ' intheir of education ispossible vis-à-vis minority learning experiences and for education to studies while, at best, these innovations are encompass and build on the strengths of their only tempo! ary, stopgap maneuvers used to entire life styles. relievethe intense pressures of criticisms The need for new conceptualization of leveledagainstcontemporaryeducational ethnicstudies seemsoverdue. Minority systems. studies programs may have trmsient merits within themselves, but they fall far short of A Promising Medium doing what needs to be done in order to make education a meaningful enterprise for minor- Ethnic studies are a promising medium ity students. They are terminal because they through which to achieve the self-actualiza- fail to consider an essential factor necessary tion of minority students. They promise the for the maturation and personal and intellec- most feasible means by which school experi- tual development of any childhis cultural ences and social realities may be related in conditioning asanorganized,systematic close harmony.They can provide a con- structure of values, beliefs, norms, customs, tinuity and a logica progression in place of and traditions which influence his every re- what is now fragmented, uncoordinated seg- sponse to social stimuli. An important answer ments of education.Particular subjects or to the dilemma of how to educate minority courses of study become only incidental tools studentsisthroughethnicstudies.This to be used for the application of concepts. seems to be the only alternative which con- In reality, subjects probably count for less ceivably can foster the development of func- than the perspective with which the teaching tional citizenship, pride in self and culture, of those subjects is approached. and self-actualization. The essence of ethnic studies isthe The need for a high quality of education creation and utilization of cultural context for minority students is so crucial that ethnic teaching and culturally bound lea:ning ex- studies should receive top priority in any periences. Once this procedure has been consideration of educational needs and cur- established there no longer will be any ques- riculum innovations.

14 6 Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 137

EL 28 (2): 129-32; November 1970 !970 ASCD

Materials for Multi-Ethnic Learners

LAMAR P. MILLER

ENLIGHTENED educators rec- Interest in sccuring relevait curriculum ognize that our educational system has failed niaterials has incrcascd considerably in the in a most fundamental way to provide a recent past. Today when widespread social relevant education for black and other ethnic and technological changcs arc taking place in groups. Many will agree that the root causc our lives, whether we like it or not, and when of this failure is racismthe type of racism, still other changes sccm necessary to preserve conscious or unconscious, which dictates the us from di3astcr, understanding of whatis cnoiee of curriculum materials and the way relevant to our society seems particularly these arc presented. Few understand, how- important. In spitc of thc current interest, ever, the basic disagreement on educational however, and the efforts of theorists in the issues that revolves around the differences in past to devise a curriculum that would teach what isimportant and critical for Black, individuals how to control their surroundings Puerto Rican, Mexican,Indian, Oriental, rather than submit to them, we have never and various other ethnic groups. really had a curriculum that adequately re- Thosc of us who have grown up as the flected the multi-ethnic nature of our society. products of minority groups have been pro- Although the topic of relevant materials vided with a set of experiences that are dif- is not exactly a new development, we are at ferent from those of the vast majority of least beginning to recognize that technology Americans.It is these experiences that de- coupled with a social revolution, as evidenced termine which events we perceive as unim- by thc increased demands for relevance on portant, as important, and as critid.If onc the part of cthnic groups, is evolving as part were able to look at these differential experi- of an effort to achieve order and direction in ences over time, thcn one could clearly dis- the teeth of accelerating changes. Nowhere cern a pattern, a rhythm of events which may has this been pointed out more vividly than be differentin the black community, for in the case of black studies. Even the future example, than thc accumulation of important is no longer rcmote. As John Pfeiffer put it: events in the white community. Education as a way, the way ultimately, Since various ethnic groups have a dif- to a better worldas a force against poverty, ferent reality, it is important to understand illhealth, and crimeis less a utopianidea that, for the times in which we live, their than it was a generation ago.1 priorities refer to a different ordering system with difl -rent imperativesfor thc future. Yesterday's possibilities are today's pro- Therefore, in ordcr to considcr relevant cur- grams because wc really have no choice. We riculum materials for multi-ethnic learners I John Pfeiffer.New Look at Education. ina technological age, the topic must be Poughkeepsie, New York: Odyssey Press,1968. viewed from the perspective of thosc ethnic pp. 78-79. Reprinted by permission of the Bobbs- groups involved. Merrill Company, Inc.

LaMar P. Miller, Professor of Education and Education Director, Institute ofAfro-American Aflairs, New York University,NewYork City 147 138 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era used to be able to get away with planning for know very early in his education precisely long-run possibilities by saying that things what it is he is going to have to face in every- will be better. These days, however, blacks, day living. The implications of this principle and various other ethnic groups, refuse to in the selection of relevant curriculum mate- wait that long. rial are deeply incisive and ought to be taken seriously by educators. A Change of Emphasis A change of emphasis needs also to be considered from the viewpoint of the ethnic When we raise the question as to the diversity of the American people. Persons do ki:d of young citizens we want to nurture in not live as footloose individuals; they carry our school system today, we mustdo it in on as members of functional groups playing view of both a technological and a pluralistic significant roles in society. Are there not, society and with the knowledge that various therefore, two foci of civic interest to be kept ethnic groups are demanding that they par- clearly in mind in the selection of multi- ticipate in the process of determining what ethnic materials? education should be and do. Persons have responsibilities to the self- Considering thenegativeresultsof culturesinwhichtheyliveandmove racism and prejudice and the conflict that and have their beings, and at the same time exists in the lives of learners who come from they pay allegiance to an America which minority groups, whac change of emphasis ethnically speaking is in the process of bein securing curriculum materials is advisable coming a culture of cultures.It would be a to meet the current situation? Moreover, rec- mistake to disregard either of these orienta- ognizing the demands that diverse ethnic tions and loyalties in the education of youth. groups in America make upon their members and the imperative need for some sort of Materials Must Be Functional national unity of a democratic kind, what is a televant education? tivi hout question, one of the most sig- There are two ways of looking at these nificant developments in education in the related questions. From the viewpoint of the past decade in America has been the demand multi-ethnic learner, we need to determine by black Americans for a more relevant cur- what we mean by relevance. In education, riculum and thus more relevant curriculum the term implies that what is to be learned materialF,. These demands have altered irre- perceived by ihe learner as having meaning versibly the images of what being black in in his present life and the expeciatioa that it America means and have pointed up the will have utility in future learaing or coping ironic ways in which our educational institu- situations. A meaningful relevant education, tion has compounded the myth that ours has therefore, includes the skills necessary for been an open society. one to cope with life. Moreover, this kind of The sense of black unity, ilride, and education focuses on content that deals with destiny unleashed in the past half-decade car- specific ethnic group experiences in con- ries with it both the threat and the promise temporary society and, therefore, with the of a new society potentially open for the first problems of everyday existence. time. To single out the black here is not to This definition provides us with a basis ignore other ethnic groups in our society for selecting the kinds of materials that will which have been in the past and remain today help children to cope with life the way it outcasts in one form or another. To focus on actually exists. To be sure, the multi-ethnic the black is rather to acknowledge what has learner needs te know about his past and he been insisted upon and that,as a result, needs to learn basic skills; but he should also others excluded by our society are becoming 14R Ethnic Studies: The Richness of Pluralism 139 more visible, among them AmericanIndians, Multi-Ethnic Learners and Technology Mexican Americans, and Puerto Ricans. A second suggestion is that those who When one speculates upon the educa- have the task of identifying relevant mate- tional implications of social and technological rials for multi-ethnic learners must recognize developments in terms of a change of empha- that our schools exist in a technological cul- sis in the selection of curriculum materials, ture.Parallelto the change of emphasis the possibilities are myriad. Nonetheless, at caused by the social revolutions of our day least two suggestions can be made in the 's the explosion of knowledge which stems identification and securing of relevant mate- from the technological strides of men. Since rials. our schools exist in a technological age,it is First, relevant curriculum materials for difficult to see how they will be able to resist multi-ethnic learners must be functional. the invasion of machines. Materials used by teachers ought to serve For several reasons increased technol- three related functions as follows: (a) de- ogy may be advantageous to the multi-ethnic ( b) reflect the ethnicity velop basic skills, learner. First, the use of machines and other of the learner, and (c) develop an apprecia- devices cffers the same kind of advantages tion for the humanities (art, drama, and to the schools that it offers business or indus- music). try. Their use offers laborsaving devices that Although the purpose here is not to frequently increase productivity, efficiency, identify specific items,Stevie,2by artist Joha and quality; and these are the very improve- Steptoe, is a good example of a functional mentsthatare being demanded inour book.Stevie isa realistic story about black schools. children by a young black author.Itis More and more schools are experiment- directed at black children, for the author ing with various technological approaches. intended it to relate to what a black child In Ossining, New York, a public school in would know. As such, it not only reflects the a low-income neighborhood hasguaranteed ethnicity of a particular group of learners but parents of incoming kindergarten children it also provides motivation to read. Of equal that by next June, 98 percent of the children importance are the illustrations, which are will be reading at a nationwide average level. full color paintings by the author.Mr. The program stresses individualized instruc- Steptoe has made his paintings functional by tion and relies heavily on instruments such bringing them to the pages of a reader in as filmstrips, the tape recorder, and anaudio which black children, who may never visit a flash card reader. museum, can relate to them and perhaps It has already been demonstrated in a begin to develop an appreciation of art. variety of places, including New York City and Cleveland, that TV can be a most valu- There are, of course, other books and able tool in teaching multi-ethnic learners, materials too numerous to mention here that particularly those who come from the inner attempt to do the same thing with other city. The content of most of these programs groups. Ti, point is that this author was well is based on the conditions and on the lives of day aware of the social developments of the the learners whom the teachers are trying to and the need to express in a functional way reach. Channel 13 WNDT in New York City an art form. Thus he was able to provide a has, for example, an entire curriculum in book that is relevant in terms of its meaning black studies, which includes African An- and utility for black children. thology and history of the Negro people. In New York City a recent study was 2 John Steptoe. Stevie. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969. made of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) 149 140 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era in 16 experimental schools involving 6,000 article represent only an overview of a subject students.This study concluded systemat- that is both old and new. The impact of a ically in nearly all groups that CAI students variety of social developments and tech- made greater gains in arithmetic achievement nological advances in the face of accelerating as measured by the Metropolitan Achieve- changes has been stressed. While education ment Tests than did the non-CAI students has made tremendous progress in the past with whom they were compared. Since many few years, we are, it seems, just at the begin- schools in the inner city have great deficien- ning of a new era. In our present education cies in math and science areas, these results system everything points toward increased offer some hope for the future. emphasis on the everyday lives and living of Obviously any introduction of tech- multi-ethnic learners and the acquisition of nology demands more of a teacher in terms knowledge through technology. of education experiences and professional Yet we know too well that knowledge, growth. Teachers will have to understand if it cannot be used by a free mind, will much more about learning theory and com- neither be of benefit to the individual nor will munication. And they will have to exercise it be of help to society. Surely at this point sbund judgment interms of determining in time we have learned that democracy is which educational goals can be reached based on differences rather than sameness. through instructional technology and which Only upon the acceptance of differences can can be reached by other methods. we grow toward an awareness of the value Suggestions for the selection of relevant of cultural diversity in a society which is curriculum materials for multi-ethnic learn- only beginning to realizethatitis plu- ers in a technological society presented in this ralistic. STUDENT RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Let us begin with the premisethat responsibility cannot be learned in the absence of freedom. Letus help children to learn from our deeds as well as our words that freedom and justice can only exist for us if we protect these rights for others. We learn to honor these rights only if we are enabled to see the consequences of our acts. Clute, p. 145.

151 EL 27(5): 439-41; February 1970 0 1970 ASCD

What Do They Want? (An Editorial)

NEIL P. ATKINS

ACCOUNTS of student picket all personal predilections based upon the lines, sit-ins, walkouts, takeovers, and other philo3ophical, educational, and social orien- disruptive tactics have become familiar news- tation of each staff member. The school as paper copy. Popular andprofessional peri- an institution appears to beparalyzed by its odicals are fat with observations, descriptions, own institutionalization.It seems to have and analyses of the growingrestiveness no alternative to offer exceptthe status quo, among students at all levels.The central or some minor variation ofthe status quo. questionis,"Howshouldtheschool Thus the school isripe for revolt, and respond?" repressive measures to keep the lid on will On any school staff one can identify be futile in the long run. Yet, on the other several positions on this question.Many hand, we keep telling each other, "We can't teachers feel they should merely be observers let the kids take over the schools com- of the scene; they urge detachment and neu- pletely." trality. "The kids will grow out of it," they If we ever needed competent and effec- s ay. tive instructional leadership in the schools, Others argue that the staff should sup- now is most assuredly thetime. The root of port the protest; maybe not on all issuesand the problem is not that the teachers are surely not the more uncouth manifestations, militant, indifferent, and irresponsible; nor but they are sympathetic to many of the that the administrators are insensitive,in- causes.They believe teachers should be competent, and weak-kneed; nor thatthe right in there with the students. parents are apathetic, demoralized,and un- Stillothersperhaps amajority,I reasonable; nor that the school boards are really don't knowwant to be counted suspicious, meddling, and provincial.The among the squelchers. "Clampdown on root of the problem is that education, asit is them," this group says."Let's have none presented today, is largely meaningless to the of this kooky nonsense around this school. great majority of students. Theschool will Students must learn that they have to con- not be able adequately to treat eventhe form or take the consequences." symptoms of student unrest unless instruc- Then there are some faculty members tional, as contrasted to purely managerial, who feel very strongly that what the students leadership is exerted to get at the educa- are rebelling against, needs tobe rebelled tional proto!ems. against; and they believe the school should capitalize on the situation and lead the stu- Chilling Messages dents in their efforts to reexamine the pur- posesf their educational experience. The question, "Why is school mean- The t:nuble is, of ceurse, that these are ingless to so many students?" is easy to ask

Neil P. Atkins, ASCD Executive Secretary, Washington,D.C.

142 152 Student Rights and Responsibilities 143 and hard to answer if we insist upon analysis decisions which affect not only the kind of rather than exhorfation and on action rather learning they need, but also the kind of per- than rhetoric. Unquestionably, the bmt data son they aspire to become. source is the student.It is fashionable these days to say we must listen to the students. Meaningful Human Encounter However, we lack the skills to analyze what we hear, to refrain from being put off What will happeniftheschool re- by the choice of words used or the examples sponds to these messages by viewing student chosen or the attitude displayed by the stu- disenchantment as a reason for reexamining dents. Furthermore, we do not know how to instructional and institutional assumptions read either aggressive or apathetic student and the procedures which are based upon behavior for the message it conveys; we them? react to the mode of expression only. We From the meager evidence available, need to learn how to apply our professional we can expect that in-service priorities will knowledge and our maturity of judgment to go to sensitizing staff members to the effect these data in order to transform '.hem into of their own behavior upon student attitude useful input for instructional planning. toward learning; student performance will So far the students have communicated replace content coverage as the center of at least three messages through their new- attention; curriculum decisions will tend to found modes of verbal and nonverbal be- be more collegial than unilateral; learning havior. The content of school programs is materials will become more diversified both so removed from what is real that the student in number and mode; organizational changes has given it up as a source of learning how will follow instructional requirements rather to use what knowledge he is acquiring for than vice versa; institutional restraints will any purpose he can understand. Through begin to become less rigid; and instruction the accumulation of experience with adults will become more individualized. in the school, the student has decided that At the same time, it also may be preschool is not a place where he can get any dictedthatstudents willbecomeless help in understanding problems or making apathetic; indeed at first it may appear that personal choices which have a pertinent and unrest is on the rise, especially if unrest is present meaning to him. By its institutional equated with involvement, questioning, and ritualsand organizationalbehavior,the increased student participation. Teachers school demonstratestothestudent that will become more dissatisfied with the way learning, when it takes place in school, is the school is run; they will also become more not only passive but pallid. dissatisfied with themselves. Principals and These are chilling messages. Neverthe- otheradministratorswillbecome more less, the school is apparently losing its mean- harassed because parents will often declare ing for many students. Perhaps this is true that the school is deteriorating. The transla- because the school has faltered in acknowl- tion of that declaration is that the pattern is edging the need for pemonal interaction of different from the one which existed when both learners and teachers with ideas in the they were in school; therefore, the "stan- pursuit of ways to exercise intelligent action. dards" must be lower!Finally, the school School experience, at least as students see board may lose courage and begin to withit,isfailing to provide what they need draw support. At that point, instructional mostmeaningful human encounter. When leadership undergoes the acid test; and, if they speak of participation, they are not re- the accumulation of experience is any indica- ferring to superficial, mickey mouse activity; tor, that is when it often begins to wobble. they ask for continuing involvement in the Nevertheless, inhis role as change 153 144 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era agent, the instructional leaderknows that participation, a kind of resilience and imme- anything but a superficial change in instruc- diacy.They want the schoolto become tion, curriculum, or organization will create important to them because they need the a chain reaction.Its effectswill be felt help it is capable of giving them. They want throughout the school. One sure sign that a to participate in making the school anim- change is taking hold is that it begins to portant source of learning, althoughthey cause other dislocations. Ifthese factors are see it as but one of many such sources.They not taken into account, predicted,provided want to be a party to the restructuringof the for, and explained, then there will be the school environment, not to the rearranging inevitable retreat to the familiar stance of of it. reactingratherthanrespondingtothe Should the kind of ideas suggested here message. be seriously incorporated into the process of Students tell us inat the quality of rethinking the functions of formal schooling, school life is repressive because they per- the result would fundamentally alter every ceive it to be largely regulatory and inimical facet of the school environment.It is not to penetration from the outside.What do unreasonable to predict that as the students they want? They seem to be calling for an perceive the school to be responsive, they open, sensitive school environment towhich will perceive it to be enabling.That is all they can contribute, by their enthusiastic they want; and so do we.

Rights and Responsibilitiesof Students

MORREL J. CLUTE

Neither the Fourteenth Amendment nor ing dramatically clear what should be the the Bill of Rights is for adults alone. highest educational objective of all schools in the landthe personal and internalized THIS statement is taken from the meaning of freedom and responsibility. U.S. Supreme Court's opinion on the now as now famous Gault decision of 1967. This opinion The Fourteenth Amendment, thecitizen and others like it are forcing all of us in the appliedtotheStates,protects against the State itself and all of its creatures adult establishment, and especially in the Boards of Education not excepted. These have, schools, to recognize a fundamental fact of course, important, delicate, and highly dis- students are citizens and as citizens students cretionary functions, but none that they may have constitutional rights. not perform within the limits ofthe Bill of More important, however, recent court Rights. That they are educating the young for decisions are helping school authorities to citizenship is reason for scrupulous protection remember that no minimum age is specified of Constitutional freedoms of theindividual, for citizenship. These opinions are also mak- if we are not to strangle the free mind at its

Morrel I. Clute, Professor of Secondary Education, WayneState University, De:roit, Michigan 154 Student Rights and Responsibilities 145 source and teach youth to count important If the concept of liberty is to survive, principles of our government as mere plati- the school must be the sustainer. Thecore tudes.' of this concept is that each individual has More and more frequently the courts a unique potential which must be respected are being asked to rule on the reasonableness and protected as long as his behavior does of the limitations and restrictions which not deny to others the selfsame freedom he school authorities have placed upon the enjoys. rights of students. How would schools change if the number one, overall goal of education were that Personal Freedom of 1 Jping the youth of this nation find per- seiialmeaning infreedom,liberty,and It has been assumed and supported by responsibility? Throughout American edu- the courts that rules are made by reasonable cational history there have been many indi- m:.n so as to maintain the discipline and viduals, groups, and organizations who have order necessary when large numbersof tried to make education not only democratic students are brought together in one place in its goal, but also in its methods. for the purposes of education. However, the need to get on with the Under this interpretation, most court job, the problems of dealing with vast num- decisions have supported school authorities bers, and false notions about efficiency have and school boards in their application of kept most schoolsauthoritarian bothin school rules which limit personal freedom. process and in product. However, Seymour Schwartz, in his study Student unrest, revolt, and demands to of the constitutional rights of students, re- participate and make education relevant are ports another major change in the attitude without question evidences of the authori- of the higher courts as reflected in current tarian process of public education. opinions. This attitude, according to Schwartz, To Learn Responsibility recognizes that school authorities must sometimes limit the constitutional rights of indi- If it is not too late, every elementary vidual students; yet where this is the case and secondary school in America should something more than reasonableness is re- dedicate itself to the task of helping every quired. More and more often the courts are asking school authorities for proof that "a boy and girl to learn the meaning of rights, clear and present danger" exists and there- respect, dignity, freedom, and responsibility. Let us begin with the premise that re- forejustifiestherestrictionof precious rights.2 sponsibility cannot be learned in the absence Court decisions remind us, too, that of freedom. education is a right and that unauthorized Let us 'Ae lp children to learn from our expulsion of pupils from school deprives deeds as well as our words that freedom and them of a civil right. justice can only exist for us if we protect these rights for others. We learn to honor 1 West Virginia State Board of Education v. these rights only if we are enabled tosee Walter Barnette, 319 U.S. 633 (1943). This is the consequences of our acts. the "flag salute" case. 2 Seymour Schwartz. "The Civil Liberties of How do we help children to learn re- the American Public School Student: An Exam- spect for privacy if we do not respect their ination of Legal Aspects of Students' Rights and privacy? Do we recognize a child's right Philosophical Implicadons for Curriculum Devel- opment." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. De- to be heard? Do we help the student learn troit, Michigan: Wayne State University, 1968. the meaning of "due process" by the way he

155 146 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era is handled? Do we respect the student's those decisions that affect his privacy and his right to be free from unreasonable search precious constitutional rights.Equally im- and seizure? Do ie recognize the student's portant is the stu&nt's participation in the right to a feeling of dignity and equal worth? decisions which affect the rights of others. Can we explain and defend segregationin The flagrant violation of an individual's our schools on the basisof ability? right to speak and be heard, a condition that There is now sound research evidence characterizes much of today's scene, might to support what teachers have alwaysknown be dramatically different if the individuals intuitivelythat experience is the bwe for involved in these violations had experienced making meaning from percepticnsWe use in their growing-up years an honest concern past experience to make meaning from new for the sacred right of free speech. clues.If a child has no experience with the Responsibility grows out of respect for use of freedom, ire has nobase for making one's self and an understanding of the mean- judgments about civil liberties.If the child ing of personal freedom. Responsibility can- has never known adult behavior which re- not develop before freedom is granted. flected concern fo7 his civil and constitutional The salvation of a way of life which rights, he cannot be expected to be con- values personal rights depends upon pro- cerned about the rights and welfare of others. viding opportunities for experiencing free- This means that students must become part- dom in the schools. The challenge is ours ners with us in the process ofeducation: and the time is short. Only if we treat stu- parmers, in that students must share in the dents as citizens with rights can they learn vital decisions of school lifeparticularly in to be citizens with responsibility. El

EL 27 (4): 346-50; January 1970 0 1970 ASCD

Why Students Rebel

JACK R. FRYM1ER

STUDENT protests are not new. are supposedly designed to servetheir edu- Confrontation on a widespread scale, though, cational needs. is fairly recent. Why is this so? Why are Educational institutions are social sys- student protesting, anyway?Descriptions tems. Every social system is a humanunder- are in the news almost everyday. Analyses taking aimed at furthering or realizing human and explanations, however, are more difficult goals.Because people are involved, prob- to come by. This paper is an attempt to set lems always arise. Human ventures are sub- forth one explanation of why young people ject to human frailties simply because people are striking back at theinstitutions which are not perfect.

lack R. Frymier, Professor and Chairman,Curriculum and Foundations Faculty, The OhioState University, Columbus, and ASCD President-Elect,1971-72 156 Student Rights and Ficsponsibilities 147

What Are the Options? If these efforts to persuade fail, what happens then? What options are available to When a problem area comes into focus, persons who have been unsuccessful in their what options are available to those who are efforts to persuade "the powers that be" to involved? Five avenues of thought or action change? Three choices seem evident: give seem possible. in, get out, or revolt. To the person who feels When a person or group of persons in that he has a legitimate concern, none of an educational situationfeelsoppressed, these alternatives is seen as a "positive" or denied, or restrained, the "problem" comes "desirable" choice at all. into view. Whatever the nature of the prob- As long as "the powers that be"be lem, the first option available to the indi- they instructors, administrators, janitors, sec- vidual who feels slighted or wronged is to retaries, or counselorsare reasonable men, request a change. He can go to "the powers the system functions reasonably well. That that be" and complain, and thus attempt to is,if those who are in a position to give persuade them to bring about change.If grades, giant raises, open closed courses, of- those who feel wronged or constrained are fer new courses, or whatnot are thoughtful, successful in their efforts to persuade the sensitive, honest, considerate men, then most professor to change the grade or the chair- problems can usually be "talked through" to man to grant the raise or the college to a satisfactory solution.Through the give- expand the program, then the problem is and-take of dialogue and informal negotia- solved. tions, persons who have honest differences of If he is unsuccessful in his efforts to opinion can usually work out their problems persuade, then the person with the com- in a mutually acceptable way. But if the per- plaint can "go over the head" of the immedi- son "in charge" (of the course or the depart- ate authority and complain to those "above." ment or the program) is a rigid, insensitive, That is, if the student cannot convince the inflexible, dogmatic human being, then the professor to change his grade, he can request problem remains and may even be enlarged. the department chairman to bring pressure Back to the options which remain. If to bear in hopes of getting the professor to the original effort to persuade the individual change his mind.If the professor cannot in a position of authority to change is un- convince his departmental chairman to grant successful, and if recycling the persuasive a financial raise, he can appeal to the dean effort through appeal further up the adminis- or even further up the academic "chain of trative line also fails, then the give in, get command." If members of the Black Student out, or revolt options confront the individual Union cannot get the history department to who feels that he has been wronged or con- offer a series of courses in "black history," strained in a very direct way. they can go to the faculty senate or the aca- "Give in!Knuckle under! Do as you demic vice president of the institution which are told!" This choice is clearly available, is involved. Employing the traditional con- and many persons in educational institutions cept of administrative appeal, those who feel accept this alternative as the lesser of evils. oppressed or denied can ask persons in posi- Because it requires submission on the part of tions of authority "over" those who refuse to the person who feelsthat he has been bring about the change to use their superior wronged, resentment and frustration gener- "power" to "force" the others to change. Re- ally accompany this option, if it is pursued. cycling the original request back through the "Get out! Withdraw! Leave!" This is entire authority chain, then, is the second another possibility which becomes evident if option open to any person with a problem the persuasive efforts have failed. The indi- such as those that have been described. vidual may leavephysically or psychologi-

15 7 148 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era callyand many admonitions along that chist philosophy, but because they are articu- line are sure to come his way. "If you don't late automatons who seem to but actually do like it here, why don't you leave?" "Either do not think. Such "true believers" are always as the authorities say, or get out and stay dangerous, precisely because they are irra- out!" The choice is exceptionally clear and tionally convinced of the jthsness of their some persons leave. Others "drop out" psy- cause. chologically; they become apathetic, but stay. But there are not many of these "hard Such persons forgo the hardships of the mo- core" revolutionaries on any campus or in ment for the diploma and what it seems to any place where there is unrest in the United assure, but their self-respect and their integ- States today. The basic reason for the mili- rity have been destroyed. "If you can't beat tancy is inherent in the fact that the system them, join them," they are apt to say. as a system is not capable of systematic, in- Some students, however, revolt. Un- telligent, compassionate change; thus the cry willing to accept the fact that their efforts to that "the system must be changed." To say persuade have come to no avail, they will not it another way, the system must be changed give in or get out, so the only option left is to so that the system can cope with change.' strike back and out and down. "The system To charge that the system is not theo- must be changed," they say, but most people retically capable of change, though, is a seri- do not seem to know just what they mean. ous charge.Is that statement true? I think Violence, rebellion, and destruction are it is. terrible extremes. One can attempt to explain away such actions on the basis of an "inter- Change In a Social System national conspiracy" or a "wild group of young nihilists," but there is a more funda- Education is a social system. Those so- mental and even simpler explanation. The cial systems which have integrity--that is, system is rigid. The system is not capable of those which are whole and concerned with rational, deliberate change. The system must truthare characterized in particular ways be changed. which might be thought of as "democratic" There is absolutely no doubt that some or "effective" or both. There is a deliberate Marxists and some anarchists are participat- distribution of authority according to func- ing in revolutionary efforts on college cam- tion, in other words, and a way of working puses and high school campuses today. That which ensures that truth will out and the best much iscertain.One only has to walk answer will prevail. Educational systems are throughcollegebookstores, read under- not characterized in either of these ways. ground newspapers, or listen to certain pro- Planning, implementing, and evaluating tester:to recognizethefactthat some are the primary functions which any social persons are espousing the Marxist-Leninist system must accomplish if it is to realize the or Mao Tse-tung propaganda line. Such per- human objectives which it seeks to attain. sons are very easy to find. Like all persons Those social systems which have integrity advocating the ideology of a closed society, and are fully functioning are characterized the propositions which they advance and by the fact that each of the functions out- the monologue which they maintain are lined above is accomplished by a different never their own. One can even predict what group which has cuthority.Further, the their next words will be, they hew so closely evaluative function is that point at which to the party line. 1 These ideas are developed more fully in: Such self-styledrevolutionariesare Jack R. Frymier. Fostering Educational Change. dangerous on a campus or anywhere, not Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing because they advocate a Communist or anal- Company, 1969.

15 8 Student Rights and Responsibilities 149

do?" both continuity and change can beassured. well?""Will it do what I want it to At times some systems work betterthan "Should I buy ityes or no?" fully others, that much is sure, and at times any Those social systems which are corrective system functions more effectively orless ef- functioning use evaluative data .as fectively than it did before. Even so,the feedback to improve. When evaluations oc- evalua:ive function is the key.Perhaps a cur, new informationis generated which did closer look at the system as afunctioning not exist before. If thebuying public refuses to buy a particularproduct or service (in whole will show why this is so. results in The planning, conceptualizing,think- other words, if their evaluation ing-through, policy-making phase ofeduca- negative action), what they do is create new knowledge which tells those whoplanned tionis typicallyaccomplishedbythe governing board. It is here that generaldirec- or those whoproduced that something about the idea tions and broad policies for the system are their efforts went wrong. Perhaps described. In government this is where the (for example, the plans to produce a carwith laws are made. In industry this iswhere certain characteristics, with certaindimen- inap- the decision to produce a particularproduct sions, in a given price range, etc.) was propriate or wrong, or perhaps it was not or service is made.Every social system has operationalized in a satisfactory way(for a planning, direction-setting,conceptualizing ade- function which must be performed. example, the seams were not welded The accomplishing, implementing, do- quately, the motor did not runefficiently, if the ing phase of the educational &ystemis a etc.), or both. On the other hand, buy, function which the professionals perform. evaluations are positive and the people did not Converting policies into programs and con- that also creates new knowledge that is cepts into organizational andmethodological exist before (for example, the price range procedures, the professional staff of any right, the production line is doing asuperb educational system operationalizes the plans assembly job, the motor functions powerfully which the governing board sets forth.In in a very efficient way), and the system uses government this function isaccomplished by the feedback as a basis for keeping the opera- the executive branch. In industry thepoli- tion satisfactorily and effectively under way. cies established by the board of directors are The evaluative function, then, is the is converted into products or services to be sold precise point at which new information main- by management and workers. Cars are man- made available to enable the system to ufactured. Coal is mined. Food is sold. tain its operation or to improve. Thosesocial systems which are both durable and respon- siveself-perpetuating, but with the capacity The Evaluative Function to changereflect threedifferent but related The evaluative function ineducation factors when the evaluative function is ac- represents a system void.There is no for- complished: generation of new information, mally established group with influencewhich evaluation by a group with authority of its accomplishes the assessing role. In govern- own, and a criterion againstwhich to judge these ment the evaluative function isaccomplished which is both accepted and clear. When by the judiciary. The courts weigh and con- factors are in evidence, then the evaluative sider and judge. "Are the laws whichthe function has the theoretical power to enable legislature made constitutional?" "Arethe the system both to continue and tochange. actions of the executive branch appropriate The existence of the judiciary as a sepa- for example, and legal in a constitutional way?"In indus- rate branch of the government, try the buying public evaluatesthe product illustrates the existence of an evaluative decisions, they or service when it goes onsale. "Is it made group. When the courts make 159 150 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era create new information which did not exist thoughtful,deliberateeducational change. before. These decisions also have power. The What is needed, of course, is some kind rest of the system, in other words, pays at- of evaluative mechanism whichissuffi - tention to the feedback. Because there is a ciently sensitive to the, problems and cc,n- Constitution which clarifies the purposes and cerns of those who are involved that it will which has been ratified, the reality of an be in a position to respond. However, this articulated and accepted criterion is also in- group must have adequate authority of its volved. In economics the same thing is true. own. It dare not be a part of the hierarchy, One group plans. Another produces. And and there must be a deliberate effort to dis- the buying public judges the plans and the tribute authority according to function rather product or service in an evaluative way. than to consolidate authority.The "top- Furthermore, the judgments of the buying down" concept must be changed. public have power. The producers and the One cannot portray our concept of planners have to pay attention to what the government in a "top-down" way. The legisla- buyers say. And the criterion of profit is tive, the executive, and the, judicial are sep- both conspicuous and accepted by all parties arate and equal branches of the government. involved. it is possible to show a line and staff ar- In education the system is otherwise. rangement of each of the three branches There is neither a formal nor an informal separately, but one branch of government group which functions as a part of the sys- cannot be described as "above" the others tem to accomplish the evaluative role. There in a hierarchical way. Each has a function is no "third party" which is "objective" and and an authority of its own. which has authority to whom those who feel In education, though, the policy makers constrained or denied can turn. They can and implementers are typically thought of only go back up the same "legal line" which and described inlinear ways: governing created the circumstances out of which the boards are at the "top" and those who imple- problem grew in the first place.Further, ment are "below." There is no separate group when evaluations are made, there is no inwhich has authority in the evaluative realm, sistencewithin the systemthatthey be either. That conceptual void has to be filled utilized. New data may become available as with a newly devised group, and that group a result of evaluative efforts, but there are must be granted the authority to accomplish no clearly stated objectives which either have the evaluative role. been ratified or are so widely understood as Some universities have inaugurated the to have impact. Therefore, when evaluations ombudsman idea, for example, as an effort do take place, they may be attended to or to fill that theoretical void. Others have at- they may be completely ignored. It is in this tempted to involve students more extensively sense that the educational system as pres- in the formal decision-making structure of ently conceived is largely incapable of self- the university in order to assure them that renewal and rational change. their voice and their concerns would be heard. Such steps will not solve the problem, Changing the System though they are definitely appropriate directions in which to go. What might be done? Several things Expanding involvement is very impor- might be attempted, but the system must tant, but guaranteeing participation is no certainly be changed. Changing the people assurance that the evaluative function will be has been often advocated.Changing the adequately performed. Likewise the ombuds- system is another thing. Unless the system man idea is most certainly sound, but in itself is changed, it will not be capable of those countries where the ombudsman ftmc- Student Rights and Responsibilities 151

already exists a Even so, the complaints arereal. The tions most effectively,2 there capable of rational, fully-developed judicial system which accom- system is rigid. It is not in the system plishes the basic evaluative role.Presuming deliberate change. "Good" men satisfactorily per- can do a lot tomake the system function that the ombudsman can which reform all of the basic evaluativefunctions reasonably well, but any system quires "good men" to make it gois also a plusthe"extra"evaluativerefinements is prob- system which willallow a scalawag or an which he traditionally accomplishes behave in arbi- ably not reasonable.This is not meant to autocrat to wreak havoc and idea is not an trary, obstinate ways.That is the system we suggest that the ombudsman system must be important oneit is. Yet we dare notexpect havetoday,andthat accomplish on an "extra" basis changed. We must deviseevaluative mech- one man to sensitive but (usually in addition to certainother duties) anisms which are sufficiently fully responsive to the dynamic stateof edu- that which probably ought tobe attended to cation. We must agree upon the purposesof by a group of persons workingfull-time in education, and see to it that assessmentsand an evaluative way. those terms The basic issue, of course, is the gov- judgments are made according to ernance structure of theeducational system. of purpose. accomplished "top- Schools do not exist to serve taxpayers' Can it be satisfactorily admin- if evaluations needs. Neither do they exist to serve down"? Will it work effectively Schools exist to by the same persons who istrators' or teachers' needs. are accomplished Students arc re- have responsibilities for policy-makingand help young people learn. implementing roles? I think not. The system belling, but many of their complaints are unquestionably real. must be changed. have a Young people all over the worldhave Those who work in education their stock-in- community messages problem. Since problems are been sending the adult that they all sound. trade, it seems reasonable to expect in many ways. Their ideas are not to the Their behavior is certainly notalways appro- should apply the power of intelligence the fact that business of solving this particularproblem. priate or defensible at all. And tendencies the law, destroy property, Let's hope they will. Repressive some persons flout educational insti- and violate the integrity of other personsis abound. We do not need behavior tutions which are less free, butrather those certainly not to be condoned. Such always starts if, unacceptable and mustbe dealt with in which are more free. Progress with criticism. Many person.; arecomplain- legal but humane ways. ing now. "The system mustbe changed," 2 Walter Gellhorn.Ombudsmen and Others; they say. The governance structureof the Citizens' Protectors in Nine Countries.Cambridge, educational system is one place tobegin. Massachusetts: Harvaid UniversityPress, 1967.

t'y1 161 152 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

The Student Voice: A New Force

EDWARD W. NAJAM, JR.

STUDENTS have always been an question withits intended implicationsis unruly group, and universities have tradition- historically gratuitous, for itis always the ally been centers of ferment. Yet never be- minority which shapes the course of events. fore has there been anything comparable to Large numbers of intelligent, critical, the current student rebellion.Considerable and articulate youth are concentrated on the student thought and energy are being fo- campus, where they find easy communication cused on intense political activity aimed at with their peers and ready reinforcement for both the campus and greater society. The their ideas.And not having yet assumed pulse ofageneration of youth can be mea- the burdens and responsibilities of marriage, sured by this activity, which is challenging family, and occupation, nor having been the existing order from campus social restric- debilitated by economic security, they have tions and course content to foreign policy theopportunity tomake theirfeelings and racial discrimination. known. There is little public support for student The campus is, thus, no longer a play- complaints about the state of higher educa- ground for practice oratory but rather a real tion and the state of society, but students in political arena. The stakes are high because turn have little faith in public opinion any- the university is on trial as society's institu- way. Student unrest has developed from a tion most immediately at hand. The merits sense of futility, a feeling that present institu- of student power may be debatable, but that tions and ways of conducting the public busi- a kind of student power does exist and is ness are frequently inadequate, insensitive, being exercised is not debatable.It is a very and hypocritical. real thing. Students have developed a voice apart from the rest of the academic com- Student Unrest a Reality munity. Many critics have tended to lump all The student movement is a real phe- students together, toattach one student- nomenon in the minds and attitudes of many inspired incident to another, and to condemn students, though it is most closely identified them all. Yet it is essential that the distinc- with an active minority. This fact in itself, tion be made between those ideologically that only a minority appears to be involved, motivated students who seek to dismember is for some people enough to discount the our institutions and the much larger group validity of student protest. Many ask what of moderate students who view the short- has happened to"the great majority of comings of our universities and society with Americansthe forgotten Americansthe less impatience but with genuine concern. non-shouters, the non-demonstrators." This However, the moderate students' commit-

Edward W.Najam,1r., Student, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1969, Student Body President, Indiana University, Bloomington 162 Student Rights and Responsibilities 153 ment to the present order of things is tenu- numbers.Mass higher education has be- ous, for they appreciate the message of the come an American ideal, andconsequently radicals if not their excesses.The central theuniversity hasbeeninundated with problem on today's campus is for the uni- hordes of youth for whom a degree is the versity to distinguish the moderates from the ticket to success in middle class society, a radicals. society, ironically, in which they are not even sure they want to participate. The Student and Society The university has more visibly become an agent of the status quo which trains rather The student movement has implications than educates students in order to prepare far beyond institutions of higher learning.It them for assimiliation into society at some was, of course, initially associated withthe point.Ithas, by design, cooperated with civil rights movement, but not until Vietnam business and government and thereby com- emerged as the principal national issue did promised its claim to political immunity. The campus protest become a common occur- university is, therefore, under attack for its rence. Large numbers of students,exposed readiness to bend to the will and to the to the history and political realities of South- standards of greater society and for its com- east Asia and acquainted with the problems plicity with the established order. of developing nations, have not subscribed to the blind patriotism that has characterized Institutional Reform much of the general public. Though the war itselfprovided a stimulus for widespread Quite apart from student objections to student activity,it also served to dislodge the university's subservience to conditions other complaints about the present social outside the campus is a concern for the inorder. ternal operations of the university itself. The Students are conscious that though they central issue is one of democracy and the enjoy the fruits of affluence, America has not distribution of power. The drive for student honored its promise to all its people, that power is not, contrary to popularcontention, millions of poor Americans, black and white, an attempt to establish total control over the are not sharing in the nation's wealth,that university, but rather to redistribute power many black Americans are still struggling for within the university.It is an attempt to the most basic kind of human dignity. Thus redefine the legitimate scope of university students are not objecting to affluence itself authority in the nonacademic realm and to but to tin way itisbeing handled both provide for a meaningful student role in the domestically and in our foreign relations. academic councils of the institution.Stu- They are equally concerned, perhaps more dents are challenging the authoritarian struc- concerned, about a society, a social system ture of higher education which has long in which the individual is losing his sense of relegated them to a position of second-class identity in a great philosophy of consensus. citizenship within the academic community. The university is no longer an isolated A great deal of time has been wasted community of scholars; it is no longer im- and attention devoted to disputing nonaca- mune from the society which supportsit and demic student-life regulations and their en- which it serves. The day is over when men forcement.It should be said here that, in of prominence would "retire" to a university response to considerable student pressure, ptesidency. A partial explanation for this is the universities are increasingly abandoning that higher education is no longer a luxury their ludicrous bahysitting function and that within the reach of only an intellectual elite, students will in time have absolute control but on the contrary a necessity for increasing over the conduct of their personal Jives,Stu- 163 154 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era dents have resented being treated differently to destroy the abiding values of those courses from their counterparts who are working or in the liberal, humanistic tradition. otherwise pursuing careers, living indepen- Led by those students who are genu- dently, and enjoying freedom of movement inely bored in the classroom, this student and action.Unfortunately, the thrust for generation has undertaken to challenge the this kind of extracurricular freedom has ob- state of undergraduate higher education. To scured the issue and detracted from the main be sure, many students are satisfied with the drive for institutional reform. treatment they are getting and leave college Though the student movement is many- with a degree and with no complaints. But faceted, at the very heart of it is an assault those who have spotted the problems are on the academic establishment itself, prin- explaining them totheirless perceptive cipally on the feudal authority of the faculty. peers, who vaguely sensed them anyway. Though students have frequently directed Nevertheless,student power isstill their attack against administrators and trus- largely illegitimate, that is,itis exercised tees, they are learning that itis really the de facto. Students are now seeking to for- faculty which holds the power over teaching malize student participation in all aspects and curriculum. And though the faculty is of university life so as to effect control over generally liberal in its politics, it becomes their personal lives and to have real rather conservativeinmattersofinstitutional than token influence in the development of reform. course content and curriculum. After the Second World War, education became a prerequisite for successful University Response participationinthe affluent society,and those who could provide it were the hitherto The student drive as it relates directly inconspicuous college and university profes- to the universities should be beneficial; in sors.At a time when enrollments were any case it cannot be ignored. American in- increasing rapidly, emphasis shiftedeven stitutions of higher learning have a special more strongly from teaching to research, and responsibility to capture this intense feeling faculties in response have even more empha- among the young, to refine it, to temper it, sized that part of academic endeavor which and to direct it toward meaningful ends. has its rewards, namely, research and its Americancollegesanduniversities companion, publication. The opportunity to must submit to a rigorous self-examination; do research has become not only an aca- the student movement will not subside until demic right but a professional compulsion. they do. The university is a very special This attitude has redounded tothe institution in a free society and, to the ex- benefit of the graduate schools, which are by tent that it prostitutes its purposes and its their very nature research-oriented. Dedica- intellectual resources to established economic tion to one's discipline is the order of the day. and political institutions, it has failed in its The worth of the facii..y is not measured in mission. terms of what the faculty does for its students The student movement is much more but in terms of its value in the academic marketplace. This emphasis on professionalism, than a drive for institutional reform; it is a for all its value, has prompted the amateurs rebirth of humanism, of concern for the indi- of the academic world, the undergraduates, vidual as a person, and of respect for diver- to rebel. In the confusion, the undergradu- sity and pluralism. All of these qualities are ate has lost faith in his faculty; he questions consistent with our democratic tradition and course offerings and their relevance to his are values to which the university should, by world. Yet he does not, in the process, aim its very nature, be dedicated. Student Rights and Responsibilities 155

EL 27 (1): 34-38; October 1969 0 1969 ASCD

Student and AdministrationCrises

MARK A. CHESLER

DISRUPTION andunrestin of the curriculum is seen as irrelevant for stu- it secondary schools have roots deep within the dents not going to college; they point out that fabric of our society and educational sys- does not help them prepare for the noncullege American job market. In more affluent suburban schools, tems. The major problems of the many youngsters argue that collegepreparation society are reflected in its schools, and in the courses do not prepare them for whatis likely lives of its young people.Teen-agers are to happen in college. Partly thisresults from living with the pressure of an unpopular war an overemphasis on theromantic myths of and draft, with the pain of poverty and the scholarship and of academic life, but also the guiltofaffluence,with racism's mutual nonprovocative and nonstimulating character of corrosion of black and white people, and most college preparatory courses. with the constraining effects of adult-run 2. Many students resent what they feel bureaucracies. Young people are naturally are archaic and traditionalforms of classroom restive, with their need for change, for ininstruction, where teachers lecture and students creased liberty, and with the society's fre- are expected to listendocilely. In some schools, quent estrangement from its own young concern over the retention and rewardof inno- people. vative or "good" teachers and negative reactions to "bad" teachers has become a focusof Student Concerns students' collective attention. ad- Our schools are a vulnerable and acces- 3. The reliance upon teacher and ministrator control over student behavior gen- sible focus for some of these disaffections; erates the high number of rules andregulations they also heighten and trigger such issues in by which the school day is organized. Itis not particularly volatile ways. Student concerns an uncommon experiencefor students who with society and school are always present, wish to go to the bathroom during class tobe but they gain broad public attention when required to raise their hands and announce expressed in ways that disrupt orderly school their need to the teacher and their peers.Some processes.Student frustrations and anger students undoubtedlywouldrathersuffer then create "crises" for school administra- quietly than deal with their need in public. tors.Any attempt to understand such "ad- Students who feel the school should not exer- ministrative crises" must begin with the crises cise so much control over their personal bethat students feel they face daily, crises that havior offer an array of perceived violations of are perpetrated or exacerbated by thechar- good judicial process and civil liberties by adult Among school authorities, including personal clothing acter of their educational experience. and locker room searches, dress and hair regu- the most generic and potent "student crises" lations, arbitrary punishments without appeal, in school are the following: premature judgments of guilt withoutevidence I.Youngsters have a variety of com- or proof, etc. Censorship ofstudent newspapers plaints about the high school curriculum. Much and other controls on student politicalactivi-

Mark A. Chesler, Project Director, Educational Change Team,University of Michigan, Ann Arbor IC "5 156 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era ties, or the farces of obedient student councils, disregard for or igno:ance of serious social ills. are especially provocative reminders of stu- Youngsters wrestling with problems ofthe dents' low status and political impotence. draft, and with their awareness of social issues such as poverty, morality, and powerlessness, 4.In many schools students argue that constantly seek the wisdom and guidance of teachers and administrators do not behave in their respected elders. The lack of institutional courteous and respectful waystoward them. recognition of such issues, let alone their cur- This is the reverse of teachers' common com- ricular treatment, is a source of much student plaint that their students often are defiant and guilt and discontent. When their elders, and disrespectful toward them.Instructional and their educational institutions, appear disinter- interpersonalrelationshipscharacterizedby ested or powerless in the face of such issues, educators' condescension and paternalism sig- youth are naturally confused, frustrated, and nify adults'disinterest in reciprocal human angry. contact with their students. Professional norms against teacher-student "fraternization" increase 7. A final tragedy is that manyteachers the interpersonal distance and mistrust between and administrators who would and should ob- these two groups. One principal reported that ject to such violations of educational principles he usually called in a group of 12 or 15 stu- through common sense and even decency do dents or went into a classroom when he was not.Some are cowed by their colleagues and about to administer a paddling to a male stu- by expectations of administrator or parental dent. Such circumstances, he argued, made the reaction, others are coerced by a professional humiliation he was about to apply much clearer fraternity into maintaining a code of silence. and thus a more effective disciplinary device. An educator who protests too strongly about However, they also signify his low level of current "student crises" risks being identified concern for students' dignity or pride. "with the kids," a stigma injurious to good peer relations and professional security.Students 5.Students' concerns aboutracismfocus often perceive such noninvolvement as evidence upon disciplinaryorinstructionalbehavior of adult hypocrisy and a lack of commitment which appears to unjustly single out blacks for to the ideas and ideals of a better world. The differential treatment. A complete lack of, or result is a loss of trust in the persons and insti- minimal number of, black teachers, counselors, tutions established for the welfare and guidance clubs, and books, and a failure to honor black of the young. Without trust, there is only the cultural and political heroes are further student despair of conformity or apathy and the revo- rationales for labeling a school as racist. Specific lutionary power of anger and desperate hope. examples of these concerns arise in connection The existence of these conditions con- with the reluctance of many schools to honor the anniversaries of the assassination of Dr. stitutes daily and continuing crises in the Martin Luther King, Jr., or Malcolm X. The lives of students attending secondary schools. lack of courses directly relevant to black ex- The expression of such grievances and con- perience in America, and the distortion of this cerns in protests and disruption creates tre- experiencein "white-oriented"textsand mendous student, faculty, and community courses, are sources of much student pain and pressure on schooladministrators.Some alienation. Whether or not the school makes a creative responses to these pressures and uniquely racist contribution to the quality of resultant "administration crises" aresug- student life, it is clear that few schoois have gested below. attempted to overcome the vestiges of societal racism that may be present among the ranks of students, teachers, administrators, service per- Immediate Alternatives in Crisis sonnel, and within the curriculum itself. Many school administrators see school 6.In a similar vein, some students are disruption as a crisis that bodes ill for the concerned deeply with their schools' apparent educational institution, for the lives of young- Student Rights and Responsibilities 157 sters, and for their own careers.Itis our listen to their concerns anddemands were thatthese conflict:;and failures. own perspective im- crises often may represent opportunitiesfor A reievant mechanism that could be educators to take a good hard look at them- plemented in the midst of crisis is a pattern selves, to reexamine their goals, and to use of formal negotiation betweenconflicting action is student pressure to develop new and exciting parties. Talk that quickly leads to is the ways of educating youngsters. required; for in the long run, change Recent events mAke it clear that re- only relevant agenda item.Harried school pression and suppression, ordenial and administrators and students will also need to and escape, do not respond tokey educational understand the roots of their own anger issues at stake in school crises; theydo not defense and to gain positive and productive Our even offer the hope ofrapid de-escalation of control and direction over these feelings. with tension and conflict. work during the past year is replete It is the context of seeing disruption as examples of school administrators who es- conflict an opportunity forchange, and of seeing calated and provoked high levels of change as vital, that permits morccreative because of their own righteous indignation, responses to school crises. defensiveness, despair, or personal pain and Working with several school adminis- affront. One can sympathize with all ofthese trators has indicated somemeaningful and feelings and yet recognize theirdeleterious immediate responses to school crisesthat eff ;et upon any effort to negotiateand re- may reduce the level of overtconflict.In store order. the midst of crisis one can oftenestablish The above tactics may be immediately formal mechanisms for social interaction invented or implemented to reduce thelevel experi- that crosscut prior lines of statusdistinction of conflict to proportions that permit in the school; in this way students andteach- mentation with more powerful change strate- student ers or different socialclasses and races can gies. Prompt and open responses to be put into immediate interactionaround concerns, and theimplementation of various medi- school issues. grievance handling systems or conflict A second device is the immediate estab- ating operations, will help deal withthe prob- such lishment of a grievance handling procedure lems of escalation, per se. However, conditions that has some teeth to it.It is not sufficient tactics do not deal with the basic to establish a sounding board or tocall for underlying crisis: unsolved social problems, administrators to "listen" to students; what curriculum and instructional irrelevance or is required is a multistatus group that can incompetence, interpersonal control ordis- respondto, and willseek out,student, respect, and the racism which many young- Only teacher, and community grievances. A griev- sters feel permeate their lives in school. tothe ance procedure thatdoes not have inde- immediate and constant attention pendent enforcement power, or access to reformation of our schools will alter these enforcement from other powers in the sys- basic conditions; and only such alteration school tem, is not worth establishing.Rather, it will, in the long run, bring an end to quality will be seen by students as another sourceof disruptionandprogresstoward administrative deception and control. education. Students often complain that teachers and administrators who do not respectthem Middle-Range Strategies for Change do not listen to any grievance or argument. deal Many students say that demonstrations and One of the useful strategies that raised is the protests have erupted becausetheir other with several of the issues just making. efforts to get administrators and teachers to decentralization of school decision 158 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era specifically, this means the inclusion of stu- pendent, relaxed learners. This may require dents and members of the community in vital changing the manner in which time is used educational decisions: recruitment, evalua- during the school day, shortening the school tion, promotion, and separation of teachers; week, providing more flexibility in the cur- revision of curriculum and textbooks; autono- riculum, generating new curricula, and pro- mous student organization and management viding much more substantial released time. of extracurricular activities such as news- The solution of recurring and escalating papers, clubs, honorary offices, and events. school problems requires nothing less than a It is not farfetched to plan now for the continuing collaboration of all parties in the inclusion of elected student represeaatives school and community. Continuing inquiry on all local and regional school boards and into school problems and controversial local school governing agencies.Students often issues, and joint efforts to implement new have an expertise that is to be valued and ways of working in !he school, call for the can be used. Moreover, students often con- formal establishment of a variety of cross- stitute a special interest group, and may best status,school-communityproblem-solving be able to argue their own cases. teams. These teams can update and maintain The problems of adult-student relation- the degree of concern and interest in school ships require restructuring of the school so change that, at this point, is created by inci- that students and teachers can spend more dents of protest and disruption. time in personal conversation and collabora- It is essential that the curriculum itself tion with one another, whether or not this be renewed in ways that place less stress on appears to contribute directly to the trans- the quantity of time spent being exposed to mittal of academic material. The relaxation various materials and more emphasis on stu- of teachers' custodial concerns, and the re- dents' ability to understand and use the mate- placement of their control by caring and by rial. This clearly requires a curriculum that patterns of mutual student-teacher respect, is is adaptive and flexible enough to be used in of the highest priority. Adult fears that such different ways by different schools, and in dif- "permissiveness" and "invitations to anarchy" ferent ways by different students. Although will result in their being taken advantage of a variety of exciting curriculum development may or may not be real; in any event mch efforts can be noted in schools across this fears cannot be dealt with effectively by country, such curricula are being invented at avoiding experimentation. a rate far exceeding their implementation. Clearly a high priority must be placed Further, they are beingflIplemented with on teacher education efforts.Yet having haste far more often than with the kind of well-prepared teachers does not necessarily thoughtful preparation that may guarantee lead to a healthful school environment. Well- success. New curricula are vital; yet new prepared teachers who must operate within curricula that require and support new pro- the traditional model of the classroom and fessional role structures, new patterns of professional role established in most schools student involvement in and out of school, and are not likely to be very innovative. collaborative preparation and joint decision We must develop new professional role making are much more imperative. structures that permit teachers to be learners The combined issues of trust and power and students to be teachers; that provide represent themes that cut across the griev- teachers with the time and hc .p to think, plan, ances presented earlier and can suggest other share, prepare, and evaluate their activity in strategies for responding to school crises. meaningful ways; that permit administrators Many young people have lost trust in the de- to be true educational leaders; and that allow sire or ability of adults and of school people and encourage students to be inquiring, inde- to serve their interests and needs. Without

16 8 Student Rights and Responsibilities 159

all mem- such faith, youth must seek the powerto of legitimate and real power among and growth. bers of the educational system,and especially controltheir own integrity control of school Attempts to rebuild our schools mustfocus with students.Studen I learning of educators' practical social arrangements, individualized on the redevelopment participation in cur- and moral trustworthiness, and on young- systems, and student personnel decisions sters' willingness to trust inthem. ricular, instructional, and their own Curriculum changes, new patternsof increase students' power to affect willingness and communication and interpersonalrelations, educational careers, Adults' live with new better economic and intellectualpayoff, and skills in helping to create and forms of trust and power willbe key deter- administration of the school and classroom avoid de- in the true interests of students,all point in minants of our schools' ability to educational the direction of increased trust.Changes structive actions and to create must also recognize and supportthe sharing environments.

EL 27 (5): 442-45; February 1970 (() 1970 ASCD

Can the StudentParticipate in HisOwn Destiny?

JAMES E. HOUSE

Students Want To Participate Last year, more than 2,000high schools EDUCATORS have been "foot across the nationexperienced walkouts, sit- dragging" and divided in rendering anopin- ins, boycotts, or other meansof student ex- ion about the ability of students toparticipate pression in an attempt to provethat they are in determining their own destiny.Students important and want to participate.A careful have sensed this dividedness andconfusion, analysis of the protest movementwould indi- and have proceeded to seek answers tothe cate that many of thedemands and concerns and would question for themselves. Their answershave of students are indeed legitimate, evaluation of how been manifestedin studentprotest and suggest that a complete we do business withyoungsters in school is demonstrations. needed. In fact, to deny a studentthe right to infringe- I This quote, and others which appearnot participate in his own destiny is an documented, were extracted from adoctoral dis- ment of his constitutionalrights, as described sertation prepared by the writer.These were re- and the IEVell of twelfth-grade pupils to a in the Fourteenth Amendment sponses by ninth- and Rights, and reflected in a growingbody of survey about participation.

Intermediate School District, James E. House, Consultant, SecondaryEducation, Wayne County Detroit, Michigan

'169 160 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

court opinions.Our judicial system has This student poll compares very favor- called for a halt to the flagrant abuse of stu- ably with one conducted by the writer for a dent rights in school. dissertation, in which more than 60 percent Clute advocates that: of the pupils revealed that in their schools, pupils really wanted to decide what happened Students must become partners with us in to them. Only 30 percent of the pupils in the process of their education: partners, in that students must share in the vital decisions of the same survey felt that they "usually" or school lifeparticularly in those decisions that "always" had a chance to participate in de- affect his privacy and his precious constitutional cision making on policies and rules under rights. Equally important is the student's par- which they must live.4 The conflict between ticipation in the decisions which affect the rights students and adults is crystallized, as de- of others....Responsibility grows out of re- scribed in the Life poll, where only 20 per- spect for one's self and an understanding of the cent of the parents and 35 percent of the meaning of personal freedom.Responsibility teachers felt that students should have more cannot develop before freedomisgranted.2 participation in policy making. Only a mere (Italics added.) quarter of the adults polled placed student "I think the Mufti* Should be'con! participation under the "very important" suited more about the7prohleMOW).:'are category as compared with 54 percent of having. Just think, wa might :.be able to the pupils.This accounts, in part, for the come up with somettilne generation gap thatexists, hence student unrest. One very simple, but fruitful, way of resolving some of the problems in the educa- Ingredients for Participation tional arena is merely to seek answers from our clientsthe students. Folks in the busi- tb.studente themèelveshöiM ness world spend millions of dollars annually n urand usa,theirgrou work..a togather consumer opinions about their I. tire, n products. New directions are charted as a result of these findings. Research tells us that students want to be consulted as "con- Some secondary schools value student sumers" of our educational "wares." participation, and every effort is made to In a recent study conducted for Life 3 have this participation become a significant magazine, more than half of the students part of the educational process. How do these polledin100 schools across the nation schools differ from other schools? One quick revealed that they were unhappy with their observation of these forward-looking second- limited participation in school policy mak- ary schools is that you will find an open coming.Moreover, more than 60 percent of munication link to help students participate the same students wanted more say about in a significant way in their school operation. making rules under which they must live, Teachers and administrators in these and a greater share of involvement in making schools seek student opinion and use this to curriculum decisions. The issue of decision strengthen the fibers of togetherness.Stu- making is relevant for pupils, as 54 percent dents are trusted and encouraged to be differ- labeled it "very important." ent, because being different is one way of

2 Morrel J. Clute. "Rights and Responsi- 4 James E. House. "A Study of Innovative bilities of Students."Educational Leadership 26 Youth Involvement Activities in Selected Secondary (3): 242; December 1968. Schools in Wayne County, Michigan." Unpublished 3 "What People Think About Their High Ed.D. dissertation.Detroit: Wayne State Univer- Schools." Life 66 (19): 24-25; May 16, 1969. sity, 1969.

170 Student Rights and Responsibilities 161 testing what one really believes.Decision Educators are rightfully proud of the making is seen as a cooperative venture by all Freedom School being operated in Washing- who are affected by the decision. An open ton, D.C., by students. Not only do students communication link in the secondary schools determine the rules under which they must provides for a grievance procedurea sys- live, they also select teachers, develop the tem of redress. This procedure is known by curriculum,and makeotherimportant all students in school; it shows no favorites. decisions. We know that where communication is missing, it always breeds suspicion and a lack of !!1 don't, think the 'school 'faculty niticfi''. to Oui-itudent sCOuholt.. trust. .student. council 'should 'have In spite of the difficulty in establishing some day In-our cindoulum." a workable communication link, some secondary schools have initiated student-faculty- Another characteristicof forward-look- parent advisory councils that are concerned ing schoois is an exciting and relevant cur- with such problems as discipline, classroom riculum.It would show evidence of being conditions, and human relations. One super- responsive to the current sociological prob- intendent in an Ohio school district invites lems on the educational scene. Students do student representatives to his office to talk not understand why they cannot deal with and listen to one another on a regular basis. problems related to poverty, racism, black Still other schools have appointed an ombuds- studies, sex, drugs, and the Vietnam war. man, have conducted open forums, and are Instead of placing emphasis in these areas, sharing more power with the student council. educators have been forced to revise the Communication isbeautiful, but tough to academic disciplines (science, math, foreign accomplish. languages), and make them tougher.This process has placed a great deal of pressure on students to succeed. Nonclass activities, in which many children find a sense of accomplishment, would be an important part of the A second glance at these forward-look- curricular experience. Such activities would ing schools would reveal the existence of not be viewed as something tacked on, after human rules and regulations.If rules and the fact. regulations are to be more acceptable and In some schools, pupils are reshaping workable, students must have a chance t& the curriculum by calling for the elimination help set the regulations. Rules and regula- of the track system that segregates pupils. tions must not be viewed as a means of Still others encourage pupils to teach courses keeping people in line, so that undesirables without credit, to volunteer for essential com- can be suspended when they do not toe munity services, to attend department meet- the mark. ings as advisors, to suggest course content for Every effort would be made to eliminate black studies, and to share the spotlight with those regulations that may be classified as teachers on curriculum advisory councils. annoyances, such as hall passes andpermis- Teachers and administrators in one sion to go to the rest rooms. Self-discipline theregular would be the goal of every student, if the Marylandschooleliminated professional staff would help him to achieve schedule for a two-week period. A student- this goal. Students would, in fact, determine recommended curriculum was initiated which regulations such as the length of hair, wear- included a visit to Congress, listening to jazz ing apparel, and beards, and would set up music, working with deprived children, de- their own discipline procedures. bating the war, and a broad spectrum of 171 162 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era exciting educational experiences. The cur- the skills he needs for determining his own riculum can be relevant. destiny in school. Some teachers are using students as aides, assistants, tutors, evaluators of teacher performance, and in other creative roles. Other teachers are meeting the challenge by providing experience in independent study A final ingredient that would be found and small group discussions. in these forward-looking schools would be an The evidence is starting to mount that understanding and know1edge4ble teacher pupils can participate in their own destiny if a teacher who felt comfortablewith pupils the school environment is one of trust, which helping to run the class. Pupils do not like to recognizes the dignity and worth of students. sit still and listen to teachers talk all the time. Student demands to participate in their own When students have a voice in decision mak- destiny provide a real chance for us to correct ing they are more eager to raise questions, an injustice that has existed for toolong. explore options, and make value judgments We should be proud that a pillar of de- about issues for the love and satisfaction of mocracystudent participationis moving it all. closer to reality. If the class engages only in oral discus- If students are to participate in their sion and answers the questions at the end of own destiny in school related matters, stu- each chapter, then something is gravely miss- dents must choose ways and opportunities to ing in the educative process. Students know use their talents, interests, and feelings. Here what activities "turn them on"; teachers need is something that you can do in your school only to ask. now: See that In the classroom, there are factors re- latedto grading practices, student-teacher Students have a voice in planning, decid- planning, teaching methods, and the future- ing upon, implementing, and evaluating experi- oriented curriculum that tend to prohibit ences in which they participate. pupil participation. A grading practice in the Youths have opportunities to work with classroom that is used as a weapon, rather other youths and adults in a variety of situa- than an effort to evaluate pupils in terms of tions, in a variety of relationships. their own accomplishments, would be re- Leadership is shared. Youths share with jected. Pressure to participate solely for the teachers and other adults the responsibility for sake of a grade has a tendency to reduce guiding and leading activities to the reasonable meaningful participation. maximum of their potential. Teachers can, most of all, help pupils to Youths are encoui-aged to originate plans participate in their own destiny by helping and ideas for enhancing their role and partici- them to acquire a feeling of dignity and pation in school and community activities.5 worth. No student in the classroom should Why not try it? feel belittled. Each pupil must have a feel- 5 Dolores Paskal, Leonard S. Demak, and ing that he is the most important person in Edwin J. McClendon. New Roles and Relation- the classroom. His teacher can help him feel ships. Detroit:Wayne CountyIntermediate wanted and important, thereby giving him School District, 1969. p. 3. WHORLS IN A REVOLUTIONARY SOCIETY

Revolutions, once launched, tend to careen out of control. We must learn to manage explosive changes so the fruits of progress are more rapidly and evenly disseminated in improved economic health and educational support for all. We must reexamine more carefully the degree to which our major social institutions actually support the dignity and aspirations of the individuals who comprise them, and whom institutions are designed to serve. Smith, p. 168.

Educating Youth in A Revolutionary Society'

ROBERT SMITH

SINCE Sputnik, the schools have that impel change because the results of edu- absorbed more than their share of people's cation are released and used quickly to build projected tensions.This they have done and change society. even as they have sought to respond to revolutions in the major fields of knowledge The Knowledge Revolution and in social attitudes and have been forced to adjust to an exploding child population. The production and use of knowledge We in the United States have a grave prob- hasprecipitatedimbalanceswithinthe lem of perceiving broadly enough the scope society.The industrial revolution under- of our revolution and the related sources girding the world in which we find ourselves of conflict and turmoil which surround all has rapidly shifted from itsearlier chief of our basic social institutions. ingredients of land, power, minerals, capital As a nation we have brought this revo- equipment, and labor to what is now being lution on ourselves.Our people, restless labeled as a "knowledge revolution" in the and mobile, energetic and ingenious in tech- area of ideas readily harnessed to produc- nology, have long equatedprogress with tion. Our institutions, however, have been breaking from the ways of the past, particu- slow to adapt to this fundamental change larly in the economic and political spheres. in the dynamics of society. For example, Through progress we seekto verify the education, the basic generator of this change, perfectibility of man and his works.Our is still widely viewed as a major drain on liberal traditions have generated the mass the recources of the nation. educational system which itself accelerates The "knowledge industry" accounts for the growing pace of change. nearly one-third of the entire economy and We came into being as a revolutionary is growing more than twice as fast as the nation with widespread authority problems othersectors.Business concerns in the and with deep convictions that individual United States spend some $17 billion yearly freedom, political freedom, and economic to educate personnel, or one-third as much freedom plus education plus latitude cf as is spent for the nation's public and private action for the individual in all dimensions of school systems.More than one-fourth of life would rapidly enhance and improve life the nation is engaged in being educated, and for all people. As we harnessed these ideas this proportion is increasing. We have about and put them to work during the past 200 51 million students and two million teachers. years, education has become one of the Investment in education, according to the tremendous motive sources in this society Chase Manhattan Bank, has increased the output of the economy and the income of This article is an adaptation of the Edith those educated to a return on investment of B.Merritt Memorial Lecture given in1964 at San Francisco State College. about 10 percent.

Robert Smith, Professor of Education, San Francisco State College, San Francisco, California Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 165

A primary task of this nation is to rendered much previous knowledge question- invent ways to divert major portions of our able or invalid. Ninety percent of the scien- wealth and skilled personnel intohealth, tists in the world's history are alive and education, and welfare. The needs, viewed working today.This in itself is one of the in a conventional framework, may appear driving motive forces of our accumulating insatiable.But this is a false perception. revolution.It shakes our institutions, builds For example, in 1929 this nation invested cleavages among us, and makes us struggle 3.1 percent of its gross national product on in efforts to maintain the kind of multigroup education.With the growing implications and complex multi-institutional society we of the "knowledge revolution," only 5.8 per- have become. Unfortunately, while we have cent was invested during 1963-64, in spite moved with dispatch to harness new knowl- of the relative surge in youth population, edge to our production and distribution sys- costs of education, and the striking rise in tems, we have been slow to adapt our social gross national product. Many developing institutions to the knowledge revolution. nations, despite their poverty, are making If we grasp the deeper implications of far greater relativeefforts in the face of the "knowledge revolution," we can readily much more severe competition for the lim- attain three objectives of revolutionary im- ited funds available.Instead of shuddering port: (a) we can spend all of the funds we at the "astronomical rise" in educational can sensibly absorb for creative extension of costs, we might well assess the disposable educational services; (b) in so doing, we wealth left to this society after deducting can also assure ourselves of future increases educational investments, and make compari- in wealth hitherto unknown; and (c) at the sons with the other nations of the world on same time, we can achieve new levelsof that basis. Reassurance then should replace human development for the entire popula- panic. tion. Our emphasis upon science and technology and overuse of highly educated per- Mobility and Leadership sonnel there and in industrial and consumer production reflect another growing imbalance Population mobility must be recognized as personnel shortages pile up insocial as a revolutionary factor in this society. service professions such as nursing, social Clearly the tempo of the times demands work, and teaching. Research and develop-. institutions attuned to high mobility and ment have also lagged inthe behavioral unstable membership.In some slum-area sciences for a decade and a half as a direct classes, the teacher's class list by the end of result of the skewing of the National Science the school year may show triple the number Foundation in the direction of natural sci- of names listed in September, though the size ences. One need not argue for a redress of the class may remain relatively stable. of balance at the expense of favored areas. We know of middle class schools in which, It is not necessary in a burgeoning economy. each September, at least half the youngsters The problem is onc of advancing selected low and a third of the teachers are new to the priority fields of endeavor in terms of cur- school. rent realities, and of precmpting rapidly ac- The shiq of personnel in and out of cruing additional wealth. For example, 1964 leadership roles also poses difficultiesin produced an increase over the previous year achieving continuity of ler.dership.As we of approximately $40 billion in gross national seek desperately for bases of continuityor product. certaintyplans arc ofteil upset by person- Knowledge is said to have doubled in nel problems.This Asper f change, com- the past decade and, in the process, has monly overlooked, rai grave questions 175 166 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

about our capacity for insightful control of perceive the world asexpandingby leaps revolutionary pressures.Shifts in leadership and bounds as we look out into it and as we are often viewed as needed accessories to interact withit.In the management of change, but the extremely rapid migration human affairs, the world is expanding; prob- of leaders in and out of key roles in our lems become more complex and factors institutions provides a random factor ham- governing them have widening sourczs of pering the functions of institutions and cur- origin, the roots of which tend to become, tailing capacity to respond intelligently to for the individual, more obscure. We live change. in larger and larger enclaves whether we refer to community, occupation, government, Clv II Rights Struggle or world affairs. Reconciliation of diversity and the mustering of consensus for action The explosiveness of this nation's civil becomeincreasinglycomplexprocesses rights revolution results from rising aspira- demanding aresiliencydifficultfor our tions thwarted by unresponsive institutions. generation to muster.There islittlein That crisis cannot subside without basic present educational theory and less in prac- revisions of social attitudes and drastic re- tice to suggest that today's youth are being arrangements affecting our major institutions, helped to cope with this problem. especially in education. We should maintain our respect for The importance of the schools and specialized competence and for educational colleges as agents of change is highlighted by programs designed for that purpose. How- the fact that they were the first among our ever, many such programs are conceived on major institutions to feel the shock of the too limited a base even for the purposes they emerging civil rights struggle a decade ago. are expected to serve both as to content and Increasingly, problems growing out of rapid as to the context in which they are taught. change in the larger society are promptly A more serious problem arises in the almost short-circuited into the schools with limited static designs for general and liberal educa- lead-time for planning and with little aug- tion which pervade the schools and colleges. mentationofresources.The "war on We have been warned by the psychiatrist, poverty" comes to mind as the most recent Lawrence Kubie, that specialized erudition example. Schools and colleges are becom- without commensurate emotional and social ing lightning rods for discharging tensions maturity places thetoolsfor destroying arising in the society. They are not designed, civilization in the hands of the erudite im- nor are they yet prepared, for this function. mature. Margaret Mend argued, 15 years ago, that our task is to prepare the young An Expanding World so that they can cope with problems previously unknown and remake themselves in Developments intransportation and the process. The concept is only currently ccmmunication join peoples of the world drawing limited attention. together along with the contagion of their unsolved problems in human relations. On Revolution and Ideals one hand we are told incessantly that the world is getting smaller.In a limited sense We are considering here a develop- this is true. Supersonic transportation and mental revolution building at a progressively instant global communication coupled with more rapid pace through time, generated new potentials for rapid cultural diffusion by a complementary set of factors which foster an illusion of a shrinking world. force drastic changes in major sectors of our On the other hand, it is crucial that we society. The cumulative impact on our in- 176 Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 167 stitutions, on our patterns of association and the South, the Black Muslims in metropolitan habits of mind, has the dimensions of revo- ghettos, and the John Birch cadres develop- lution; but ours is a continuing revolution ing in the suburbs. We find proposals to rather than a one-time staccato affair, hence restrict the level of educational opportunity more of it goes on beneath ourlevel of con- extended to students of average ability and scious awareness. below-average financial means. What then do we have as a common Broad awareness of the meaning and ideology or set of social ideals to consolidate potential of an open society coupled with our continuing revolution?The democratic determined efforts to extend opportunities creed of the Enlightenment provides the and freedom to those left behind inthe baseline. But those ideals to which most of revolution become major antidotes to anti- us subscribe seem to many to represent a democratic movements which challenge our priori concepts and notions, often out of persisting ideals. step with the revolution as it progresses. A significant minority of our people would Human Costs of Revolution jettison the ideals of democracy for various anti-democratic alternatives.Perhaps we Revolutions are marked by the uneven- have been careless in our efforts to clarify ness of their impact ondifferent sectors of and reinterpret our ideals by underestimating the population involved.In thisrespect, the difficulties in sustaining needed consen- ourrevolutionischaracteristic. Large sus in a multigroupsociety in transition ethnic and socioeconomic groups have been and under stress. Rejecting the efficacy of left behind, as Harrington 2 and Sexton indoctrination, we experience difficulty in have pointed out. They lag in economic keeping our idealsour motive forces of status,formaleducation,and citizenship directionbright and sharp. rights, and thus suffer severe cultural im- poverishment. As a result, large numbers of Problem of youth grow up in "cultural pockets" making Counter Rvolution access to responsible ad....1thooddifficult. Despiteour wealthandincreasing There is another facet of revolutions investment in education, we permit a third which we cannot enjoy.Revolutions tend of our young people to leave school before by and large to be brief and violentgiving completing high school. Yet unemployment many people release fromfrustration and among youthful workers isdouble that of pent-up anger. They are exhausting and the working force. Also, we are facing an their conclusion is followed by a period of explosion in the size of our potential work consolidation under the fighting ideals of the force at a time when manpower needs are revolution, if the revolutionists are success- shrinking rapidly for the undereducated. ful. Problems of youth are not confined We must, for example, learn to cope tothelower socioeconomic and ethnic with counter revolution in process if we are groups. College-bound students arefacing to control our revolution throughdemocratic growing problems of gaining admission to values and humane goals.While we may and maintaining themselves in colleges and have small cause for discouragement, care- lessness and noncommitment could spell 2 Michael Harrington.TheOther America: Poverty in the United Pales.Baltimore, Maryland: disaster for an open society. Currently we Penguin Books, 1962. find counter revolutionaries maneuvering as 3 Patricia C. Sexton.Educationand In- Minute Men inthe deserts of Southern come: Inequalities 01 Opportunities inOur Public California, the White Citizens' Councils in Schools.New York: Viking Press. 1961. 177 168 Curricular Concerns in aRevolutionary Era

accumulating that 2.Extension of educational programs universities. Evidence is designed to complement the familyand neigh- increasing numbers ofpromising students forearly and borhoodenvironmentespecially are living inanxiety, chronic fatigue, childhood years--thus capitalizing on newevi- fear of failure so acutethat their health is dence of growth potential inboth cognitive impaired. and affective development of our These are the dreary aspects Assessment of thesocial dynamics another 3. revolution and can be viewed as and human relations withinschools in efforts consequence of it.Large numbers of people to maximize their supportivepotential for per- suffer grievous impairmentof opportunity sonality and character development aswell as and health during suchperiods. Revolutions, for effectiveness in moretraditional kinds of once launched,tend to careen out of con- school learning trol. We must learn to manageexplosive 4. Development of culturalservice and more changes so the fruits of progress are work experience programsdesigned to lend rapidly and evenly disseminatedin improved continuity to youth's experiencein and out of economic health and educationalsupport for school all. We must reexamine morecarefully the 5. The design of original,experimental degree to which our majorsocial institutions curricula with strategies forunlearningand actually support the dignityand aspirations transitionallearning adapted to buildself-con- of the individuals whocomprise them, and fidence and improved self-conceptsfor those whom institutions are designed to serve. impaired by previous experience dissent and Ours is a society born of 6.Reexamination of specialfields of one that, inits building, has lootedthe knowledge for related integrative conceptsfunc- natural resources of acontinent, poisoned tionally related to humandevelopment appro- its lakes and streams, andpolluted its atmos- priate to a democratic society and sometimes phere in pursuit of immediate 7.Reexaminationofpossibilitiesfor need not stand narrowly conceived goals. It more extensive andcreative use of specialized aghast at the small minorityof youth who personnel from a broader rangeof fields express theirturbulence through negativism, 8.Exploration ofourongoing revolution violence, and vandalismIt is axiomatic that implications which to their for attitudinal and value youth get out of handor appear should shape major objectivesof the schools-- elders to do soin revolutionaryperiods. especially for character andcitizenship educa- Education is thus no longer acasual tion priority as affair.It must be granted top 9. Development of patternsof parent through which we realize a prime instrument participationandin-serviceeducationfor the construLtive potentialof our ongoing school personnel aimed at seriousinvolvement revolution. in the process of rethinking therole and function of the schools A Icrcus on Needs 10. Establishment of researchfacilities and consultants to work withteachers and spe- The problems of ynith andthe schools cialists ineveryschool district and county in demand massive resourcesand talent drawn liaison with higher education andstate and from many fields for thefollowing educa- national agencies. tional needs: Such efforts require financial resources and I.Analysis of existing knowledge and personnel beyondconventional concep- support of research inthe area of human devel- tions of educational needs. As astart, we opment and learning sothat teaching and school the outlay guided by the best that we might seriously consider doubling management shall be for education during the nextfive to ten know Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 169 years. In addition, we might add a modest and defensepresently estimatedat $22 increment for research and experimentation, billion? broadlyconceived.Supposing we were Through such modest efforts, an affluent merely to match the existing level of expen- society might expect to gain greater control diture for research in science, technology, of itsrevolution in the service of human and the development of hardware for war values.

EL 27 (3): 277-80; December 1969 (1) 1969 ASCD

The Insufferable Lot of the American Middle Class Child'

SAMUEL TENENBAUM

WE IN America do not realize watched for his potential. This surveillance what a competitive, rivalrous, demanding starts almost from the day of his birth. An socicty is this in which we live.Since the advertisement published by an insurance middle class represents the solid base, the company shows a father holding a soft, synthesis of a culture, the lot of the American cuddly infant, no more than a month or middle class child is particularly difficult, if two old.Looking down at his child, the not insufferable.J. M. Whiting and I. L. father says, "Thomas, I want to talk to you Child compared 47 societies studied by an- about college."Already little Thomas has thropologists as to the severity of parental begun to feel the duties and demands placed demands placed on children.They con- on him. For the middle class child, eventhe cluded there were only two societies more time he achieves toilet control, when he severe with children than we arc with our begins to walk and talk, become matters own middle class child. of invidious comparisons. "Look at that As soon as the American middle class Milton thcre doing his business and look at child is born, he becomes the object of solici- you.. . ."The parent may thinkthese tous care and concern. And what is the thoughts or say them, but no matter what, purpose of all this concern?It is to groom the child feels them. him so that he can outpace, outdistarcc, As soon as the child starts school, the outrival thc neighbor's child and everyone middle class race becomes really serious.If else's child.Likc a competing ;lorse in a their Thomas gets 90 percent, the parents race, thc child is critically and judgmentally always know a Milton who gets 100 percent; and if he gets 100 percent, tticy always know 1 Based ..n a paper presented in August 1969 a Milton who gcts two, or three, or four before the Second International Congress of Social Psychiatry in London, England. 100 percents; so what is one 100 percent?

Samuel Tenenbaum, Graduate Professor, Gaidtace and Counseling, Long islandUniversity, Brook- lyn, New York 179 170 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

If their Thomas gets into a college, the they failto pass examinations for these parents always know a Milton who got into schools.It does not take much insight to a more prestigious collegeon ascholarship, understand how traumatic such failure can to boot. For itis no longer sufficient for be for the small childnot quite compre- an American middle class child tobe a hending what it is all about but desperately plain college graduate, he must be a gradu- wanting to please his parentsas he is taken ate of a "prestige" college. by his mother from school to school, only The whole idea behind this maneuver- to learn that he has been rejected not once ing is to create for their child a marketable but several times because he has failed the package and forthisthe parentspush, devilish tests set for him. And it does not scheme, and manipulate; and this package take much imagination to understand how involves graduation from a prestige college, his parents feel about the child and about prestige awards and scholarships, getting to their own sad lot when they discover that know the right people so as to make the the children of their friends have passed right contacts, so as to make the right friends, these examinations and been admitted. so as to make the right marriage, etc. Since Middle class parents, I should add, are a university degree is the minimum require- most ingenious in preventing their child from mentthe union cardfor any sort of flunking out of his class. A prominent per- upward mobility, of pushing ahead, the pro- son of means had enough influence tohave portion of college students in America is his son admitted to a prestige college, but the probably larger than in any other society. youth was expelled shortly thereafter.Said Fo:ty-five percent of our young people of the father: "I found a hole of a college college age are in colleges, compared with the South where I doubt if the professors had about eight percent in England and, perhaps, learned how to read and, thank heavens, they three to four percent in France. gave him an A.B. And then I got my broker No matter how good in character the to give him a job." The father seemed child, if he does badly at school, he will be pleased as he told the story, since he felt that scorned and abused by his middle class par- he had now saved his son for middle class ents. No matter how horrible in character respectability. the child, if he does brilliantly at school, if he Furthermore, middle class sex roles are is admitted to a prestige college and wins equally difficult, equally competitive.It is scholastic honors, his parents will be proud expected that the male child grow up tall, of him. Such a son can do almost anything dark, and handsome. W should, like a trou- and will be forgiven. badour of old, enchant women. When mar- ried he should play the role of a Don Juan The Frantic Parents to his wife, keep her perpetually entertained and above all happy; and, of course, he If not so tragic in import, it would be should be a generous provider. When he amusing to watch frantic middle class par- buys his resplendent home in the suburbs, ents manage the academic careers of their he should also automatically take on added tots, no older than five, six, and seven, as duties.After coming home from his city ihey scheme, manipulate, and use influence job, he should help his wife after supper with to gain their children's entrance into the the dishes, help take care of the children, and right and proper private (public in England) see to the repair of his home. At the same schools.Since there hadeveloped such time, he should be a leader of menin the competitive demand for these status schools, business world, in society, in the community. children at the age of six or seven may find He shruld exemplify all virtues, but most themselves stamped as academic failures if important, he should always be big, big, and Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 171

even biggersuccessful, successful, and even a happy event for most people, since their more successful! competitor is gone from the scene and they The role set for the woman is equally are left behind as victors. frightening. First of all, she should be very As Tennyson has so well said: beautiful, with a beauty sufficient to inspire poetry and song. She should be smart, so- Ambition phisticated, fashionable, chic, and, withal, Is like the sea wave, which the more you drink be a glamorous career girl.Naturally, she The more you thirstyeadrink should be a graduate of a prestige college. too much, as men Her person should at all times be flawless, Have done on rafts of wreckit sanitizedto the nth degree.Her home, drives you mad. equallysanitized, should reflectexquisite taste. When she entertains, she should be Our middle class society is obsessed by a charming hostess,witty, captivating, so a desire to achieve and to outrank family and that her husband's business associates and friends and to make friends and family feel friends are enchanted. As a couple, they inferior compared with cne's own achieve- both should be popular and sought after for ments. We have no compunction in consign- all purposes. ing to ridicule and public scorn those who do She should be a perfect mother, tender, not succeed. We have built up a whole vo- maternal, gentle, know exactly what is the cabulary to describe such unfortunates. We right and proper thing to do for her children call them lazy, stupid, incompetent, "good under all circumstances. Although feminine, for nothing." They are even regarded with lacy, and frilly, she should be able to fight contempt by their own children and family. with the courage of a lion to protect her chil- How many good, hard-working, conscien- dren from any jeopardy. To her husband tious, kindly souls have been broken and her role is equally complex. She should be made into human debris by our society's siren, mistress, wife,mother, companion, insistence on success and more success!In lover. And above all she should have intui- the very nature of our competitive society tion. By this is meant, I suppose, she should each trying to outachieve the otherthere know what is exactly the right thing to do, is inevitable failure. the perfect solution for all problems that "Hitch your wagon to a star," Emerson arise. If you heed at all American television, told us. And the misfortune is that so many cinema, popular periodicals, you will know fine and good people build their lives on such that only woe and tragedy befall any male fanciful dreams. Some work ceaselessly to who isindifferent and, even worse, goes achieve this miracle, never giving up, no counter to a woman's intuition. So I suppose matter how unrealistic the goal; and at the assigning to women this divine intuition has end all they have to show for their spent lives placed on her the burden of being all-knowing are failure and despair.They never stop and all-wise. trying to break the Empire State Building by banging their hcads against it and wrecking No Umit to Ambition their lives. Even those who go through the motion How hard it is in this competitive, rival- of quitting this hopeless struggle do so with rous culture genuinely to share and to be severe damage to theirpersonalities,for happy over another's achievements! How there simmers within them a black stew of easy it is to show concern and have gcnuinc discontent, resentment, jealousy, and hate. feeling o: kinship and woe in the presence of There is no limit to ambition, only sleepless ruin and death! Freud said that a funeral is nights and a "lean and hungry look." Even 18 I 172 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era those who are eminently successful in the truth one does not go in weakness to a rival struggle, those who have achieved mightily for help. and have won the acclaim of their colleagues, His tragedy is further compounded in continue to drive themselves to ever-greater that the mighty things he creates and builds effort and set their goalsfor ever-higher further alienate him from himself and from achievements. society. His mighty machines and his never- ceasing industry in the end dominate and The Little Man enslave him. Our giant industries have become too big for man.His government, Since the emphasis in the American cul- created to serve him, has inits vastness ture is on individualism, on going it alone become so remote that he, the little man, and doing it alone, no one ever feels that his is lost and engulfed. Even his social life has good is merged in a cooperative tribal sense. become complex, organized like a business, True enough, because of this, the person ex- andeven worsecompetitive. periences triumphs and exaltations peculiarly of his own making. We are a society of An Empire of Things many achievements, some indeed remarkable. We have known m;llionaires who have We live withconsiderable ease and died in big mansions in their massive beds, luxury; and for the most part our people have surrounded by five nurses and three doctors, an abundance of food and good shelter. You but without a soul to touch their hand in probably know that the two major problems human kindness.The struggle to achieve in the United States at present are finding and to amass has created not human warmth, parking places for our automobiles that clog but an empire of things, remote and cold, our cities and keeping our waistlines in and of no comfort in the deepest sense, out- reasonable proportions because of overeating. side of the ease of dying. In most other areas of the world, man's Man lives alone, he suffers alone, he crucial problem is to find enough food so that dies alone. Many cannot cope with this sense he will not starve. Two-thirds of the human of being alone and many psychological prob- beings in this universe go to sleep at night lems result. Many break under the strain, hungry for lack of food.But I believe we unable to carry the load, especially when they are paying a terrible price in humanvalues cannot successfully compete; and their mis- for 'he driving ambition, the competitiveness fortunes seem to be much greater than their that has made these material goods possible. successes. The sense of being alone, of being Isolated, suffering, alone, the strongly unwanted, of being adrift on uncharted seas, competitive individual cannot resort even to of being weighed down with Job-like despair, his nearest kin for succor; for in his competi- is indigenous and inevitable in an individual- tiveness, his living for success and achieve- istic and competitive culture.Psychiatrists ment, we find all too oftcn brother vying with and psychologists know the high price man brother, friend with fricnd, family member has paid in broken and misspent lives for this with other family members, children with in his travail, hc cannot obtain pattern of conduct. parents. The existential reality is this: Weall what little comfort comcs from acknowledging fear, guilt, weakness; for by the conven- of usarc on a sinking ship. Every day we tions he is expected to be strong and brave, are dying a little.Every day we are a step so that often he hides behind afacade of nearer to thc cemetery. AndIlobbes has fake bravado the small, suffering, hu- warned us that the solitary life is "poor, man bcing he is and we all arc.And in nasty, brutish, and short."

18 2 Whorls In a Revolutionary Society 173

Because of these cultural pressures, ambitions devouring us? Are middle class our middle class, I believe, has become so parents vith their insatiable demands for driving, so ambitious, so competitiveobses- ever-higher achievement casting a blight on sively and compulsively sothat its members their offspring?Will these young people are doing irreparable harm to themselves and become driving and hard, not the soft and their offspring.I ask: Is this, our competi- warm human beings so crucially essential if tive, achieving culture, destroying our ca- they are to become good husbands and wives pacity for good, warm, loving relationships and cooperating members of a society in- traits crucial to the good person? Are our creasingly complex and difficult? 1=1

EL 26 (7): 661-65; April 1969 (;) 1969 ASCD

Reach Out or Die Out

F. T. CLOAK, JR.

HOMO SAPIENS isa species of numbers through time. The requisites of within the animal kingdom, the vertebrate success are adaptation to the existing en- subphylum, the mammalian class, and the vironment, and adaptability to allow for fur- primate order. The differences between this ther adaptation to the environment asit species and others, while striking to us, are changes. of degree only. The vertebrate species in general have 11. sapiens has been perhaps the most achieved success through adaptive behavior, successful species up to now, but the very that is, by developing ways by which individ- mechanisms which have led to this temporary uals actively interact with each other, with success( and all successis temporary, in animals of (miler species (for example, with terms of evolutionary time) may leadit predators and prey), with vegetation, with to extinction in the very near future.It is physiographic features, and with other asthc author's purpose to discuss some of these pects of their immediate envirt nment. Each mechanisms, to show how they have led to normal individual of the species acquires a adaptive success, to show why they are dy- set of instructions for behavior from ccrtain namically and cumulatively developing into other, generally older, individuals, thus main- a very real threat to thc existence of the taining the continuity of appropriate adaptive species, and to suggest a new approach to behaviors down through the ge.terations. the humanities and social studiesinthe schools which may help to cider the thrcat, Continuity of Bhavior at least for another generation or two. Success of a species if. defined as sur- Somc of these instructions arc inherited vival and increase, or at least maintenance, biologkally, equally (and exclusively) from

F. T. Cloak, Ir.. Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Sangamon State University,Springfield, Illinois. In 1969. at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

183 174 Curricular Concerns In a Revolutionary Era the male and female parent; these biological Change of Behavior instructions are "wired in" at birth, to use a So far, I have emphasized the continuity computer analogy, or they develop spontane- of biological and cultural behavior-systems. ously with normal growth later on. Some I have alluded to development of species, but biological instructions are highly specific; not to development of repertories of instruc- they tell the individual animal exactly what tions,biological("wired")andcultural to do in a given situation.Other biological ("programmed").Turning now tothe "wired in" instructions are more general; they mechanisms of evolutionary change of be- tell the individual how to learn from experi- havioral repertories, I must begin by stating ence, or from the example ortuition of other a basic assumption: Whilebiologicalin- individuals. structions and cultural instructions for be- In other words, these general biological havior differ in their modes of transmission, instructions direct the animal to acquire more and in certain specific details of their evo- specific instructions from its own surround- lutionary mechanisms, the general process of ings. evolutionary development isidenticalfor are Mammalian species,in general, both. characterized by a high development of this As Charles Darwin showed, in his On learning mode of acquiring instructions. the Origin of Species by Means of Natural When individuals learn from the ex- Selection, the process of evolution consists ample or tuition of other individuals, we can of two phases, radiant variation and natural speak of another, nonbiological, kind of in- selection.By radiantvariation,Darwin structions, parallel to the biological kind. As meantspontaneous,randomchangein instructions of the biological kind are "wired" hereditary material.The most important into the nervous system of the individual form of radiant variation, we now know, through the action of his genes during de- is mutation, and we shall use that term from velopment, so those of this other kind are now on.In the behavioral language we "programmed" into his nervous system by have been using, from time to time an in- training and by observation. Thus they too struction is modified spontaneously at some are received from other, generallyolder, in- point in its transmission from one individual dividuals; and again, the continuity of ap- to another, or a new instruction seems to propriate, adaptive behaviors is maintained spring into existencespontaneously, per- down through the generations. haps as a random combination of old instruc- Each normal individual acquires the tions or parts thereof. traditional behaviors of the species or, more The essential point here is that from accurately, the traditional behaviors of his the point of view of adaptivenes, there is local subgroup; in other words, he acquires neither rhyme nor reason for any Liven mu- the culture of his group. The higher primate tation.' Hence mutation in no way provides species (monkeys, apes, and men) are char- direction to evolution; what it does provide acterized by the development of repertories is evolutionary potential, the material upon of culturally transmitted instructions for be- which the directional process, natural selec- havior. Until very recently, as we shall see, tion, can operate. the problems of adaptation that man has Natural selectionisDarwin's other faced have been exactly the same as those phase of evolution.In our terms, natural of other behaving animals. His super-primate development of thc cultural mode of trans- The vast majority of mutations are, in fact, maladaptive. To use the computer analogy again, mission, and of repertories of cultural in- the occurrence of a mutation is like stabbing a pro- structions, have simply madc him the most gram card with an ice pick; the chances ofgetting successful of them all. a better program are very small, but finite. Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 175

selection determines that instructions (new maladaptive) is not scientific or rational, it andold) for more adaptive behaviors sur- is merely a part ofmybehavioral repertory, vive, prosper, and propagate at the expense acquired from parents, teachers, classmates, of instructions for less adaptive behaviors. and others; in short, it is simply a prejudice. It works this way: If a novel (mutant) in- In truth, I have no real way of knowing struction makes the behavior of its carrier whether that behavior is maladaptive or not; more adaptive than that of his fellows, he thesciencesofanthropology,sociology, will probably live a little better and/or a pedagogy,or whatever simply have not little longer, and thus have more opportu- developed to the point where I can make nities than they to pass on his whole reper- an honest, rational prediction of the long- tory of instructions,including the new one. run consequences of a new behavior.2 So more of the children or pupils in the If, on the other hand, my instructional next generation will be his and, possessing repertory leads me toact in acertain way the new, superior instruction, they will have toward this new behavior and its carriers, the same reproductive/pedagogical advan- perhaps by flunking them out of school and tage overtheirfellows, and so on until, as into the army, I am quite certain that the an ultimate limit, the new instruction may behavior wouldnotsurvive, prosper, or prop- eventually become universal inthe local agate. But what have I done?I have, by group.(Indeed, since intergroup transmis. acting as an environmental factor, effectively sion is always going on, it may become estab- madethe new behavior maladaptive. The lished in other groups, provided it is adaptive question of its long-term adaptiveness is com- inthem,and ultimately become a universal pletely moot; it will never be tested. What- instruction for the whole species.) ever protestations I may make about having When thinking about behavioral evolu- acted on the basis of my "learning," and tion, it is very important (and very difficult) about having "taught" the students an im- to remember that the entire process is com- portant lesson about life,I have in fact pletely mechanical.It does not matter at all neither learned anything nor taught any- whether anybody believes the new behavior thing. I have merely proved that I constitute to be adaptive or not, to be moral or not, to a significant portion of the students' envi- be desirable or not. Itdoesmatter, of course, ronment. whether the behavior (that is, the behaver) To reiterate: Our traditional instruc- is rewarded or punished by other individuals tions, biological or cultural, may or may not in the group, because such behavior by them produce in us behavior adequately adaptive is a feature of the surroundings to which for our present environment. As we pass the new behavior must be adaptive if it is these instructions along, the behaviors they to endure. produce may or may not be adequately adapt- For example, if I merelybelieve thata ive forfutureenvironments. Whether they new behavior on the part of my anthropol- will or not, they are all we liave to pass on. ogy students (for example, refusing to do "Mickey Mouse" assignments) is "bad," or 2 It is because of the utter impossibility, given maladaptive, I may be correct or I may be our present state of ignorance, of predicting the incorrect. The only way to find out is to long-term adaptive consequences of an innovation, that I feel justified in treating the introduction of a wait for natural selection to work, to see new cultural instruction as a random mutation. In whether the behavior becomes more and short, cultural innovations may seem to be more more widespread, whether students who ac- predictable than biological innovations, but their quire the behavior prove to be more success- adaptive consequences are not, and that is what really matters. No matter how carefufiy we try ful as adults than those who do not, and so consciously to shape our social ends, natural selec- forth. My belief (that the new behavior is tion seems to prove us fools in the long run. 1R5 176 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Any evaluation or conscious selection, of our 8000 B.C.), their ability to alter the environ- own instructions or of instructions we may ment irreversibly was only slight,although observe in the behavior of others, will itself witnin a mere 2,000 years some of them be based on our own traditional instructions; were constructing irrigationworks, building metaphorically, on the past experience of our and living in cities, and turning to imperial group. conquest of their neighbors. We haveneverhad a way of planning Yet for all that, a ncw and significant for a future different from the present, and patternof evolutionary changewas set: wc have none now. Until recently, our pres- Every innovation which proved adaptive to ent and future environments wereenough the present environment, and thusbecame like our past environments w let us survive established through natural selection, in turn from one generation to the next, and even irreversibly altered thc futurc environment, to prosper, by using the. instructionstradi- thus making some old behaviors maladaptive tional to our group. Now, in thc last half of and some ncw behaviors adaptive, whichin thc 20th century, thcrc is considerable doubt turnaltered the environment again, thus whether this two-million- (or two-billion-) creating apositive feedback loopbetween year-old truth still holds, for reasons wc shall behavioral (now exclusively cultural) change no% discuss. and environmental change. More critically, Frequently, whcn an animal behaves, it onc environmental change may pavethe way alters its environment. In general, however, forseveralinstnictional changes,eachof and invariably until recently, when an ani- whichmay causeseveralenvironmental mal altersits environment the change is changcs, each of which, in turn, may call soon reversed by natural forces;the environ- forth several instructional changes; so there ment soon returns to its former state.(For has been a tremendous and continuingaccel- example, if a pack of wolves brings down erationin the rates of both cultural and envi- an elk, another elk soon takes itsplace.) ronmental change sinc- neolithic times. This is what is frequently referred tc as "the balance of nature." Long-term, irreversible Conformity and Continuity change is generally brought about by geological and climatological processes which From the point of view of individuals' operate very slowly;a significant change conscious awareness, thesnowballing of takes place only over a great many animal change began to cause discomfort about the genermions. Thus, a relatively slow rate of time of George Washington, or alittle after. mutation generally provides an adequate evo- Up until then, the people of each generation lutionary potential, a sufficient amount of could still feel that life was much the same variability for natural selection to operate on, as it had been before, and that itwould con- to keep the spec (cs adapted. tinue to be about the same (local fluctuations Until about 10,000 years ago, altera- and disasters, of course, excepted). Thus, tiuns in environment brought about by the the traditional life-ways (instructions) were behavior ofhumananimals were completely good enough, with maybe a little technologi- reversible also. Man was exclusively a huntcr cal innovation here and therebeing recog- and gatherer, ecologically a sort of combi- nized in each man's lifetime, butcertainly nation wolf and ape, although biologically with no change being recognized insuch hc had been a hominid for over two million areas as religion ormorals. Changes in re- years and had been completelyhuman for ligion and morals had been going on right at least 100.000 years. Evenafter humans along, of course, but slowly enough tohave acquired instruct'ons for food-producing be- been imperceptible to the individual, or at haviors (the"neolithicrevolution,"circa least to have been handled bytraditional

JJ;17) Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 177 grumpy gossiping of thc old about the young; Thc elders of the tribe have always consti- which is to say that real culture change had tuted thc first adaptive hurdle for any new been masked by traditionally recognized old- idea, and for good reasonuntil now. young "generation gap" differences. Now wc are up against thc wall. Our But increasingly, cvcr since Washing- changing repertories of cultural instructions ton's time, as people get older they arc forced have caused us to behave in such a way that to perceive that the world (that is. their indi- wc have changed the world far beyond the vidual environments, including the behaviors point where thc repertories can direct our of other, especially younger. people) is chang- behavior to cope with it. Wc recognize, ing in the span of thcir own lifetimes, and believe, that wc cannot cope withit by thcy respond with behaviors that have func- changing it back. Therefore, we must change tioned, in thc past, to resist change Whether our repertories aH thc faster, to adapt to this or not thcy recognize that thcperceived ever more rapidly changing environment. changes consist of results of their own past But, as I have alreadyrgued, wc cannot behavior, and of new adaptations ofthe guide culture change in an adaptive direc- young to those results. is irrekvant.Their tion, because wc are far too ignorant. cultural inventories include instructionsto act against change, and thcy act. Those in- Humanities and Social Studies structions arc included in thcir inventories because, for literally millions of years, thcy There is only one thing we can do that wcrc adaptive; there was very strong selec- has any scientific basis Pan, and that is tive pressure in their favor. deliberately to raise the mutation rate, if we In a hunting society, in a peasant so- can; to try, and above all to let the young ciety, or even in a prt-industrial urban soci- try, as many combinations and variations of ety, thc risks involved -n change far outweigh as many different instructions as possible, to thc likely benefits, cj sdection favors a low give natural selection the maximum amount mutation ratc.Invariably, thc cultural mu- of material to work on. tation rate has been kcpt low by the estab- Wc can attcmpt, in other words, to raise lishment of instructions placing the powerour evolutionary potential. We can do this of decision making in thc hands of older by ridding ourcelves and our fellow adults people, along with instructions making older and, certainly, our chilthen and pupils. of old peopk react negatively to thc natural (I be- instructionr whose sole function iv to produce lieve) innovative efforts of thc young. The conformity and continuity in behavior. To kids want to try everything; the grown-ups do that requires a new approach to the want to squelch them; and thc grown-ups teaching of the humanities and social studies haNe the guns. in thc schools. In our society, grown-ups' change-resist- Most of humanities and social studies ing instructions vary from thc maxim "Chil- instruction has been concerned with the in- dren should be seen and not heard," to thc cukation of values, with an attcmpt to im- rules governing theorganizationofthc plant thc communal instructions for making United States Senate, to our propensity to moral decisions inthe children's nervous patronize foreigners and members of minor- systems, in order to maintain continuity with ity groups; that is, to treat them as chil- thc past. At the same time wc have used dren, who should be seen and not hcard. Our our authority to protect our children from old values, our old beliefs, our old tech- alien moral ideas and notions and influences. niques arc to be trusted; wc react viscerally If we arc to raise the evolutionary potential to any chaflenge to them, because throughout of our culture, we must now reverse our- history any innovation has been in fact risky. selves :ompletdy. 187 178 CurricularConcerns in a Revolutionary Era

We must say openly: "There arc prob- from the past. but also diversity in the pres- ably a lot of behavioi al instructions inthc ent Each student must be positively encour- American whi:e middle-class repertorywhich aged to do his own thing, and defended will bc adaptive for you, but there arcprob- against pressure to conform from teachers. ably a lot of instructions there which willhe schoolmates, and parents. This is notforhis maladaptive for you. too, and wefrankly good, aad certainly not for his enjoyment have no idea which will bc which for youin (many will find it most painful), but forthe 2000 A.D. or for your children in 2030 A.D survival of our society. There arc also probably some potentially To try to raise our cultural evolutionary useful ideas in a thousand other repertories. potential by thus taising the mutation rate We will makc as many of these repertories is to run a terrible risk; it is bound toproduce available to you as we can.But we can't disruption in the school and in the commu- select for you. You must make your own nity and s.iffering for individuals.But, if selection." the alternativeis to allow our behavioral Itfollows,of course, thatthcrcis repertories to fall farther and farther bchind ncithcr time nor place in this new approach adaptive reality, then Western civilization. for stock curricula, regular lectures, or cx- and perhaps the entire speciesHomo Aapiens. aminations on specific bodies of content. We will follow the dodo and the dinosaur into must cultivate not only freedom tochoose oblivion.

EL 26 (Ai: 743-48: May 1969 1,69 ASCD

Irrationalism and the NewReformism

MARV ANNE RAYWID

AMONG the ideas which may To assess the sort of impact these two soon come to influenceeducation most sig- interrelated ideas may have on schools, we nificantly, two stand outboth by way of must first examine their natureand form. gathering momentum, and by virtue of the Although an exhaustive attempt mightfill changes they would bring to any and all a book, perhaps we canhere look at two out- institutions affx-ted. The first of these ideas standing features of each of these sets of or, more accurately, these sets ofideas ideas: the circumscribing of reason's role is what might be called irrationalism or, in and the expansion of the role of emotion, as its extreme form, anti-rationalism. The sec- represented in contemporary irrationalism; ond constitutes a very special type of reform- and the irrationalism and rejection of demo- ism, taking its character and flavor from the cratic proccA which mark the new re- anti-rationalism which in part inspires it. formism.

Mary Anne Raywid. Professor of Education.Hofstra University. Hempstead. NewYork Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 179

Anti-Rationalism practices as discussion, analysis, and weigh- ing of alternatives.It was not that these were First, just what sort of anti-rationalism merely dull or unnecessary: Thcy were down- is present? Actually, it sccms to constitute a right undesirable. Moreover, the several rep- broad trend, displaying a range of conviction resentatives of thc newer politics condemned with respect to thc role of rationality in life. repeatedly the "lack of passion- of the others It includes those disappointcd heirs of the gathered atPrinceton. One put it hands Enlightenment who have come to question down:" 'Cool reasonableness is. . .not whether reason and knowledge will ever yield preferable to a political hysteria.' 2 the solutions we had hoped. And in morc This introduces a second facet of anti- extreme form, the movement also encom- rationalism, which is really but the other side passes those who no longer question but arc of the coin. For if tea:ion, knowledge, and convinced that for contemporary man, reason analysis arc found wanting when it comes to has become morc bane th3n boon. A dircct, choosing a program or deciding an issue, it frontal attack on reason has played a prom- is feeling and passion on which one should inent part in many of the activities of the depend instead.Indeed, among this group, Ncw Left, black militants, and studcnt dem- passionate conviction and involvement pro- onstrators across the nation. It is not merely vide the very procedural ground for decision that critics seem justified in charging these and choicejust as detachment, objectivity, groups with anti-rationalism. The significant and calm appraisal were once urged as the point is rathcr that so many have openly qualitative ground important to valid choos- claimed anti-rationalism for themselves. For ing and deciding.These latter, traditional an overt rejection of logic, reason, and knowl- qualities, suggest the present group, are in edge is one of the 1, lost frequent themes of fact better calculated to becloud and invali- these groupseven if its expression is oftcn date choosing; for the yieldof detached parenthetic and almost offhanded. Indeed, it choice will surely lack the sort of "gut com- is almost as if a rejection of the processes mitment- that provides the only legitimate and products of reason has already become warrant for acceptance and action. an unquestioned operating assumprion for A man may become intellectually con- these groups.Thus, such rejection necds vinced by objective experiment and demon- stating only in handling outsiders and their stration that "Water boils at 212°F."or challenges cognitively informed by factual reports that On such occasions, one hears the message over and over again:" 'On the New numerous deaths from malnutrition are oc- Left, we're not so logical,' proudly proclaims curring daily in Biafrabut neither item is one young interviewee. And furthermore, " 'It likely to rouse him to passionate relevant paris not possible to be logical when you're with tisanship. And unless something evokes feel- us.' 'At thc recent Princeton seminar held ing in him, then it lacks "authenticity" for by the International Association for Cultural him, and he is just as well off not believing Freedom, observer Walter Goodman was it at all. struck by the frequency with which these Without such a crucial,sanctioning groups expressedtheirsuspiciontoward emotional quality, sheer knowledge or belief re ason . is meaningless and useless or worse: pro- This attitude went well beyond impa- ductive of inauthenticity or h ypocrisy. tience with the tedium of such traditional 2 Quoted by Walter Goodman .n:"The 1 Quoted by Lionel Abel in: "Seven leroes Liberal Establishment Faces the Blacks, the Young, of the New Left."New York Times Maeazine, the New Left."NewYork Times Magazine, De- May 5,1968. pp. 30 and 129. cember 29, 1915/1.p. 30.

18 9 180 Curricular Concerns in a RevolutionaryEra

Intense emotion. caring, and passion the schools, and the concern is withaffective stand thcn as contemporaryirrationalism's development. not cognitive .3 lit- curc for the ills oftoday. Yet not all the A remarkable recent addition to this Education and indisiduals and ideas comprising thegrowing erature bears the telling title irrationalist trend are as openlyhostile to &slaty. Criticizing almost all education past Diony- reason as arc theyouth groups and militants and present for its omission of "the so far identified. Thcrc areproposals in many sian factor.- the author asks and answers this way: fields which do not involve direct assaults on the critical educational question reason and its efficacy ordesirabilitybut What, then, is the purpose, the goal of which nevertheless kad to quite similar con- education:' A large part of the answer maywell sequences. For theirrationalist. as well as he w hat men of this civilirationhare longect the anti-rationalist. urges the substitutionof feared arhmost desired: the achievementof feeling and emotion in approachingtasks we momenti of ecttaty. Not fun. notsimply pleas- have been assigning to reason andknowl- ure. as in thc equation ofBentham and Mill, not thc libido pleasure ofFreud. hut ecstasy. edge. Both explicit and implicit. the esidences arando, thc ultimate delight.' and manifestations of this milderirrationalist it is unfair to thc author. Look editor tendency abound invarious spheres. and George Leonard. to oversimplify hisplan for from divzrse sources. achieving this goal.But encounter groups The impressive popula.ity of Marshall constitute a major and continuingmethod to McLuhan provides one kind of case in point. be diffused and pursued in someform in for McLuhan almost contemptuouslydis- most teaching and learning.And hc also misses the "linear." one-dimensional logic suggests that schools can learnmuch from which has provided thc model for the ration- such personalistically-oriented endeavors as alist tradition. For him, such logic is simply thc unusual Esalen Institute, withits pro- obsolete and passé. And although as scien- gram ,1 "meditation,intensified inner im- tist and scholar McLuhan must keep onefoot agery. basic encounter, sensoryawareness, in the old-fashioned rationalist camp.both expressive physical movement, andcreative the method and style of his works reveal an symbolic behavior." Criticizing thcdistort- increasingly familiar impatience with tradi- ing bias of education as we haveknown it, tional ways of working out and supporting thcauthor suggeststhattoday's schools conclusions. The imagery in which he deals, typicallyproduce "emotionalimbeciles," and thc often obscure connections and as- "sensory ignoramuses." and "somaticdumb- sociations by which he proceeds from one bells." idea to another, suggest a style of inquiry Mr. Leonard does not indulge in open which has aptly been dubbed more psyche- anti-rationalism. There is no overt denigra- delic than scientific or rationalistic. 3 Harold W. Sobel."The New Wave of Fducational Literature.- Phi Delta Kappan 50 (2) Indeed,in education itselfand not 109-11; October 196R. just among the youth protesting thc Estab- 4 Ail quotations are taken from Education lishmentone finds a growing preoccupation andEettaty.byGeorge 13. Leonard(New with emotion, feeling, and affect among the York:DelacortePress.196R) asitoriginally inter- appeared in threeinstallments of Look: "How most widely read newer books. As one School Stunts Your Child." 32 (19):31-34+; preter observed, the educationbooks of the September 17.196R; -Visiting Day 2001 A.D.." 1968; and "The sixtiesdiffermarkedly from those most 32 (20): 37-40+; October1. Future Now." 32(21): 57-60+, October 15. prominent a decade ago. Thc latter called 1968. Reprinted by courtesy of the editors. From for an "intellectual upgrading" withineduca- the May 28.1968issue ofLook.Copyright tion; today's cry is instead for "humanizing" iD 196R by Cowles Communications, Inc.

190 Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 181 tion of thc cognitive nor denial to it of an not just for thc individual's life style and important role, either in education or in liv- choices: it a'.so recommends thc appropriate ing.But what we have seen does seem to posture nations, and thc general means place him squarely among thc larger group of working out our collective problems. who have concluded that wc simply cannot Within thc new reformism, as among ask of reavon and knowledge all that wc of the anti-rationalists, there is a wide spectrum the 20th century have expected from them. of opinionall advocates displaying, how- And this adds up to a plea for an enlarged ever, a common tendency. Wc see itin its sphere and rolc for the irrational in man. mildest and perhaps incipient form in such Leonard obviously joins the ranks of those a program as the Mothers March for Peace who want to pursue answers to life's major which, in contrast to its contemporary or- questions by consulting emotion in prefer- ganizations, seemed to represent nothing so ence to reason. And his rationale is pre- much as the reflection of, and demand for, sumably quitesimilartothatpreviously genuinely emotional response to the horrors mentioned: the demand for passionate in- of war. But thc Mothers March was perhaps volvement in the replies to those questions. mere prologur. with its plea for attending the and a continuously intense emotional en- affective dmiensions of problems inevitably gagement with life itself."The future,- hc intellectualized and abstracted when pursued warns, "will very likely judge nothing less asaffairs ofstate.Subsequent reformists appropriate than detached, fragmented, un- have demanded a far more prominent role feeling men." for thc affective. Witness again, for example, testimony at Princeton for political hysteria The New Reformism in preference to "cool reasonableness."It came, incidentally, not from a youngstcr, but Since hc is also a bearer of the new a professor at Harvard. reformism earlier mentioned, Mr. Lconard This preoccupation with feeling, and provides a good introduction to this second thc dcmand for continuous passionate en- set of ideas which may also cxcrt profound gagzment, seems to represent one feature of educational irfluence. Last year hc promul- thc ricw reformism's two-pronged ideological gated "A Ncw Liberal Manifesto" in which base. The second part consists in an almost hcexplained whytraditionalliberalism wholesale rejection of our sociopolitical sys- "failed" and has become "irrelevant": temgovernment, of course, but also other Many liberals suffered a disabling flaw. major institutions as well. Most important, Their liberalism did not extend below their eye- what is rejectedrendering the new reform-

brows. . . .they were liberals of doctrine, ideol- ismactually far more revolutionary than ogy. and the intellect..-6 reformist in character--are the procedural provisions regulating the way all particular As this suggests, thc hcart of the new decisions arc made. rcformism is just that:heart.Its affinity American theorists have gloried in the with anti-rationalism is clear because it seeks claim that our political system permits of and to extend the general style and specific pro- virtually even institutionalizes changeal- cedures of irrationalism to apply to socio- lowing for extensive alterations, while taking politicialissues and dccisions.Thc new as its only constant or unalterable arrange- reformism stands as a rccommcndation to thc ments, the procedural: the broad outline, that effect that irrationalism provides thc answers, is, of how we shall decide. Thus, it is doubly significant that this decision process itself 7' Ibid. George B. Leonard. "A New Liberal Mani- is perhaps a major target of the new re- festo. Look 32 (11): 27: Mny 2R. 196R. formism. 'qi 1

182 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

This, it appears, is precisely what is at vance a view that is antithetically opposed stake in "confrontation" politics, the program to traditional decision-making arrangements. increasingly pursued by the new reformism. It should be noted that the denunciations and The strategy seems to be to force particular reections of what may loosely be called decisions directly, thus circumventing or re- "democratic procedure" arc not limited to the versing the legal processes by which the extravagances of a few, or the excesses of issues would otherwise be resolved. frenzied moments. The opposition to demo- Thereisnothing radically new, of cratic processes is both frequent and pre- course, in a minority's resort to direct action dictable, because itis huilt right into the in attempting to wrest or assureits own ideology which directs many of the new rights as against those of a majority. What reformists. BothHerbertMarcuse,thc does seem relatively new, however, is the philosopher-prophet of the New Lcft, and extension of such measures to apply also in Frantz Fanon, thc intellectual sire of black other situations, resulting in attempts to com- militancy, argue in effect that reformpur- pelmajority performancc when minority sued within the system and according to its rights are not primarily or prominently at rulesis simply impossible....Significant re- issuc. To cite several examples: thc demand form requires systemic change tantamount to thatAfro-Americanhistorycoursesbc revolution. For in order to succeed at all, affered in schools can easily be read as an dissidents must reject the entire system, and insistence on minority rights; the demand with it, the ground rules which sustain and that such courses be maJc compulsory for all make it possible. students is something else. While even op- porents might be willing to understand the Role of Education fitt demand as an assertion of minority rights, the second seems to represent a new And what is education to make of all construction of minority entitlementand a this? If anti-rationalism and the new reform- constructionitis hard to reconcile with a ism arc the emerging ideologies they seem to commitment to the majority's right to govern be. what should be the posture of the schools itself. with regard to the new Weltanschauung? In Similarly, the assertion of one's right one sense, of course, the question comes after to refuse to be drafted is one thing; a demon- the factfor schools in many metropolitan stration denying anyone admission to an areas have already felt the effects of the new inductiofi center is another. Or again, the reformism. boycotting and picketing of a meeting is a But whether or not we can really con- time-honored privilege; its disruption to the trol all of these effects, we can certainly ques- point where it cannot occur at all has not tion thcir desirability and the acceptability of been.(It is not that our history has been the ideologies inspiring the events. devoid of such attempts. What does seem 7 Marcuses case is generally to the effect that new and qualitatively different, however, is. the all-powerful system has absorbed effective op- on the one hand, the morally righteous pos- position, turning the very instruments and processes ture assumed by the perpetrators, and on the of dissent toits own advantage and support. other, the tolerance which has met such Fanon's isgument is that the condition existing between colonizer and native is total opposition or efforts.It was, after all, not so many years war. In consequence, it is a situation which cannot ago that we associated such measures only be discussed, compromised, adiudicated, or other- with those "kooks" and sneaker-shod old wise politically and peaceably resolved. Force is the only recourse.(Militants have rendered Fanot's ladies populating what was then described work on colonial nations relevant, by likening the as a "lunatic fringe.") situation of blacks in this country to that of the Thus, the new reformism seems to ad- natives of a colonized state.)

19 2 Whoris in a Revolutionary Society 183

I am afraidIfindlittlepotentially poverty, and injustice than to bring tothem positive contribution in that part of the new thc kind of feeling and resolve we would reformism seeking to scrap democratic pro- surely experience if those we loved were the cesses. History has seen too manyinstances victims. Surely in this sense, the anti-ration- of ends which at some subsequent point alism of contemporary reformism has much in timc are supposed to justify and exon- to offer. erate whatever means have beenused in More directly, a considerable part of their attainmcnt. Irrespective of the force- the irrationalist message may have some- fulness of the arguments of Marcusc and thing important to sayand perhaps itis Fanonand they are, indeed, forcefulI just the antidote for those of us who are least fear thc abandonment of procedural democ- able to recognize it! For it is surely the case racy, because that may wellreintroduce all that the traditional liberal has been reared the old-fashioned tyranniesdemocracy on ti.c counsel that hc shoulddistrust his evolved to prevent. emotions.Indeed, much of what he was If we scrap democracy's procedures for taught with respect to finding out, conclud- decision making, thc only thing that remains ing, and deciding was designed precisely foi to be sccn is whether the ensuing despotism the purpose of counteracting and compen- will prove benevolent or otherwiseunless, sating for his preferences and biases, and of course, the ncw reformists have devised thus assuring thcy did not lead him away an improved alternative, with newprotections from truth and down false byways. and safeguards. And sadly, the chances are This, after all, is exactly what we in that they have not. For not only are their education have been up to as we have dedi- mentors silent on this point, but the followers cated ourselves to teaching children "'tow to seem not yet to have come to the question. think," or to "think critically," or to be "in- It is precisely at this point that the two fea- telligent problem solvers." Wc have adopted, tures of the new reformism considerehere and tried to adapt to all life's circumstances come together in ominous combination.For and demands, the methods of sciencePar- on the one hand we have the opponentof ticularly as enunciated by John Dewey, who democracy's processestherevolutionary was, after all, a consummaterationalist with who is willing to use whatever force is neces- unlimited faith in the power of reason and sary to overthrow present institutionsand knowledge to guide man and enhance his procedural guarantees; and on the other state. hand, he also represents irrationalismteli- Perhaps itis the case, then, as anti- ing us, in effect, "I don't know what to sabsti- rationalism contends, that we have vastly tute. We will destroy firstand only then oversold ourselves on reason's promise, as decide what to build in its place." well as on its pervasive relevance to all life's Yet the irrationalism by itself may have circumstances. real virtues. For insofar as thc movement If this be so, what ought education to represents a recommendation to theeffect be and do? Hopefully, we can arrive at some that in our personal lives we pay greater heed proper "mix" of reason andemotion for man to emotion, perhaps it is a message manyof in his life, and consequently in that part us need. And insofar as the newreformism of equipping him for it that we call education. represents the extension of the anti-rational- It is not, of course, a new problemfor phi- ism to regulate our impersonal negotiations losophy or for education. Yet it is surely one and interactionsamonggroups,institu- that acquires new urgency from the ideologi- tions, and statespossibly this, too, is a mes- cal currents examined here.And just as sage we should hear veryattentively. For surely, to propose that we evolve some ap- there may be few better hopes for ending war, propriate mixture of the intellectual and af-

19 3 184 Cufficular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

fcctivefor man and his instructionisa With only a handful of exceptions. the West- rather weak solution. For not only isit no ern philosophical tradition all the way from solution at all:It even fails to direct us in Plato to Dewey vould have agreed on reason seeking one (or, indeed. recognizing one asthe proper instrument.Itisprecisely should we stumble upon it). How does one because of thc revolutionary character and appropriately conduct the search:looking impact of the ideas examined here that wc primanly to reason or to emotion as guide? no longer enjoy such agreement.

EL 23 15 359-72; Fehrwary 19M c IW ASCD

Religion in the School: What Are the Alternatives?

CHARLES C. CHANDLER

IN JUNE of 1963 the United allow "non-sectarian" religiois practices in States Suprcmc Court ruled in Ahinghm V. public schools have been brought before the Schempp and Murray v. Curlert that devo- Congress. tional exercises and the reading of the Bible How have educators responded to these in public schools for religious 7urposes were Court decisions? Understandably.school unconstitutional.Since such p.actices were administrators and their boards of education common in many areas of the United Stat have not been anxious to alter existing poli- thc public outcries and controversies occa- cies in a way that would further alienate an sioned by the decision were not unexpected. already al oused public. Beset by a multitude Although this decision was far-reach- of problems. school people have been re- ing inits implications,it was ina sense luctant to examine the broad implications of anticlimactic. Much of the emotional and the rulings.Rather, attention has been fo- intellectual energy of the American people cused upon the specific "don'ts" of the de- had been spent in the prolonged and heated cisions.In this regard some efions have debates triggered by the 1962 Court decision been made to bring school practices into line outlawing the New York State Board of with the judicial dictates. Regents prayer. Yet the larger problem of the proper While both the 1962 and 1963 rulings role of religion in public education remains have ultimately received the support of nu- unresolved. Perhaps this question can never merous religious and secular organizations, be entirely answered until the American peo- one stillhears charges that the Supreme ple have determined the role of religion in Court is undermining our religious faith, that Americanlife. Unfortunuely, edua.tors the Court. far from being neutral, is in fact cannot await this answer as decisions must promoting irreligion.Scores of resolutions be made now. School policies must be devel- proposing to amend the Constitution so as to oped now and not in some distant future.

Charles C. Chandler, Professor of Theoretical Foundation; of Education, Kel:t Ctate University, Kent, Ohio

114 Whorls in a Revolutionary Srelety 185

The Supreme Court has indicated what can- Even teaching about religion will lead tiers of not be done. but;I has properly refrained to controsorss. and'nil osersy from specifying what should be dont' religion is to be .r.ciduou avoidtd What- ever the rihlic relations .r:is of !iis posi- Al ternatives tion.itmust hz ...lected Such apolicy would 11.1%.!:achers conipromi,- integ- What, then. arc some of the alterna- rity of the arious ki.h1cct: in the tives facing public education"! Itwould for csample discourage.ifnot prohiNt. teaching about thc Reformation and Maintaining th. Status Quo the medieval church.It would prevent the Onc alternative is to disregard orcir- use r)religious books in literature classes. cumvent the decisionsThis has taken many Courses in comparative religion would not forms, from the open defiance of a state pocsible governor to the naivetéof thc classroom Such a pclicv moreover violates the teacher who co'alei see no conflictbetween spiritofrecent Courtdecisions.Inthc thc Court verdict and her desotional escr- Abingt.'n i th, Surr, rrh Court declared cir,es. This position apparently rests upon an that thc state nui,t he neutral in mattersof assumption that under the present circum- religion.1hestate mav notclablish a stances of local support and rontrol. aschool "religion of secularism. The school catinot cannot defy the wishes of thelocal comnyi- favor those "who believe in no religion over nity.If the majority of citizens in a com- those who do believe.- Finally, this alterna- munity want religious practices continued. tive really pleases no one. Parents want our then it is unrealistic. perhaps improper. for public schools to do something about re- educationalleadershiptoopposesuch ligion.If the public schools fail to meet this desires. demand, it will undoubtedly lead to a pro- This is the kind of reasoning which liferation of parochial schools, both Prot- defends released time on school property in estantandCatholic,and a continuing scores of American communitiesdespite dissatisfaction with public education. rulings prohibitingsuchpractices. Court Teaching About Religion Whik there is always a dangcr of becoming too legalistic, we cannot accept aposition Many who recognize the inadequacies whia openly teaches the young to disobey ofthe preceding two positions haveat- the law, a position which reflects a hank- tempted to chart a kind of middle course. iuptcy of moral and educationalleadership. They have recognized that the public school has a responsibility in the realm of religion. A Rligion of Secularism At the same time they have sought to avoid A second position, diametrically op- the sectarian practices barred by the Court. posed to the first, would abolish all refer- Their solution has been to have the ences to reigion in the publicschools. Some school teach aiout religion whenever such have gone so far as to argue that even moral teaching is consistent with the objectivesof and spiritual values should not be ecliber- a particular subjectfield.Thus no social ately taught.So long as our religiously studies teacher could properly omit therole pluralistic society can reach no consensus of religion in the development of thcAmeri- concerning thc role of religion in education, can culture. Under thisapproach the Bible the prudent policy for educators isto do and other religious materials could bestudied indoc- nothingaboutreligion.Whateverisat- so long as the purpose was not to tempted in this arca will be severely criticized trinate or commit the student to a particular by certain groups in the community. teligious view.

1 9 5 186 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Moral and spiritual values would hc These ultimate -oncerns must not be taught. hut in a secular rather than a super- viewed as the exclusive property of organized naturalconics; These values would be religion. On the contrary, they arc as much tough' as thc %A:yes defining and undergird- the business of the school as of thc church. ing the democratic way of life. Even courses These concerns belong to all men, to all in comparatisc icligion would hezonsistent institutions, to all societies, to all periods of with this rosition. There is much to be saii time. They represent the perennial quest of for teaching about religion.It would do an for meaning. recognition,identity. and much to eliminate thereligiousilliteracy happiness. which plagues our people.It also recognizes Whileitis incumbent upon teachers thc school's important responsibility in deal- to deal with such matters, itis of course ing directly and deliberately with moral and impossible and undesirable for the school to spiritual saluccThose communities desiring approach such questions in a spirit of dog- sectarian teaching could combine this ap- n.atic certainty. Whatever the merits of such proach with a released time or shared ime an approach for organizedreligion, it cannot program. he the objective of public education. Thc Under present circumstances teaching school must emphasize the quest.It must about religion may be the only practicable focus upon the questions and give students way to treat religion in the public school. opportunities and encourag:ment to make Yet like the other alternatives it fails to come chokes and to find answers. to grips with thc more vital significance of Itis. for example, the responsibility religion in the life of a people. Much of the of secondary school teachers, especially lit- public reaction to the Siipreme Court deci- erature and social studies teachers, to involve sions reveals how sha:low and triviai our students in a consideration of the nature religious life has becoms:. and sanctions of moral conduct. The aim Who would have supposed that the would be to involve the student in moral value of religionin education lay inthe choices so as to elicit personal responses. perfunctory reading of a Bible passage or in The fact that organized religion is also thc mechanical recitation of a prayer? The concerned with moral conduct seems irrele- Supreme Court has perhaps rendered a valu- vant, although the insights and points of able service in challenging us to reconsider view provided by religions arc among the the function and purpose of religion in our viable alternatives open to students. nationallife. Ithas given educators an Other vital experiences and concerns opportunity to develop a program which goes of man should be treated in a similar fashion. beyond a sacramental conception of religion. Dealh, for example, haunts all mcn. The way man views death influences the qualityof his 'Wigton es a Quest existence, the manner in which he lives his We assume that all men by virtue of life.Such an important event in the life of bcing human are concerned with the ultimate a mln cannot be neglected inthe education inscrutability of the universe, concerned with of man. An education which disregards that a universe forever shrouded in mystery. All which is ultimately important runs the grave men are concerned with the meaning of ex- risk of elevating in importance that which istence, with the problem of death, with the is, in the final analysis, of less consequence. naturc and sanctions of values, with concep- Such an approach requires teachers tions of the good h.., with the question of who understand the nature, function, and evil, and with a whole host of similar con- content of religion. More important, itasks cerns that relate to the efforts of man to find the teacher to see his responsibility as in- mcaning in his life. volving something more than transmitting Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 187 knowledge.Thc teacher,itissuggested, they have been denied the opportunities to should have thc capacity to enter into a thinkdeeplyaboutmatterswhicharc personal relationship with his students. He deemed of ultimate importance in thc life should have an understanding and concern of man. Most of them have masteredbodies for thc crucial experiences which will define of knowledge but have not reacted person- thclivesof his students.Unfortunately. ally to this knowledge. Tie accumulated tcachcr education has been woefully negli- knowledge has not become part of a life gent in its responsibilities in this arca. style. In short the knowledge has not made Our present graduates are not only a difference in the waylifeis approached religiously illiterate, but for the most part and lived. fl

FL25 (4j. 411.12; Innuary 1971 Asti)

National Practices inTeaching About Religion

ALANGORR

AS A preliminary stzp of a difficult to compare the findings.Still the larger project to set up evaluative criteria for reader may desire to consult Dierenftelcfs judging public high school courseswhich earlier work in this area.2 The in:tial state- teach about religion, some statistics relating ment of the survey read, "We (do)(do not) to general practice were gathered aswell. In have a course which teaches about religion all, 3,414 public high schools were surveyed. objectiveb. This set the tone for the ques- This represents the total number of schools tionnaire, which may have been new and which have been accredited by the five re- unique by excluding those courses which gional accrediting associations ' andwhich were not aimed at objectivity.Among the have 1,000 or more students. The survey 1,780 (52.1% ) of the schools which answered was administered by postcardswith an at- the survey, 857 (48.1% ) answered thatthey tached reply and sent to the principals of the did, while 923 (51.8%) did not. high schools. The survey contained eight The second statement asked whether re- questions which bear upon the subject of liOon was taught as a separate course or as general practices. a unit of a course. In743 (41.7% ) of the Since the objective of the study was schools it was taught as a unit. Those teach- somewhat different from earlier surveys, it is ing it as a separate course numbered102 (5.7% ), and 10 (.6% ) schools taught both 1 The five regional accrediting associations units and courses. are: Middle States Atsociationof Colleges and Secondary Schools; New England Msociation of College% and Secondary School, . Inc.: North Cea- 2Richard B. Dierenfield. "The Impact of the tral Association of College% and 'kcondarySchools: Supreme Court Decisions on the Public Schools." The Southern Association of Colleges and Schools: Relieinus Education67: 445-51: January-February and Western Association of Schools end Colleges. 1967.

Alan Gorr. Assistant Professor ofEducation, Augustana College, Rock Island. Illinois

197 tad Curric,1fC Ulf{in a Revolut, )rsary Era

Several Categlries about lslam nomber:d 73o 41 ). Shinto- ism was treated in 526 129.5% )schools Ihe Units and k:ollfi inre14:lon fell arid laoisni 29.5r; ).Schools list- under se% eral headings. and in man!, schools ing "other- world religionsnumbered 116 several catcgoric, applied.Of the schools ( (,.5% ). responding, 539 30.2 )included study Of the total number of respondents, 243 about religion in their et nirses on world his- ( 13.6% )indicakd that they used printed tory..Fhose which included unit: in world course outlines ur curriculum guidesin their literatu-ecoursL, numbered 88(4.9r7le ). courses.Considering the total number of Units were included in humanities in 206 schools which teach about religion, this num- (11.(r) oftheschools.Anotlr316 ber is rather small. ( 17.7(7;-, )listed the names of their courses Among theschoolssurveyed,243 about religion under the category "other,- (13.6% )reportedthat they had printed which included a list of over 80 different curricular materials.The remaining 1,536 Courses. (86.2% ) did not. Concernill17thedistributionofthe There are severalconclusionc, which courses and units by grades, 177(9.9% ) may be drawn from the survey aboutthe indicated that the study of religion was found extent and distribution of study about rein the ninth grade.In the tenth grade, 529 ligion.First,nearlyhalfofallschools (29.7% )reported courses or units in re- claimed to bc teaching about religion ob- ligion.In the eleventh grade the number of jectively. Of that number, virtually all teach schools was 282 (15.8% );while inthe about a wide variety of religions. The dif- twelfth grade it was 463 (26.0% ).Since ference among those schools which taught schools were asked to indicate all categories aboutCatholicism, Protestantism,Bud- which applied,there was inevitably some dhism, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam was overlap. negligible. Infact, theaverageschool nominally taught about 7.4 religions in more Faiths Included than onc course. Ostensibly, this would indicate a conscious effort tc give the courses With regard to the varieties of Christi- which teach about religion a wide scope. anity which were included in the course of Another conclusionwhich may be study,742 (41.6% )indicatedthat they drawn from the data is that schools consider treated Catholicism. Mormonism was consid- the study about religion as appropriate for ered by 470 (26.4% ).Units about the several contexts. This is evidenced by the Protestant faith were taught by about 745 fact that, on the average, schools which do (41.8% )of the schools. The number of include study about religion include religion in more than one course. schoolswhichtreated"other"Christian groups was 170 (9.5% ). In sum, it appears that study about re- The varietyofnon-Christianfaiths ligion is widespread and encompasses a wide which were studied was quite large. Buddhism variety of subjects and course frameworks. was treated by 718 (40.3%). Hinduism was Relatively few schoolsdevote anentire covered by 710 (39.8% ). Judaism was con- course to the subject or have gone so far as sidered by 732 (41.1% ).Schools teaching to produce written curricular materials. 0 Whork in a F10.yolutionary Society 189

II 4') PO, r ,\M D

The Impact of CourtDecisions on Educational Strategies In Edam tat I

EDGAR EDI LER

MOST leaders in education arc too often spent in isolationfrom the judiciary. synthesize well acquainted with thelegislative and ad- There is massive unwillingnss to ministrative branches of governmentsand and express principles inwritten or spoken learning time their local, state, and federalrelationships forms, to contribute personal judicial branch is and financial resources, or towork quietly to public education. Thc achieve funda- different.Itseldombcncfitsfromthcir and wait for a few years to understanding and participation. To allbut mentally important judicial results. a few, the courts sccm rcmotc,mysterious Courts arc not remote from education. the Thcy arc important determinersof some of in making their surprising impacts on education is schools, too technical to be understood, and its most basic strategics. Public all levels, and pri- too independent to beamenable to the views a part of government at subjcct to the minimum of most citizens. vate education is also On the basis of such mixed reasons and educational and institutional standards pre- suppositions, most citizens and professional scribcd by local,state, and federal laws limita- leaders in education seldom interest them- within the fundamental constitutional selves in the making of public policy in edu- tions that apply. questions in cation through thecourts.The judiciary The most important legal incubates great educational strategies and education involve how the FirstAmendment shapes the future by its mandates, while to the Constitution willbe applied to public In most educational leadershipbusily pursues and privateinstitutions of education. question less demanding routines. tax-supported public institutions the Important court decisions surprise the is usually whether denominationalreligion has defined leaders who habitually fail to participatein is present. The Supreme Court the constitutional limitations ofreligion in judicial planning in ways entirely appropriate in re- for any citizen. Too often educatorsand public schools I in considerable detail other friends of public education avoid being I Abington Sclzool District v. Schempp,374 plaintiffs, or defendants, or policy makers, U.S. 203 (1963) and cases cited. Therelevant part or planners, orprofessional, political, and of the First Amendment is as follows:"Congress shall make no law lespecting anestablishment of financial supporters of judicial action to up- religion, or prohibiting the free exercisethereof. hold what they privately profess tobelieve ..." It has been applied to state and local govern- inAucation.Fearful ofcriticism,this ments through judicial constructionof the Four- ostrichlike,vital concern of their livesis teenth Amendment since 1940.

Executive Edgar Fuller, Apartment 210r, 11700Old ColumbiaPike, Silver Spring, Maryland, and Secretary Emeritus, Council of Chief StateSchool Officers, Washington, D. C. 199 190 Cumcular Concerns in a Revolufionary Era cent yearsIhis ha% been due to the fact that presented federal ow% of tax-raised funes in taspayers h.o.k had standing to sue in these direct violation of state and local legal stan case.. as thcy have iriniost other instances dard. of pubiic use set for state and kval irwolving civil rights. f unds. A different line of constitutional litiga- tion deals with use of tax-raised funds for The Rule of FrothIngham v. Mellon individual benefits to pupils or teachers. The In regard to private nonprofit secular First Amendment question here is whether and sectarian institutions, the Ustrat question there is unconstitutional direct or indirect aid is whether tax-raised funds may be uscd for to sectarian institutions whcn the funds have financing such institutions dicectly or indi- been directed primarily to their pupils or rectly. This situation rcmains to be clarified teachers.Health, welfare, and safety bene- constitutionally bccausc federaltaxpayers, ins, such as those whichfallwithin thc until 1968, wcrc barrcd from the faleral Welfare Clause and the reserved police pow- courts on the basis of a 1921 Supreme Court ers of thc states under thc Tenth Amend- decision holding that they had no standing ment, arc general rights of all thc people. to sue undcr the First Amendment to prevent Thcse constitutional rights become involved expenditurcs of federal funds.2 with First Amendment applications to educa- During the past decade the federal gov- tion in ways that require judicial determina- ernment has made increasingly large grants tions. Somc prevailing judicial guidelines can of tax funds and gifts of federal property to nonprofit private, secular, and sectarian edu- be illustrated.Tax-raised funds for health cational institutions. On March 28, 1961, services and school lunches for private school pupils, and for scholarships under the so- the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, with the approval of the U.S. called GI Bills, are not issues under the First Attorney General, released a comprehensive Amendment.Public tax funds for pupil legal memorandum on First Amendment im- transportation, textbooks, library materials, plications of these federal practices.3This and some types of remedial instruction are memorandum advised that federal taxpayers constitutionally controversial.Use of tax- were not being allowed to sue in the federal raised funds for regular salaries of sectarian courts on First Amendment cases, and that school teachers or for sectarian school facili- although some of the federal aids to educa- ties or equipment is unconstitutional. tion were admittedly of uncertain constitu- There have been no decisions and only tionality, Congress could continue these and a few dicta that differentiate on First Amend- other aids to sectarian institutions of educa- ment grounds the use of tax-raised funds by tion without substantial danger of having to college-level institutions from the use of such defend its practices in the courts. The mem- funds by elementary and secondary educational institutions. Most state constitutions orandum concluded that since federal spending legislation ordinarily carried no provisions and laws bar the use of tax-raised educational for judicial review, "In the absence of some funds for nonpublic educational institutions such statutory provisions, there appears to be atallacademic levels, whether they are commercial, nonprofit private, or sectarian. no realistic likelihood that Federal legislation raising the constitutional issues discussed in Thus state and local tax funds are not used directly to support sectarian educational in- 2Frothinghamv.Mellon, 262 U.S. 447 stitutions, although nonprofit private secular (1923). institutions of higher education in a few 3Memorandum on the Impact of the First Amendment to the Constitution Upon Federal Aid statesreceivelimitedstatefunds. State to Education, signed by Alanson W. Willcox, gen- constitutions and laws, however, have not eral counsel of the HEW Department.

20 0 VInorla in a Ravoiutionary Soc lety 191 this memorandum will hv i:Nolsed byjudicial else natureo( the :onstituti4,nalinfringement he a)Iegvi. No personal financial los,is any dec ision.- is enoueh !hat the fed- Cmd 19n8, Congressandthe President longer necessary.It made their own constitutional law onthe eral government may be favoring onereligion religion in general. major First Amendment (4;a:stion ineduca- over another or aiding tion. One might also believe this hasbeen The Court held that the EstablishmentClause consti- true in the field of civilrights enforcement, of the First Amendment i. a specific where guidelines were not printedin the tutional limitation on the taxing and spend- Federal Register as regulations havingthe ing powers of Congress. force of law. Enforcement of suchadminis- It is significant that 15 Conr ecticut tax- District Court tra ive guidelines has beenupheld by the payers filed a suit in the U.S. chal- courts, including penaltieswithholding all in New 1-1.iven on September 26, 1968, federal funds from school districts thathave lenging the constitutionality of federal grants in four sectarian not met specific federal mandates todesegre- for educational facilities colleges and universities under the Establish- gate schools.These situations, however, should not be confused with the First Amend- ment Clause of the FirstAmendment. This is a suit almost identical in its facts ment cases.In civilrights, the courts ap- proved fund withholding for violationof to a suit filed on September10, 1963, by a group of individual Maryland taxpayersand b"uidelines because the courts themselves ap- proved of those methods of enforcement.In sponsored by the Horace Mann League.° the First Amendment cases involvingfederal Brought in a Maryland county court because funds for sectarian institutions, however,the the Frothingham rule then barred the suit courts have held that they had nojurisdiction in the federal courts, four private liberal arts to make constitutional decisions atall be- colleges were the substantive defendants. cause no one was in a position toachieve Grants of state funds had been voted by the standing to sue in the federal courts. Maryland legislature for physical facilities On June 10, 1968, the Supreme Court similar to those financed in the Connecticut substantially reversed the Frothinghani rule colleges by the federal government, and both in an eight-to-one dccision.5 Speaking cases were broughtspecifically under the through Chief Justice Warren, the Court sug- First Amendment to the Federal Constitu- gested that the Frothingham rule rests on tion. something less than a constitutional founda- In the decision of the highest Maryland tion. Court handed down june 2, 1966, thecri- The Court said the law is that a federal teria for ascertaining whether aninstitution taxpayer has standing to ". ..invoke federal by the judicial power when he alleges that Congres- of education is sectarian were adopted court as recommended by awitness for the sional action under the taxing and spending Horace Mann League. The Court applied the clause is in derogation of those constitutional criteria and judged that three of the defen- provisions which operate to restrict the exer- dant colleges were sectarian and one secular. cise of the taxing and spending power."The The Supreme Court refused to reviewthe taxpayer must establish a logical linkbetween case in November 1966, sothe Maryland his taxpayer status and the legislative enact- decision became effective only for state and ment he attacks, and establishanother logical local funds in Maryland. Now that federal link between his taxpayer status and the pre- taxpayers can sue in the federal courts,these 4 ibid., p. 44. Public 5 Flast v. Colzen, Case No. 416,October Horace Mann League v. Board of Works, 242 Md. 645, 220 A. 2nd 51(1966). Term, 1967. 2 1 F, I or newl. .irrACLI accept.shly hot h their No,:t Irian and sek,:ular th: ot the tccli:!..11 goverurri,.nt forh:tions ilts cument on the of factual mdenc.: in the record before the Court The Nw York State Textbook Case made clear the mIrortance of neh o.idence in cases to come: Another import.int dechion of the Su- preme ('ourt handed do n on June 10, 1)68, Nothing ill this rceord supports the prop- involved a New York law requiring local osition thatalltclhooks, whether they deal with mathematic's, physies, foreign languages. school authorities to lend textbooks on secu- history, or literature. are used by the parochial lar subjects to students in grades 7 through schools to teaeh religion. No evidence has been In 12 in both public and nonpublic schools. offeredaboutparticularschools,particular a six-to-three decision, Justice White 7 spoke courses. particular teachers, or particular books. for the Court in holding the state textbook We are unable to hold. b:,seo solely on j,,.;:icia law constitutional under the First Am.:nd- notice, that this statute reskilts in unconstitu- ment.Justice Harlan concurred with the tional involveinent of the State with religious majority in a separate opinion and added instruction or that Sec.701, for this or the that he would uphold cases where the con- other reasons urged, is a iaw respecting the tested governmental activity is calculated to establishment of religion within the mcaning of achieve nonreligious purposes and does not thc First Amendment.D involve the state "so significantly and directly Detailed evidence presented atlength in the realm of the sectarian as to give rise in the Horace Mann League caseand else- to ...divisive influences and inhibitions of where tends to show that sectarian religion freedom." Justices Black, Douglas, and can and does permeate sectarian institutions Fortasdissentedvigorouslyinseparate and influences their effects on students, just opinions. as many of these institutions claimin the'ir The Allen case falls on the permissive institutional purposes.The denominational side of most previous decisions of the courts environmeht,the faculty, the religious exer- that have involved the use of tax-raised funds cises and courses required of students, and for auxiliary benefits to individuals. It draws a sectarian approach tothe teaching of the line for individual benefits rather gener- secular subjects are among the hallmarks of ously,and has some importance as a judicial sectarianeducational institutions.They are indicator in suchcases. Justice White, how- justly proud of achievingtheir aims,and ever, based the decision squarely upon the the sole concern of the First Amendment record before the Supreme Court, which con- cases is that such religious achievements be tained no factual evidence because the lower privately rather than publicly finar_ced. court had entered a summary judgment on the pleadings.With no evidenceinthe Educational Reasons record the decision was necessarily a narrow for the First Amendment one. Justice White assumed on the basis of Volumes have been written onthe hisbackground of judgment and experience, un- torical reasons that Madisonand Jefferson challenged in the meager record before the pioneered legal restrictions on the use of Court, that parochial schools are performing public funds for the support of religion, first in Virginia and then in the U.S. Constitution. 7 Board of Education of Central SchoolDis- trict No. I et al. V. James E. Allen, Jr., asCommis- Religious conflict has been common formany sioner of Education of New Yorket al.,Case No. centuries, and complete tolerance among dif- 660, October Term, 1967. fering religious groupsremains more anideal Quoted fromAbington School District v. Schempp,374 U.S. 203, p. 307 (1963). 9 Ibid.

211 2 I.

11144' iin a Revolutionary Society 193

than a practice It' h C.IICN,cs in univeisal itdistricts exercising ahstantial con- education tor every wdividual according to trols )%er s.hsl iyeratiiInsIn turn, local his needs. he must have recourse to puhhe districts inthe severalstat.:,, constitute 50 education %kithfulltreediumft irprivate substantially'autont 'm. us statesystems of cducainin privately .unported as long s it education with frecdoni to develop SO state- meets ti% minimum requirementsof the wide experimental labor:Holies in the prac- state fer secular education is imperative tical tperation of educati(m. tA have strongly tinancid andpublicly sup- This system earl and does vary widely ported educat;on for all who desire it. From from district to district and fioin state to the history 'If nations concerningthe per- state.It operates close to the people, with formance of private education eveiywhere, thc stimulation and support that intermediate there is no reason to believe that oursociety service units. states, :,nd the federal govern- can achieve the education itneeds without ment can and do supply. At the local level effective public schools. this education system thrives on the exercise In our pluralistic society religious con- of local autonomy and its inevitable ferment flict is entirely unnecessary in reaching an and disagreements. The local-state-federal acceptable balance between Free Exercise arrangementsstimulateprogresswithout and the Establishment Clause in education. serious or widespread dangers to the funda- The sponsors cf the Horace Mann League mental public support ncccssary for effective case entered the cyurts for purelyeducational operation. reasons.It was a suit brought by educators Privately supported and controlled secu- on behalf of education for allchildren and lar and sectarian schools are constitutionally youth. No funds were sought or accepted protected and widely patronized as alterna- fromreligiousdenominations. Religious tives to or competitors of the public schools. conflict was carefully avoided. Members of They are a wholesome influence, but only up all leading religions were sought as plaintiffs. to the point where they divide the commu- Great care was exercised to praise the defen- nity in ways that may cause the loss of high dant institutions, the quality of their work, quality public cducation for all the children and the admirable integrity of their teaching and youth who desireit and can benefit according to their purposes. Only one issue from it. separated plaintiffs and defendantswhether Publiceducationwouldbegreatly educationalinstitutionsthatteachthe weakened should sectarian and other non- tenets of a religious denomination, and are public educational institutions obtain large appropriately controlled and financed pri- amounts of tax-raised funds.Efforts are vately for that purpose under the Free Exer- being made in Washington and in selected cise Cause of the First Amendment, should states that might bring thisabout if the receive grants of tax-raised funds for their courts uphold legislation already in effect in support. Why this is a crucial educational testsundertheFirst Amendment. The issue deserves a brief comment. federal approaches take several forms, including essentially unrestricted general de- Importance for Effective velopment cash grants to private secular and Public Education sectarian colleges.The state laws would funnel state funds to parents for transfer to Comprehensive public education of high private schools on a per capita basis. Some quality requires general public interest and of the sponsors of such state legislation political support, as well as adequate local, frankly seek complete financial equality with state, and federal financing. In our country publicly controlled schools in terms of tax- it is organized flexibly in thousands of local raised funds. 203 194 Curricuiar Concerns 4 Aevolotonary El a

the dc.:Ime of thc public schook would Should :hc.e conditions result from ap- depend largely on thciie'fthe tax fund proval of federal subsidies upheld by the incentives offered to expand or to begin pri- courts under the First Amendment. state and vate schools at public expense.With much hwal govcrnmcnts would probably he unable less than full tax support at public school to restrict state and lozal tax funds to publicly controlled educational institutions. With levels, the public schools would no longer be secular and sectarian schools eligible for fed- effective. A proliferation of nonprofit cor- eral funds. federal funds for public schools porations to operate schools for special so- might eventually be conditioned upon state cial,political,or economic interests and and local financial matching of federal funds viewpoints would supplement schools undcr for private schools. The public schools as a the jurisdiction of many religious denomina- unifying forcc in a dcmocracy would, in thc tions. process, have become history. Ej

EL 27 (3): 281-86; December /969 (!) 1969 ASCI)

Some Observations on Adolescent Drug Use

SIMONL. AUSTER, M.D.

The sufferer is tremulous and loses his The observations and conclusions which self-command: he is subject to fits of agitation follow are based on experience with a large and depression. He has a haggard appearance number of adolescent drug users, most, but . . . as with other such agents,a renewed not all, middle class. The majority were seen dose.. . gives temporary relief, but at the in a clinical setting, some over an extended cost of future misery. period of time. Many others were speaking THIS description of the effects in wide-ranging, informal discussions and of coffee was written at the beginning of this not in the role of patient. century by a professor at Cambridge Uni- This discussion will be concerned with versity, the most distinguished pharmacolo- most of the spectrum usually considered gistof thetime, in a standard medical subject to abuse, with one exception. The textbook. In any analysis of the use of drugs, discussion will include both those totally because of the intense passions aroused, it prohibitedsuch as the opiates,cocaine, is useful to keep close to the forefront of the hallucinogens, and cannabis derivatives one's attention the radical change in attitude and those in general use, but subject to toward this now-common beverage that the control, mainly the amphetamines and bar- most informed medical opinion has under- biturates.It will also touch on the almost in- gone in the past 50 years. Hopefully, it will finite range of volatile organic solvents used provide a perspective that will engender a for sniffing; for example, glue, gasoline, and more thoughtful and less emotional consid- cleaning fluid. The lone exception referred eration of these substances. to is alcohol. Although its use is increasingly

Simon L. Auster, MD., Director, Fairfax-FollsChurchMental Health Center, Falls Church, Virginia 2n 4 Kincris 4RevolutiOn4fyS4)Cieti 195

differs la 1rd %linh _at of of her drut,s, itII in a riers, although the pattern of usage of Lanthihis sccondarposition,th.: prmuy abusef Among .0.1.11 groups I h a and the opiates among the lower s- lass ghctto .1104101in this popul.cion does nottitthe and has been patterns described residents isan old phenomenon Users distinguish between two general cyttensively describedIts use 1-n middle mild ck:sses, the "ups" and the "downs In the upper clas% youthisrelatively new and is former group are cocaine, the hallucinogens, probably the single factor most responsible amphetamines, solvents, and, usually, can- for the current upsurge in community con- effects.Until nabis.In the latter group are the opiates, cern about drugs and their the barbiturates, tranquilizer:, and, for some recently, it was generally accepted as strictly people, cannabis derivatives.Within these a matter for the policeand the Narcotics two general cat:gories, users, even"garbage Bureau; now, more people are growing con- collectors" who will take anything, are gen- cerned asthe issue becomes more imme- erally aware of differences among the drugs. diate,with their children becoming involved Thus opiates arc referred to as "hardstuff." in drug use. and the popular button reading "SpeedKills" Adolescent uscrs seem to failinto sev- is areference to thedanger of thc amphe- eraldifferent categories.While the heavy tamines. Barbiturates are known not to mix use of opiates and cannabisby the ghetto with alcohol, even in small amounts. The population has led to the conclusion that absence of any established long or short term drugs are mainly used to escape from the ill effects from cannabis is recognized and miserable reality of the users' lives, careful frequently quoted, and the latest findings of study has revealed consistent differences be- LSD research are widely known and dis- tween the personalities of trueaddicts and cussed. non-addicts (who may be casual users). It is generally unwise to attempt to Briefly summarized, the former have a sig- deter young people from drug use by scare nificant degree of shortsightedness in their tactics; any audience will invariably contain judgment; their capacity for decision making at least one listener who is asknowledgeable and purposeful action is seriouslylimited; asthespeaker,ifnot more so. Further, the they see themselves mainly in negative terms; scare approach can itself beheld at least they are unable to form genuinely intimate partially responsible for some of the experi- relationships; they are closely tied to their mentation with thesedrugs; manyyoung mothers; and they are often badly confused people see friends and acquaintances taking about their sexual feelings.That the so- them without the predicted deleterious re- ciological aspects of drug use in this class sults, and come to disbelieve all the dire have been emphasized in relative contrast to warnings they have been given about drugs. the individual aspects is perhaps a reflection Thisabsence of apparent consequence, per- of the broader society's appreciation of the haps more than any other factor, has made close, almost causal, tie between the central many youngsters skeptical ofwarnings about elements of lower class ghetto life and the the dangers of drug abuse. This can even be significant areas of disturbance in the per- true with "hard" drugs, for anylarge metro- sonality of the addict, as well as some appre- politan community will have more than a ciation of the greater "need" for escape from few adolescents who have used opiatesfairly the misery of this kind of life. heavily for extended periods of time and who haveencountered no difficulty in stopping Drug Use and Social Class when the drug was no longer available or became too difficult to obtain. This emphasis, however, should not Drug usage cuts across population bar- lead us to overlook some of thesimilarities 205 I '45 n 3 ,' ,Er,

ht:cAccuuNcr thi, 1.1,1ih,se t d., h 111 talk of from other i.d I i IntheHi cidle innahl. ith tooti .the hallu and upper .-:a.. and Jail+ .1171111i:I and oee cititO ifliO One itour ,..1,evt,fle, rihrir I ho, ii,c the drug an I he first t..roup om.ists i,f those who, .o.enueofcinuiv and.einforLing groop with or without the Lt.,: of druo. would he aeccpt ince, and they are relatiwly indifferent readilyrecognaedas psychologicallydis- to the particular Lhenue..1 or its dislinctise turbed, mcmhers ofthis group show the effect. I heir parLnts went on panty raids greatest similarity inpersonality character- when they were in college and their grand- istics to the more carefully studied lower parents swallto.Y kl lo.c goldfish and patron- class addicts.I hese are youngsters Ahose izedspeakeasies.Withthisgroupitis difficulties,ShouldonetroUnle(0look importantto notethatwhilethe "kick" closely, clearly antedated any exposure to obtained from thi.7 drug is appreciated, and drugs, who on cloy! examination show fairly even rhapsodized, itis a dktinctly secondary disturbedpatterns of family relationships, factor in the use of the drug.It is the group and for whom the drugs often represent an pressure that determines the use and even effortatrestitution.For them the drug much of the praise sung about it.If caught usage is almost incidental and is not likely once, members of this group are likely to to be terminated until the underlying dis- discontinue use, for fear of the consequences turbance begins to bc aliered. The "gartiage of being caught again.If not, use is likely collectors" almost invariably come from this to be self-limited anyway. group, as they frantically try anything in the If these youths have any psychological medicine chestor outside of itfor the handicap, it is in their generally narrow view sought-after effect. of life and sheep-like tendency to follow the Thc major element that drugs rrovide flock.Occasionally, onc of them becomes for this group is a sense of vitality.The profoundly depressed as a result of such ordinary experience of self for these youth is experimentation witha hallucinogen,the one of an inner void. Any of these drugs, effect of which was to make him aware that to the extent that they alter internal percep- there is much more tolife than his con- tions, replace this void with some kind of tricted, limiting perspective had allowed him feeling, so necessary for the sense of being to see until then. The depression was a re- alive. While this can be readily mistaken as sult of the realization of how much living he a search for "kicks," there is an urgency to it had missed and how much work he would that belies such a limited interpretation, that have to do to make up for it.For these suggests a more profound role for these sub- youths, the drug provided a therapeutic ex- stances in the individual's functioning, per- perience, despite themselves. haps analogous tothat of the medically The third group,perhapsthenext prescribed tranquilizers in another situation. largest; is made up of those that use primarily This is onc reason that exhortation is not cannabis and the hallucinogens. They often very successful with them. When it comes start using them out of curiosity and continue to the difference between feeling alive and to use them intermittently because they find feeling dead, they, along with most of us, them helpful in clarifying personal questions opt to feel alive. with which they might be wrestling. They The second group, and probably the do not come to.rely on these drugs to find largest, is composed of the faddists, those answers or to resolve the developmental chal- who will take almost any drug in a social lenges of their adolescence; rather, the drugs situationbecausethatiswhat everyone are used as an occasional adjunct in this else is doing, because itis the "in" thing process. Whileadequate andsatisfying 2nG

r. .31 F4.1.4 t,,!)02rw t9.

frlerdhlr .lre Lha.h.terhti.: ,t hippietillOftlOur.:d,the.thersclearly meinhers ,.fthis group. th their par:nts struc!urd the!, mho, I.e ,:o!.11.11 and fnendh, or .n .1 state of armed truce with oik:.I.ion.31 skirmi Significance In Living 1 heir academic perti,rmance ranee ..from outstanding to failingind usual!) parallels \s with earher thinking about lower the tolerance of the school for experimenta- classdrily use,understanding of the upsurge tion and kleviance. and the qualit!,ofits in drug usage among the middle and upper teachers. Most of the adolescents inthis class adolescent popti;ation must hesought category seen clinically have been referred in the context of contemporary AmeriLan only because someone, usually their parents. society at least as much as intheindividual panicked atthedisctwe7ythat they were psycholop, of theusers.Furthermore,any using drugs. explanation must also take into accountwhy, A final group of drug users, although for many.the movement hasbeen in the constituted mainly of adults with relatively direction of certain specificdrugs, particu- few adokscenrs, warrantsmention, ifonly larly cannabisand the hallucinogens,rather to complete t!!i: picture.This group is mainly than alcohol. composed ofmore mature people, toall The first, more disturbed, group of appearances healthy and functioning well in users delineatedearlierisrelatively small, the society in both their personal and occupa- and the use of drugs by those constituting tional lives. Members of this group may or thi.; group is merelyone item ina spectrum may not use cannabis andare focused of deviant and disordered behavior; for them, mainly on the hallucinogens, which they take the societalfactors,while present, are sec- occasionally.For thesepeople,the drug ondary. For thc second, faddist, group, drug appcars to have provided an introduction to uscisitself secondary to a simple group a transcendent dimension, foreign to ordi- phenomenon; and thc choicc of a drug other nary experience. than alcohol for this purpose is primarily a Thc "hippie" group isa conglomerate, function of the ready availability of the drugs rather than a single typc.It contains a large and thc shock and horror with which these representation of the first, more disturbed, substanccs, in contrast to alcohol, are re- group. garded by a large segment of the adult Many members of that sccond, fad- authorities, against whom at least some of dist, group may present themselves as "hip- the behavior is directed. pie" for the same reasons they use drugs; it It is for the third group that an under- is the "in" thing. Occasionally members of standing of the primary factors in drug use the third group go through a personal crisis, is to be found in the context of the broader often over philosophical issues, that leads to society.Inthis thirdgroup,the use of drugs a temporary withdrawal into the "hippie" can be related to a phenomenon widespread community; it has been reported that after inthe population, namely, a searchfor about a year or two, they return to their greater self-understanding and significance previous state, often with more insight and in living; an effort to escape the alienation, maturity. For many, this may be an un- the confusion, and the uncertainty so ram- avoidable stage in their development, similar pant in contemporary society; and a wish to to the perhaps more familiar and readily become able to grasp the presence of the understood need of other youth in a similar moment and live their lives, even the most state of crisis for a period of military service prosaic moments of them, fully and with or for a routine, mindless job; both kinds of immediacy. While the extraordinary vogue experienceprovidebreathingspells, the experienced by psychoanalysis during the 207 198 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era pasttwo decades was, in part, a prelude to heightening internal perceptions of sensation, this,the phenomenon has exploded in the thought,and feeling, represent one such past few years with the developmentof a avenue, albeit one condemned by thesocial wide range of activities, all of which have, order. as a goal, increasedself-awareness. Group experiences represent another, One factor which may account forthe more acceptable route,traveled at least as current increased need for thiskind of ex- much by adults as by youth. These groups, perience isthat, despite theconstants of knownvariouslyas T-groups,encounter human existence and relatedness, the con- groups, sensory awarenesstraining, etc., are temporary world, the world in whichthe usuallyconsidered underthe heading of present adolescent and youngadult genera- "affective education" or "the human poten- tion grew up, and which helped shapetheir tial movement." They provide a setting in mode of living, has undergone such massive which a person can experience highly inten- structural change during the pastdecades, sified and occasionally new, but otherwise asMarshall McLuhan hasattempted to appropriate reactions to a variety of proto- describe, that the context in which these typical situations. When he is angry, he is constants are lived out is qualitativelydif- intenselyso, and knowsit; when heis ferent from that which the older generation anxious, when he is loving, when he is happy, experienced in its development. The tech- he feels it so strongly that he cannot be mis- nology which has led to a threshold offering taken.This enables the person to clarify thealternatives of annihilation or abun- his feelings and responses to these situations dance has radically changed life styles and, and to begin to generalize them to situations more subtly, the structure ofthe environ- arising in the course of ordinary living. East- ment. And to the extent that allorganisms ern forms of meditation and relatedpractices in part are products of their envirrnments, (of which yogaisprobablythe best these youth and young adults are qualita- known), through the insights and under- tively different from the older generation. standing to be gained from the conscious As a consequence, the reference standards direction of attention inward, are other ave- applied in earlier years to assess situations nues to this same goal.More lonely and are no longer felt to be relevant or evenat more difficult, demandingexceptional self- all applicable for analyzing a contemporary discipline, they have attracted many youth problem. as well as adults. Much of the recentpopular In the confusion and uncertainty that interest in Eastern philosophy may be con- ensue, anything will ty.: welcomedthat may sequent to a recognition of the potential of intensify internal experience sc ls to bring these teachings for enabling the practitioner into awareness heretofore unrecognized re- to achieve the sought-after clarity. sponses that may help in making an assess- These various approaches1_1ay also ment of a complex and puzzling situation. give direction to many of those who are Since self-awareness and understanding are distressed by the contrast between the values their defined tasks, psychoanalysis and psy- they have been taught and the quality of life chotherapy have been, in the recent past, a they experience in their families and commu- major direction in which people turned for nities. For these people, in addition to self- help in these areas; however, they were, understanding, the immediacy of the group and continue to be, rejected by many be- experience provides a person with some cause of the label of sicknessassociatcd with worth in his human their use. More recently, other avenues have sense of significance and by been explored for their self-discovery poten- encounters; and meditation and drugs, tial.Drugs, through their direct effects of turning attention inward, piovide some orien- 20 Whorls in a Revolutionary Society 199 tation in the search for answers to the eternal as it were, in the face of a cultural pattern questions of meaning. that maintains them in opposition to each It is important to realize that there is other. For those people, each of whom is not necessarily any change in values inherent "doinghis own thing" inthe deepest sense, in this situation; quite the contrary, the prob- their respect is of the highest order. lem may be most acute when traditional Compared to the members of the third values are clear and accepted, but the rela- group, the seekers, who may use drugs occa- tive uniqueness of the situation creates un- sionally but primarily look to their peer certainty about how they should be applied. group for assistance in these areas, the prob- This dilemma is perhaps best illustrated hy lem with the more disturbed youngsters of the issue of achievement, so often a focus of the first group who exclusively rely on drugs intergenerationalconflict. As avalue, for these purposes is that they have so little achievement has been one of the keystones sense ofself.Consequently, theyare so of the American social order, yet many con- unable to "get with" a pecr group, to bounce temporary youth, by their disinterest, appear experiences off them, that they cannot make to be rejecting achievement in all areas, aca- use of such relationships. They are pervaded demic, economic, whatever.Even among by a sense of futility about life and relation- many of those who are achieving, the ques- ships which leadsthem tomistrust all tion, "achievement for what?" is frequently relationships, even those with their contem- heardand is a source of distress to many poraries, and turn inward for answers and parents. relief. To the extent that drugs assist in this This is a deceptive phenomenon; for process through their pharmacological ef- underlying that question, and indeedthe fects, they will be uscd with little hesitation entireissue, can be found the question, by these youth. The other youth have devel- "achievement at the expense of what?" They oped sufficient separateness from their fam- are not rejecting achievement; rather, aware ilies and have enough of an identity to enable of Donne's injunction that "No man is an them to enter into some kind of relationship island unto himself," they are concerned with peers, although they too may use these about the isolation which in their observation drugs as occasicnal adjuncts. of the adult world has all too often been a These considerations have important direct and inevitable consequence of it. When implication for those concerned with con- added to this is their perception of the poten- trolling drug usage. Members of the first, tial of technology for either enhancing the more disturbed, group will respond only as fulfillment of the individual or increasing his the underlying disturbance is alleviated; not isolation, increasingly being applied in tlie only is education ineffilctive, but even in the latter directkm, the state of their personal face of threats they may not trouble them- relationships demands greater attention, and selves to attempt to hide their continuing efforts to avoid isolation become a matter ot usage. A good education program can he greater urgency. Thus, their initial test of expected o have its maximum impact on anyone whom they meet is concerned with members of the second, faddist, group, some the degree to which he has transcended the of whom it will reach, not unlike the effects pressures toward personal isolation so per- of a good education program on the danger vasive in our society and which they have of tobacco. Needless to say, such a program almost invariably observed and experienced must be good; a bad program is worse than in their own families. They turn to those worthless insofar as it creates a "credibility who have passed thistest and have also gap." At the same time, members of this achieved excellence in their chosen fields, group are likely to be deterred from drug who have been able to maintain both valus, use by the threat of legal sanction3 to the 2n 9 200 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era same degree that such a threat will be a de- strong basic syllabus on drugs themselves for terrent to any prohibited behavior.In the both student and teacher, the greater empha- last two groups, in which use is intermittent sis must be on educating the teacher and ad- and controlled, any fact provided by an edu- ministratortoanunderstandingofthe catior program will be considered in a de- circumstances leading to drug use among cision about use, as would any significant youth.It is only after being confronted by data with which they were provided, and the theexperiencewhich youthsarc under- threat of legal sanctions may have some going that generates the vacuum so readily effect.Nevertheless, real success in limita- filled by drugs, that the teacher is in a position wiil depend on the development of the tion to develop those non-drug avenues avail- kinds of social programs and activities that abletofillitor,better,to structurea establish an alternate pathway to the insights curriculum free of such a vacuum.If the being reached through the drugs. formulation developed earlier is valid, this Yet itisthe creation of just such a would mean building into the curriculum pathway that poses the greatest challenge. the opportunity for students to experience It would need to incorporate those elements directness and immediacy and their emo- leading to the goals the youth arc seeking: tional concomitants, with the areas under understanding and self-awareness, participa- study, with each other, and with the teacher. tion and involvement, passion, and commit- This is the real challenge. ment. The creation of this pathway would . especially efficient in producing night- mean opening an avenue running counter mares with hallucinations which may be alarm- to the prevailing patterns of relationship in ing in their intensity. . . . Another peculiar American society.This poses a problem, quality ... is to produce a strange and extreme not because of the unacceptability of such degree of physical depression.... a grievous

approaches, but rather because of the paucity sinking.. may seize upon a sufferer so that of people capable of providing leadership; to speak is an effort ...the speech may become a society char cterized by alienation is not weak and vague....by miseries such as these, likely to produce a plethora of people capable the best years of life may be spoiled. of involvement. This was written by the same author While if. has been suggested that this forthe comments on coffee will require the creation of new social institu- responsible quoted earlier in this paper, but here he was tions, the analysis presented also has implications for preventive programs that can be describing the effects of tea. implemented through those already estab- These two statements should remind Committee on Drug lished. Most important among these is the us that, as the Advisory school, which, as the primary institution with Dependence of the British Government re- which all children articulate, has the greatest marked initsreport, "The gradations of danger between consuming tea and coffee potentialfor this development.The preceding considerations suggest that an effec- at one end of the scale and injectingheroin tive education program could enable the intravenously at the other may not be per- school to achieve this potential.Although manently those which we now ascribe to such a program should naturally include a particular drugs."0 POLITICS: EDUCATION IN THE ARENA

The people have been trying to tell the schools that they are willing to cooperate with them to bring about ::hange, but deeply inbred tradition blinds many school people to this. The school is now being forced to get involved in the political scene at the grassroots level, and thus at a level where there is significance. Education has been pushed into the political arena, the gates are closed.To survive is to fight. Three or four decades ago, such a confrontation would have meant sudden death. The changing climate of the past 10 years has made combatants of educators and education. Loving, p. 211.

GORDONN.MACKENZIE

THOSE rearedinatradition tations, and different meanings for different stressing the essential necessity for schools people, may well be in part responsible for to be kept out of politics may find the topic a tendency to overlook or todisregard its of this editorial to be a bit unsettling. This relevance for education. may be true for one or more reasons. For The development of political science as some readers the topic may arouse imagesof an area of empirical study has resultedin schools beset by "politicians," or even of clarifying definitions and in making more educators stooping to so-called political ap- objective the analysis of political processes. proaches. Thus, if one thinks of politics only To many political scientists, politicsisa in terms of smoke-filled rooms, skulduggery, study of influence, however and wherever it and manipulation, he can easily conclude may be exerted. Thus, a political systemis that the topic is of no necessary concern for not necessarily a government, but rather is a him unless it be to try to counteract politics pattern of human relationsiips which in- with increased understanding. volves power, rule, and authority (legitima- For other readers, the topic may seem ted power). When defined irthis way the to imply two worlds, schools and politics, relevance and centrality of politics to educa- which should be kept forever apart.This tion become clearerand questionsarise latter view probably results from equating such as: What is the relation of education politicswithgovernment. Ourschools to various political systems, be they local, developed many of their present forms and state, or national governments, unions, busi- practices in the 19th and early 20th ccnturics, ness firms, or professional associations?Can a period often characterized by unsavory education itself be profitably viewed as a political behavior at local, state, and national political system? levels of government. This very condition, plus our party system, undoubtedly did much The Educator and Politics to caution educators against attaching educa- Accepting the existence of differing tional hopes to the rise or fall of one political meanings for the word politics may help in party or to a special interest group represent- exploring different stances which educators ing only a segment of the American public. might take in relation to various manifesta- There may be still other readers who tions of political influence, and which have are so singly focused on the education of for so long been open for debate. At least all of the children of all of the people, or on four stances appear to be available for con- intellectual excellence, or on the whole child sideration. that they cannot but see politics as simply a diversion from their main concern. The First, educators can teach about poli- fact that the word politics has many conno- tics. This is a long accepted function of the

Gordon N. Mackenzie, Professor of Education, TeachersCollege, Columbia University, New York City 202 21 2 Politics: Education in the Arena 203 educator, although politics has not always ternal and cften nonlegal pressures for vari- received extended attention as a subject of ous specific program decisions. study in elementary and secondary schools. With each succeeding year, education However, if a place is found for itin a is more frequently mentioned inpartisan crowded educational program, what is taught platforms at all levels of government. Studies will, of course, be limited by the understand- of financial support suggest that education is ing of teachers. One might argue that until increasingly subject to state and national in- more educators have a better understanding fluences, and often to coalitions of influence of the political process as it operates today which espouse values very different from in all areas of American life, it is quite un- those held by the local community. Regard- likely that they will be capable of aiding the less of the shifting and varied patterns of rising generation to understand, and to op- influence operating relative to schools, most erate more effectively in, the various political would agree that public schools and the systems to which each of them belongs. education profession are entirely dependent on public support, financial and moral. Fur- Second,educatorscan, ascitizens, apply ther, the quality and scope of educational theirspecialized knowledge,whereverit programs are frequently matters of intense may haverelevance, to the social issue of the political conflict.Certainly one cannot ex- day. The importance of and the need for plain the differences in educational programs educators' coming to grips with the major from community to community on an eco- problems of the modern world have often nomic basis alone. been emphasized. Yet educators appear to Possibly supervisors and curriculum lack techniques for making their influence workers are in a special position to observe felt. They are almost completely devoid of the influences operating on education. For any reputation for influencing public life or many supervisors and curriculum workers, of having an ability to collaborate with those the past few years have been like a long and able to utilize wealth, or other resources upsetting dream.Justas numerous and such as the communications media, in influ- diverse as the influential persons and groups encing critical decisions. While this has been that have been wheeling and dealing on cur- bemoaned by a few, educators generally have riculum matters, have been the evidences and not taken action to change the situation. instancesofsupervisorsand curriculum workers being ignored and bypassed in the Third, educators can reveal greater making of significant curriculum decisions at awareness and exert more influence in the state and local levels.Single-minded indi- control of education. There are many sug- viduals and groups operating at local, state, gestions that American education has oper- and national levels have been able to gain ated too long under the myth thatitis support forsegments of the program as nonpolitical and only an educational enter- diverse as sports, bands, handicapped chil- prise. Education is surely one of the most dren, physics, foreign languages, television, genuinely political undertakings in American and methods of teaching. In some instances life.All public schools are recognized as these efforts have served to distort the total operating under the authority of a state, but educational plan.Often they have added local control of education has been talked new vitality and the possibility of long-term about more extensively. It seems clear, how- improvements. However, regardless of the ever, that the discretionary power of local nature of the influence, the folklore support- boards of education isconsistently being ing the local professional educator as the whittled away, and that their influence is major curriculum worker has been sadly limited except as they choose to accept ex- shaken. 213 204 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Foutth,educators ?nay assumestill the participation of educators in the broader another stance, and this is to concern them- social scene. Yet educators have not been selves with the politks of their own function- remarkably effective in this arena. As yet, ing as professional groups. Surely this is not there is little analysis of the sources of influ- unrelated to the three stances already briefly ence which educators individuallyand col- described.Paralleling the drbates which lectively can muster, and little thinking about have gone on as to what should be taught how educators can organize and collaborate about politics, how the educators should withotherstoeffectivelyenter political relate to the broad issues and problems of arenas. our thne, and how the educatorsshould func- In view of the contemporary world tion in respect to the changing patterns of situation, there probably is no more critical control of education, there have been indi- problem before professional educational or- cations of professional organization concern ganizations than a clarification of their po- for the internal politics of the profession. litical roles. Major decLions as to values tc Educational associations have become more be accepted or rejected are continuously articulate not only in respect to welfare con- being made on a political basis. Numerous siderations, but also in reference to issues political systems, both legal and nonlegal, are of broaderparticipationineducational profoundly influencing education, including policy. Educational associaticns are taking what is taught and how it is taught. If edu- initial and feeble steps to explore policies cators are to be more than a very low order covering th:- policing of their own rank:. and of civil servant following the dictates of are bringing themselves to a positionwhere numerous and diverse influentials, the politics their special abilities can find expression. of education will of necessity engage a larger Until educators display more unity and share of their time, thought, and energy. willingness to influence their own procedures, Full and active partici )ation by edu- is it likely that they can have much impact on cators on a mature and active basis, im- major educational policies? Until educators proving the education of all Americans and, gain increased power and legitimated au- in fact, of all members of the world com- thority on educationalmatters,arc,they munity, will require the attention of the best likely to be able to penetrate effectively the abilities of the profession in assessing the broadercirclesofsocialactivity? The current situation and in mobilizing individual answer to both questions would appear to be educators and educational associations to- a clear, "Nol" ward the attainment of a more influentinl We are here concerned primarily with role.

214 Politics: Education in the Arena 205

EL 23 (1): 7-14: October 1965 1965 ASCD The Federal Colossus in Education Threat or Promise?

GALEN SAYLOR

THAT the federal government is Migration and Refugee Assistance Act contributing in a colossal manner to thc Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 support of education from the nursery school Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965 and level through the graduate collegeis,of Amend ments course, a fact. A mere listing of some of the Adult Education Act of 1966 important acts that provide federal funds for Cooperative Education Pt.ogramsDepart- ments of Labor and HEW Appropria- the support of education reveals the tre- tion Act of 1970 mendous scope of federal participation in the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963 educational endeavors of this country. (The Mental Retardation Facilities Act, 1963. list has been updated for inclusion in this volume.) There arc many other federal assistance programs, such as the school lunch GI Rights Act (education for veterans), 1944 program, the educational phases of the Na- and extensions tional Science Foundation Act, and a multi- Public Broadcasting Act tude of otherformsoffederalaidfor AppalachianRegionalDevelopment Act of 1965 education, broadly conceived. \Tocational Education Act of 1963 and Amend- Theincreaseinappropriation;of ments of 1968 federal funds for education is even more Library Services and Construction Act, 196d revealing of the extent to which the federal CooperativeRese.trchAct,asamended by government is making a gigantic effort in ESEATitle IV, 1965 the support of education. The comparative School Aid to Federally Impacted and Major report prepared each year by the U.S. Office Disaster Areas of Education, entitled "Federal Funds for National Defense EducationAct,1958as Education," shows that in 1945 $291,500,- amended 000 was appropriated by the Congress for Manpower Development and Training Act of the direct support of education and related 1962, as amended Civil flights Act of 1964 (assistance for desegre- activities; in 1955, this sum had increased to gation) $1,523,700,000; in 1960, the !tmount was Education Professions Development Act, 1967 $2,324,100,000; in 1965, it was $6,32b,- Desegregation Assistance SectionU.S. Office 907,00; and for the fiscal year 1970, it was Appropriat:on Act of 1971 $13,232,000,000. This is to say that in 21.'2 Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange decades federal appropriations for the snp- Act port of educational programs and activities Higher Education Act of 1965 and Amend- have increased almost 50-fold.1 ments of 1968 Education of the Handicapped Act, 1969 Updatn.d for publication in this volume.

Galen Saylor, Professor of Education, Teachers College, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. In 1955, Chairman of the Department of Secondary Education

2 1 5 206 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

A further revealing fact is the increase ernment would have to raisethese large in the amount of direct appropriations to the sums of money to maintain even ourpresent U.S. Office of Education for support of that effort, office and the aid programs directly admin- 2.Extensive national effort of this A..7e istered by it; the office received $34,336,483 provides programs and services notpossible in 1950; in 1960, it was granted $474,280,- or not feasible throughlocal and state eflorts. 893; and in 1970, it received $8,559,000,000. Generally speaking, the program ofelemen- This constitutes more than a 250-fold in- tary, secondary, and collegiateeducation as it crease in the direct appropriations tothe exists in this country is inadequately sup- U.S. Office of Education in 20 years. ported now by local and state agencies.The The best estimates made available to pressure everywhere on theseunits of gov- indi- the House Appropriations Committee ernment isto appropriate ever-expanding cate that federal support foreducation, nur- sums of money for the supportof our regular sery school level throughgraduate college, program of cducation. Little,if any, of their in 1965 constituted one-sixth of all funds revenues can he used for newservices, new spent for education in this country,and that programs, and ncw venturesof an educa- in 1966 it constituted one-fifth of all such tional nature, even if it is generally agreed expenditures.The federal governmentis that such an expansion is desirable. indeed a major source of support for edu- Moreover, some aspects of educational cation, and the programs and activities which development, by their very nature, should be it subsidizes are widespread and far-flung. undertaken on a larger base than is possible by 'ocal or state authorities. Many of the Threat or Promise? existing programs of federal support areof this nature, such as the programs and serv- This stupendous amount of federal ices provided by the mental retardation act, support for education is indeed both a threat the cooperative research program, the re- and a promise to good eduzation for chil- search an :! development centers, the various dren, youih, and young adults in America. curriculum projects and commissions that Let us explore both possiMities more fully. are extensively engaged inthe formulation of new instructional materials and plans for The Promise various areas of the curriculum, the estab- Federal programsfor thesupport of lishment of educational service centers, and education in the United States show great many other endeavorscfthis kind. promise for the development and advance- 3. The federal government is able to ment of the total oppovtunities for the edu- support and foster the developmentof new cation of children, )outh, and adults in this programs' and new typesof educational country for these reasons: undertakings that generally would not be 1. Much greatersums of money be- undertaken by local educational authorities. come available for the supportof the edu- Generally local boards of education, state cational effort of this nation.Obviously, the departments of education, and the power appropriation of more than $8 billion directly structure of local communitieswould not for the support of education in this country countenance or approve the undertakingof is a huge slim of money, and it represents the types of new educational programsthat a major contribution to oureffort.If such the federal government frequently fosters and sums of money were not available,the total supports. Examples are the entire program program would of course becurtailed, or the being developed under the Economic Oppor- citizens through local or s:ate units of gov- tunity Act and most of the activities that have 216 Politics: Education in the Arena 207 been possible under the Elementary and scholars that advise the Congmss of the Secondary Education Act of 1965. United States and our national leaders on new developments and new programsthat Federal support for the existing edu- 4. should be undertaken.Nevertheless,itis cational enterprise frequently stimulates local evident that far too many of our local edu- and state agencies to increased effort in sup- cation officials simply lack the professional accepted port of the regular and traditionally qualifications to invent new programs needed examples of program of education. Good to serve adequately all of the educational such nudging are the Higher Education Fa- needs of their localities.Once the federal cilities Act, which provides a portion of the government provides support for new types education; cost of new facilities for higher of educational endeavors, a political climate Title III of the National Defense Education is cteated in which the pedantic are prodded, Act, which provided partial federal subsidy although sometimes reluctantly, into action. for the improvement of facilities and teaching resources in science, mathematics,and for- 7. FWeral efforts in support of educa- eign languages; and the Vocational Educa- tion cleorly demonstrate a desire on the part ticn Act of 1963. Similiarly, Title II of the of the Congress to develop a total program for Elementary and Secondary Education Act the education of all Americans regardless of has induced many school districts through- any economic, social, cultural, orracial fac- out the United States to expand andimprove tors that may under existing local programs library service and to develop much more deny or curtail the equality of access to rapidly than they would be inclined to do educational opportunity.The widespread otherwise their library resources for elemen- nature of the federal programs clearly irdi- tary and secondary schools. cate s that the Congress is insistent that cvery American have the privilege of participating 5.The federal government has clearly demonstrated that it can rapidly initiate the in the types of schooling and in educational development and support c f new programs in programs that will enable him personally areas of urgent need that becomeevident and individually to realize the maximum of because of new economic, social, and cul- Ifs full potentialities regardless of any fac- tural conditions. In my belief, the Congress tors that in the past have restricted or cur- of the United States and the educational tailed these opportunities. agencies established by it have .ihown dex- 8. The total federal effort in behalf of terity and willingness to move rapidly when schools, colleges, and all educational agen- great need for new kinds of programs is cies has fostered a new national interestin evident. Examples of this, of course, are the education and ha: made education a matter Manpower Training and Development Act, of great national concern. Everyone is well the National Defense Education Act, and the aware of the fact that thePresidents of the redesigning and expansion of the vocational United States in recent administrations, with education programs. the support of Congress, have been respon- 6.Federal efforts in education serve to sible for a reawakening and a revival of prod the pedantic, nudge the lethargic, and the American interest and concern for the inspire the imaginative school officials and education of its people. boards of education of local educational The Threat agencies throughout the nation. Of course, we do have highlyimaginative, creative, and Yet there are also some threats evident aggressive educators and members of local in our present national efforts in support boards of education throughout the nation, of education.Chief among these, I detect for itissuch professional educators and the following: 2 1 7 208 Curricular Concerns in a RE volutionary Era

1. The stifling of the creativeness, in- children in the classrooms and schools of ventiveness, and skill of discovery of local thisnationmust bc determined bythe educational leaders and officials.It s not, in tcachers andtheirfellowstaff members my opinion, an inevitable corWlary of federal who guidc and dircct thc development of participation in education that creativeness learning opportunities and plan thetotal and inventiveness of individual practitioners, program of education for thechildren of rcscarchcrs and scholars are stifled. Such an a particular school andschool system. Less- outcome,however, certainlyisalwaysa ening the responsibility for such decisions threat; and such a possibility should 1,e by the staff of the individual school system clearly recognized not only by thc Congress reducesthepossibilitiesforadaptability, of the United States and federal officials, but flexibility, experimentation, innovation, and, by the educators and citizens themselves so most serious of all,administration to the that conditions will be maintained that en- educational needs of cach child enrolled courage stimulation of such inventiveness in school. by everyone concerned with the educational The thrcat that such decisions will be enterprise. curtailed as a result of federal support is The very nature of federal support itself a serious onc.I sec no thrcat in the national makcs possible, perhaps cncouragcs, a situa- curriculum projects that have been substan- tion in which thosc who administer thc fed- tiallysubsidized by the National Science eral programs approve and support only Foundation and the U.S. Office of Education. thosc things that appeal to them or that The local school authorities and teachers carry out their ideas and dcsircs. For exam- still have complete freedom, insofar as those ple,inthe cooperative rcscarch program, programs arc concerned, to decide whether decisions obviously must bc madc about they want to usc thc instructional materials, what proposals to approve. plans, and thc recommendations formulated Similarly, in the establishment of re- by these commissions and curriculum de- scarch and development centers now under velopment ccntcrs, modify them, use some way in this country, someone must make a upects andrejectothcrs,or completely decision as to which proposal for a center reject the whole project itself. These projects shall receive federal support and which pro- represent orof the very rich resources posal shall be rejected. Whose philosophy of being made available through federal sup- education, whosc concept of what is good port for the upgrading of various aspects of and what is not good, whose concept of the educational programs of the schools, what should receivetheblessing of the and are indeed to bc lauded and encouraged. federal government and what should be The real threat, I believe, comes from denied its support are to prevail? Although control by federal officials over the educa- these types of programs are at prcsent only tional aspccts of the plans developed for one small aspect of the federal participation, carrying out some of these acts, particularly the possibilities here are very serious and the Elementary and Secondary Education indicatethe naturc of the problems that Act. This act gives the U.S. Commissioner face us. of Education authority to approve plans for carrying out the act and hence the conditions 2.Invidious control over the program within provisions of the law under which of education itself.Here I point to dircct grants will be made. The Economic Oppor- federal control of cducation through the acts tunity Act, Title II, prescribes the nature of that provide support for these programs. I community action plans and further states believe that the actual curriculum and other that "The Director is authorized to prescribe typcsofeducationalprogramsprovided such additional criteria for programs carried

218 Poli!tics: Education in the Arena 209 on under this part as he shall deem appro- If the purpose of such a report is not to con- priate." This is the title under which many trol the program, then why make it? It is pre- of the educational activities can be estab- sumed by the very wording of the Act that lished for children. the Congress of the United States will use Now being proposed to carry out pro- these reports on the measurement of educa- visions of the Elementary ana Secondary tionalattainment to determine what the Education Act aretestingprograms and nature of the programs shall be in subsequent programs for the assessment of educational legislation bv Congress. And it should be outcomes that indeed, in my opinion, con- pointed out tnat this Title of the Act is only stitute a setious threat to the prerogatives of authorized for one year and hence will be the teachers and local school officials in each subject to scrutiny by Congress next year, school district, and hence to sound educa- atwhich time Congresswilldetermine tional planning and administration.It is a whether it wants to extend this program, very alarming development in the history of modify it, or terminate it. Presumably, then, federal support for education that, for the if the schools want to continue to receive first time in its history, the federal govern- such aid, they will have to establish pro- ment is demanding that evidence be sub- grams that within even the next few months mitted by localschool systems on the would demonstrate to Congress that they effectiveness of these programs. are "effective," with "effectiveness" in no Title II of the Elementary and Secon- way being defined or described. dary Education Act requires that the local As I state, it is to me a terrifying de- educational agency include in its plans that velopment that such provisions were written "effectiveprocedures,including provision into the most recent federal program for the for proper objective measurements of edu- support of education.I remind the reader cational achievement, will be adopted for that no such provisions requiring objective evaluating at least annually the effectiveness evidence of effectiveness were ever written of the programs in meeting the special edu- into any other acts for the federal support of cation needs of educationally (11;prived chil- education in the entire history of the United dren." Further, the Act requires that the States. The land grant universities were not local education agency report annually to required under the Morrill Act to report to thestate educational agency "information the Commissioner of Education and hence to relating to the educational achievement of the Congress of the United States on their students participating in programs carried effectiveness in carrying out the provisions out under this title."In turn, the state edu- of that Act; the Smith-Hughes law in 1917 cational agency must "make to the com- made no such requirements of any kind on missioner periodic reports(including the the secondary schools of the United States results of the objective measurements re- that accepted federal support for vocational quired by Section 205[A] [5]) evaluating the education, and neither does the new Voca- effectiveness of payments under thistitle tional Education Act of 1963. No one, local and of particular programs assisted under schools, colleges who administer institutes, it in improving the educational attainments or any agency that receives grants for re- of educationally deprived children." search projects or other types of money under If this is not direct federal control over the National Defense Education Act, is re- tlw curriculum of the schools, I do not know quired to report to the U.S. Commissioner what federal control is. When you require of Education on the effectiveness of these a school system to report on the effectiveness programs. of the program, you are requiring that school Anyone who has had such grants or to report on its curriculum. Pure and simple. worked with such programs knows that the

219 210 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era federal government in the past had relied Although such a threat, obviously, is on the imagination, creativeness,and integ- one of long-termdevelopment,I never- rity of the local agencies to provide out- thelessfear a gradual weakening of the standing programs under the provisions of concern local citizens in manycommuni- federal these acts. ties now have about their schools as Why has the Congress of the United involvement increases. States suddenly written intoits most recent federalsubsidybillprovisionsthat The Future require the local school to gather evidence For the future, I believe the following and on the effectiveness of the program things should be done: then to submit this evidence directly to the U.S. Commissioner of Education through 1.Much greater support for the total the state educational agency? program of educationshould be provided by Title IV of the Civil Rights Act, more- the federal government. Federal supportfor over, requires the U.S.Commissioner of education should double, then triple,and Education to gather evidence on the lack of then continue to increase in the yearsim- availability of educational opportunities be- mediately ahead. cause of race, color, religion, ornational 2.Federal support should be provided origina provision that gives the Commis- for a great variety of programs,projects, sioner authority tostudy schools at the and other educational undertakings ofall local level. kinds. The total effort of the federal government should reach out into all aspectsof edu- and 3. Developmentofattitudes cation and the funds should in large partbe modes of operation of dependency and in- to entrenched used to stimulate and support more compre- difference,of kowtowing hensive and extensive educational efforts bureaucrats. A third threat of federal sup- than are carried out as a part of ourtradi- port correlative to the other two is the pos- tional program of schooling in local districts. sibility of the gyadual evolvement on the part of local citizens, boards ofeducation, 3. A large part of the program of the and school officials of an attitude of indif- federal government should constitute reference to educational matters in the local search and development activities ofbroad communities and lethargy in doing anything scope, such as would notbe feasible for to improve the quality of the program. There localeducational systems oreven state is a serious possibility of a decline in local departments of education to undertake. A interest and concern for education as support part of these research effortsshould consist and control from sources beyond the local of broadly conceived and widespread efforts communityintrease.Anyone who has to assess educational outcomes andevalua- studied closely schools and educational pro- tion of the effectiveness of educational programs inEuropeancountries, most of grams, but only on a basisthat ensures which have highly centralized and national- integrity of local control over the curriculum ized systems of education,is well aware provided pupils. of the almost total apathy and indifference 4. In providing categorical aid, the of the citizens of the local community to- federal government should be certain that ward the state and conditions of the edu- it supports only those aspects of thetotal cationalprogramsofthecommunity. educational program that represent a wise Certainly, there is a gross lack of any investment of funds.Philosophically and effort to introduce change, to experiment, educationally, programs supported by the great and to innovate. federalgovernmentshould offer n 7 0 4 ;._, Politics:Education intheArena 211 promise for major advances in the education total education for all children, youth, and of this country. young adults. 5.All educational efforts should be 6. The administration of and carrying correlated and unified through a common out of feclerally-supported educational pro-- administrative agency at all levels, federal, grams should under no circumstances be state, and local. This is not to say that the placed in the hands of persons who lack school district or the school system itself extensive and adequate professional prepa- must carry out and administer all programs, ration for such positions. There should be no but rather that all programs whether receiv- place in such federal programs for politicians ing federal support or not should be part not fully qualified by training and experience of a comprehensive and planned program of to administer such programs.

EL 28 (I): 7-8; October 1970 0 1970 ASCD

Political Power, the School, and the Culture (An Editorial)

ALVIN D. LOVING, SR.

THE school in its new role as an in the people has to go to the people through its agent of social change can no longer work governing agencies to gain support, and its very in a vacuum. Until the school is willing to reason for existence is the welfare of the people.1 recognize the fact that it must become in- The people have been trying to tell the volved with the society of which the school schools that they are willing to cooperate with is a part, no real change will take place. Let them to bring about change, but deeply in- me quote from J. A. Battle. In his book, bred tradition blinds many school people to Culture and Education for the Contemporary this. The school is now being forced to get Wor/d, Mr. Battle says: involved in the political scene at the grass- Without a politics of education that is in- roots level, and thus at a level where there is telligently led and altruistically based there can significance. be little hope for gaining quality education Edueation has been pushed into the po- within a democracy. Since a democracy is de- litical arena, the gates are closed. To survive pendent upon politics and education it must is to fight. Three or four decades ago, such have a good politics of education to survive. a confrontation would have meant sudden Someone has said that a democracy that scorns death. The changing climate of the past 10 education is actually an hypocrisy. One could years has made combatants of educators and say also with much truth that an educational education. system in a democracy that scorns politics is an I J. A. Battle. Culture and Education for the hypocrisy. The public school system of a gov- Contemporary World. Columbus, Ohio:Charles ernment in which the supreme power is vested E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969. p. 151.

Alvin D. Loving, Sr., Assistant Dean, School of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and ASCD President, 1971-72 221 212 Curricular Concerns in a RevolutionaryEra

What once had been considered the pre- Institutional Racism rogative of the school has become the concern of the State House and theWhite House. Many boards of education have begun They are Such matters as pupil placement, curriculum to yield power at the local level. development, learning concepts, selection of giving the people of the community the right building sites were the matter-of-fact, the to select their principals and to have some- mundane, to educators. Today, the mundane thing to say about the kind of curriculum has become the dramatic. The words have that is being developed in their particular changed. Local control, "quality" education, schools. However, this has become frightening to many people in power, and so in one blackstudies,integration, neighborhood school concept, freedom of choice, decen- instance, for example, the power has been tralization, relevance, accountability, the list taken away from the local board of education and assumed by the state legislature. islong.Different words mean different things and stir different emotions in different Under the guise of decentralization or, people. supposedly, an attempt to satisfy those who There is evidence that as government are crying for local control, the state legisla- moves toward ridding the North of de facto tures have proceedei to think and plan for segregated schools, and the South of dual the people. As an example, the State of schools, people are resorting to pressuring Michigan mandated that its only class A dis- the legislatures to create laws which will trict be divided into from seven to eleven make their bigotry or racism legitimate. The semi-autonomous districts.These districts, once powerless minoritiesare developing composed of between 25,000 and 50,000 techniques that frustrate and anger those school-aged youngsters, were to have a cer- who are inthe majority and who have tain amount of autonomy. The central board legitimized their undemocratic actions. of education was given a limited time to draw These minorities who live in the core the guidelines and to establish the boundaries of our urban centers have become concerned for these districts. Community groups were about the learning and the preparation that given an opportunity to submit their plans or their youngsters have for life beyond the their concepts of how these districts should school. These people are demanding "local be developed. control" of their schools and, in order to Because of the pattern of segregated living, suspicions ran high. The black areas bring this about, have gone to the street and wanted the lines drawn in such a way that are using the techniques of the street to get they would have control and power within those with political pcAver to listen.I put their groups and within their areas. This was "local control" in quotes because local con- also true of the white groups. They wanted trol has always been the way of American the lines drawn to be sure that the housing education. The local community has had pattern or the pattern of the school did not the responsibility of selecting its board of change. Members of the board of education, education arid of assisting in the determina- having listened to all of the requests that had tion of the kind of school that its young- come in from interested groups, proceeded sters should attend. Yet as our communities to draw the district lines. have become more complex, and as our At the same time, they felt that this was boards of education have become more po- an opportunity to carry out the mandates of litical and have little direct contact with the the Supreme Court decision of 1954. So not people, there is the feeling that there is a only did they draw the district lines in terms need to have a system of education con- of the number of pupils, but their design also trolled by those who are being affected. took into consideration a move toward inte-

2 2..; 2 Politics: Education in the Arena 213 gration of schools. This action was legiti- States can only be improved when schools mate and moral. continue to work toward the improvement of The white community became enraged. our culture. An American culture must be- Pressure was brought tc bear on members of come a reality. the state legislature. The previous action of America is divided by its many subcul- the legislature was rescinded and a substitute tures. Each of these groups does make a con- bill was developed, a bill that would void the tribution to the total of the American culture. attempt on the part of the board of education But emphasis on any one of them or any few not only to draw decentralization lines, but of them could delay the development of a to integrate the schools. This is a perfect basic American culture. Schools must recog- example of institutional racism. nize that much of their difficulty, whether it is at the local level or at the state level, has An American Culture been promulgated by many of the subgroups of our American culture. Again, to quote Where states have taken over the re- J. A. Battle, "Without a politics of education sponsibility for school decentralization by thatisintelligentlyled andaltruistically usurping power from the local board of edu- based, there can be little hope for gaining cation, the democratic process is threatened. quality education within a democracy." 2 El The quality of life and society in the United 2 Ibid.

EL 28 (1): 23-26; October 1970 (3 1970 ASCD

Political Power and the High School Curriculum

JOHN S. MANN

"POLITICAL POWER" isof it is proper that the citizens' schools offer concern to curriculum workers in at least extensive opportunities for learning about three related ways. First, the effort to influ- how political power operates. ence curriculum decisions is an exercise in Third, there are growing numbers of political power. Such decisions are made, students who find our schools oppressive, not on the basis of direct inference from inane, misconceived, and mismanaged, and definitive scholarly findings, but rather on who consequently are interested and in- the basis of a complex interaction of forces volved in developing the political power they representing different interests, values, be- require to bring about very substantial im- liefs, and knowledge systems. provements. Their efforts are increasingly a Second, since "Political Power" is a dominant component of the high school ubiquitous fact cf societal existence, and environment, and thus willy-nilly have be- since a democracy depends for its vigor and come an important "unplanned" part of the justness upon equitable distribution of power, curriculum.

John S. Mann, Associate Professor of Education, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.In 1970, Assistant Professor of Education, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

223 214 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

I will here try to describe one way of apparent factthat what passes for educa- interpreting these three concerns in relation tion is a consequence of very much the same to one another and then briefly mention an forces as is what passes for foreign policy. approach to exploiting the potential in this Protesting students are engaged in a struggle regard. My approach is not eclectic.It re- against many forms of oppression; but they flectsvery strongpartisan commitments are willing to put a good deal of their con- about curriculum and politics.I shall try to siderable energy and talent to work in the make these commitments quite clear. struggle against the oppression most immediate to their own experience, and that is the Dissident Views oppression of schooling.

I will begin with the dissident student Exploring Uses of Freedom and his dissatisfactions.He seems to the outsider to be in protest against everything One way for me to make my partisan- established, and to see everything he opposes ship in these matters clear is to state that I as essentially similar to everything else he findthis student view essentially correct. opposes. Opposition to the draft, it would From it I draw certain conclusions which seem, is essentially the same thing as opposi- establish the relation of the third concern of tion to a silly dress code or an inadequate the curriculum worker to the other two that curriculum. I have mentioned. The rebellious student experiences each The first conclusion I draw is this: the of these as immediate and direct oppression. most pressing task before the contemporary And ending the war in Vietnam by expanding curriculum worker is to revitalize the exit into Cambodia and Laos reflects the same ploration of the uses of freedom in educa- mentality that is involved in educating stu- tion. In the late thirties some real progress dents to live in a democracy by denying them was being made on the problem of rigor- the most fundamental, as well as the most ouslyoperationalizing the progressive trivial, rights accorded citizens by our Con- conceptions of interest, choice, and learner- stitution. From the students' point of view, centered structuring of educational programs. education is not participation in a rigged In the intervening three decades we have lost and manipulated so-called "teaching-learn- what little art we were beginning to have in ing process," but rather a natural human this difficult task, and we are now back to consequence of and exercise in the uses of debates at the very crude level of "struc- freedom. Our curriculum is manipulatory, tured" vs. "nonstructured" educational pro- mechanical, and inhuman, they assert, in grams. We must rediscover and expand our precisely the same way that our approach to grasp of theartof buildingeducative the problems of Indochina is manipulator!, programs around the act of choosing. mechanical, and inhuman. One of the recurrent problems we have A fundamental difference in world- with this notion of choosing derives from view is reflected here, and it is by virtue of the fact that many of its interpreters have this difference that the various protests blend been rooted in a highly individualistic liberal into one. But this blending ought not to ob- tradition which did not adequately handle scure what I believe is a matter of fact: that the problem of interests or rights in conflict. the center of gravity of student protest is The classroom behavior which reflects this nausea and rage over the way they are inadequacy and which for many teachers treatzd in school in the name of education. defmes the limiting factor in their ability to Nor is this fact mitigated by another equally handle "choice" is the statement I have heard 27 4 Politics: Education in the Arena 215 so often: "But if I let youdo that, everyone development of educationally and politically will want to do it." 1 adequate alternatives to our present system Choice in the context of school, like of schooling requires a massive andstrident choice in the context of a broader democratic political effort. society, cannot entirely be a matter of each These three conclusions establish the individual's doing his thing. Choices of indi- relations among the three concerns with viduals interact in very complex ways with which I began. Students are demanding dras- choices of collectivities; such choices are a tic revision of both political and educational social and a political as well as an individual outlook and behavior, Their vision of the process, and bear upon boththe conduct of process by which education is to proceedis a life in school and the conduct of life in so- synecdoche for their vision of the political ciety. The second conclusion I draw, then, process, so that the exercise of oneis both is that both the practice and the study of the a part of and a preparationfor the other. social-politica' prccess of the exercise of And the current efforts among students to choice is a crucial part of the educative ex- organize themselves into a coherent political perience. And as I have argued in another force have the potential for drastically alter- paper,2 choice is power in motion. ing the balance of powers that now shapes school policy. A Massive Political Effort Alliance with Students There are curriculum specialists who, steeped in the "progressive" conception of Given th;s outlook, the widespread ten- education, will be in basic agreement with deucy to respond to student movements with my views both of thecentrality of choice in repressive measures appears to be either folly a sound pedagogy andof the close inter- or malice. The dissidentstudents have fun- action between social-political and educative damental commitments in common with processes. Yet they and I too oftenhave been many of us who are professionaleducators; content to substitute vacuous rhetoricabout this includes professors, teachers, and cur- "humanizing education" for action; and when riculum and administrative personnel. They we have acted, too often theaction has been offer us the most viable course to fulfilling a futile sort of patchworkaffair, piecing little our commitment that has comealong in tidbitsof humanism onto athoroughly many yews.That course initssimple manipulative, impersonal, mechanical sort of essence is alliance with them in astruggle curriculum. against those individuals and institutions We have had, it seems to me, a naive that stand for oppressive "educative" prac- belief that if we would only display our hu- tices we have come to recognize as "de- manism often enough, everyone would buy humanizing." The form the struggle is to it. The third conclusion I draw is that the take is an open question.It is quite clear that the stndents have made mistakes about I I have tried to clarify the structure-nonpolitical tactics and have made errors in ana- structure problem and theindividual-collectivity lyzing educational issues.It is also clear problem in "Alternatives to SchoolThree Prob- that we have been irresponsible in failing to lems and a Piece of a Solution." In: WilliamF. think seriously about political tactics at all Pilder, editor.What Color Is Your Parachute? Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. and in failing to lend our skill to their ana- (Forthcoming.) lytic efforts. 2 'Ohl) S. Mann. "The Curriculum Worker: Yet if one believes, as I do, that the A View of His Training and His Tasks." Educa- thrust of their protest is both right and tional Comment 1970. Toledo, Ohio: University of action Toledo, 1970. urgent, then the proper course of 2" 216 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era would seem to be to support and strengthen What I envision, but what I cannot spell their movementto help make it a better out here in detail, is a movement to design movement. a progressive curriculum specifically for these There are at least three kinds of activity angry radical students, in which thorough that the typical idealistic young radicalis study of educational policy formulation and involved in that could be substantially sup- of the politics of schools would converge in ported by teachers and curriculum workers. and be reinforced, corrected, refined, and First, he is engaged in criticizing and ana- deepened in the practical experience of actu- lyzing current school practices and formu- ally formulating educational policy and strug- lating alternatives to these practices. Second, gling to enact it.3It would make perfect he is involved in learning (a) about his sense, I think, for this experience itself to own political and legal powers and rights, constitute the major portion of the dissident (b) about the distribution of and legal con- student's curriculum for a semester or two straints upon power in and around his school in his junior or senior year. system, and (c) about other powers, such as This sort of curricular innovation will groupings of `:eachers within the teachers not 'oe widely accepted by school systems, union, with which a convergence of interests because it exprisses a genuinely opposition might lead to joining forces. Third, the dissi- point of view.Its pedagogy, its political dent student is engaged in direct political strategy, anditsunderlying assumptions action over specific issues, some of which diverge markedly from those of current are educational and some of which are more school practices. I believe, though, that such broadly political."Action" here includes an innovation provides a point of departure such thingsasleafleting,holding public for curriculum planning which is responsive meetings,solicitingsupport fromother to the interests and world-views of many groups, picketing, paradingall the legal high school students. things that constitute participation in the This approach will strike a responsive democratic political process. chord, too, in a large number of teachers who entered the profession with ideals they Mutual Benefit have long since learned out of necessity to keep buried away. In each of these three activities the dis- We can do much more than merely talk sident student has much to gain from the about ways to "humanize education." We can support and assistance of professional edu- help the students with the kind of curricu- cators. And the professional educator who lum I have hinted at in spite of opposition, shares the commitments I have expressed in which may mean doing it before, after, and this paper also has much to gain. For in around instead of in school. We can seek the restlessness of these highly committed out and bring together like-minded teachers and strongly motivated students he has an and cultivate support in related professional unprecedented opportunity simultaneously to and paraprofessional groupings. We can build a prototypically progressive educa- seek proper bases for coalitions between our tional program, to cultivate the kind of unprofessional groups and dissident student derstanding of political power that is required groups. We can become more aware, our- of citizens in a democracy, and to contribute selves, of our own historical roots and of the to the growth and internal education of a deep interlocks between current school prac- political movement in opposition to current tice and the many other aspects of our school practices that he fir:1s destructive, national life. oppressive, and as thorougE, inisguided as 3 I have spelled out this proposal in some- they are drmly entrenched. what more detail in the ASCD 1972 yearbook.

226 10 ADAPTING TO THE NEEDS OF OUR TIME

Educational reforms of a sweeping and significant nature rarely have come about through the action of the schools in and of themselves. Educational practice tends to reflect what a majority or at least a plurality of society chooses to support in the classroom. Under such circumstances it seems reasonable to argue that society itself must make itself accountable for changes that are needed in the ch fabric of teaching and learning in order to bring us closer to a new central purpose for education.Shane, p. 221. EL 28 (5): 455-57; February 1971 O.) 1971 ASCD

The Greening of Curriculum (An Editorial)

PAULR.KLOHR

AS ONE examines the curricu- caught up in change were quite inadequate lum scene with a focus on "opening things for the generation of truly imaginative cur- up," a new optimism is justified. One can ricular alternatives. We were victimized by support Charles Reich's controversialthesis a technological mentality andlocked into that there is a greening of America with the kind of technological language it had increasingly strong evidence that there is generated. also a greening of the curriculum. Many thoughtful observers called this For Reich, the greening shows up in toour attentionHuebner,Macdonald, a new consciousness that hasemerged from Mann, Kliebard, among others.Yet, cur- the "machine-made environment of the cor- riculum decision makers, when pressed to porate state like flowers pushing up through reflect on what they were doing or hoped to a concrete pavement."1 This new con- do, invariably responded with "selecting and sciousness has clearly helped to nourish organizing content" in terms of "purposes." alternative curriculum designs, which are And these purposes, they commonly as- beginning to push up through the many serted, wereto be formulated from an hard-rock traditions of curriculum develop- analysis of data drawn from the "needs of ment reflected in the so-called conventional society," the "needs of individuals," and wisdom of the field. the "nature of knowledge." Until recently, it was not at all evident The difficulty with this rationale lies that such growth was possible. To be sure, not, it seems, with the naming of the data there were countless reports of innovations sources. Serious disjunctures occur at every in response to the question, "What is new?" point in the process. In fact, as a rationale, So often, however, then innovations were it breaks down so often in practice that most little more than a rearr2ngement or a rede- experienced teachers have come to regard ployment of the conveltional elements of curriculum development along these simple, curriculum planning. They affected hardly but compellingly logical, lines as a myth. It is at all the quality of life in the school. something we can talk and write about, using highly refined technological language if we New Concepts Required choose, but it really does not relate in any discernible way to what actually takes place. In effect, the conceptual toolsif one Nor does it give one a sound base for con- may think of an underlying rationale in these trolling or predicting curricular change. termsavailabletocurriculumplanners The "larger learnings," fur example, that Frazier called to our attention and the 1 Charles A. Reich. The Greening of Amer- ica. New York: Random House, Inc., 1970. p. "new priorities" that Berman explored have 395. not been in the picture. Indeed, there has

Paul R. Klohr, Professor, Curriculum and Foundations, The Ohio StateUniversity, Columbus 218 228 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 219 been no adequate curricular language ewn beyond the patchwork affair of "piecing ittle to talk about them, let alone for planning tidbitsof humanism onto athoroughly new curricular designs to open things up ,n manipulative, impersonal, mechanical sort schools. The many versions of new orga- of curriculum." 3Other curriculum con- nizational schemes do not, in themselves, cepts that impinge on the design problem do this, whatever the increased flexibility must be subjectedto similar hard-nosed they may have the potential to provide. scrutiny. An effort under way in a long-range Promising Breakthroughs project sponsored by the University Council on Educational Administrationillustrates A significant breakthrough came in the yet another promising thrust. This project, spring of 1970 in ASCD's courageous action called the Monroe City Simulation, has one to adopt a new platform statement on the task force focusing on changing the curricu- quality of life and society in the United lum. Those currently involved in this work States. This platform developed by Frazier,2 are developing a new conceptual framework with the help of others, examined seven to guide in the selection of more adequate facets of emerging counter-culture values. simulation experiences for Qurriculum de- The seven cut across all of the conventional cision makers. data which might be drawn from traditional John Herbert's efforts at the Ontario curriculum planning sources. In effect, this Institute to develop a more effective cur- statement began to recognize data for curriculum theory network is another encour- riculum planning that such critics of Amer- aging development with implications for the ican culture as Mead, Galbraith, Henry, curriculum design field. and Roszak have urged educators to ex- The continuing work at the Center for amine. New "realities" identified by some the Study of Curriculum at The Ohio State of the most thoughtful future planners were University merits attention also. Ten of the brought into focus. Center staff members were involved in 1970 But adopting a platform statement is in a joint research and development effort not enough. Professional groups have had with the Nuffield Foundation and Schools a long history of doing that. There remains Council-Supported Humanities Curriculum a large and critical job to be undertaken by Project in London, England. Clearly, this us alltheoreticians, developers, and prac- project, which ofiginated to develop more titionersto translate these emerging values adequatecurricularmaterialsforearly into adequate curricular designs in school school leavers, has served to open up the settings. New conceptual tools will be re- secondary school curriculum in England. quired to help us do this, tools that do not Like the best of the "open" primary schools have the built-in error of most of our pres- in that country, it suggests thoughtful alter- ent curriculum development concepts. native curriculum designs for us. Among other things, we must reassess The greening turns up also in descrip- the political power context of curriculum tions of alternatives to traditional schooling. making. John Mann has performed a useful This writer continues to be inspired by what service in his examination of the political some of the free schools have done, for power question which, in his words, goes example, to reconceptualize the problems of curricular design and to create new roles 2 Alexander Frazier."The Quality of Life and Society in the United States." In: Robert R. Leeper, editor. A Man for Tomorrow's World. 3 John S. Mann. "?olitical Power and the Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and High School Curriculum."Educational Leader- Curriculum Development, 1970. pp. 62-84. ship 28 (1): 24; October 1970.

229 220 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era for students and community as wellas the past several yearsat Murray Road teachers. School in Newton, Massachusetts, stands as a good example. And, clearly, we need to The Task Ahead create more adequate concepts for con- trolling and predicting change. In the months ahead,this greening I am convinced that we must keep in process calls for good, accurate descriptions mind, more than ever before, that values are of what is happening without all of the Madi- quite central in this process of curriculum son Avenue :alk that has so often character- development.Attention to values and to ized our reporting. The effort of Arthur W. the quality of life commitments the Associa- Foshay 4 in reporting what has happened in tion for Supervision and Curriculum Devel- opinent has made will give us a new base -! Arthur W. Foshay. Curriculum for the for generating more adequate curriculum 70's: Agenda for Invention.Washington, D.C.: NEA Center for the Study of Instruction, 1970. designs. 0

EL 28 (6): 581-84; March 1971 e 1971 ASCD

The Rediscovery of Purpose in Education

HAROLD G. SHANE

SOMETHING seemedtogo purpose is becoming frighteningly obvious. awry with the once-sustaining purposes of After 10,000 years we appear to have come U.S. education in the years between 1920 full circle and once again need to rediscover and 1970. By the late 1960's there was even the purpose of primitive man's education the gloomy prospect that our instructional human survival in the face of a dangerous, landscape might be on the way to becoming implacable environment. a littered ideological junkyard. From a life-and-death battle with a hos- As we entered the 1970's there un- tile nature early in our history we have cycled doubtedly were more than a few Americans back to a point at which we face an analogous who uneasily speculated, and not without struggle to protect ourselves from an environ- some reason, that we were moving into a menta biosphere to use fashionable ter- confused, "Twilight of the Goals" interval minologywhich has been made dangerous which foreshadowed a social and educational for man by man. Among the present, clear Armageddon that was likely to occur in the dangers are our propensity for overbreed- next decade or two. ing, our ingenuity in devising deadly weapons,thecarelessreleaseofpoisonous THE REDISCOVERY OF BASIC PURPOSE. technological wastes, and the thoughtlessly Because of contemporary educational prob- accumulated mountains of "indisposable" lems too well known to need recounting, it trash which crowd our living space. is suggested here with a sense of urgency It is simple to propose that learning to that the need for a rediscovery of educational survive has become a new central goal of

Harold G. Shane, University Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington 230 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 221 education; it is decidedly less simple to con- those of tens of millions of others who would jecture about how to go about approaching produce nothing. This is a projection of a such an objective. repugnant possibility, however, and not a prophecy! ATTAINING NEW "SURVIVAL BEHAV- Despite the reversal of our human pyra- IORS." At least two paths of action present mid, a 50,000-year interval of deep-rooted themselves if we accept the concept that sur- survival behavior is not quickly forgotten. vival in a meaningful world is an immediate For the most part, society and its schools goal for education. One of these is a reinter- have both failed to teach and failed to under- pretationof whatconstitutes"survival stand thrl man is becoming more capable of behaviors." The other is an educational re- surviving by living with his fellows rather formation which will not only permit but than by living on his fellows.Conjecture which will begin to ensure that children and clearly suggests that there is not only "room youth in our schools put together valid "beat the top" but room everywhere for self- havioral survival kits."Such kits will help realization and for a better life for all in the them not only to make it into the next cen- inverted social pyramid of the present century but, in the process, to begin to recast the tury if we can discipline ourselves to make world L:o that it promises to remain a nutri- the needed "survival decisions." To put it tive bioenvironment suitable for mankind to bluntly, a 1800 reversal is needed in the inhabit. Let us look first at survival be- traditional concept of "get-ahead behavior" havior. that man has learned to accept during the From earliest times, the notion of sur- past 500 centuries. We now need to learn vival was associated with attaining and stay- how to stop behaving like troglodytes in ing at the apex of a socioeconomic pyramid. trousers and take the steps that lead from At least until the 19th century, about 15 per- being the scattered members of insecure cent of Western Europe's populationaristo- tribes to becoming a secure mankind. crats, soldiers, ecclesiastics, scholarswas supported by the laborers, agrarians, and NEW PURPOSE AS A SOURCE OF DIREC- artisans making up the other 85 percent. TION FOR EDUCATIONAL CHANGE.Educa- Man fought like Duke William at Hastings tional reforms of a sweeping and significant to get to the top of the pile and schemed like nature rarely have come about through the King John at Runnymede to stay there. In- action of the schools in and of themselves. deed, through the ages, history has defmed Educational practice tends to reflect what a the one who survives as "successful" and has majority or at least a plurality of society bestowed its worldly favors on those caesars chooses to support in the classroom. Under who proved to have the highest "survival such circumstances it seems reasonable to quotients" in life's arenas! argue that society itself must makeitself In the past century, however, science, accountable for changes that are needed in technology, and democracy have combined to invert the human pyramid. Today in the the fabric of teaching and learning in order United States, no more than 7 percent of the to bring us closer to a new central purpose population is needed on our mechanized for education. farms to produce food for the remaining 93 Below is a sample of the kind of ne- percent.Theoretically,one-third of our glected or minimized learnings that a society adults, by 1985, would not even need to be interested in the survival and in the physical pruductive workers.The remaining two- and psychological health of the children and thirds of the U.S. population doubtless could youthshouldmandatethatitsschools meet not only their own material needs but recognize:

101 Ca Ill 222 Curricular Concerns In a Revolutionary Era

1.That we need to begin to lead less meaningful, more interesting, and more use- wasteful, extravagant lives, to do with less, and ful to them. A relevant education, an edu- to rediscover enjoyment in simpler activities, cation for survival, is one which introduces objects, and pleasures so that our posterity will children and youth to participation in the not live a marginal existence in a world stripped tasks that they and adults confront together half-naked of its inheritance in the real world of the 1970's. 2.That the despoliation of our forests Furthermore, if we are to make rapid and the pillage of our pure air and clean water progress toward the successful attainment of shall cease along with the poorly managed ex- a new central purpose for educatien, society ploitation of fuels, fertile soils, and metals. Such must not only encourage but require that the abuses must be terminated by group consensus schools work to produce a generation of hard- and by the legislation to which it leads headed young people committed to survival 3.That no one has the right to befoul or yet remembering the meaning of compas- poison the earth with chemicals or radioactive sion; persons who have been taught the wastes or poorly removed sewage and garbage Realpolitik of life with honesty but who are nonetheless untainted by cynicism because 4.That unless we exercise prudence and personalresponsibility, we willsuffer badly they believe that it is not yet too late to cope from the malignant consequences of changes with man's threat to himself. that affect man's relationships with his environment, as in faulty city planning, random dam THE FIRST STEP IN REFORMATION. building, or unwise land use Making a beginning in reform is not up to "society" as an abstract entity but to each of 5.That there is a need to understand the us as the individuals who make up society. immediate danger of irresponsible and uncon- It is through a new sense of imprescriptible trolled human breeding as the world's popula- personal responsibility that we can dispel the tion builds up toward the 4,000,000,000 mark threatening twilight that recently has shad- 6.That the folly of conflict is becoming owed our goals. more and more incongruous in a world grown In the process of creating a more be- capable of self-destruction nign environment, some of our sensate pleas- 7.That mass media need to become uresandmuch ofourconspicuous more positive agents for reinforcing the edu- consumption must diminish. Also, today's cational guidance of the young, for producing thoughtless waste of human and material less misleading advertising, for more thoughtful resources must first be decreased and then and less strident news, and for a more accurate ended as quickly as possible. In the process, and dignified portrayal of life in the global our lives will perforce become not only sim- village pler and less hedonistic; they will become 8.That we must learn to be more per- more people-centered and less thing-cen- sonally responsible for the participation and tered. This necessary redirection can bring earned support that are needed to ensure an us far more gain than loss. The satisfactions increase in the number of abl; dedicated pub- of 40 or 50 years ago were not necessarily lic servants in elective and appointive govern- less warm or less desirable because feet, mental offices. bicycles, or street cars transported an older THE DEEPER MEANING OF "RELE- generation to shops, schools, cr theatres! VANCE." What we mean by "relevance" in Furthermore, the short and long range education is implicit in the previous eight changes that an endangered world requires points."Relevance" is more than teaching for its future well-being should also involve subject matter and providing experiences fewer tensions, less erosive competition, and that the young say they fmd immediately a clearer, more relaxing perspective with 2:12 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 223 regard to what is most worth doing and most responsibility for the social and educational worth having. reforms that are prerequisite to physical survival is but one side of the coin. A CONCLUDING CONJECTURE. Assum- There is the concomitant task of helping we do avoid extinction,there would ing the young of each generation to discover seem to be two levels or kinds of survival for for themselves a moral, aesthetic, intellec- man: as a biological species and as humans. tual, and scientific heritage that they see The eight survival learnings itemized here cause for making a part of themselves. Does should help to ensure that the species is it not then seem reasonable that our success around for some time to come. If nothing in guiding this freshening, continuing redis- else, sheer panic seems likely soon to moti- covery by the young of what makes us vate .us to diminish the interrelated prob- human is what gives the real meaning to lems of ecology, of hunger, of waste, and of "education for survival"? conflict. And may one not rightly conjecture To survive in a truly human context that as a society-of-the-individually-responsi- rather than a merely biological one is some- ble accepts this task, it simultaneously could thing else!Here we come to a more subtle becomeits own best hope forsurvival aspect of a "survival kit" for young learners. through the rediscovery of sustaining pur- Our rediscovery of purpose and of personal pose in education?

EL 27 (5): 489-97; February 1970 C 1970 ASCD

The Nature of Curricular Relevance

HARVEY GOLDMAN

OUR current concern with cur- an awareness of the nature of learning that ricular relevance is by no means a recent has not been excelled in recent decades. phenomenon. In fact, two books 1 published Nevertheless, it also remains true that in the 1930's (The Saber-Tooth Curriculum relatively few teachers have adequately put and Experience and Education) offer some into effect relevant curricula which are re- of the finest and clearest sets of criteria sponsive to the needs of children, individ- available for the development of such cur- ually as well as collectively.2 (For purposes of clarification, relevant curricula are defined ricula. Both Benjamin and Dewey possessed here as those desigded to meet students' 1 Harold Benjamin. The Saber-Tooth Cur- needs as perceived by those students.) That riculum. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Com- this is so is only partially the fault of teachers pany, 1939. 139 pp.; John Dewey. Experience and in general. Certainly, the demands of school Education. New York: Collier Boo'zs, Fifth Print- ing, 1966. 91 pp. (Originally published in 1938 2 William Van Til. "The Key Word Is Rele- by Kappa Delta Pi.) vant." Today's Education 58: 14-17; January 1969.

Harvey Goldman, Associate Professor of Educational Administration, University ofMaryland, College Park

2:13 224 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era systems for conformity on the part of teach- of concern for curricular relevance. The in- ers, centralization of authority and decision ability of schools to affect urban youth from making, and a hesitancy on the part of lower socioeconomic groups has been amply educators, both teachers and administrators, documented; and this inability has continued to serve as statesmen on behalf of those to exist regardless of attempts to improve the educational concerns which they knew to be learning environments in those schools. Pres- desirable have all contributed to the present sures placed on the schools to educate more dilemm a. effectively the disadvantaged, the disaffected, The failure to develop curricula that are and the alienated in both social and intel- responsive to the needs of children is evident lectual terms will increase as long as those when one reads the professional journals; persons view formal education as the prime article upon article cites the lack of relevance route along which they must travel in order in contemporary curricula, the need for re- to enter the mainstream of society. lating school experiences to those which the Incidentally, we should also be cogni- children encounter in their broader environ- zar t of the fact that most suburban schools ments, and emphasizes the importance of thc are no more relevant than their urban coun- school as an aspect of the toial community terparts. Miel 4 has succinctly portrayed the rather than as a scparate entity in and of extent to which those schools have ignored itself. the major social issues of our time and the One of the most significant indications degree to which their professional staffs were of the extent to which the schools have unable to cope with those problems even if divorced themselves from the communities in they chose to do so.Basically, most subur- which they are situated is the pressure being ban schools appear especially responsive to applied in our urban areas for schools to de- adults and only minimally responsive to centralize and enable local residents to exert ch ildrcn. greater influence on institutional policies.3 They not only do that which the par- The frustration and alienation which these ents demand; they do it in the way that the people feel have only begun to surface, and parents demand it be done. To the degree we can anticipate additional pressures, which that this is true, educators have abrogated are fundamentally attcmpts to transmit con- their professional responsibilities in favor of trol of the schools from centralized bureau- "consensus education."Data documenting cracies and impersonal school boards to the the extent to which suburban educators con- citizens most intimately concerned with the tinue to ignore their responsibilities to the qualityof educationofferedtochildren. Whether or not local control of community broader social community continue to ac- schoolswillactuallyresultinimproved cumulate.3It is, perhaps, somewhat ironic educational opportunitics for children re- that the students are the only meaningful mains to be seen. voice in our suburban communities currently There is little doubt that the existence demanding greater relevance on the part of of large concentrations of disadvantaged chil- the schools. dren, often Negro, who seemingly are unaf- fected by the schools which they are required 4 Alice Miel.The Shortchanged Children of Suburbia.New York: The Institute of Human Re- to attend has precipitated this manifestation lations Press of the American Jewish Committee, 1967. 68 pp. 3 For example, see the following: Board of Harvey Goldman."ASurvey of Efforts Education of the City of New York. "ProposeJ Made bySelected MilwaukeeAreaSuburban Community School District: Detailed Summary of School Systems To Promote More Adequate Inter- System Plans."The New York Times,Sunday, group Education." Milwaukee: The American Jew- December 15, 1968. ish Committee, March 1968. 34+ pp.

224 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 225

Criteria of Relevance dents may participate in theirdevelopment, it is clearly the responsibility of the teacher Some contend that there is not any to ensure that the behavior ofthe students is "prescription" for teachers to utilize when channeled toward the desired educative ends. adapting curricular content to meet criteria Fourth, a relevant curriculum cannot be to- of relevance,6 that each teacher must "use tally teacher-designed; the sheermagnitude his intelligence in relating the required con- of the task precludes any such eventuality tent to the world of the learner." If true,then and ensures that significant segments ofthe any attempts to develop criteriafor relevance curriculum will be standardized and com- by those who previously have been successful mercially available.8 in a given endeavor would prove futile. At this point, turning to the criteria Eccles 7 clearly implies that those aspects of which constitute the conceptual framework human nature which prevent us from taking on which relevant curricula arebased, we full advantage of the past experiences of find the following: others act as a deterrent to human progress rather and preclude the development of solutions to 1. A relevant curriculum is active than passive.°It is based on the assumption complex problems. that students learn by doing.In such cases, There are, quite clearly, certain criteria teachers' lectures or assigned readings will con- which have repeatedly been associated with stitute only a minor part of the plannedlearning the concept of relevancy and which have experiences. The school will also expand its been espoused by philosophers as well as concept of what constitutesthe parameters educational practitioners; and itisthese within which children will be confined for edu- which constitute the core of any "prescrip- cative experiences and will come to view the tion" offered as a guide to those who must total community as a learning laboratoryand act at the front line and who arecharged a part of the curriculum.Children will spend a with the responsibility of translating such considerable portion of time testing hypotheses which they developed and learning to generalize experiences. concepts into tangible educative both deductively and inductively. An awareness of the fact that there are characteristics which are not, and should 2. A relevant curriculum will deal with not be, associated with the conceptof cur- values." The existence of personal, community, ricular relevance is also necessary.Such and societal values, some ofwhichare occasion- curricula are not developed by children in ally in conflict with one another, is faced whenever students are placed in aposition where personal inter- an attempt to translate their alternatives must be considered. While no edu- they are, ests into educational experiences; cator should ever permit himself toadopt the rather, developed by teachers after intensive indefensibleposition of attempang to teach study of the students, their interests and as- children the "correct" values, neither should he pirations, the immediate community, and the exclude their consideration from the classroom broader concerns of the total society. Second, because of their controversial nature. teachers it is not one with reference to which 3. A relevant curriculum should bebased opposite play a passive role; in fact, quite the on experiences with whichchildren are familiar is true. Third, the establishmentof reasonable guidelines within which children must 8 Harvey Goldman and Luther Pfluger."Mul- act is not left to the students;while the stu- tiple Curricula: A Strategy for Selection."Educa- tional Leadership 26 (7): 688-92; April1969. 6 William Van Til, op. cit., p. 17. 9 John Dewey, op. cit. Military Concepts and 10 chris Buethe. "A Curriculum of Value." 7 Henry E. Eccles. 31-33; October Philosophy. New Brunswick, New Jersey:Rutgers Educational Leadership 26 (1): University Press, 1965. pp. 21-26. 1968. 226 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

and in which they are interested." There are Concepts such as community cohesive- few, if any, means at the disposal of the schools ness and/or fragmentation, the influence of to force students to learn. They will learn about group morale, and the nature of community the things which interest them. Thus, it seems pride could be introduced.The students only sensible for the schools to begin the learn- could attempt to figure out what a commu- ing process with areas about which the children nity really is, with the teacher helping them are already motivated and ready to put forth effort. to approach the topic from the points of view expressed by such diverse disciplines as 4.The learners must be guided into new sociology, economics, anthropology, or psy- areas of concern.Since no one would argue chology.Intra- and inter-community com- that the children's interests should be the entire parisons could be made.The historical basis for a relevant curriculum, the teacher must derivation of be responsible for dicillfully leading the students their community could be into additional areas of concern which emanate explored; the future needs of their com- from their original interests.Since every area munity could be studied, taking into account in which children can manifest interest has both factors such as the technological revolution historical antecedents and future implications, and current racial and/or ethnic conflict. the teacher has a ready-made "ladder" along Teachersandstudentscouldinterview which to lead the children on a step-by-step parents and other community representatives basis. and the children could then integrate the 5. A teacher can present the same con- insights derived from this process into their cepts to children within the framework of a conceptual frameworks. relevant cur;iculum as are offered through more The teaching of language arts and conventional curricula.It is, however, antici- reading could follow a similar approach. pated that different materials and techniques Students could utilizetheir social studies will be utilized in arriving at the agreed upon units as bases for writing stories of interest goals. to them. In cases where children were unable to write, they could dictate their ideas For example, in second grade social to tape recorders, aides, or teachers. The studies, the students usually study the com- compilation of these stories into loose-leaf munity. Rather than relying as heavily upon "books" made availabletoall members the currently widespread approach of t.om- of the class would provide them with rele- bined textbook and discussion, the children vant texts and also enable the teachers to could spend more time gathering data about deal with their classes as single units when their own community and undertake the de- necessary for purposes of group or individ- velopment of hypotheses relative to the na- ual reading. ture of a community based on the data. With Stories of this nature should focus on their teacher's assistance they could count topics of interest to students. At the ele- the number of stores, service stations, one- mentary level,interestin fields such as family and two-family homes, apartment death, birth, space, flight, sports, personal buildings, bars, churches, and abandoned fears and ambitions, family strengths and cars and then utilize these data in the for- weaknesses, self-evaluation, and individual mulation of hypotheses. Questions could be differencesare likelyto be manifested. raised about why some communitiesare Secondarystudentswillquiteprobably composed of all Negro residents while others examine such areas as dating, sex, ethics, contain all white residents. ethnicity, racial conflict, the quality of the education enterprise, 11 Vincent Lanier. "The Teaching of Art as the "establishment," Social Revolution." Phi Delta Kappan 50: 314-19; their conceptions of an equitable society, the February 1969. use of power, and others which fall within

226 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 227 the context of their normal out-of-school level administrators and curriculum super- conversations. visorsto teachers will have to undergo considerable modification. This will, in all considerable Related Considerations probability,alsonecessitate change in their roles. The process through The fact of the matter is that the vast which teachers are normally evaluated by majority of teachers are now able to effect a principals will have to be modified exten- relevant curriculum, and would do so if the sively.This should be a change that prin- necessary conditions were implemented. This cipals will be glad to see occur since they is an especially important point for adminis- have not, for the most part, devoted enough trators and supervisors to note. Given the time to the task nor been willing to face current conditions in the vast majority of the harsh realities of attempting to define schools, however, itis literally impmsible poor teaching. Once organized intoinstruc- for most teachers to develop relevant cur- tional teams, the supervision and improve- ricula. ment of the instructional process will become First, the development of relevant cur- a built-in responsibility of the team,and one ricula is largely dependent on a team teach- for which all participants will have to assume ing approach to instruction. The form that some responsibility; this is to say that the the teams take is incidental, but some care- team will have to assume responsibility for fully thought out cooperative approach to assuring its own effectiveness, and this will teaching children is necessary.If teachers require the members to assist each other are to meet the criteria ofrelevance they in improving the quality of instruction. must have time during the day to think, to Supervisors, rather than continuing as plan, to leave the building when necessary personnel who help teachers improve their for instruction-related purposes, and to con- professional skills through the processes of fer with one another. observation, consultation, and demonstra- Clearly, schools organized on a self- tion, will instead become "translators of re- contained classroom basis do not, and can- search," individuals who constantly scan the not, provide such opportunities. It is only in available research in their areas of concern some form of team teaching arrangement and who organize small group seminars dur- where teachers sometimes deal with large ing which they work with teachers to help groups of children, occasionally withsmall them become aware of the implications that groups or a single student, and at othertimes such research has for them as they operate are not in contact with children at allthat the within their instructional teams. needed opportunities will be available. Also, Third, teachers will have to commit since no teacher can "be all things to all themselves to seeking solutions for instruc- people," the pooling of professional talents tional and interpersonal problems within that takes place in teaching teams facilitates theirteamstructures or provide a procedure the development of relevant curricula by through which such matters can be handled, making available to students broader ranges one possibility being binding arbitrationby a and types of competencies. Thus, the current person outside the team.In essence, the demands being made of teachers housed in team approach to instruction requires that self-contained classrooms can only result in the members find ways to integrate their pro- frustration and poor staff morale; the majority of teachers know what to do, and even fessional and personal skills into a smoothly how to do it, but are blocked by conditions functioning unit; those unable to do so, and inherent in the nature of their assignments. unwilling to accept external mediation, may Second, the relationship of building find it necessary to seek another school, an- 227 228 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era other system, ur perhaps even another pro- to have these changes take place unless they fession. too are willing to make some commitment to change within their own ranks that would In conclusion, it would appear that the provide teachers with an opportunity to be development of relevant curricula is a task successful in their new roles. There are some that teachers are prepared to undertake, but indications that classroom teachers are now that it is unreasonable to expect them to do more inclined to make the necessary changes so unless related organizational and role than are their administrative superiors who changes which would provide teachers with are caught in a web of internal politics and the necessary freedom are also effected. who view those operating at the "front line" What this implies is that communities with varying degrees of suspicion. can have the kind of education they want for Until these concomitant changes occur, their children. And school systems can look increased pressure upon teachers for "instant forward to changes in their teaching staffs relevance" will only result in more militant that will permit them to become more effec- teachers who will be increasingly content to tive than is now the case. However, com- rely upon teachers organizations to defend munities and school systems cannot hope their integrity.

FRED T. W1LHELMS

PROFESSOR Hans Furthof thing; it grows out of the potentials of the Catholic University thinks that in the early organism interacting dynamically with the grades we put 'way too much emphasis potentials of the environment. Whatever on teaching reading. His reason may sur- may have been born into the organism to prise you. It is not that reading is unimpor- begin with, its development can be held low tant, but that learning to read is such a low by a barren environment or pushed high level cognitiveexercise! He proposesa by rich opportunity. That much is known. "school for thinking," because building the And in a human being the range between power for knowing pays off better than im- the possible low and the possible high is planting the knowledge itself. very, very great. Forgive me, Hans, for so crude a sum- Knowing that much, we move naturally mary of your complex ideas.But your to the fundamental questions: How can we proposal epitomizes a perception of human shape the environment to potentiate what- intelligence that is gathering such intensity ever the child was born with? Rather than it may revolutionize education. The basic merely tool up a child at the current level fact is known: Whether you study mice _11- of his "native intelligence," can we plan a rats or dogs or monkeysor peopleyou campaign to change the level of that "intelli- find that "intelligence" is not a passive, static gence" itself, to increase the power to learn

Fred T. Wilhelms, ASCD Senior Associate, Washington, D.C. In 1970, ASCD Executive Secretary

228 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 229 and to know? The best of modem psychol- vocabulary and the use of symbols, and ogy says we canand there is no greater lay the foundations of a simple logic. And message of hope in the educational world al/ this can be done in an aura of affectionate today. Now it is up to us teachers to figure fun, accompanied by really good physical out how to do it,and thatis what this care. article is all about. The immediately ensuing period has For several years I have been keeping already had considerable attention, in nur- one eye on the developing evidence, and I sery schools, in Operation Head Start, and should like to risk a few more-or-less edu- so on.Great technical questions remain cated guesses on the way things will go. to be solved. But it is probably the period The easiest time to create big gains is of least hazard, if only we universalize pre- when the child is very young.Therefore, kindergartens as well as kindergartens. I think, our first target must be the parents, But then the trouble starts again! As especially the mother.For one thing we Furth might put it, we get utterly preoccu- must effect a partnership between educa- pied with teaching readingand arithmetic, tion and the health services, so that even and, a little later, geography and whatnot. in the prenatal period the mother has good We grow a bit grim. The older child's tiinc nutrition, including essential minerals and is too important for fooling around. There vitamins, and so that the baby is properly is subject matter to be covered. fed and cared for. We have the resources to teach young parents (in advance, while Power for Knowing they are in our schools, but also whenever they need us), but we need an alliance with If we really believe that we can im- other specialists. For another thing it will prove the power for knowing as well as the be essential to teach parents how to play stock of knowledge itself, we are going to with their infants, how to talk with them, have to change thatradically.Furth's how toarouse and stretchtheirminds. "schoolforthinking" may provide one Games and talk are no mere pleasant inci- model.The"discovery"and"inquiry" dentals; they can get enormously important approaches certainly have much to offer. learningsgoing during thesensorimotor But we may easily become too verbal, too period and when the child is beginning to abstract, too separated from reality. We talk. have much to learn about maintaining an Inevitably there will be a fundamental alert sensory push. We need to go on sharp- decision as to how early the school should ening visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile enter the picture.There will be a clash acuitythe tendency to notice and discrimi- between our ideal of keeping the child in the nate. We need to teach abilities to classify home and our anxiety about the damage and reason and generalize. None of this done by homes that perform poorly. My will be too difficult to learn if we believe guess is that we shall come to some form in the purpose. of schooling around age three. My hope But then comes a time of even greater is that we can tie this closely to the parents hazard. Most secondary school people turn and teach them as we begin to teach their off their brains whenever the talk turns to children. With a little time at school under "creating intelligence."They have been the supervision of experts--and much more taughtall too well that about half the tinie with parents who have been taught intelligence a person will ever have isal- what to dowe can greatly sharpen sensory ready present when he enters the first grade perception, stimulate active encounter with and most of the rest when he leaves the sixth. the resources of the environment, enrich It's not their problem! 29 230 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Yet, wait a minute! Think back to Maybe this is the level where, mostof all, Piaget, who is the fountainhead of mostof we need a "schoolfor thinking." the thinking about the early years.In his Whatstandsinour road?Fact- own scheme ofdevelopment, the stage of mongering, mostly. formal operations only begins at about the first year of the middle school.What does The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers. this mean in practice?It means that what of Hilda Taba called the higher processes Fact-mongering is the schools' peculiar thought are chiefly the domain of the secon- form of "getting and spending,"and lays dary school! waste our children's powers.Ground to be If we are genuinely concerned with Knowledge to be accumulated. enhancing cognitive power, are we going to covered. And in the meantime the essential powerfor stop with the sensorimotor stage,perceptual learning barely holds its own. sharpening, and Piaget's concrete opera- proving, inch by inch, tions? That would be a curious event. Research is that that power itself can be deliberately Taba did her experimental work with If this upper-grade children, but she never thought cultivated, with no known bounds. is true, it cannot be less than the mostim- it would stop there.Just before her death portant truth in the entire cognitivedomain. she was busily and enthusiastically demon- What particular increment in knowledge can strating that we can teach even the lower IQ children to reason, to study a mass of possibly be as important as an increment in the power to know? The two are not data and make a generalization, to move to mutually exclusive; quite the contrary! But a new situation and transfer ormodify old conclusions, as appropriate. She was saying if one had to be sacrificed, for the moment, that you can take the "higher processes" which should it be? apart and systematically teach their com- What we need, at bottom, is faith in the ponent partsand then put them together. human organism.

STEPHEN M. COREY ELINOR K. COREY

What issensitivity education all and women and boys and girls perceivewhat about? they do to one another, and to themselves, Sensitivity education helps people bein the give and take of face-to-face commu- come more aware of, more sensitive to,what nication. happens as they react to one another, espe- When sensitivity education is success- cially in face-to-face situations. It helps men ful, more of these interaction events,hope- New Stephen M. Corey, Professor of Education Emeritus,Teachers College, Columbia University, York City; and Elinor K. Corey 240 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 231 fully, are taken into account.People get needed in large amounts and throughout in c/oser touch with themselves and with our lifetime. the others they live and work with. Why is the term "laboratory" used Is there a difference between sensi- so often in discussions of sensitivity educa- tivity education and sensitivity training? tion or sensitivity training? Not much, if any. Many school people The word "laboratory" calls attention seem to dislike the implications of the word to the fact that sensitivity education is most "training" and associate it with less impor- apt to be furthered in a setting in which tant activities. people are actively reacting to one another The expressionsensitivityeducation rather than by reading about such inter- suggests two things that sensitivity training actions and discussing what has been read. may not.First, the setting for sensitivity This means a laboratory rather than an aca- education is more apt to bein formal demic setting.Historically, all aspects of institutions of educationschools or col- human relations training have tended to be leges.Second, attempts to :ncrease sensi- academic.It was believed that if relevant tivity represent a continuous and pervasive information was learned and certain slogans emphasis rather than being intensive and were accepted and repeated, human relations focal as is usually the case in sensitivity sensitivity as an aspect of improved human training. relations would almost automatically take place. Isn't there great variation in what is done and called sensitivity education? What is the most important single Yes, the procedures valy greatly. No thing a teacher might do to further sensi- one seems to have arrived at the final an- tivity in the classroom? swer as to how increased sensitivity can The first essential step is to try to create best be brought about. The central purpose a classroom climate that encourages boys of allsensitivity education, though, is to and girls to report and discuss the way they help people become more aware of what are feeling about themselves and one an- happens when there is face-to-face inter- other and their teacher.Usually these ex- action.This is the case even when other pressions of feelings are discouraged and expressions are used, such as encounter punished. groups or T-groups. When did sensitivity education in Should high priority be placed on the sense of this discussion get started? including more sensitivity education in the Unusual individual teachers have for schools? a long time helped boys and girls become It is hard to imagine anything more more aware of themselves and of one an- important at the present time than the im- other. As a so-called "movement," how- provement of human relations, and that is ever, the National Training Laboratory. in what successfulsensitivity education fur- Group Development got under way more thers.Our material wealth is unbelievable than 20 years ago and its influence has been but we often seem to be in the Dark Ages great. This Laboratory, along with the nu- in our human relationships. The evidence merous training activities developed later at of our inability to sense, and subsequently EsaleninnorthernCalifornia,isoften to do enough about, the horrible and ter- cited as being mo' t influential in the spread rifying effects people have on one another of sensitivity education or training ideas is heartbreakingSensitivity educationis and practices.

241 232 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Many people talk about sensitivity be reported in the "here and now," so to training as if it were a kind of therapy. Is it? speak, because doing so greatly helps the Most of the meaningful interactions be- group members understandinterrelationships tween two or more people probably have among human interaction events. Another therapeutic potential.This is most apt to ground rule discourages long explanations be trueifthe interactions are relatively and references to personal biography. Con- frank and their effects are reported and confrontation is favored. Politeness and evasive- sidered immediately and thoughtfully. There ness and sparring are discouraged. Thepoint may be some difference in therapeutic im- to most of these rules, whether they are ex- plications between sensitivity education un- plicit or implicit,is that they further the dertaken primarily to enable people to work honest reporting and discussing of human together better and that undertaken primarily relations events as they take place.Only to further their personal development. when they are so reported are they available TheNationalTrainingLaboratory for study, and only when their context has started out with emphasis on the former. been ;hared can they be helpfully examined Esalen activities have more to do with per- and understood. sonal growth and are probably more con- Is sensitivity education beneficial to sistendy therapeutic. very young children? What is the reason for the rather re- There is no lower or upper age limit for cent surge of interest in sensitivity education? some form of sensitivity education.Children There are probably many reasons. One in nursery schools have been helped to be- is that many people who have had some of it come more aware of the effects of their inter- report that they were benefited. Another impersonal behavior on other children and on portant reason, undoubtedly, is our serious themselves. They can be helped to keep in and increasing concern and worry about the closer touch with the way they feel about and quality of modern human lifeour worry perceive what other people do to them and about the effect of the total environment, what they do to other people. including other people, on the quality of human existence. Most sensitivity training seems to be quite intensive, like a course or subject. Is Does sensitivity education require a this the case for sensitivity education? group context? Sensitivity education or training can In the sense in which the words are either be intensive and focal or continuous used here, yes. In order for human relations and undertaken to implement some larger events to occur, so that there can be practice purpose. All school experience should rep- in perceiving them, people must actively resent continuous sensitivity education in the interact. This requires at least two people, sense that it exploits opportunities tofurther face-to-face. The worth of these interactions constructive human relationships. Doing so for sensitivity education is greatly enhanced is the central purpose for sensitivity educa- if the members of the group within which tion. Any "subject matter" will be better they take place try to observe certain ground learned in a classroom that is a good labora- rules. tory for human relations. To try to teach What are some of these sensitivity arithmeticor chemistry or whateverto educationground rules? groups of children and pay no attention to One calls attention to the desirability of the effects they are having on one another reporting frankly the feelings and thoughts and their feelings about their teacher is to that the interactions provoke. And they must be blind to important influences on learning. 247 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 233

Why do discussions of sensitivity They would appear to be a pretty education so often get heated? heterogeneous lot from the point of view Sensitivity education has much to do of life style. A majority, though, seem to with the emotions and increased candor in be much concerned with getting as much their expression. This troubles many people pleasure as is possible from the "here and because the culture most of us have learned now" and from human relationshipsin almost forces is to inhibit or disguise our general. This, when and if it is recognized, feelings.People who have benefited from arouses conflictwith what many of us sensitivity education are apt to be more have been taught to believe about the in- candid. This stirs things up. evitability and wholesome disciplinary value Are not some people violently op- of suffering and pain and the postponement posed to the whole idea of sensitivity training of pleasure and the hazards in its quest. or sensitivity education? They certainly are. We have not yet What might be a good way to learn learned to deal with human relationships in more about sensitivity education? general very objectively.Claims for sensitivity education often get pretty wild as do Try to get in a sensitivity education or the objections. The kind of candor that sensitivity training group with other knowl- characterizessensitivitytraininggroups edgeable and respcnsible people. Try in your threatens many people. Some have reported everyday work to increase your perceptions particular sensitivity training experiences as of the effects people are having on one devastating, and these reports circulate and another. You probably would be surprised get exaggerated. When anyone is relatively at the cues you have overlooked. Try to unaware of his emotions, and of those of make more visible to your pupils or stu- others, he is apt to believe that the emotions dents what they are doing to one another as are not very important.Anyone who is they interact in class.Forget, for a while, grown up, some critics say, should be able any evaluation of these effects.Just try to to handle his emotions. Education to this see them and check their correctness. Try, end wastes time. too, to make more visible the effects you Do people who advocate sensitivity have on the young people and the effects edumtion have common values or a common they have on you. This could be a good life style? start toward sensitivity education. EJ

243 234 Curricular Concerns In a Revolutionary Era

EL 28 (4): 347-50; January 1971 1971 ASCD

Founding a PeoplesCollege

RAYMOND W. HOUGHTON

MY MOTHER-IN-LAW, Mrs. university in the inner city of Providence. Bradbury, was one of the finest ladiesI Irving spoke to the Chairman of the Board have ever known. She used to talk with Pro- of Trustees of State Colleges inRhode fessor H. H. Benjamin of Mary Stuart, née Island. On the following Wednesday, the Stewart, and of King Henry, and Anne, and day Martin Luther King was buried, we of the later Jacobites in Scotland, of Bonnie presentedthe following idea to the full Prince Charlie and the MacDonalds and the Board: Camerons. The Problem ProfessorBenjamin knew of them well and they sat long evenings in myhouse Martin Luther King is dead and the world and in her house and laughed and debated will never be the same. It might be worse,and and instructed one another.I could but probably will. It might, through some miracle, listen in my ignorance. Mrs. Bradbury, an be better. To hope, to aspire is as human as to orphan in "the old country," had perhaps sustain despair. a sixth-grade education and alifetime in the The McLuhan Message mills of Pawtucket. Marshall McLuhan has reminded us that "Annie, why don't you go to the college we have evolved to a newtribalism. Once more and take some courses in English history?" his vision was made manifest as one of ourtribal "Oh, shush! I'm too old for that and esteemed was snatched away in the midst of our they'd never let me in." global village and the word was instantaneously And she was right for the most part. received in our electric age living rooms.The But why not a peoples university, I won- event shattered the already uneasy expectancy dered. They have them in Scandinavia and of an already traumatic week. The murderof a they have free universities around the world President five years ago had prepared us well; in Spain and in Germany and in places in but our vast experience with murder andvio- America, even. lence, real in Dallas and Southeast Asia, fictior 66, has not fully I often thought of starting one, and did, on the Ponderosa and Route conditioned us to casual acceptance. after a fashion, in my churcha Freewill And the response is immediate. "Wud ya Baptist university for about fifteen adults think of that, Ma? J.F.K. and M.L.K. I wonder but that was all. when they'll play the reruns of theoriginal? When Martin Luther King was mur- Maybe we'll get an Easter spectacular on the dered I lay awake asking what could be done. Hallmark Hall of Fame." Nothing, probably, but the next day I spoke The President responded, and the Man- to Irving Fain about it and to Luke Fears chester Guardian responded, and other global about it. I saw Luke at a memorial service chieftains shared their grief in glorious color in his church. He and the Bishop invited before the evening was out and the omnipresent me to talk to the parishionersabout a free eye shrunk to sleep till Today.

Raymond W. Houghton, Professor of Education,Rhode bland College, Providence 24 A Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 235

It matters little whether the world was morality.It has given him means of survival always as violent, whether conflict was always as and brought him to the brink of destruction. But encompassing, or whether the new media age he tends to seek education and to pay for the simply keeps us more immediately reminded. institutions he desperately hopes will provide it. Whether we are on the verge of self-extinction, In its bureaucratized imperfection it tends to or whether our self-view makes it appear that we disappoint. For while some seem to profit (more might as well be, does not change the horrendous materially than spiritually; the proportion of vision. saints is hardly burgeoning), others find it dis- appointing if not downright impossible. We A Challeng have not succeeded yet in establishing truly The voices have been speaking but we humane institutions of learning. haven't chosen to listen.Whitney Young told us once more at 1:17 a.m. on the morning of The Plan April 5. The time for talk has run out. Positive, decisive, and immediate action must be taken. It is in the spirit of trying again that the And he was speaking of more than absurd racial notion is proposed for the establishment of the divisiveness. He was speaking of the moral Martin Luther King Center for Higher Educa- posture of all mankind. tion of the Rhode Island State College System. The King Center would be an inner city experi- On Ideas mental collegiate project established in the City of Providence to provide education toward But ideas die aborning. For ideas by their humaneness for citizens of the state. very nature tend to be self-indicting. They infer that all is not right with the world. They cry out Facilities for change and in our overpowering insecurity with collective thumbs in collective mouths, we The plan for such a project would be rela- say, "God, no! Never change! We're insecure tively simple and at the same time infinitely enough already!" complex. It would be the proposal to lease a For ideas beget change and change begets tenement building in the inner city, and to anxiety. And anxiety begets immobility. And renovate it to contain space for an office, an the beat goes on. assemblyhall,severalclassrooms,meeting We do not change because we do not want rooms, studios, a media area, a paperback book- to change. Our security is in our established store, a lounge, and study carrels. institutionalized arrangements. Staff But if the trauma of a wrenching event has the force to drive us into true existential despair, There would be need to hire a full-time perhaps, just perhaps, we may dare to confront director, an assistant director, a secretary, a with an idea. clerk, a librarian/media specialist, a technician, and a custodian. There would be, in addition, Education as Failure a part-time staff of educational counselors and Mankind isself-consciously inquisitive. instructors to be recruited from the university, Man tends to wonder about himself and others the college, and the junior colLge. and the environment he lives in.Society has Curriculum found it simpler, more efficient, though hardly effective, to create an educational bureaucracy All courses in the center would be devel- to teach him what it wants him to know about oped from the themes: Who am I? What am I? what he wants to know. Where am I? What is the world like? Whom Mankind has a naive, though often un- do I live with? What has happened here? What founded, faith in the institution of education. is our mythology? What are our inventions Man 1, 'Heves in it although it has not made him (communicative, economic, political, theologi- what he might devoutly hope to be. It has pro- cal, philosophical, sociological, psychological)? vided many with creature comforts but not What are our manifestations?What do we 245 236 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era say? How have we said it (art, music, litera- ane in the state might well be a volunteer ture)? How do we survive (architecture, medi- counselor for someone who wants to know cine)? What does it mean to be human? what the counselor might be able to share. There would be no permanent courses It could be that the center could crea- and no fixed curriculum.Professors would tively become the place where anyone could invent courses, and students would invent come to learn anything he wishes to know, courses based on their mutual questions and any skill, any knowledge, any understanding, their individual conceptions of the world. any attitude, any feeling.It might become In as far as would be possible, data, pure an educational brokerage house putting peo- data, would be fed by technology. Media ple in touch with people, sharing what they would be used as far as possible to transmit mutually know. basic cognitive knowledge. Moving pictures, television, tapes, recordings, radio, and peri- A Peopls Colleg odicals would provide a multimedia approach In short, the Martin Luther King Center to knowing.It would be the function of would be A Peoples College. It should be truly teachers to interpret, question, discuss, coun- a college where what would be taught wouldbe sel, and guide learning. Such cou:ses would be taught at the highest level of meaning, much in based on ideas. the way that agriculture became a sophisti- Other courses and seminars would be cated field of study within the land grant based on men. It would be possible to take a college movement. course on John Chafee or William Miller, or Dennis Roberts or Francis Madeira or Fr. Th College Opens Henry Sheldon or Ed Brown or Jim Williams. Seminars might lasta week, a month, or The Board, in the emotion of the mo- three months. ment, bought the idea and sent it to a com- Other seminars might invite regional or mittee to study. The most difficult part was national figures to come to Rhode Island for a to convince the academic community. After week at a time to share themselves with the two months of dialogue, an intercollegiate King Center and the other state colleges. committee recommended that the idea be Courses would have no fixed schedules. tried. There would be no marks and no fixed credits. From the beginning the community was involved.Begrudgingly, atfirst,the aranchIng academic community began to work with As individual weaknesses are diagnosed the inner city community. Charles Fortes, in students, a concept of academic branching a local community organizer andformer would be instituted whereby new group and National Maritime Union official, William individual courses and study would be pro- Lopes, a young recent college graduate, Iola duced such as reading, writing, speaking, lis- Mabray, a housewife, Mr. Fears, a gospel tening, group leadership, community research, choir director, Ernest Costa, a bartender, cross-ethnic, racial, and social class experiences. and scores of others in the city worked to (What are upper class people really like?) develop the plan, to build a "non-curricu- The community could become the class- lum," to recruit students, to raise money (for room. All of Rhode Island, all the world would be the resource material for the center. Muse- while the Board endorsed the plan, it could ums, galleries, industry, schools, moving picture provide no money). theatres, Trinity Square Playhouse, Veterans The Chancellor of State Colleges in Auditorium, the docks, the bay, the cities, the Rhode Island, Lawrence Dennis, worked airport would allbe the environment for tirelessly to help.Faculty members from learning. eight colleges in Rhode Island volunteered It might be that any course invented by their services. anyone might be offered if it had takers. Any- On October 7, 1968, after incredible c :lb 4.4 ) Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 237 difficulties, the Urban Educational Center Allis not as had been planned. This of Rhode Island opened its doors with writer is dismayed by the formality which packing boxes stacked ill around, without has come over thecenter,althoughit books, furniture, blackboardsnothing but scarcely resembles a traditional college. The students who came to learn and to teach and courses are not quite as divergent as this teachers who came to teach and to learn. writer had hoped. While it has served and In January, after a nationwide search, has been served by radical militants, de1M- Mr. Hercules M. Porter came to replace this quents, dropouts, old people, and young writer as director, and by June six students people, it still does not fully serve the dis- had earned a one-year diploma. affected community known as really "hard The UEC was two years old in October core." 1970. Over 300 students had been served But it's still there. It's still run by the by the center.It had run seminars for community.It's still largely black in out- public school teachers. Its staff had worked look and attitude although whites come and with the courts, with public agencies, and are, for the most part, welcome. with the schools.Its students served with UEC is not an invention for all cities. faculty,administrators,andcommunity Providence needs other kinds of UEC's. members to form a council which runs the But Providence already has one. Most cities school. do not. 0

EL28 (5): 464-68; February 1971 0 1971 ASCD

Free Schools: Pandora's Box?

JOSHUAL.SMITH

Pandora.The first woman, according Prometheus, not toreceivegifts that came to Greek mythology. She was made of clay from Jupiter.In her home she found a box by Vulcan, and all the gods made presents to which she was forbidden to open.Disobey- her.Venus gave her beauty and the art of ing the injunction she allowed to escape all pleasing; the Graces gave her the power of the evils of life except hope. According to captivating; Apollo taught her how to sing; another version, all the blessings of life ex- Mercury instructedherineloquence and cept hope, .vhich remained to solace mortals. brought her to Epimetheus, who made her 1-inco'n Library of Essential Information, his wife, forgetting the advice of his brother Vol. 1.

HAVE free schools opened Pan- financial shoestring; theyarehoused in in- dora'sBox? adequate buildings, some of which amount Anumber of educators would say in- to no more than storefronts; they are using deed that they have. They operate on a volunteer teachers; some of them are paying

Joshua L. Smith, Program Officer, Division of Education and Research, TheFord Foundation, New York City

24 238 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era their teachers as little as $100 per month; as a result of either perceivedinequality or they do not exercise proper control over the perceived inhumanity. students; they allow lay people too much As a result of several years of strife authority for the overall direction of the and bickering between the Boston School schools; the children are not learning any- Comniittee and the Black Community, the thing. free school movement began in 1965 with To have been a public school teacher the establishment of the New School for and an administrator does not prepare one Children. Since that time, three more such for what will be encountered after walking schools have been established in Boston, through the doors of a free school. Although two of them community based, and one of my visits can hardly be termed a compre- them an experimental school supported by hensive survey of all the forms of free schools state funding.Similar schools can be found that are springing up all over the United in other major cities of the country, and all States, I still find some of the basic notions of them seem to have been established as which I held as a teacher to have been the result of parental dissatisfaction with the severely shaken as a result of having visited performance of the public schools and with several schools which might be termed rep- what parentsperceived as inequalityof resentative of the type. opportunity for their children. I was immediately struck, upon my first Free schools can also be found in visit, by the air of freedom and by the lack Milwaukee;Washington,D.C.; Newark, of teachers playing the traditional role of New Jersey;SanFrancisco; Rochester, policeman.In none of the schools that I New York; Albany, New York; and many visited did I see teachers standing in the other places across the country.(It would corridors demanding passes and requiring be almost impossible to provide a compre- students to account for their presence. This hensive list of the various free schools that observationwasconsistentwhetherthe have been springing up throughout the coun- schools were elementary or secondary. In- try within the past several years.) The four deed, while it was easy to distinguish be- schools in Boston, at the moment, are elementary schools, although one has offerings tween teacher and student in the elementary through the eighth grade. All of them tend free schools, I had considerable difficulty in tobe modelsofparentalinvolvc.nent. doing the same in those that were secondary Struggling for a few years to place them- schools. selves upon a firmfinancial base,these schools havenevertheless been ableto The Movement Begins demonstrate some measure of academic success, particularly with children who were While private schools have existed for failing according to public school criteria. almost as long as public schools and find The three private schods (the New their roots in the mid-17th century, and School for Children, the Roxbury Commu- while parochial schools can be traced back nity School, and the Highland Park Free at least to the early 18th century, the so- School) have developed a program,the called "free school" movement is a rela- basic model for which might be called a tively new phenomenon. For the purposes combination of the British open classroom of definition, I wish to term the free school and team teaching.Each classroomis as one that is established within communi- staffed by a teacher who is certifiable under ties, frequently with very low tuition or none state standards and by a person termed by at all, as an alternative to the public sys- the schools "a community teacher," a parent tem; these alternatives usually are established from the community who serves as a para- Adapting tothe Needs of Our Time 239 professional aide for the teacher. However, the ceiling.The smoke probably typifies unlike the use of aides in some public school the air of informality in the relationship that districts, the community teachers in these txists between teachers and students. free schools have a major teaching function Moving about with the Headmaster, in which they serve as learning resources Edward Carpenter, from classtoclass for children and help to ensure that each (classes are separated only by shoulder- student receives individual attention from height partitions), one is constantly aware an adult. of a tremendous esprit de corps that is but- While many 3f the certified teachers tressed by all teachers and that serves to are young people beginning their careers, provide students with a psychological at- not all are, and many of the more experi- mosphere that permeates the institution and enced teachers in these schools have been that seems to convince one that everyone attracted from public school ranks because will succeed. of a feeling that they might enjoy greater To listen to or to read what students freedom within theirclassrooms.Policy produceintheir communication classes decision making is shared jointly among par- causes feelings of sadness, joy, and rage. ents and teachers. Sadness because of the depth of feeling which students express about their environment, Street Academlos joy because of the ability of students to ufe words or film creatively, and rage because Several privately funded efforts exist one realizes that all of these students are for secondary students, and the most spec- dropouts from the public system. While in- tacular of these models can be found in structional methods that are used tend to be New York City.Here, working largely traditional and classes are large, one does with contributions from industry, a complex not find teachers worrying about control, for of street academies has been serving public the esprit de corps that is created seems to school dropouts for the past several years. eliminate the discipline problems. In one sense, it can be said that the students Success seems to permeate the institu- who attend the street academies have been tion, and it is apparent from the record pro- written off by the public schools as failures. duced by graduates of Harlem Preparatory Yet one can find, operating in small inade- School that they leave the institution with quate storefronts, many exa-stples of suc- sufficient psychological bolstering that they cessful teaching of basic skills to students are able to go off to some 300 colleges who for years were inadequately served by around the United States and to remain the public schools. there as successful students. Of the 205 These street academies all have on their students that have graduated from Harlem staff street workers who go out into the Prep in the past four years, only four have community to recruit students. When they dropped out. discover students with college potential, these students are sent on to the Harlem Prepara- Alternetives to Alienation tory School, which is housed in a former supermarket in central Harlem.Such a Alienation from schools as institutions discovery is an emotional er....rience from is not a phenomenon that is limited to central which one does not soon recover.This cities or to ghetto communities. The malaise preparatory school serves sow: 400 students that seems to have affected some of our col- of high school age and beyondIn its class- lege students has filtered into the high schools rooms one is almost overcome by the huge and in somc instances even into the junior cloud of cigarette smoke which hangs near high schools.Accordingly, a few public 24A t

240 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

school systems have begun to provide alter- diversity, there are individual learning styles native structures within the system. that can best be served by the provision of Perhaps the most dramatic alternative a variety of alternatives and styles of in- found within a large city is the Parkway struction. School Program in Philadelphia, where stu- Also in the Bay area, there is another dents are drawing upon the resources of the school that could be termed an alternative to community for their instruction.Since so the public system, although it has taken a much has been written about the Parkway form far different from others. Serving chil- School, there is little need to describe the dren from ages three to nine, the Multi-Cul- model here other than to say that as far as ture Institute of San Francisco is designed to students are concerned, it has attracted so provide students with a knowledge of their much attention that a lottery must be con- own cultural and ethnic heritages as well as ducted annually in order to take care of the a respect for those of others. In the morn- avalanche of applications. ing all students work together to develop In a suburban community, Newton, their basic skills; in the afternoon, students Massachusetts, the Murray Road School was separate into ethnic groups where they study begun three years ago as an annex to the their own ethnic heritages,including an Newton High School.Seeking to better appropriate language.The ethnic groups serve students who were alienated from regu- which are represented are Black-American, lar high school programs (and alienation Mexican-American, Jewish-American, Chi- seems to have crossed ability levels), the nese-American, and White-American. With school district turned over to five teachers considerable cross-visitation among classes and 100 students a surpluselementary throughout the year, at appropriate times school. Working together in a town meeting (usually ethnic holidays), each class conform of government, and without an admin- ducts assemblies for students and parents. istrator,thefiveteachersandstudents The model for intercultural education cooperatively plan thedirectionof the presented by the Multi-Culture Institute has school. Parents, students, and teachers re- generated interest from the Select Committee main enthusiastic about the degree of free- of the U.S. Senate on Equal Educational Op- dom and responsibility that is placed upon portunity and the Labor Committee of the students. U.S. House of Representatives. A number of Three thousand miles away. Herbert California school districts have sent teachers Kohl, the author ofThirty-Six Children,two to this Institute for in-service training. years ago began an alternative within the system as weil. His program, "Other Ways," Hope for Chl Mum is also an attempt to respond to the needs of students who fmd themselves alienated from As stated earlier, this does not present a the existing public high school and who func- comprehensive survey of thefree school tion better in a less structured atmosphere. movement. There are other varieties and Drawing upon the experience of Other there are pockets of innovation all over the Ways, during this sc1tool year a variety of country, some within the public school sys- educational options are being developed tem and some outide. Yet one can conclude within the Berkeley Public Schools to include that the free schoo' movement has indeed the entire range of grades. Behind all of the opened Pandora's Box. Whether one wishes options which are being developed is the to say that opening Pandora's Box has underlying philosophy that there are benefits allowed all of the evils to escape, or all of to be gained from pluralism, that diversity the blessings to escape, Cie fact remains should be encouraged, and that, because of that in both versions alluded to in the quo-

25 ) Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 241 tation, hope remains.Especiallyinthe situations which could be adapted by public ghetto where thereisso much despair, schools; it is providing models of cooperative institutions that hold out hope for children learning and models of teachers in the role are necessary. of learning resources for children. In other The free school movement, although words, the free school movement is pro- struggling desperately for adequate funds, is viding a model for demonstration of those providing parents and students with viable principles which public schools have fre- alternatives to the public school system; it quently professedand have rarelyput is providing models of teaching and learning into practice. 0

EL28 (6): 604-607; March 1971 4)1971 ASCD

Alternative Schools: Is The Old Order Really Changing?

DONALD W. ROBINSON

IN A former candy factory in are making far more radical adjustments San Francisco, in a rambling ranch house than the critics apparently recognize.Per- in the hills near Santa Barbara, in a thou- haps a degree of crisis psychology is neces- sand homes and farms and church base- sary toattracttheattentionofsome ments and storefronts,tirelessvolunteers conservative school people; and by the same are at work. These volunteers, convinced token it may be desirable to warn some literal that the old order is not changing, are decli- school people that much of thebreast- eating themselves to the establishment of a beatingismorerhetoricthanfactual new order outside the public school system. reporting. These critics assert that educational Most moderates would say that the old change is superficial and insignificant, and order is changing, conspicuously and radi- some conclude that because our schools are cally. But then, nearly everything is changing locked into repressive molds they cannot be today, and whether the schools are changing reformed. Either the schools will be replaced enough, or fast enough, to stay abreast with by a totally novel system, or democratic so- the new society is quite another question. ciety will be torn apart by the strain of a Data are plentiful to document either population not educated to the realities of the position that changes in the schools are the society they must operate. sufficient or that they are not. Our finding This crisis, it seems to me, is create.i in will largely depend upon which schools we the minds of the critics by their own fears examine and which data we select from those and insecurities. schools. The same facts are theoretically Society has survived far greater irrele- available to all, yet we tend to see the facts vancies than exist today, and some schools that support our emotional predilections, our

Donald W. Robinson, Associate Editor, Phi Delta Kappa Pub lict.tions,Bloomington, Indiana

251 242 Curricular Concerns In a Revolutionary Era optimism or pessimism, liberalism or con- Drop-Out Center (School of Education, servatism, support of or opposition to the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mas- public schools as we know them. sachusetts 01002); the Teacher Paper (280 In support of the assertion that the old North Pacific Avenue, Monmouth, Oregon order is changing, conspicuously and radi- 97361); Edvance Combined Motivation cally, one might cite such schools as John EducationSystems(6300RiverRoad, Bremer's Parkway School in Philadelphia, Rosemont, Illinois 60018). Walt Whitman High School's EFFE Program These centers are operated by persons (Experiment in Free Form Education) in who see the need for a great deal more Bethesda, Maryland, the John Adams High change than has so far taken place. School in Portland, Oregon, and dozens The alternative schools that have been more. Widespreadevidenceofchange established run a wide gamut of quality existsintheincreaseduseinschools and success, though a majority appear to be throughout the country of such devices as operated byidealistswithout experience. mini-courses, independent study programs, These schools reportedly have an average open classrooms with parents invited to existence of 18 months. participate, and hundreds of variations of Alternative schools may not survive sensitivity training. in large numbers, though that Yin depend One major focus of the complaints of in large part on how widely the voucher the alternative leaders and of the reformers plan is adopted and how it is administered. within the system is lack of attention to the Already they have had tremendous influence education of the student as a feeling person comparable to the manner in which minor as well as a thinking person. Sometimes this parties have through the years influenced is attempted in a so-called humanities pro- American social legislation. They have forced gram, sometimes in an interpersonal rela- the establishment into a greater awareness tions experience. More often this element is of the urgency of the neea for reform. not considered at all. Of course one can chal- That the free alternative schools are lenge the effectiveness of these or of any influential is attested to by their recognition efforts to improve education, but their mere in the introduction to the 1970 edition of existence provides an answer to the question: Porter Sargent's Private Schools ': Is the old order really changing? . ..the formation and continued exatence Accelerated change within the estab- of new private schools as an alternative to both lishment is being hastened by the example of public education and the established private certain alternative schools.It is also accel- schools will undoubtedly continue and increase. erated by the mounting criticism of public These free schools and commumty schools are education offered by reformers who have going to reflect a flex:bility of methodology and attitude which will permit them to survive. either given up on the public school or are Many may never be reported in the pages of on the verge of doing so. These critics place this book, but this will only be because of their their hope in "irce," "alternative" schools. inaccessibilityor their brevity of existence. The word is being passed by such anti- However, in the long run, in terms of the effect establishment grouals as The New Schools they have on the present gen2ration of students Exchange (301 East Perdido, Santa Bar- and the generation to follow, their first result bara, California 93101); Vocations for So- will be to force both public and privrte educa- cial Change (Canyon, California 94516); tion to be more competitive on their terms. the Bay Area Radical Teachers Organizing Porter Sargent.The Handbook ol Private Committee (1445StocktonStreet,San Schools.Introduction to 51st edition. Boston: Por- Francisco, rfi.lifornia 94133); the Teachers ter Sargent Publisher, 1970.

2 5 2 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 243

The second long term effect will be on the in- present revolution isall about. The real creasing numbers of peopleparents as well complaint against the establishment ,oday is as childrenwho are changed by the very fact that it appears unable or unwilling to attempt that these schools exist. to administer continuing change. Not a suc- Change is being demanded and insti- cession of systems, but unending change, so tuted not alone by rebels who assert that that no set content curriculum or pattern public education is a lost cause, and who can ever be defined. have apparently established no less than All life, and all learning, is change; a thousand independent alternative schools therefore schools must be geared to growth throughout the nation.Change is equally and change. And if this is not reconcilable being demanded and instituted within the with certain existing standards, the existing establishment.The Charles F.Kettering standards must go. And if some of these Foundation supports I/DIE/A/ which is statements are not completely consistent or essentially a change agent; the Ford Founda- logical, who says that consistency and logic tion sponsored the report that culminated in are more important than freedom, change, Toward Humanistic Education: A Curricu- inquiry, and growth? So long as we main- lum o!Affect, edited by Gerald Weinstein tain diversity of aims in education, we cannot and Mario D. Fantini; the Carnegie Corpora- hope for uniformity of curriculum, methods, tion supported Charles Silberman'sCrisis in or outcome. Nor should we. The major the Classroom;public school systems, be- arguments against the National Assessment ginning in Philadelphia, are promoting the are based on differing priorities of what "school without walls" concept; the federal the goals of instruction should be.The government is sponsoring such change-stimu- opposition to various plans for school ac- lating arrangements as the voucher plan. countabilityrestsprimarily on a similar unwillingness to accept a consensus on goal Change for What? prioeties. This condition of increasing assertion There can be little argument that the of individual and special group rights to old order is changing, despite Silberman's determine their own priorities in educational complaints, the evidence presented by John goals is almost certain tolead to more Good lad inBehind the Classroom Door, splintering of curricula, more diversity of and the direct evidence we may obsem programs, a wider spectrum of alternative in our own local school.The follow-up schools, and a more general acceptance of question: Is enough change being effected? the axiom that American education is too can spark another round of possibly useful many things to be put in the same bag. controversy, but a reply first is needed to Education is what happens to a particular still another question, namely: Enough for student in the set of circumstances he experi- what? ences in and out of hisclasses, which One problem, of course, is the resis- are only remotely related to what happens tance of institutions to change; not simply to another student either in the same town individual conservative administrators, but or half a contincnt away. the whole concept of society, or as today's ctually, much of thereal and the change people like to label it, the "estab- imagimd inadequacy of public education lishment."Institutions exist to administer toda7, stems directly from the diversity of a relatively stable program, and to most values, especially where home standards of people the notion of innovation suggests authority and of the importance of study substituang a ncw, hopefully better, program differ widely from school standards.Psy- for the present one. That is not what the chiatrists have presented persuasive data to

251 244 Curricular Concerns In a Revolutionary Era the effect that the frustrations resulting from than it did ten, twenty, fifty, or a hundred dependence on two conflicting value systems years ago." can be seriously damaging to thechild's A clear and persuasive expression of healthful growth. the nature of the culturalrevolutionof Some schools have achieved the hu- which today's innovations and alternatives manity and flexibilitythat by reasonable are a part appeared back in1956 in Lynn standards mark them as effective schools, White's Frontiers of Knowledge in the Study challenging, stimulating, aware of human of Man. White discusses four basic shifts: needs beyond the intellectual, concerned for from Graeco-Judaic oriented culture to a their students as individuals with widely dif- world view; from reliance on logic and lan- fering competencies and goals.Probably guage to a much wider choiceof symbols; most schools are not even close to this goal. from faith in rationality to awareness of There probably exists little real need for the authority of the unconscious; and from innovations in the sense of new organizational a hierarchy of values toward a spectrumof or curricular arrangements presently un- values. Finally he places the revolution in dreamed of, although improvements in this perspective in a summary paragraph which, area can a:ways be made. What is neededis although it deals with the curriculum content a massive infusion of talent into theteaching rat1- than with innovativemethods, still and administrative staffs, the recruitment of ctnveys the meaning of educationalchange. far greater numbers of creative, flexible, and Finally, since revolution has swept aristoc- humane individuals, constantly growing in racy into the cracks and comers, doesthe shift several dimensions and capable of helping from the canon of the hierarchy of values to others to grow also. the canon of the spectrum of values mean that Until some genius devises a touchstone the values cultivated by the aristocracies of the to determine whether an individual student past are obsolete? No; on the contrary, if we will respond better to more freedom or to neglect them we are betraying the democratic firma demands, much of the discussion of revolution which was an effort to upgrade the will remain aca- masses and not to downgrade them. Yetin the educational alternatives long perspective of hu:nan history our revolu- demic. Until we achieve firmer consensus tion is so new that we do not really know what than we now seem likely ever to attain on a high democratic culture would looklike, the goals and the roles of the school, answers much less what its formal educationthat is, to the question: Is the old order really chang- its organized plan for cultural transmission ing? will contiwe to be largely editorial and would be. inconclusive. Meanwhile an optimistic nature The task of understanding ourselves and and a historical perspective make it just the world we live in is vastly complicatedby as easy for some to see the bottle half full the democratic necessity of supplementing the as a pessimistic nature and a perfectionist well formulated aristocratic values with others, orientation make it foe others to call the more nebulou- at present because neverade- botde half empty. The facts are the same quately verbalized, which for millenniahave for both, and both of the answers are been held by the common people to be equally necessary and worthy of respect.In general defensible. these latter values have centered not, like those Charles Silberman may be justified in of the aristocrats, in government, religion, and calling the schools joyless and repressive art but in the home, the dailyrelations of and urgently in need of reform, but even he people in community, and the skills of pro- is quick to admit that "from another per. . duction and craftsmanship. The task is not spective, the United States educational sys- simpiy to add these to the traditionally cher- tem appears to be superbly successful ished values of the upper classes, but rather tc on almost any measure, performingbetter smelt all human values down and to recast them 2M Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 245 as a unit. Until this is done we shall continue will continue to change as more enlighten- in a state of cultural confusion; but the blast ment and humanity slowly gain the upper furnace is only now beginning to glow hot.2 hand over tradition, custom, and supersti- tion. Educational structures and patterns Yes, the old order is changing, and it must continue to change until they have ac- commodated to the notion that every living 2 From the book Frontiers of Knowledge in the Study of Man by Lynn White. New York: person must continue to change throughout Harper & Row, Publishers, 0 1956. By permission. his entire lifetime. E]

EL 28 (5): 472-75; February 197 I 0 1971 ASCD

Developing Flexible All-Year Schools

JOHN MCLAIN

THE long summer vacation is most acceptable are those providing flexi- often decried as a "relic of the horse and bility or optional attendance, and made the buggy days."Many mothers are greatly following points: relieved when their children finally go back I.That every individual is unique, and to school in September after being around if each is to learn what he needs to know at his the house all summer needing to be super- own best rate, the school curriculum must be vised and wanting to be entertained. Many individualized a superintendent has been told, "If I ran 2. That the time schedules of individuals my business like you run your school I would and families arecontinuingto become more go broke." City officials and many citizens diverse and that a student's time in school must have learned to dread the hot summer days be adaptable to this changing situation when the youth are on the streets with little 3. That financial resources of any com- to do except to get into trouble.Perhaps munity, state, and the nation are limited and the youth, themselves, drcad these wasteful, must be allocated on a priority basis, and that uncomfortable times most of all. educational programs, including the school cal- In spite of allthis, the leading pro- endar, must be designed to obtain optimum eco- ponents of year-round education unani- nomic efficiency. mously adopted a qualifying position paper The position paper therefore recom- last April at the Second National Seminar mended that local school systems consider on Year-Round Education. This statement ways, including year-round education,in recognized that, although the standard 180- which the educational program can be im- day school year as it now prevails in most proved in terms of (a) providing quality schools is not universally satisfactory, no education with equality in educational oppor- operating model for year-round education tuuity; (b) adapting to the community and has yet proved to be universally acceptable. family living patterns; and (c) attaining op- It held that the programs which seem to be timum economic efficiency.It also wisely

I. ihn McLain, Director, Research-Learning Center, Clarion StateCollege, Clarion, Pennsylvania 255 246 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era recommended that such planning be done by Various Plans thosc who would be affected by the changcs in the school schedule, including teachcrs, Onc of the common plans for year- parcnts,studcnts,andotherintercsted round educajon, thc Eleven-Month Plan, is groups, and that thc public bc provided with to increase thelength of thc school ycar adequate information about any proposed toelevenmonths, leavinga one-month planof change beforeitisadopted as vacation.This plan was recommended for mandatory. consideration by the National Confcrcncc of Licutcnant Governors in 1969 primarily Effects of Change as a rcsult of thc influence of thc Licutcnant What a local community lcarns as it Governor of Ncw York. Thc State of New attcmpts to develop a ycar-round schcdule York spent fiveycars and a considerablc is that any changc affects different people amount of moncy studying thc feasibility of in different ways and that people react ac- a plan to "speed up" thc educational process cording to how thcy arc affected and how by having students go to school longcr cach thcy value the situation. They want quality year. thus graduating carlicr. The gcncral education for the childrcn hut willmake reaction scented to hc that studcnts do not some"sacrifices" for economy andcon- nccd or want "more of thc samc" in a ycar's venicnce. ThL.y want economy hut are will- timc; most studcnts would net benefit by ing to pay extra for convenience and quality graduating carlicr, and a rigid eleven-month education.Thcy want the school schcdulc schcdulc interferes with other summcr plans to mcct Ihcir convenience but will givc up for many people. Moreover, a change from some convenience for quality cducation and a nine-month to an eleven-month schcdulc economy. Our society's rcactions to thcsc rcquircs a substantial incrcasc inbudget value-oriented questions givc "shape" to thc thc first several ycars before thc "financial American public school and thc school cal- bcncfits" arc achicvcd. endar. Two basic changes havc been taking Probably the most frequc tly consid- placc ovcr a period of timc in rcgard to thc crcd idca is thc Four-Quarter Plan.In this length of thc school ycar which arc not gcn- plan, studcnts arc divif into four sections crally considcrcd "all-year school"plans. and thc school is opera. on a four-quarter Thc length of thc school ycar has gradually basis. Each scction of studcnts is in school incrcascd from only a fcw short wecks or thrcc of thc four quartcrs of thc year and months toa "standard" 120 daysafter scctions arc rotated in such a way that only World War 1,to a "standard" 160 days three are in attendance cach quarter, thus during thc Grcat Dcpression. to a "standard" limiting attcndance at any onc time to 75 180 days after World War H, and now longer percent of thc total cnrollment. school years arc common. The major rzason this plan has been The idea of having"Fummer school.' as given consideration is to avoid or limit new a scparatc program has prcvailcdas an construction and to cut operating expenses. "opportunit:," to makc up required courscs Construction can he avoided but most school or to obtain remedial instruction, as "en- districts which havc carcfully analyzed costs richment.' or special classes for thc "giftcd," tind littleif any savingsin thc operating and as rt creational activity.Thc summer budget. Thc inconvenience of thc staggered also scrvcs as a "safe" timc to try out ncw vacation usually causcs parents to favor the idcas Mom they arc introduccd into the increased taxes for needed ncw buildings. rcgular school program. Summer school is This is vividly illustratcd in thc comprehen- usually optional hut sometimes thc thrcat of sive study complctcd in July 1970 by the failureis used to "encourtge" attendance. Utica Community Schools, Utica, Michigan.

2 5 t3 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 247

This study indii:ates that a mandated four- improve thc quality of education. Thc oper- quarter plan cenld save the school district ational costs are about 15 percent higher than nearly S100.000,000 in the next ten years in the budget for standard operationin the construction costs. The study also indicated district. An analysis of reactions by teachers. that such a program would alienate 88 per- students, and parents is favorable. cent of their voters. The Becky-David Elementary School in Port Huron Arca School District, an- St. Charles, Missouri. initiated a similar plan. othcr of thc six school districts to undertake called the 9-3 Nan. in 1969. except that the feasibility studies on year-round education students were divided intofoursections. under a special grant by the Michigan State Each section attended classes for ninc weeks Department of Education, also studied the then was off for three.Each section was mandated four-quarter plan. They estimated off a different three weeks: thus thc school the plan would increase the operating budget was ableto accommodate theincreased 3.87 mills the first year and 2.5 mills in suc- enrollment, which is the reason the project ceeding years. At the present time it would was undertaken. After one ycar of operati n avoid the need to build new schools at a it appears the schedule is acceptable to teach- savings of 5.6 millsinconstruction and ers. students, and parents. maintenance costs, thus resulting in an an- Thisschedule was adoptedinthe nual savings of approximately 3 mills. This Valley View School System. Lockport. Illi- study indicated such a program would be nois. in 1970, and is called the Valley View feasible if community acceptance and sup- 45-15 Plan.Valley View SchoolDistrict port wcrc obtained, smaller schools wcrc was confronted with a rapid increase phased out,the curriculum were revised, enrollment without an adequate tax base to state laws and regulations were revised and provide the needed construction.It is esti- staff acceptance were obtained. mated this plan will save the school district Several school systems of Georgii. in- four to six million dollars in thc next few cluding Atlanta. Fulton County. and De Kalb years. County. are operating an optional four-quar- The All-Year Plan ter plan at the secondary level.The stated purpose of these programs is to increase the The FlcUlde .41I-Year School Plan is quality of education, not to save money. In designed to operate school the year round. each case the curriculum has been revised to continuously, like the bank, the store, and provide a wider range of optional courses. the service station, with no beginning or and to occupy the students' time during the ending to a "school year.- Both instruction summer. This program is also being devel- and time in school arc individualized. School oped in Jefferson County Schools of Ken- operaks in such a way that any child or tucky. teacher can take his vacation any time of A modificd form of the four-quarter year. for any length of time needed. plan was initiated ii 1967 at the Park Ele- Wilson School at Mankato State Col- mentary School in the Hayward Unified lege. Mankato. Minnesota,is operating a School District, Ha!ward. California.The Flexible All-Year School with the curricu- school calendar consists of four quarters of lum centered around the interestsof the appreximatcly 50 days each,with three individual learners, allowing them to pursue weeks between quarters. One week of each any study they choose. breakis devoted toparentconferences. A research-demonstration model of the teacherin-serviceeducation, andteam Flexible All-Year School is being developed planning. All students attend the same four at Clarion State College, Clarion, Pennsyl- quarters. The purpose of this program is to vania. as a learning systems component of

257 248 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era the Researeh-Lcaming Ccntcr. This school hot strcets with nothing to do. Each studcnt will bcgin operation in thc summer of 1972. can takc his vacation whcnevcr hc has some- when the building now under construction thing hctter to do; othcrwice hc can stay in is compkted.Itwill provide for approxi- school as long as he wants.lie will not matdy 300 studcnts ranging from nurscry automatically remain inschool 12 years. throu.:h secondary levels. with rescarch and then be dumped on the labor market.fie exploratory programs On a lifc-span rangc. may !cave school whcn hc is able to do Focus will he on environmental improvc- something morc important or he may rc- mcnt and problem solving in the community main in school until hc has somohing better as well as personal dcvelopmcnt. to do; whether it is going to collcgc. another With no beginning or cnding to thc training program. or work, thc transition can school year. a child may enter school when- be planned and orderly. cver hz is -ready.- Ile will not have to wait Thc Flexible All-Ycar School probably another year becausc hc was horn a fcw will cmcrge as thc institution most capable days too iate. as sonic do now. A studcnt of mccting thc educational nceds of a tech- cannot fail at thc cnd of thc ycar. becaucc nologically advanced. rapidly changing so- iliac is no end of the year. nor a beginning ciety because itis &signal to adapt to the to be scm back to. Learning must he con- needs of thc individual and the changing tinuously forward.If illness, conflict with socicty and because itis &signed to makc authority, or vacation causcs a studcnt to be optimum use of tiny.In thc long run, such out of school at any timc, he can return a school likcly will be thc most economically whcn itis appropriate without thc prcssurc cfficicnt as wen. cithcr o "catch up- beforc school is out or Wc need to quit dabbling with minor to fail.The school will hc thc center of and segmented "innovativc ideas- and trying Icaming. hut thc community will be thc to patch up an obsolctc systcm.It is time classroom. wc cicarly analyze thc educational needs of There will bc no long summcr vaca- our socicty and design thc kinds of schools tions whcn thc studcnts arc dumped on thc wc nccd.

EL 28 (4 c. 55-58.. January 1971 4-1071 ASCD

Universities Without Campuses

HENRY A. BERN

WHY should wc want a jnivcr- campus violence. Yct thcrc arc even more sity withouta campus, thatis.without important reasons -millions of thcm. specific residcncc rcquircmcms?Well, for As the technological complexity of a onc reason. if a univcrsity had no campus. it socicty incre7ses, thc levcl of education re- would havc none of thc currcnt problems of quired to escape thc social and economic

Henry A . firm. Associate Dean, Division of Continuing Education. Indiana Univercity, Bloomington

25 Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 249 consequences of being considered "unedu- Minimum Campusn cated- rises.In the United States, since the beginning of thiscentury.first an eighth For these educationally deprived per- grade diploma, then a high school diploma. sons, a modicum of assistance isoffered and finally a college degree have measured primarily through the "minimum campus- the education required for employment or requirements of evening college programs of career advancement and hence for status two-year and four-ycar colleges. Such programs arc generally available, however, only and self-respect. Consequently. thcrc arc millions of ref-- inurbanareas.Despite thc phenomenal sons who recognile themselves as seriously rate of growth of two-year colleges, these handicapped. educationally disenfranchised. still serve only a fraction of the population. invisibly branded as "uneducated- for lack Altogether. about a million students attend of a visible college degree hut who cannot evening colleges:*G. B. Stern noted that leave their jobs to study on the campus. "full-time day students arc so numerous that l hoe are no statistics which directly idemify they are crowded into evening, preempting this population. hut some idea of the num- space of the evening college. Thus we have the so-called day college conducting its pro- bercanbeobtainedfromgovernment reports ' of levels of education in the popu- grams in the evening.- lation as a whole. A portion of this population numbering Some 33 percent of persons 20 years in thc scant hundreds is served by programs old and over inthc United States have designed by a handful of universities for a achieved a high school educationand no smal! number of relatively elite classes of more. Not all of these, to be sure, may he adults seeking a bachelor of liberal arts de- capable of. or interested in. obtaining a col- gree. For example. in the period 1954-62. lege degree; hut there arc approximately 10 atotal of only 300 students entered the million within thc 20- to 45-year-old bracket Brooklyn College degree program. one of thc oldest of these offerings. The overall ef- inwhich suchambitionsarc common.2 Among thcm arc the millions of "reasons- fect of all of thc existing channels in higher for universities without campuses. education, however, is hardly noticeable. A These persons have had enough educa- way to enfranchise the remainingmillions tion t now that thcy arc capable of making and to give thcm a "second chance- at fur- furthcr progress.They believe the profes- ther education must be found. Establishing sors. economic analysts, and governmental colleges without campuses may be thc way. officials who say that education is thc path to personal and national economic and in- Second-Chance Universities tellectual salvation: they want to continue thcir academic education: thcy arc intellec- Tile SovietUni011 tually capable of continuing thcir academic education, hut thcy find thcir path blocked Universities which offer adults a "sec- by obstacles of 10 or more hours a day spent ond chance- have already been explored and in traveling to work and earning a living. 3 Howell McGee. editor. Annual Report of 1 Population ( harm' terictirc: Fdtuational .41- Procramc and Recistrations.1967-68. Norman, tainment. Series P20 N 0169. March 1%7. Wash- Oklahoma: Association of University Evening Col- ington.D.C.:1: S.Department of Commerce. leges and National University Extension Associa- February 6. 196R. tion. University of Oklahoma. 196R. W. C. Johnstone and Ramon J.Rivera. 4 G. B. Stern. "Up from Basket Weaving: Volunteers for Learnine (a National Opinicm Re- The Concealed Crisis in Adult Education." Gradu- by search Center studs 1.Chicago: Aldine Publishing ate Ct ',anent. Fall 1967. pp. 152-57. Published Comians. 1965.p. 72. Wasne State University. Detroit. Michigan.

2 ri 250 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

established in some of thc major countries It will, however, have practically no campus. of the world, for example. France. East and Study will be achieved: West Gcrmany, Poland, the Soviet Union. I.By reading and writing as directed by and thc United Kingdom. The Soviet Union independent study guide.. primarily: but also was probably the first to exploit the use of correspondence courses on a national basis 2. By'losing and listening to regular to provide a willing population access to broadcasts: and higher education. It is not surprising, there- 3.By opportynities of face-to-face in- fore. that "over half (the enrollments) in its struction. group discussioninlocalcenters. higher educational initituthms arc in cor- and at a two-weck residential summer school. respondence or evening programs, the ma- To prepare students for the systematic jority in correspondence COUrSCS. . . habits required for independent study. the Thc programs arc conducted by special university is contracting with an independent correspondence institutes accredited as home study coliege (the National Extension higher education institutions and by cor- College) and with more than a hundred local respondence divisions of the regular higher colleges and centers to develop and assist in educational institutions.Diplomas received the teaching of these special courses in math. from the corrzspondence study programs arc social studies. and in literature and history. considered equivalent to those from regular In general, the program of thc Open Univer- day full-time programs. Since the introduc- sj ty. wili be a partnership between the uni- tion of direct teaching by telex isic.n into the versity and the BBC. U.S.S.R. in1964, increasing support has been given correspondence and evening stu- The United States dents. particularly in Moscow and Lenin- grad, which have a third channel devoted In a highly restricted sense. the United chiefly to this purpose. States also has universities without campuses.It can even be said that we have a The United Kingdom nalional Tysten of such universities.The "system" is composed of almost 70 major The most recent and most compre- universites extending across the country. hensive design for a university without a from Niw York to California and into campus. "open" specifically for adults who Alaska. I refer to the universities which are for Alme reason missed "earlier" chances, represented in the Independent Study Divi- and arc willing to work to get certificates, sion of the National University Extension diplomas, lower degrees, and even higher Association.° These universities have cam- degrees. is the Open University of the United puses, but they also have Independent Study Kingdom.7 Bureaus or other units in which students may The university has its own charter, its enroll for a limited number of courses for own govetning bodies,staff,and budget. credit (15 to 30 hours, usually) without ever coming to campus. Burton Paulus."Europe's Second Chance A quarter of a million students arc now Universities Educational Broadcasting Relit'''. 3: attending college in this manner. Most of 3: June 1969. these are momentary dropouts and Pldri to 6 SeyMOUr M. Rosen. Part Time Education return to some campus. or are not taking the inthe U..S..S.R. 0. E. 14113. Bulletin 1965. No. 17. Washington. D C.: Superintendent of Documents. Courses for degree credit.Enrollments by U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965. 7 John Robinson. "The BBC and the Open ° Guide to independent Study in Colleges and University:Some QuestionsAnswered." BBC Universities. Washington, D.C.: National Univer- Broadcasting House, London, April 1970. sity Extension Association. Dupont Circle, 1969. 2- ' Adapting to the Needs of Our Time 251

cihers would be an exercise in futility since commercial broadcasting is financially bound, no university will permit thcm to earn a whereasithad previously been primarily degree in this manner. regulatory, resting on its control of radio and What is needed, then. arc "only" im- television broadcast frequencies. provements of thc present national system Since its establishment. thc Corporation of non-campus universitiesimprovements has developed and supported a number of which will provide: programs, but it has not yet mct thcchal- lenge "with respect to instruction." In speak- Broader ("universal-) access to such I. ing on the topic "Toward a Philosophy for programs Public Television Programming," John W. 2.An improved (more interesting, more Macy, Jr., President of thc Corporation, pre- personal. more socially supported ) form of in- ferred specifically to set aside this challenge: struction "1 am sure same in the public broadcasting 3. A full range of programs leading to family say, 'What about the basic philosophy the continuing social and economic badges of with respect to instruction?'I believe that achievement: certificates, diplomas, and degrees. for the purpose of many discussions on public television pro- -amming it is well to set it A Powerful Catalyst aside." The basic elements of thc improved However, he is not unaware of thc sig- model of thc non-campus university system nificance of what has been sct asidc, and in already exist: university Independent Study what hc says further, there is hope for thc Bureaus; statewide educationaltelevision eventual role hc could play in thc develop- systems; and accreditation organizations and ment of an "Open University" for thc Unitcd devices, such as the College Level Examina- States: tion Program. College Proficiency Exam- Let me reassure you that I in no sense inationPrograms,andotherformsof downgrade the importance of that phase (in- credit-by-examination. What is missing is a struction ) of public broadcasting responsibility. powerful catalyst to bring about the union of ...This is an area that should not remain static. these elements. And lo. we may have the It is one that calls for continuing attention, not catalyst toothe CorporationforPublic only in terms of what television projects into the Broadcasting! classroom, hut the relationship of that projec- other technological devices,which, In 1967 the Public Broadcasting Act of tionto hopefully, can enrich the learning proceee 1967 became law, and the Corporation for I believe that all of us now recognize that Public Broadcasting became fact. The Act the lea ning process occurs in the home, after was largely triggered by the report of the school i,onrs. Our basic concept should include Carnegie Commission on Educational Tele- the deli, ery of ylucation on a continuing basis vision and was a Congressional confirma- through school and beyond s hool. through tion of the thesis that public broadcasting adulthood into retirement.This is clearly one is a national concern. As J. Bystrum pointed of the purposes of public broadcasting." out, "The Rubicon was crossed when the As a mattcr of fact. the Corporation Carnegie Commission on Educational Tele- already has on its desk a commissioned rc- vision recognized the federal government as thc major source for funding foi a non- port of both thc contemporary scene and commercial broadcasting system." As a future directions for Continuing Public Edu- consequence, thc federal relationship to non- 10 John W. Macy, Jr. -Toward a Philosophy John W. Ilystrum."Public Broadcasting for Public Television Programming.- Educational Systems: Plans and Realintions.-Educational Rroadcal. 'Pm, Review 3 (9): ft:October 1969. (Em- Rroadcastine Retiew 2 (5): 23: October 19614. phasis adds..; 252 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era cation Broadcasting."Thcrc was no rcc- which is more laxly to yicld thc highest "rc- ommcndation in thc rcport for a specific turn" per unit dollar of support has priority. program. hut thc report did includc a num- oscr thosc Icss likely to do so.'2 ber of critcria for establishing national pro- Such critcria.I would think, clearly gram priorities.Thc thrcc major critcria place a program for educationally discn- were : franchisedmillionsinthctoppriority I.Contribution to Equality of Educa- bracket. As Macy pointed out, what madc tional Opportunity:All other factors being public broadcasters ditlermt from commcr- equal. that arca of Continuing Education which cial broadcasters is that thcy wcrc "thc only may contributc more to equalizing opportuni- broadcasters who spcnt full time in pursuit ties for education for millions denied or de- of thc public inlerctl."3 With thc public privcd of them has priority over those areas interest in thc forefront of its attention, and which contribute less. thc above critcria in its hands, it may not be 2.Contribution to Social Stability:All too long (we hope) before the Corporation other factors hcing equal. that arca of Con- will indced activatc thc cicmcnts of an im- tinuingEducation whichismore likelyto proVed national system of universities with- "defuse" the esplosist cicments of our popu- out campus. L) lation has priority over those which arc less likely to do so. 12 Cominuine Public Edit( ation Rroadcav- 3.Int.citment Return: All other factors ine. A Rerort ro the Corporation for Public Broad- hcing equal, that area of Continuing Educatioa cactinc.Bloomington. Indiana: National instructional Tclesision Center. Scptemher 1969. Appendix II Edwin G. Cohen.-ContinuingPublic I. pp. 7-9. Education Broadcasting. Today and Tomorrow.- " John W. Macy. Jr. "Unique Opportunity Educational Rroadcauinp Relit-iv 4( 1 ) :3: Feb- for Public Broadcasting."' Educational liroadcact- ruary 1970. int? Rei kw 3: 37: Special Issue. 1969. 1 1 IN A WORLD SETTING

Our national regeneration would seem likely, then. to he forwarded by seeing our own problems in some kind of global perspective, in school as well as out of school. Our search for new ways to deal with these problems is shared by many others around the world. Our search for new identity is shared by many; in one wav or another, we are all citizens of developing nations. Frazier, p. 260.

2;-ri EL 17 (1): 129-30; Nm-rrnhc, 1969 41`, 1969 ASCD

There Is Much We Can Learn

Viscrsr R. ROGERS

IF THERE i. one insight I have of problems calling for cross-cultural, supra- gained from my considerable experience national attack; problems of common in- abroad, itis,I suppose. the simple hut ter- terest toscholars,school people,and ribly profound notion that there is much we educationists in a host of nations, Western can karn from one another.I say this with and non-"iestern, developed and developing. complete awareness of the political, cultural, For example: economic, and othcr differences that exist I.There is an almost universal need among us; I say it with full knowledge of the for more effective educational approachcs ways in which one's own values and beliefs the problem of building closer relatienships color one's perceptions of thc life-ways of between a school's academic offerings ani others; and I say it with some understanding the eventual civic behavior of its students. of the technological gap that exists betweer 2. There is an overwhelming amount the nations of thc northern and southern vidence indicating thrt much of what is hemispheres. taught to children in a given country about Despite these differences, and despite life in other nations and cultures is biased these problems. educators from all over the and inaccurate. world arc increasingly engaged in exchanges of viewsdialogues. if you willconcern- 3.There is general concern about de- ing thc education of thc world's children. veloping better ways to help children and I should emphasize at once that these con- youth learn vo cope more effectively with tacts arc indeed exchanges of views, rather thc rapidly changing physical and social than the one-sided imposition of one nation's world in which we find ourselves. educational ideas and practices upon an- 4. Many nations arc particularly con- other. cerned about the nature of education pro- Educators from dozens of nations are gramsfor "disadvantaged"children,for sampling cach other's wares, searching out example, how these children may differ from those practices that appear to have rele- other children in terms of attitude formation, vance and meaning for their own schools, values held, learning style, etc.; what their modifying and adapting such practices as specific educational needs may be; and how they see fit, rejecting out of hand those that to teach them more effectively. (no matter how well advertised) are clearly 5.There is general interest in ques- inappropriate, and, in the process, sharing tions concerning the political socialization of their ideas with others. children, for example, what politicalatt::- As one views the process of education tudes, knowledges, and understandings are from a worldwide, international perspective, possessed by children of varying ages; how one is struck immediately with the number they are developed; and how the school

Vincent R. RoRers. Chairman, Department Of Elementary Education. University of Connecticut. Storrs

254 2114 In a World Setting 255 might play a more effective role in thcir In other words, there appears to be a development. great deal of overlapping interest, activity, and effort among persons working in educa- 6.There is an almost universal need tion throughout the world.It seems to me for more effective mcans of evaImating both that one of thc most pressing needs of our thc cognitive and affective asoects of educa- timc, then,isthat we continue to move tion in all areas. beyond our own nationa' borders as we 7.There seems to be ar1 international consider problems in education, and to rec- nccd for more challenging, creatively de- ognize that. in C. E. Black's words, signedteaching materials ofall kinds visual, printed, manipulative, ctc. We live in a world where societies arc increasingly dependent for their security on 8.There is considerable interest in a factors that cstend far beyond their bound- numbcr of countries in ways of improving aries; where systems of production require raw the education of those who will ultimately materials,markets, and skillsthatno one teach children and youth. countr.- can provide; where social relationships 9.Finally, there is the problem---on and cultural institutions overlap national con- an international as well as on a national fines; and where the orientation of the indi- scaleof closing the gap between research vidual is developing toward acquiring values that know no national frontiers.' findings and school practices.This is re 0 lawd, of course, to the problem of more C. E. Black. The Dynamics of Moderniza- effective means of internationally dissem- tion. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.. 1966. inating information. p. 29.

EL 27 12 r 118-20: November 1959 t' 190 ASCD

The Worldwide Struggle for Education

GEORGE A. MALE

TODAY thebasic educational bits of this saga are acted out in distant problem is one of helping in man's struggle countries we regard them as merely items to remain human. The backdropisthe in the daily newspaper. For many years worldwide struggle against poverty, authori- this was the case as we read with detach- tarianism. colonialism, tribalism, and many ment, and some amusement, of the student other forces which tend te divide men, or to protest activities in Latin America in the place certain groups of men in positions of 1940's and 1950's. subservience and inferiority. Even in our own country we often This worldwide saga is equal in im- overlook critical struggles because of their portance and excitement to our own West- subtle or their sophisticated form. Thus, it ward Movement, the Age of Jackson, and took Michael Harrington to point Mt tO us the drama of the frontier. Too often when the hidden poor t h e "Other Amzricans."

George A. Male. Professor of Comparative Education and Director. Comparative Education Center, University of Maryland, College Park

2135 256 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

This struggle brings to mind Robert masses. Nevertheless. country atter country Heilbronner's concept ofthc "great as- at present is engaging in a nationwide cam- cent"out of the pit er po.erty. ignorance, paign to extend education to all its citizens. and despair.In the 19th century. in the Having nuie it out of the pit, unlike United States, the ascent began with educa- people in man parts of the world where tion as thc ladder leading up and out of the lack of education, poverty, and oppression pit into the bright sun of opportunity. ethi.ic go hand in hand. Americans arc now in respectability, and humaneness. The ladder danger of being pushed hack into the pit h) has worked imperfectly, of course. and for a monster of our owri creationthat is, a ccrtain groups there have been people above society stressing technology, extreme spe- stepping on thcir fingers as thcy grasped the cialization, rootless existencein suburbia, next rung.Today this interferenceisin- and computer values over human values.It flicted more subtly as educational oppor- is no wonder that we now read of a wide- tunity and social class standing arc linked spread identity problem. not only of black together.This interferenceenables some Ardericanc. for whom the problem is doubly in enjoy high status and respectability while acute. hut for all of us. others arc left with low status, an inferior education, and little chancc to advance. In Problem of Identity other parts of thc world thc same phenomenon occurs through use of thc exclusive The problem of identity is no less acute acadcmic secondary schools and thcir coun- in Africa and other regions of thc world terparts on thc higher education level. where localidentity, long dormant under In the case of the black Amencan, he colonial rule, now seeks to establish itself. has seldom been allowed to use zhe main The campaign to establish idcntity is com- educational ladder out of thc pit. Instead. in parable in scope to the struggle now going thc past hc was provided with a much shorter on in the United States in which schools and ladder. In addition, it was so rickcty that it other institutionsarcnowembarked, occasionally collapsed. At best it was oftcn whether they like it or not, on a vast pro- a ladder full of slivers and sharp edges caku- gram to revamp the Negro's, and thc white lated to make thc climb difficult. A similar man's, outlook on life.Basically this is an situation prevailed for indigenous peoples educational job, though one involving far in many regions of thc world undcr British, more than schools. No society in thc world French, Dutch, and Portuguese rule.As canremold itselfwithoutcoordination independence camc for many of these groups among all its social agencies. in the 1950's and 1960's a serious attempt One of the agencies isthe national was made, and is bcing made, to fashion new government, and increasingly we seem to be ladders of educational opportunity. relying on big government. In so doing wc Such ladders arc not easily consrueted face a new dilemma of preserving local when physical resources arc limited and initiative and: _.;pect for individual differ- whcn tribal, ethnic, and class rivalries pit one ences in the pressmcc of a government in- group against another.One of the most creasingly vast, faceless, and bureaucratic. persistent of human patterns is the way men Our only defense seems to be a renewed tend to divide into invidious groupings, often insistence on citizen participation. aided and abetted by thc educational system. Viewed in this light, thc black citizen's Education has been used to htighten the dcmand for control over his neighborhood feelings of being inadequate and unworthy schoolis a healthful response which may in some individuals and to make others feel help black and white alike in the long run. As proud and haughty and disdainful of thc ordinary citizens now demand a say about 216 In a World Setting 257

thc hiring of teachers and thc naturc of thc our problems. Unlesswc makcfaster curriculum, teachers find themsoves pitted progress in coping with thc vast problems against administrators and apinst citizen generated by a rapidly changing society, wc groups who in effect challenge the claim that facc a vast disillusionment not only with teachers arc professionals and should control schools but also with thc intellectual ap- their work. Students also rise row in anger proach to life.In our own time we have againstbureaucracy, bigness.impersonal witnessed thc awful specter of a nation, Nazi values, disinterestel teachers, and everyone Germany, adopting a blind emotional ap- and everybody who is in thc other generation proach to life. Should such irrationality gain from which youth is alienated. a foothold in thc United States,it would Who controls, thcn. becomes a basic be the crowning irony because of our noble issue and underlies much of thc educational attempt to educate mankind, all of man- chinge occurring in many regions of the kind. on ascale which no other nation world.This is, of course. poi of a larger thought possible, or desirable. struggle between thc haves and the have-nots As other countries dedicate themselves of thc world. to the inspiring task of educating all man- In thc United States the poorly edu- kind. and in a manner w-.3ch preserves and cated arc separated by a widening gulf from enhances man's humanity. it becomes equally those who arc well educated.The same is truc in other lands, but it k less a problem in importantthatprogresskeep pacc with some regims of the world whcrc elitism is rising expectations. Reports coming in from an old and well accepted ideology. Here it various regions of thc world indicatc that thc becomes a problem because of our society's challenge has been acccptcd. Wc all have open commitment to equality and because an obligation not only to keep informed of of our nation's faith that education, if only these developments around thc world but wc will give it a chancc, is the answer to all to lend our support, cach in his own way. E

EL 27 (3)- 215-17: Drermhrr 1969 e. 1969 ASCD The Larger Question: A New Sense of Common Identity (A n Editorial)

ALEXANDER FRAZIER

ON JULY 20, 1969, wc put a restore our feeling of competence and indeed period to thc first phase of a new cra in this our sense of safety. country. The moon landin., was our answer Yet that footstep. fateful asitwas, to thc question of whether wc collid mobilize came late in the new era of national regen- our resources for thc kind of achieve] lent eration.Already othcr concerns loomed that seemed, aftcr Sputnik, to be needed to larger in our consdousness than those re-

Alexander Frazier, Professor of Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus. In1969, ASCD President 2i; 7 258 Curricular Concernsin a Revolutionary Era solved by Apollo I I.On July 20, as we much like middle class meddling.' We saw looked at our success in space, almost all of ourselves as needing to assess and alter as us compared it to our failure at home. "If we could parent-child relationships, outlooks we can land a man on the moon," wesaid on learning and attitudes toward school, pat- toourselves andto one 'another, "then terns of gratification, concepts of time, im- surely...." ages of self, and even patterns of language. And we have begun to think together, We may have been learning, we may more earnestly than ever, about the size of decide, more about changingthemthan the effort it will take to regain peace .. about changing us; or settling too easily for eradicate or reduce poverty. . . build new learning how to understand the children of bases of understanding among our compo- the poor and empathize with them (attitude nent racial and ethnic strains ...offer more is everything, we have been telling some of meaningful goals and roles for youth. . . our teachers-to-be) instead of persisting in control a careening economy . . .stop the the very tough task of finding out how to deadly pollution of our environment ... re- teach chhdren more successfully."We'll be plan and rebuild our great but decaying the parents to our children," some of these cities.... parents are beginning to say to us. "Why One thing we can be sure of is that if don't you be the teachers?" And they are we are to succeed in doing something about expecting results that so far we have not these problems, Are must try for a new defi- been able to provide through our modest nition of community and a consequent new missionary ventures. sense of common identity. We can be sure, We are also already trying out a variety too, that as our society tries for a new model of curriculum modifications that we think of the American, we in the schools will be in may assist in bolstering up the search for the midst of the effort. personal identity among ethnic groups. We needtoexplore the dimensions of such We Are in It Now modifications, to watch for and weigh results. If Not Too Far SocializationToward What Ends? In truth, we are in it now, for our so- But to return to the theme of this pa- ciety has already,if perhapsslowiy and per: A major concern, on which all of our meagerly, declared itself to some extent in other school efforts may well depend, as may behalf of a higher level of public conscience. the direction of our society as a whole, is the A good many new provisions for meeting redefinition of what it means to be an Ameri- unmet needs have been made by government can.Schools, we have always contended, inthis decade.And for some time the serve as the bonding device in a democracy schools have been trying to do more for the like ours.Certainly they are the primary disadvantaged than in the past. formal institution for political socialization Our attempts may not as yet have corm of the young. The proper fulfilling of this to much. We may have reason to feel better role of theirs is thus central at all times to at this point about our impulses than about the well-being of society and at a time of our results.With a littlehelp from our disunity becomes critical. critics, we may find in looking back that even Political socialization in normal times our impulses were open to some question. Our short courses in sociology may have de- 1 Ben B. Seligman notes this approach as an example of middle class noblesse oblige, in: Per- fined ends for us that, while well meaning manent Poverty: An A menclaz Syndrome. Chicago: in spirit, turned out in practice to look very Quadrangle Books, 1968. 2 r) ina World Setting 259 may have seemed to requirelittle more of think as well as we can on this matter and the schools, as the Hess study 2indicates to share what we think. (data from961-62), than to support the Should we rewrite American history? home and society ingeneral by helping A fairer representation of thecontributions children generalize and transfer respectfor of minority groups needs to be includedin properly constituted authority from the par- any school study of our past, we arcall ent and thc teacher to thc policemanand the agreed. Perhaps sonic episodes in our his- President. The young grow into learning how tory,like the resettlement of Indians on to behave as a citizen chiefly through prac- reservations,thereconstructionera, and tice in service and self-government activities, possibly even the Mexican War, may need safety patrols and student councils, for ex- retelling. More attention also may necd to ample; and they store up information along go to the role andachievements of dis- the way about how government isorganized senters, reform movements, and thirdparties. at its several levels. The ends of suchsocial- ization aie more or less obvious to every- Should we revive the problem-cen- body, more or less taken for granted. tered curriculum? A core program today However, in times of national crisis and could draw on a broader base of accessible division, the question of ends (as well per- study resources from fields like economics, haps as processes) may be reopened. The anthropology, sociology, human ecology, and problem right now that is most disturbing to political science.Our problems, too, would many of us in education is really aquestion strike young learners as more relevant now we may not have askedourselves out loud than perhaps they did in a quieter and less since the thirties: "Socializationfor what?" self-conscious era. Efforts to find an answer to this ques- Should we center more attention on tion cannot be delayed. We may no;know value development? Sometimes in the past where our society is headed, but some think we may have been a littleafraid that by they do. In a sample survey of secondary dwelling too long on concepts like freedom, school principalslast year, two-thirds of justice, equality, community, and peace, we those from urban areas reported experience might maudlinize their meaning.But we with some kind of student disturbance, asdid are newly aware of thecentrality of such more than half the principals ofrural schools. concepts in political behavior, theircruciality Our problem, then, is one of trying to in determiningchoices.Perhaps we are rethink the ends of political socialization in readier to face up to the straight-out teaching creation of ways that ma:7 contribute to the of or for values. a new me-Lel of the American,beyond myth, we would hope, and abovemockery, we Should we settle for basic social in- would insist. sights? More than ever we are aware that there is a body of knowledge about how men Some of the Ways We Might Go behave as political creatures, a content that might be usefully taught to develop insights What are some of the ways we might into power and its exercise and into such as- go? Based on one reading of the signs and pects of social behavior asconflict and con- an obviously limited awarenessof the full frontation.3 range of possibilities, thoseoffered here are only conjectural. But we need all of us to 3 Lewis A. Coser is the author of themajor analyses of these phenomena:The Functions of 2 Robert D. Hess and Judith V. Tarney.The Social Conflict.New York: The Free Press, 1956; Development of Political Attitudes in Children. andContinuities in the Study of Social Conflict. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967. New York: The Free Press, 1967. 219 260 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Should we educate more directly for Collins said, feel "proud to be an inhabitant human sensitivity? adult society, we are of this most magnificent planet." learning how to reeducate ourselves to be- From his planetaryperspective,the come more expressive and authentic in our second man to set foot on the moon, Edwin relations to one another. There would seem Aldrin, reiterated for us the feeling of na- to be hints here for the education of the tional resolution we had shared as a people young in better interpersonal and intergroup when he related our space success on July 20 relations as well as for the fuller develop- to our domestic confusion: "We can do what ment of self. we will and must and want to do." Our national regeneration would seem Should we provide experiences in likely, then, to be forwaided by seeing our political action?Apprenticeship to the many own problems in some kind of global per- projects of community improvement or in- spective, in school as well as out of school. '. olvement Li the development of cooperative Our search for new ways to deal with these projects by school and community could give problems is shared by many others around students something that classroom study the world. Our search for new identity is cannot. shared by many; in one way or another, we Should we try for planetary perspec- are all citizens of developing nations. tive?At the State Dinner in Los Angeles, "What we want to do is to go forward astronaut Neil Armstrong remarked of the all the time, night and day, in the company people with whom the Apollo crew had been of Man, inthe company of all men." 4 in touch all that long day: These words, addressed to his fellow Afri- cans by the Algerian revolutionary philoso- We hope and think that those people pher, Frantz Fanon, may speak to us also as shared our belief that this is the beginning of a new erathe beginning of an era when man to men everywhere. "Our country is the understands the universe around him, and the world, our countrymen all mankind." 5 El beginning of the era when man understands Frantz Fanon. The Wretched of the Earth. himself. Translated by Constance Farrington. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1966.p. 255. Somehow withdrawing from the earth 5 Motto carried on the masthead of William has seemed to provide our astronauts with Lloyd Garrison's newspaper, The Liberator, founded a perspective that makes them, as Michael in 1831.

2 In a World Setting 261

PAULINE GRATZ

ECOLOGISTS todayseekto to the efficiency of the combined efforts of communicate a message that can hardly be green plants and organisms includingani- more critical or significant foreducation. mals whichuseoxygen.Greenplants It is that we are destroying the natural en- provide oxygen to the atmosphere at ap- vironment thatisnecessary for any kind proximately the same rate as organisms use of human life in our continuous search for the oxygen available in the atmosphere. what we call "a better way of life." This fortunate state of circumstances is There is no doubt that man has made primarily due to the presence of marine giant strides since his first appearance on microorganisms suspended near the surface earth. Many of these steps are laudable and of the ocean's water, producing 70 percent have contributed to the "better life," but in or more of the earth's oxygen. Consequently, other aspects we have made some monstrous even though there is an interruption of the mistakes in the direction of destroying the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle known as pho- land upon which our food supply depends, tosynthesis during darkness and partially spoiling the air we must breathe and the during winter seasons, man has been for- water we must drink, and in other ways up- tunate in that the circulation patterns in the setting the biological, geological, and chem- atmosphere move the air about the earth in icalcycles upon which our verybeing such a way that he has not had to be con- depends. cerned that he would run out of oxygen to Most ecologists will agree that they see breathe. no significant indication that we have much Just as the oxygen is primarily pro- determination toward improving our prar.- duced by marine microorganisms in the sea, tices.It is these practices which have impli- the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is cations for educating young people toward a cleated in large measure by the process of realization of the crucial need for maintain- combustion.The carhon dioxide inthe ing an environment supportive of life. atmosphere before our appearance on earth was probably due to the spontaneous com- Environmental Pollution bustion that occurred in the forests covering the earth.Later we burned forestsfor Environmental pollution is only one ofwarmth, food production, and protection. several outcomes of our practices that should As time progressed, we went on to find be seriously considered. The level of oxygen other uses for combustion and to find new in the atmosphere today is slightly over 20 * Based on a paper at the annual confc-ence percent, a level similar to the atmosphere of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum 400 million years ago. This is probably due Development, March 17, 1969, in Chicago.

Pauline Gratz, Professor of Human Ecology, Duke University MedicalCenter, Durham, North Cgrolina 17) 4 262 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era combustible materials such as coal, oil, and "We don't know."Does this mean, however, natural gas which provided heat and power. that we should do nothing? The magnitude It was the exploitation of these fossil fuels of this crisis is visible but goes unrecognized which made it feasible for more people to by large majorities of people.Its gravity is exist on earth than had ever been possible felt but barely understood. People refuse to before. Use of these fuels brought with it, recognize or understand what isin plain however, our serious problem of environ- sight, pretending it is not there, hoping it will mental pollution. go away and leave us alone. And precisely The oceans take carbon dioxide from because individuals refuse to comprehend the atmosphere, producing limestone. Ecol- what they behold, the stress isstarting to ogists warn, however, that carbon dioxide is impinge upon our daily lives ever more fre- now being added to the atmosphere far too quently, ever more insistently.In the ab- rapidly for the oceans to absorb completely. sence of treatment, the dimensions of the A tonof petroleum hydrocarbon when malignancy swell and multiply. burned produces about 11/2tons of water and about twicethisamount of carbon The Great Paradox dioxide.With the increased use of fossil The paradox of the times lies in the fuels by industrialfacilities, automobiles, fact that we are fully capable of rooting out jet airplanes, and so forth, the amount of the underlying causes of pollution.The carbon dioxide spewed into the atmosphere human,technological,andfinancialre- is increasing tremendously. Concomitantly, sources are at hand. We do possess the vast tracts of land are being removed from knowledge and skill to use these resources. the cycle of photosynthesis.In the United Yet we waver, hesitate, equivocate. We lack States alone, a million acres of green plants the will to act. are paved under each year.The loss of It is quite possible to cut down on some these plants is reducing the rate at which of the carbon dioxide pollution by installing oxygen enters the atmosphere. In addition, a control system in automobiles. Yet many we do not even know to what extent photo- individuals doubt whether thisistrulya synthesis is being inhibited through pollu- practical solution to the pollution problem tion of ocean and fresh waters. without inordinate costs to the automobile This is why many scientists believe user.If this opinion is to be followed to its that the carbon-oxygen balance may be in logical conclusion, then, as one scientist has danger. Should a point be reached at which suggested, there is no solution to the problem the rate of combustion exceeds the rate of except to allow pollution to rise to such a photosynthesis, the atmosphere will begin level that one-half of the car operators suc- to run out of oxygen. If this occurs gradu- cumb to the effects of their free use of the ally, the effect would be approximately the hignways. Then, with the number of auto- same as moving to high altitudes, such as mobiles reduced to pre-smog level, air pollu- in the Andes mountains. Some ecologists tionwill once again become insignificant believe this oxygen shortage might help to until, of course, the car operators reproduce alleviate the populationcrisis by raising and the population increases again. Quite death rates. Others believe that atmospheric frankly, this is madness. depletion of oxygen might occur suddenly, Nitrogen Cycle not gradually. So many of the problems besetting man Another important aspect of the en- insupportinghisenvironment canbe vironment is the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is summed up thus far by the simple phrase, necessary for the building of protein.It is

27/ 2 In a World Setting 263 released into the atmosphere, along with oxygen, or to the bacterial life involved in ammonia, as a gas when plants and animals the nitrogen cycle. decay.Live plants use both substances to We have developed ingenious products build their proteins, but they cannot use the and devices to bring about short-range bene- nitrogen in gaseous form. Certain bacteria fits. We are constantly devising grandiose and glgae in the soil and roots of some plants schemes to achieve immediate ends.Our use the nitrogen and ammonia gas to produce influence on our earth is now so dominant nitrates, which the plants use in turn to build that we must begin to consider what our their proteins. Animals then build their pro- products and schemes will do to the biogeo- teins from the constituents of piant proteins. chemical cycles instead of trusting to luck As was indicated in the discussion of that none of our machinations will upset the oxygen, the rate of use and return of nitrogen balance of life. has reached a balance so that the percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains con- Role of Education stant.It is not difficult to envision what might occur if any one of the numerous steps What shall we do as educators? Shall in the nitrogen cycle were to be disturbed. we produce more advertising executives who The atmospheric nitrogen might disappear. assert that billboards are "the art gallery of It might be replaced by ammonia which, if the public"? Or more industry spokesmen unused in the atmosphere, would become who say that "the ability of a river to absorb poisonous. Or plants could no longer make sewage is one of our great natural resources proteins because bacteria would no longer be and should be utilized to the utmost"? Or available to use the gas in the atmosphere. more oilmen who show surprise and wonder In any case, disturbance of the nitrogen bal- at the outcry over the death of a "few hun- ance might mean disaster for the earth. dred birds"? Has all our interference with natural There is much that educators can do processes begun to have a serious effect on individually and colicctively. Probably the the nitrogen cycle? Again, we do not know. most important step is to educate with regard The point is, however, that we should know to the urgency of the problem. We must take before we continue to do more interfering. every opportunity offered to speakabout The Federal Food and Drug Administration what man is doing to his environment. Every has indicated that we are dumping vast quan- course should include at least one session on tities of pollutants into the oceans.These the subject.It is the educators who must include pesticides, radicisotopes, detergents, take leadership. Now is the time to stop and other biologically active materials. No talking to ourselves and start talking to our more than a fraction of these substances have students and to the rest of the population. been tested for toxicity to the marine micro- Onlyaninformedpublicwilldemand organisms that produce most of the earth's action.

273 264 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

EL 26 (5 ): 439-46; February 1969 1969 ASCD

The Arts in a Global Village

MAXINE GREENE

IN THE recent past, when we you surely know, from meeting someone heard the phrase "international cooperation" from another culture, someone labeled "for- or even "world education," we were likely eign student" or "delegate from Nigeria," soon to hear the word "man" or "mankind." who seems like us in cenain ways, for all the Those who talked of international under- apparent differences we perceive in lan- standing, it seemed, were prone to rely, in guage, costume, and attitude towardlife. the last analysis, on fine-sounding abstrac- Too often, when we meet an individual like tions, like "respect for humanity" and "love this at a conference, in a class, or even in of man." someone's living room, we identify with our This is not so likely today, but none- roles and frequently with our cultures. We theless I need to begin by asserting that the art: not persons atall,fullof theusual term "man"or, if you prefer, "mankind" doubts, distractions, and idiosyncracies; it means little to me, because it says nothing is as if we leave our imperfect selves, our about men in their diversity and complexity. private selves, at home, replacing them with Nor does it say anything about their pre- gracious, smiling, open-minded persona. We carious condition in the universe, nor about become people who never looked for a job, the innumerable ways they have found for never changed a diaper, never became angry coping with it, nor the heights they some- at a job poorly done, never worried about times attain, nor the depths to which they failing an exam, never became preoccupied just as often fall. with meanings or purposes, never asked In the so-called "global village" there "What's it all for?" We are other to those are many mansions; but there are many we meet and to ourselves at once. Correct hovels,too, many rat-infestedtenements, and controlled, we seldomas living per- many exposed outposts, many barren, dusty sonsmeet each other's eyes. We are, in fields;and thereare multitudes moving Ralph Ellison's sense,invisibletoeach through the global village, crowds of strang- other. ers, with faces generally blurredexcept, now and then, when one becomes visible to A Sense of Ourselves us with shockingclarity and immediacy, and we suddenly recognize a person there, an "I am invisible, understand," Ellison individual, perhaps a fellow-creatureand wrote at the start of Invisible Man, "be- we know, somehow, it is with him as itis cause people refuse to see me. Like the with each of us. bodiless heads you see sometimes in circus To talk of world friendship or interna- sideshows, it is as though I have been sur- tional understanding is, for me, to talk of rounded by mirrors of hard, distorting glass. making such recognitions possible, increas- When they approach me, they see only my ingly possible, This is somewhat different, as surroundings, themselves,orfigments of

Maxine Greene, Professor of English, Teachers College, Columbia University, NewYork City

274 In a World Setting 265 their imaginationindeed, everything and enough,totreating them as objects,as anything except me." ' things. There is no point in educating against It is not our intention not to see.It is, provincialism if we feel ourselves to be, like again quoting Ellison, because of a "peculiar Shakespeare's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, disposition" of our eyes. Our vision is often "indifferent children of the earth." too poor to permit us to see through the In the recent play, Torn Stoppard's Frenchness of a French person, the Korean- Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, ness of a Korean person. We mayappreciate when the two young men discover that the the Frenchness and the Koreanness. We may letter they are carrying o the English king be eager to learn all there is to learn about isa letter instructing the king to cut off what accountsforsuch qualitieswhat Hamlet's head, they are shocked at first, be- values, what cultural mores, what kind of cause, after all, they are supposed to be his education, what early childhood experiences. friends. Then Guildenstern takes care of it We may say that beneath all these we recog- for both of them by saying: nize a fellow-creaturein abstracto; that we Let's keep things in proportion. Assume, if know the Frenchman or Korean opposite is you like, that they're going to la him. Well, another version of "man"; but this can, as he is a man, he is mortal, and 9onsequently he we all realize, be still another way of im- would have died anyway, sooner or later. Or posing invisibility. to look at it from the social poiht of viewhe's A concern with invisibilityand with just one man among many, the loss would be the difficulty of encountering another as a well within reason and convenience. And then personis what leads me to turn to litera- again, what isso terrible about death?As Socrates so philosophically put it,since we ture and the arts as means of making under- don't know what death is, it is illogical to fear standing possible,not so much an it.It might be ... verynice.2 understanding of the idea of man or the idea of mankind, as some prefer, but for a sense This is an example of what I mean: the of ourselves and of our condition in the indifference which makes it possible to speak worlda condition which, at some level, all abstractly aboutanotherperson'sdeath, the world's people share. I am aware of the other people's deaths.It is of a piece with importance of learning rationally and em- the ability to speak abstractly, impersonally pirically how other people live,certainly about one's selfos, indeed, Rosencrantz is aware of the importance of immersionin able to do a moment later: "We, Rosencrantz other cultures for the sake of empathy with and Guildenstern, from our young days other human beings' designs for living and brought up with him, awakened by a man for the sake of discover ing the almost infinite standing on his saddle, are summoned. ..." diversity of behaviors known to be human. He recapitulates what has happened since Like the readers of this article,I want to they were unexpectedly summoned to Den- overcomenarrownessand provincialism; mark, as if it were all predetermined, with most of all, I want to overcome the kind of effects following causes according to some pride which prevents people from ascribing external plan. Telling it that way, seeing it dignity to alien modes of life. Yet it seems that way, they need take no responsibility. to me that none of this can be overcome until Only at the last moment, just before he dis- we overcome remoteness and thetendency appears from view, Guildenstern, reviewing to treat other people habitually as subjects it one last timL ("Our names shouted in of studywhich is often equivalent, oddly a certain dawn .. .a message .. .a sum- I Ralph Ellison. Invisible Man. New York: 2 Tom Stoppard. Rosen-rantz and Guilden- The New American Library, Inc., 1952.p. 7. By stern Are Dead. New York: Grove Press, permission of Random House, Inc. 1968. p. 110. Copyright 0 1967 by Tom Stoppard.

275 266 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

each different from the others and "as differ- mons. ..."), says "There must have been a moment, at the beginning, where we could ent, equal to the others in the right to live have saidno. But somehow we missed it." 3 and to grow." The idea of mankind, Kallen I offer this as an example for two rea- adds, is the "self-orchestration" of the diverse sons. First, it helps me make the pointthat cultures and faiths and ways and works ex- indifference breeds irresponsibility and that isting in the world into what might be called both are somehow functions of a feeling of a "world community." Then he turns to the powerlessness,ofnothingnessofbeing young human being asked to commit himself nothing, mere shells,actors, hollow men. to such an idea and says that his growth Second, it may suggest the power of litera- into it must be "a self-transcendence achiev- ture and the arts to turn our attention in- ing itself in a continuing orchestration of ward, to confront us with ourselves. Strange his immediate experiences with the symbolic as it may seem, I believe that self-confronta- presence of the absent singularities of the tion of the sort literature makes possible is rest of humanity." the source of the understanding which many What strikes me hardest here is the have definedas world education's prime emphasis on the need for self-creation and concern. self-transcendence as primary, and on the fact that the only meaningful commitment Need for Self-Creation to the idea of mankind is the free commitment,the personal commitmentand, I Before referring to other specific works, would append, the concerned, responsible let me support what I am saying by recalling one. This is quite different, as I know we a number of recent discussions in this field. all are aware, from a mere abstract assertion Some readers may be familiar with a book of allegiance, a generalized profession of edited by the great educational historian, "love" for all humanity. In an odd way, such Robert Ulich, a few years ago, called Educa- generalized professions remind me of the tion and the Idea of Mankind.' The philoso- hippies' watchword "love"which, we have pher, Horace M. Kallen, in a chapter on been told often enough, is a global feeling, "Higher Education" in that book, treats edu- not a personal one, a feeling that involves no cation as the struggle of the living to per- responsibility, no face-to-face encounter, but petuate themselves. "One need," he writes, is simply a passive submergence into an "only to look at any person's or people's his- ocean some call the One. tory to grasp that what it records is a con- I find support for the notion of the geries of struggles of Selves and of the group importance of self-commitment in Harold Selves whose identitiesareorganizational Taylor's report on the Conference on World Wholes compounded by interindividual re- Education held in December 1966.5 Harris lations.. ." And he asks, "Can whatever Wofford, formerly of the Peace Corps, noted 'mankind' signifies asfact,idea, ideal of at one point that by thinking of the foreign direct experience be rendered the object of a student as a foreigner we make distinctions belief" by means of educationwithin the among persons in terms of geography "rather process of striving to continue an identity, than in terms of human values."(Wofford a way of life? had said earlier: "There is a worldwide gen- Mankind, says the Universal Declara- eration, and Peace Corps volunteers have tion of Human Rights, consists of multitudes, discovered they are part of it and that their

3 Ibid., p. 125. 5 HaroldTaylor,editor.Conference on 4 Robert Ulich, editor. Education and the World Education.Washington, D.C.: American Idea of Mankind. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, World, Inc., 1964. 1967. In a World Setting 267 students, fellow teachers, peers, and col- engage his imagination nor makepossible leagues of other colors and nationalities are vicarious identification. really marching to the same beat, wrestling To a great extent this is the case, espe- with the same problems and that, whatever cially when aesthetic experiences are judi- the problems are, Yevtuschenko is writing ciously linked toand distinguished from poetry about them." ") The crucial point here inquiries in the social sciences.I have no has to do with commitment, with the ability doubt, for instance, that the films of Styajit to hear the beat, to find fellowship through Ray have done much to give people a sense the confrontation of related problemsof a of Indian life, just as the films of Fellini and common human condition, something anin- Antonioni and others have done much to dividual can only know if he is able to know give young people a full, a palpable imaging himself. At the conclusion of the conference, of certain dimensions of Italian life.I am when th,t students took over, Eugene Groves,7 not willing to say that encounters with films then president of the National Student Asso- necessarily increase the chances of empathy ciation, said he thought that facts about for- or the understanding some have inmind; eign countries, foreign situations, and foreign but, if properly fostered, they lay a founda- students were largely irrelevant"that it is tion which may well be made productive in more a question of feeling and belief.. . . time to come. We need to develop concern for the person and his value judgments." The talk, interest- To Enter Unfamiliar Worlds ingly enough, became talk not only about Another justification for the use of the empathy for other cultures, but about iden- arts has been defined by my colleague Fran- tity; and this, to me, seems utterly crucial. cis Shoemaker in an article in the April 1968 My argument is,then, that the arts issue of the Teachers College Record. Called have a crucial role to play in the search for "New Dimensions for World Cultures," 8 internationalunderstandingorinworld this article discusses the development of what education because of the contribution en- Dr. Shoemaker calls "a serviceable design gagement with the arts can make to a sense within which to observe and compare" the of identity, a sense of self.I realize that ideas and values of diverse societies in the alternative justifications for the use of art modern world. He writes, therefore, of a are frequently given, and I do not mean to worldconstitutedoffourmajor world challenge these but, rather, to complement culturesJudeo-Christian, Islamic, Hindu- and supplement them. A familiar one is Buddhistic-Taoist, and African. He proposes that, through engagement with a novel or a study of these cultures by meansof the a film, a student has a better opportunity humanities,particularlyliterature,which to grasp the actual stuff of life in a different offers--he suggestsmultiple opportunities culture than he might have simply by read- to "deal in life-like simultaneity with wide spectrums of materials and values." The idea ing about that culture in a text that did not of coming to know and to empathize with a culture by developing an awareness of its 6 Harris Wofford. "Programs and Concepts in International Education."In: Harold Taylor, core values is not new, as we realize; but editor.Conference on World Education. Wash- Dr. Shoemaker's designwhich is poten- ington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges tiallyusablein secondary schoolsmore for Teacher Education, 1967. p. 120. The justification for using 7 Eugene Groves. "The Role of Students in than likely is. World Education."In:Harold Taylor,editor. Conference on World Education.Washington, 8 Francis Shoemaker. "New Dimensions for D.C.:AmericanAssociationofCollegesfor World Cultures."Teachers College Record 69 Teacher Education, 1967. p. 41. (7): 685-97; April 1968.

277 268 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era thc humanitiesisthat, above allthings, each otherfor all our differencesin terms works of literature arc bearers of values, of that nobility, which each of us possesses. presentersof values,asitwere,offering Here, however, the principle is transmuted, occasions for participation by readers free made concrctc and particular. enough to enter unfamiliar worlds. Melville is presenting, as it were, the Again, I would not challenge this idea; form of his feelings about thc ideal signifi- I would only complement it, althoughin cance of democracy. But he does this im- my personal priority schemeself-discovery mediately after he has introduced the pious, by means of literature must precede the con- intrepid, practical Starbuck who "was no frontation Dr. Shoemaker describes. Yet how crusader afterperils" and who could not does self-discovery occur? What docs it have withstand spiritual terrors or doubtsand to do with the "understanding" world educa- immediately before bringing onto his stage tors want to make possible? happy-go-lucky Stubb, ignorant, irreverent Lct me usc as an example a familiar Flask, Queequeg, the Indian Tashtego, and passage that seems peculiarly appropriate the whole strange crew of IslandersIsola- at this point: toes, Melville calls thcm, each "living on a separate contincnt of his own." The novel, Mcn may seem detestable as joint stock as you know, is about a search for idcntity companies and nations; knaves, fools, and mur- derers there may be; men may have mean and and about one of the Isolatoes, Ishmael, who meagre faces; but man, in the ideal, is so noble discovers his identity and, indeed, a pew life and so sparkling, such a grand and glowing threugh learning what itis to squeeze an- creature, that over any ignominious blemish in other's hand.Engaging with Moby Dick, him all his fellows should run to throw their readers discover a thousand singular things costliest robes.. .this august dignity I treat of, because the book itselfislike a white is not the dignity of kings and robes, but that whale, encompassing an endless range of abounding dignity which has no robed investi- meanings; but whateverisdiscoveredis ture. Thou shalt see it shining in the arm that found within thc individual readerenacting wieds a pick or drives a spoke; that democratic with Ishmaelhis journey from the rainy dignity which, on all hands, radiates without street and thc coffin warehouses and the end from God, Himself: The great God absolute! thoughts of suicideto the opcn, dangerous The centre and circumference of all democracy! His omnipresence, our divine equality! 9 seato comradeship--to shipwreckand, at last, to rcbirth. Thatis from Moby Dick, from the How is one to experience rcbirth except chapter in Nt dich Starbuck, thc first mate, is in terms of one's own life histoiy, one's own introduced.I use it not only because it is a consciousness of what it is to feel "a damp, symbolic rendering of a world composed of drizzly Novemuer" in one's soul, to think "multitudes"; thc Pequod crcw, after all, is of suicide, to risk voyaging, learning, expan- a crcw made up of men from diverse cul- sion of horizonsyes, and even shipwreck? tures. The book itself seems to be a render- And, isit not the case that,if one does ing of the first principle (or what I believe experience that way, if one draws to the to be the first principle) of many philoso- surface of consciousness all thosc elements phies of world educationThe principle is of half-forgotten feeling, imagings, yearnings that at the highest level of abstractionthat through the use of one's imaginationone below the surfacemankind (which may somehow ends up knowing himself, forming signify man in the ;deal) is essentially noble, the sense of himself in a novel way? And is immaculate, and that we are to understand it not the case that, if one considerssub- 9 Herman ivtelville.Abby DicL.New Yolk: jectively, perhapsone's own understanding Random House, Inc., 1930. p. 166. of alienation and venturing outward and

27 8 In a World Setting 269 squeezing others' hands, one is in a position forever and the degree to which he survives. to understand (as he could not understand H I can respond to the poem at all, even in before) what "divine equality" and under- translation,Ishall be more alive, more standing 6f others mean? myselfless one of the indifferent, irresponsible chiidren of the earth. And, because I Continuities in Life also know what it is to mourn and to strive for a continuation of lifebecause that, in I am suggesting that great art has the fact, is an aspect of the human condition capacity to move us in this fashion: to move perhaps I can begin to open myself to the us into ourselves to rediscover our humanity, Senegalese on that level; perhaps I can begin which is, fundamentally, our consciousness to understand. of ourselves, our potentially self-transcending There arc so many instances of works identities. which involve us withalien cultures and A poem written by Birago Diop of which arc, on one level, extremely potent Senegal, "Breaths," begins: for the sense they provide of another way of Listen more often to things rather than lifefor the introduction they offer to core beings. and sustaining valuesbut which arc, on Hear the fire's voice. thefundamentallevel,atleastfor me, Hear the voice of water. powerful for the illumination they provide In the wind hear the sobbing of the trees, of my own selfhood, my own existential It is our forefathers breathing. reality.I think of Marguerite Duras's The The dead are not gone forever. Sea Wall," an account of an aging French- They arc in the paling shadows woman in Indochina, who tries to farm in And in the darkening shadows. a barren part of what is now Vietnam The dead are not beneath the ground, a land full of starving, kindly, prolific peas- They are in the rustling trees.... 10 ants somehow resigned to the yearly flood- And so on about the continuing life of ing of the rice paddies, which the dogged the dead. You can tell me things you learned Frenchwoman simply cannot accept.She from anthropologists about the attitudes of and her family build a seawall whichis certain African tribes to their ancestors and thrown down in a single nightthey chal- to their ckad, and to the continuity in life; lenge the land agentsand it is useless, of and I will be interested if you do. You can course, tragic, heroicand all the more so show me photographs of Senegalese lean- because of the sense of eternality, of resig- ing over fires in the forests, and point out nation in the peasants who endure. the peculiarities of their dress, their gestures, There is, of course, tremendous vicari- their handling of the things of which the ous involvement in the life of Vietnam in poet speaks; and, again, I will Ile interested, the days when the French were still there, and probably I will learn. But when I read and the possibility of an awareness of the the poem, I must read it myself; and I can Vietnamese people no newsreel can provide. only read it with my own memories, and my Yet, I think, the understanding that takes own feelings within me; and I can only place or may take place is derived from the enact it in terms of my own existing self. reader's own inner experience with seawalls If I do, I confront certain feelings I have and battles against resignationand desires about continuitiesand about the earth to survive. One somehow moves upward and the degree to which my father has gone from the fundamental recognition of shared 10 BiragoDiop. "Breaths." In: Jacob Drachler, editor. African Heritage. New York: II Marguerite Duras.The Sea Wall. New Collier Books, 1960. York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc., 1967. 279 270 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era predicament, and of responsibility,to the As a crazed believer empathy with Indo-Chinese life which the enters story somehow insists uponbut which can a church, be realized only when the reader first makes retreats into a monastery cell, the tragedy his own. austere and plain; For a sense of connection with human so I, existence in the U.S.S.R., consider what is in graying evening enacted by means ofDoctor Zhivago,i2the haze, private man caught up in the fantastic move- humbly set foot ment of history in the days after the Russian upon Brooklyn Bridge." Revolution, becoming sickened by artificial conversation, by what becomesas he puts Mayakovsky writes of the drone of the it"nothing but wordsolaptrap in praise elevated trains, the masts passing under the of ihe revolution and the regime." Hc says bridge; and he says that if our planet is ever he is sick and tircd of it."And it's not the smashed to bits and only the bridge remains, kind of thing I'm good at." Obviously, some in the dust "from this bridge, a geologist of people are good at it; but cogaging with our the centuries will succeed in recreating our own responses, we can understand them too. contemporary world."Surely it clears the Confronting the tcnsion between our per- cyc to sce for a momcnt as aforeigner sees, sonal inclinatiunsthe kinds of things we to reorder our visions by means of his. This are good atand the demands imposed upon may be an instance of how we can Come us by our environment, we may wellbe closer to others, by looking--with the aid of coiningclosetounderstandingRussian othersat ourselves. Suppose, just for one people by means of a predicament we share. moment,RosencrantzandGuildenstern "I stand alone," writes Pasternak in the could have seen themselves through Hamlet's poem called "Hamlet" at thc end."All else eyes. ... is swamped by pharisaism.To live life to "Who are we?" asks Voznesensky, and the end is not a childish task." the "we" includes us,if we permit itto, along with Voznesensky's own countrymen: The Sense of Self Who are we? Ciphers or great men? Or, for another mode of awareness, we There is no physicist no lyricist blood. Genius is in the planet's blood. may turn to the Russian poets: Vladimir You're either a poet or a Lilliputian Mayakovsky, who died in 1930; Voznesen- We are inoculated sky, who is still very much alive.In 1925 Against time, with timewhatever we Mayakovsky visited the United States and are. wrote a poem called "Brooklyn Bridge." "What areyon?"jolts and spins the head The second stanza begins: Like a race car."

Blush 13 Vladimir Mayakovsky. "Brooklyn Bridge." at my praise, Reprinted by permission of The World Publishing go red as our flag, Company from The Bedbugand Selected Poetry by Vladimir Mayakovsky. Translated by George however Reavey and Max Hayward. Copyright © 1960 united states- by The World Publishing Company. of -America 14 Andrei Voznesensky. "Who Are We?" In: you may he. Patricia Blake and Max Hayward, editors. Anti- worlds and the Filth Ace. Translated by Stanley 12 Boris Pasternak. Doctor Zhivago. New Moss. C) 1966, 1967 by Basic Books, Inc., Pub- York: Pantheon Books, Inc.. 1958. lishers, New York. In a World Setting 271

These, Ithink, are the fundamental well that they have made it possible for us questions, questions addressed to the condi- to visualize the many facets of the global tion that we share. And, perhaps in response village,that they havein sonie measure to them, encounters between us may be exposed us to the values of di, erse cultures. achieved. Yet, when I think back upon my experience I would say the same thing about, for with such worksas when I r,Tollect paint- example,SamuelBeckett'sWaitingfor ings, poems, pieces of music--I remember, Godot, and about some of Harold Pinter's somehow, what Ifelt, what 1 discovered in plays, especially those in which people find myself. refuge against nameless dangers in shabby The resources are mu:.iple. The reader little roomsrooms in English towns, of knows them as well as I do.I would only course, rooms with all the appurtenances of plead that they be used in such d way that the plain people's England: teapots, boxes of students find in them occasions first of all cornflakes, gas meters, wom cardigan sweat- for discovering themselves, The person who ers, stained caps worn in the room as well can create himselfchome himselfis the as out in the cold.Listening to the banter, one who can overcome tile feeling of nothing- the chillingly familiar crosstalk, we experi- ness and hopelessness that breeds indifference English life in several of its dimensions; ence and lack of concern, Once he becomes but we also experience ourselves, building visible to himself, he may find his vision our own designs for living, talking and talk- clearing, he may find thit he is transcending ing to each other to keep the alien thing, the himself. He may find s:..1f-commitment pos- menace, from coming through the door. siblethe commitment to orchestrate him- I think of Giinther Grass's presentation self with the selves of others with whom he of German life and Polish life along the can empathize as a fellow-creature confront- Vistula, of Kazanzakis' island of Crete, of ing the same crucial human problems, mov- Cortazar's Argentina, Borges' Brazil, Nadine ing to the same beat.The sense of self Gordimer's or Alan Paton's South Africa, comes first, then the squeeze of the hand, Graham Greene's and Diris Lessing's Eng- and then, hopefully, identity initsfullest landandAfrica,of Sartre'sParisand sensean opening outward to the multi- Camus's Algiers or Oranof Livei-pool and farious world. At that point there can be London in British films, of the French air- an effort to encourage understanding about ports and cafes in Godard films, of the the global village by those who have learned schoolrooms and bars in Truffaut films, of in time that there are moments for choosing theKafkaesquecitiesandthehaunted who will forever refuse to be indifferera countryside in Bergman filmsand I know children of the earth. 0

2 1 272 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

EL27 (2): 155-60; Novcmher 1969 1969 ASCE)

Political Socialization ininternational Perspective

BYRON G. MASSIALAS

Interview * ONE way in which the schools relate to the political system is through the Q.:Do you think the United States political socialization of children and youth.' can trust other countries? Political socialization is generally the pro- A.:It depends on what countries cess of acquiring and changingthe culture they are. Some countries, yes. The Soviet of one's own political environment.The Union, no.I mean, some countries you schoolsthe curriculum, the te-dbooks, the can.Some countrieslikctheSoviet instructional methods, the school clubs, the Union could invade us right now. I mean classroom milieu, the studects, the teach- they're a country you can't trust. Some ers, the administrative structure,and the like countries, yes, you can really trust them. may implicitly or explicitly engagein the Q.What countries can you trust? transmission of basic political orientations A.:Oh ah,Australia, that's one toward the environment. These orientations you can trust. We go there all thetime. can be (a) cognitive (for example,ability to That's one you can trust. Right now, this analyze and interpret data about political year and that, Vietnam. Ah,Denmark, institutions or behavinr), (b) affective (for Sweden, Ireland, ones like that. example, the development of positive or Q.:What are some other ones? negativeattitudes toward the symbols of You said you couldn't trust the Soviet authority), or (c) evaluative (for example, Union. What are some other ones that judgnents based on application of certain you couldn't trust? standards to the performance of political A.:Yugoslavia, ah Gzrmany, ah roles). The kinds of political oricntations let me see, one half of Vietnam. children develop determine to a large extent the type of political culture that will prevail. What about the Sovet Union, Q.: Basic political orientations are formed very why can't we trust them? early in life, especially between the ages of A.: Wecan't trust them at all.I 3 and 13, and unless a very powerful en- mean, they're just a state, I mean a coun- vironment impinges upon the individual, he try, that likes to have war. We think that they just love war; if they had freedom It's just that 1 For a detailed discussion of me role of edu- they would probably die. cation in political socialization, see:Byron G. their custom is war all the time. Massialas.Education and the Political System. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-WesleyPublish- * Excerpt from an interview with a ing Company, 1969; also: Byron G. Massialas,edi- sixth grade girl from aruralschool in tor.Political Youth, Traditional Schools.Engle- Michigan, recorded by Sue Bailey and wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1972. Allen Glenn. (In press.)

Byron G. Massialas, Professor of Education andHead, Depanment of Social Studies Education, University of Florida State University, Tallahassee. In 1969,Associate Professor of Education, Michigan, Ann Arbor In a World Setting 273 tends to remain with the same orientations International Political Socialization throughout his life cycle. International political socialization has two general meanings. First, the term refers Citizen Involvement tothe process of transmitting knowledge about and forming attitudes toward the in- Cultures in which there is a relatively ternational community of men. American high degree of citizen involvement(civic children, for example, learn about and de- cultures) generally have people who view velop certain attitudes toward other political themselves as politically efficacious. That is, systems, either national, regional, or world- they feel that they can, through their own wide. Second, the term refers to the process efforts, influerice political decision making. of tiansmission of pontical orientationsin Nations in which the people have very little different national settings.Questions asked concern for changing the government through inthis context arc: Arc German children their own efforts have parochial political cul- as strongly influenced in developing politi- tures.In these nations the citizen expects caly relevant behavior by educational insti- virtually nothing from the political system. tutions as are English children? Are Italian In order for a political system to survive children as cynical toward certain aspects it must secure reasonable support from its of political life as American children? Let citizens.Support for (or criticism of) the us look at some relevant findings from com- system is provided by various socialization parative studies. agents, for example, the family, the church, the peer group, the school. For instance, the Political Efficacy schools may socialize childrentoaccept, without question, the policies of the govern- Political efficacy is only one outcome ment and develop benign attitudes toward ofpoliticalsocialization.The expression the authorities. nsually refers to the image that one has of Conversely, the schools may impart himself as a person who can influence the critical orientations toward the regime. By decision-making process of the government. stressing the rights and privileges of citizens This image stems in part from the person's ability to understand the operation of his (rather than their duties and obligations), government and feel competent in changing schools may stimulate youth to organize and it. As mentioned before, the levr.l of politi- articulate certain wants to the government cal efficacy ofanation's citizens provides a in the form of demands. Sometimes, as in good indicationofthenation'spolitical several recent cases of student activism, these cultureparochial, subject, civic, or mixed. demands arc directed against the rldrhinistra- A cross-cultural study of five nations don of theschool which rep:esentsthe indicated that Americans and British are the symbol of political authority of the larger most efficacious,followedby Germans, community. Mexicans, and Italians.2In all countries, In many countries, for example, Turkey perception of ability to influence the govern- under Adnan Menderes and South Korea ment, both on the national and local levels, under Syngman Rhee, the respective govern- varied with the amount of education a per- mentshavebeentoprledthroughstu- son had--the more education the higher the dent-initiatedaction.Elsewhere,students expectations for active citizenship. Age, sex, expressed through theiractions,both socialclass,intelligence, personality, eth- spontaneous and organized, varying degrees 2 Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba. The of concern and interest in the affairs of their Civic Culture.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton government. University Press, 1963.

rel 3 274 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era nicity, and religion are also important factors for European unification was as follows: In in understanding patterns of political efficacy the Netherlands, 95 percent; Germany, 95 cf children in different nations. percent;Britain, 72 percent. A poll of In the five-nation study already men- adults in these countries taken earlier indi- tioned, it was found that when the individual cated a strong feeling for unification but is given the opportunity to participatein not as strong as that of youth. The age school decisions (either by protesting against group of 55 and overismarkedly less an unfair regulation or by taking anactive European than all others. The differences part in classroom discussion) his political between adults and youth are due to the efficacy is increased. That is, those who re- early socialization patterns in the different membered participating in school decisions age groups.While the research suggests had higher scores on the index of political that the prospects for a "United States of efficacy than those who did not. Europe" are good, it does not attribute to The effects of manifest teaching of poli- any particular agent any significant influence tics or civics on the political socialization of on this development. children and youth are not clear. Formal A study of children's attitudes toward courses in these areas (politics, civics, na- foreign peoples in 14 countries revealed that tional history) seem to make no appreciable Bantu and Brazilian14-year-old children difference in political efficacy, cynicism (or were the most ethnocentric.4 TheAmerican, its opposite, social trust), expectations for Canadian, Japanese, and French children political participation, sense of civic duty, were the least.Lebanese, Turkish, Israeli, and the like. Even political knowledge does andGerman childrenformedan"innot FZeIll tO be increascd by exposure to tra- between" group in terms of ethnocentrism. ditional school civics or history programs. When asked to name other peoples who Recent research indicates that in order for were similar to them, all groups with the these courses to be effective, they need to be exceptionof Bantuchildrenconsidered (a)taught through the process of inquiry Americans to be "like us."(Americans (that is, developing and testing alternative were within the first three choices.)The ideas and positions in an open cl.ssroom British and the French were also considered climate) and (b) focused on important so- by several of the national groups to be cial issues. "like us." The Chinese and Africans were most consistently considered "not like us." Concept of Other Nations As children grew older they increasingly considered the Russians "not like us." What kinds of cognitive understanding The characterizations given to the various about and affective orientations toward other referencegroupsarcalsorevealing.In peoples do children develop? In what way general, the Israelis were thought of as good, does the school contribute to the develop- religious, peaceful, intelligent; the Japanese ment of these orientations? as poor, intelligent, bad; the Turkish as good, Among youth in Western Europe there peaceful,ambitious,religious,patriotic, is a strong movement away from strictly clean. nationalisticorientaticnstoidentification Itis extremely difficult tointerpret w;t1a. larger systems (for example, an :nte- these and other results concerning the de- grated Europe).8In 1964-65 the overall velopment of stereotypes in chiften. Some percentage of youth, ages 13-19, who were of the factors are embedded in the national

3 Ronald Inglehart. "An End to European 4 Wallace E. Lambert and Otto Klinebetg. Interationr TheAmericanPoliticalScience Children's Views of Foreign Peoples.New York: Review61 (1): 91-105; March 1967. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. In a World Setting 275 background ofthe children; thecultural their own learning experiences and to devalues under which they are brought up; velop plausible explanations of political and demographic factors such as age, sex, and social phenomena. social status; and the impact of the various socialization agents.It is interesting, how- Implications ever, to note that the majority ofthe six- One of the most important indices of year-oldsreceivetheir information about foreign peoples from parents, television and political socialization is the sense of efficacy movies, and direct contact. The older chil- that an individual has to understand and dren, ages 10 to 14, identify major sources influence the decisions of his government. Styles of political efficacy relate to types of ofinformationasbeing televisionand movies, books, school course work, text- political systems existing in the world. High books, and magazines.Parents,teachers, levels of efficacy usually characterize demo- and friendsare not mentioned oftenas cratic polities. Formal education potentially relates to political efficacy. The influence of sourcesof information among the older elementary education seems to be more direct age group. Although itisdifficult totrace the than that of secondary education. When sociopolitical issues are discussed originsof ethnocentrism to any of the sources of information that youngchildren in the classroom in a true spirit of inquiry, efficacy of the point to (there are so many other mediating then the level of political factors involved), it is revealing to see how participants may be raised.This hypothesis other cultures are treated in formal school needs to be tested carefully in different na- work. Studies are not plentiful in this area, tional settings. Research indicates, however, but the ones we have (mostly studies of that very few teachers deal explicitly with textbooks) indicate that standard texts tend issues and even fewer with the raethods of to perpetuate misconceptions and national disciplined inquify ia discussing these issues. stereotypes and are ethnocentricintheir The research on the political socializa- treatment of other cultures. American civics tion patterns of children in different coun- and history texts, for example, present the tries suggests that while there is a general United States as the champior, of freedom, movement toward identifying andaccepting goodwill, and rationahty, while other sover- larger political arrangements (for example, eign states are either aggressors or second- the concept of a United Europe), basic pa- raters. rochiai and ethnocentric tendencies in both Traditional elementary and secondary cogngive and affective orientations toward school textbooks (most of which describe the world still prevail among children.In and praise or condemn rather than critically many instances, schools (through courses, analyze political institutions and actors) pro- textbooks, instructional methods, adminis- vide the worst means to introduce students trative arrangements, and the like) tend to to an understandir 3 of government and the reinforce and perpetuate distorted images of tole of thecitizenin decisionmaking.5 other peoples of the world or of ethnic Authors and publishers of texts, not only in minorities within a country. the United States but abroad, tend to under- The most significant implicationsfor estirvate the abil; y of young people to order the classroom teacher havealrerKly been outlined, In order to maximize politicalefficacy need 5 Byron G.Massialas."Citi;:enshipand and minimize ethnocentrism, teachers Politicat Socialization." In: Robert L. Ebel, editor. to attend directly to currentpolitical and so- Encyclopedia of Educational Research.Fourth cial issues, introduce them systematicallyinto New York: The Macmillan Company, edition. the formal program of the school, anddiscu3s 1969. pp. 124-41, 2R9 276 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era them through the mode of inquiry which retiring, teachers, on discipline issues, etc. emphasizes alternativesadvanced by the When Students develop participatory rather participants and which asks for the defensi- than compliant orIpathetic behavior and bility of value positions.The total school wIlen they evolve cos . lopolitan rather than milieu snould be supportive of this effort. parochialoutlooksofother people, the Students should be given the opportu- school as an agent of po!itical socialization nity to participate in important schooldeci- will have a sharein anc;' world sionson curriculum,on recruiting and culture.

What is Valued in DifferentCultures?

INA CORINNE BROWN

AS WE move intothefinal race, language, and religion andwho know decades of the 20th century, one fact stands each other very well. out above all else: The variouspeiples wo What then can we do? We all know by share the globe must take one another into now that a culture is the sumtotal and orga- account. That we understand oneanother nization of all the patterned ways by which and appreciate our differences is essential a people live. Because there arehundreds of different cultures and subcultures, nobody to survival. all.Yet the Probably the poorest means of achiev- can hope to learn about them problem is not as difficult as it may appear, ing such understanding is to start out briskly facts arc for in spite of their specific differences all to "get the facts," because the cultures are basically alike andall serve toa elusive, slippery, and oftensubject essentially the same functions. Within any variety of interpretations.There is some society there must be ways of getting food, question as to what really constitutes a na- clothing, and shelter. There must be some tion, and on any morning one may wake to way of dividing up the work,and some pat- find that a new one has been born or that terning of the relationships of men, women, one has been swallowed upby some larger and children, of old and young, and of kin power. Yet even if wc can define agiven and non-kin. nation by precise political boundaries, there There must be some means of aesthetic is no assurance of uniformity of values within expression and some kind of value system such boundaries. To add to the problem, with ways of maintainingit.And there -getting to know people" is no guarantee that must always be some means bywhich chil- 1,xm will either understand orlike them. Some dren are brought into the world, caredfor, of the bitterest hostilities of the present world and enculturated so as to maintain continuity are between peoples who arc otthe same in the life of the society.

Ina Corivne Brown, 1509 Seventeenth Avenue, South,Nashville, Tennessee; Emeritus Professor of Anthropology, Searritt College, Nashville

c)rj,.; 4, In a World Setting 277

realize that Similar Needs, Similar Resources definitions; but we do need to our differenceslie not in the edibility of The first step in understanding a partic- certain substances but in the waysin which ular culture, then, is to learn what anycul- such edibility is made acceptable. ture is, what it does, and how it operates.This Allsocietiesin some way regulate gives one a theoretical frameworkwithin sexual behavior and provide forsomething which to organize information andexperi- that can be called a family. Butthe way in ence. The second step is to get someidea of which marriages are arranged, theform the the variety of ways in which humanbehavior family takes, who is counted askin, and the has been institutionalized, for thismakcs onc rights and dudes of all these personswith aware of alternatives.Finally, one needs to reference to one another arc, again, a matter keep in mind the interrelatedness ofthe of cultural definition. No one wayis neces- patterns within any culture.When one is sarily superior to another.They areall armed with this approach, the problemof simply different solutions to certainproblems understanding other cultures can be reduced of human relations and a way of guarantee- to manageable proportions. ing that children will be bornand brought All human beings have the same funda- up to becomefunctioning members of the mental needs and all societies must to some society. We degree meet the needs of their members. Grammar of Culture can even say thatall human groups have essentially the same problems to mectand In all societies there is some degreeof basically the same resources with which to interrelatednessin the culture patterns so meet them. At first glanceEskimos, Hotten- that change in any one pattern maywell tots, and Dobuans may appear tolive in very affect numerous others. Therefore, persons different worlds of snow, desert, and tropical acting as change agents mustalways take island, and to encounter very differentprob- into account the fact that no patternexists lems. Yet they all have the resourcesof air, outside a cultural matrix and that any pattern hnd, and watcr. All have some formof plant may have numerousramifications that are and animal life.All must reckon with the not apparent on the surface. forces of nature,All people have similar However, the differences in culture arc organisms with s!milar needs. They must not merely differences in overtbehavior pat- eat and sleep and theyall go through the terns. Both language andculture affect the same life cycle from birth todeath. All must way in which objects, actions,and events arc find ways to cope with illness, accident,and perceived. Each culture has its own way of misfortune, and none can survive withoutthe olganizing experience and these organiza- assistance and cooperation of hisfellows. ti,-ns may take many different forms. As a Once we see what any culture doesand member of a given society, a child learns how it operates, we need to get someidea of what has been called the grammar ofhis the variety of ways in whichproblems can culture in the same way that he learnsthe be met. For example, all societiesdefine cer- grammar of his language.Both kinds of tain objectively edible substances asfood. grammar are then taken forgranted and be- Most societies reject some equallyedible sub- come a part of his thinkingand of his way stances as un it for humanconsumption. The of perceiving the world.Thus, as Julian rejections of (Ater people mayinclude things Huxley points out, people wit!, different sets we accept, such as meat,milk, and fresh of experiences have different maps ofreality. eggs, and their acceptables mayinclude our Furthermore, peoples in other parts of rejected rats, caterpillais, andready-to-hatch the world may face specific problems un- In parts of Asia and eggs. We do not have toshare one another's known in the West. 278 Curricular Concerns ir a Revolutionary Era

Africa the problems of education arc com- ways which put the buying and upkeep of plicated by linguistic differences. Within a Western goods far out of their reach. given area there may be not just one or two Julian Huxley points to the seemingly but dozens of different lAnguages, for some contradictorymovement toward fragmenta- of which there may be no written material at tion ofthe large,formerly Western-con- all. And there may be not only a deep attach- trolledareasinto many smaller,highly ifient to one's language but also deeply felt self-conscious national entities, at the same national or tribal loyalties. Sometimes racial, time that the diffusion of Western technology religious, linguistic, and other cultur.d dif- brings these countries into Lhe orbit of the ferences may all be involved at once. modern world. One of the major problems On top of this and exacerbating the confronting international education is to find othef problemsisthe spread of Western ways by which efficiency of exploitation of technology to pre-industrial soeieties. The the world's resources can be reconciled with transistor radio has penetrated to the re- the fulfillment of personality within different motest villages, and in many places there is cultural frameworks. Only as this problem a community television set. Inevitably, there is met will there be available to the world the has grown up a conflict in values. People contributions of various cultures whose ex- may well want the goods and gadgets of the periments in living open up new avenues for West, but they may also cherish their older the life-enrichment of us all.

EL 27 (7): 67S-82; April 1970 1970 ASCD

Soviet Education Faces the 70's

ALEXANDER M. CHABE

IT HAS been said about the So- the broad masses. Yet many cultural values viet Union that the more it chanr.;, the more of the past remain. it remains the same.' Throughout the first The 1917 Revolution ushered in Marx- half-century of Communist power, there has ist-Leninisteducationalphilosophyand been much change. Yet much remains the restructured educational organization, meth- same. Soviet society has been transformed odology, and curriculum. The dawn of a from an agrarian type to an industrialized new educational era appeared as the church type.Yet much of the nation remains and aristocracy fell victim to the Commu- agrarian. Soviet ideology rejected bourgeois nist "wave of the future."With the re- culture restricted to an t-tlite few and intro- ordering of educational priorities, illiteracy duced proletarian culture disseminatedto was conquered. The downtrodden peasant could now read, even though he was pro- I Anthony Carthew. "Moscow Report: . .. The More It Remains the Same." The New York vided only a bland diet of Communist prop- Times Magazine, May 18, 1969.pp. 28-29+. aganda.

Alexander M. Chahe, Professor of Education, State University College, Fredonia, New York In a World Setting 279

The Stalinist educational era brought a all-round personality for living in autopian to the European academicmodel, society. In reality, however, a Sovietcitizen return limits) by the while the Khrushchevian periodreconsid- is trained or educated (within of ered polytechnical training with itsaim of Soviet state in order to serve the needs Soviet Communist education en- developingneededblue-collarworkers. the state. Education was to be related to life.The hances the power and capabilities ofthe post-Khrushchevian period saw Soviet edu- state and not the learner. cation further accede tot:le demands of Rather than cultivating an "insatiable science and technology. As is evident,the curiosity," Soviet education is producing the long-term ebb and flow of Soviet education controlled and submissive man who is duti- has been affected by social,politico-ideo- ful, unquestioning, and ferventlypatriotic. perfect logical, economic, and scientific-technologi- This "builder of a new and more de- cal considerations. Yet educationallymuch society" has discovered that the general Party remains the same. sign has been laid out before him by ideologists and planners. He must now pat- On thepresentSovieteducational surface it looks like business as usual. How- tern himself and hisbehavior to that design "builder" of ever, serious problems, such asstudent dis- in order to become a successful do content, have been reported even atthe that "new and more perfect society." To prestigious Moscow State University, from otherwise would result in failure. whichrecent American delegationshave beensteeredaway.Perhapstheshock General Features of Soviet Education waves of world educationalferment are now A primary characteristic of Sovietedu- reaching Soviet shores.Eventually those cation is that the political power structure waves may penetrate moredeeply despite centered in the Central Committee ofthe established Communist safeguards. Communist Party of the Soviet Union(CC CPSU), intent on perpetuating onlyCom- Education Ideal and Real Aims of Soviet munist values,determinesthe course of Ordinary Soviet citizens have According to the vice-president of the education. little, if anything, to do with theformulation USSR Academy of PedagogicalSciences of local, republic, or union(national) edu- (APS), Aleksei Markushevich, Sovietedu- cational policy which is implementedthrough cation has the following aims: the republic Ministries ofEducation and educationaladministrators. ... toeducate a harmoniously developed lower-echelon all-round person spiritually and intellectually Educational change does not emanate atthe with an in:atiablecuriosity to be satisfied "grass roots" but rather flows fromthe top throughout life, one who possesses a goodand downward through the CPSU, whichretains kind heart with hands not afraid of anykind of centralized control over Soviet educationand work including manual. enforces a dictatorship over the mind.One uniform Furthermore, he stated that "man pos- result of such an arrangement is a system of education and astandard cur- sesses large potential.The teacher must help knowl- ric9'l.um. these young beings and apply their han- edge to develop a builder of a newand more With the exception of the hearing dicapped, visually handicapped, physically perfect society." handicapped, and mentally defective,pupils Itisvery apparent thateducational are not groupedhomogeneously. Such group- optimismunderliesMr.Markushevich's de- ing or academic streaming is doneneither in statements.In theory, Soviet education Soviet edu- votes attention to the ideal ofdeveloping an the first class nor later classes. 280 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era catorsareconvincedthat homogeneous Soviettechnical education is still being grouping can be successful if instruction is conducted in the technicums along a narrow properly organized. However, Soviet educa- profile of specialized studies. The key factor tors fail to recognize that their special schools in obtaining advanced training and higher in music, ballet, painting, and sculpture as education in the USSR isability.Educa- well as the experimental schools in science tional progress is dependent upon individual and mathematics ' reflect a grouping policy. motivation, capabilities, talents, and develop- They reason that such institutions serve only ment. as developers of talents and not as agencies The Soviet teacher is characterized as of streaming and differentiation. one who valueseachteaching minute and As in other countries, Soviet educators tries to use each such minute fully. He is have created a specially-designed curriculum considered the key figure in the educative for mentally defective pupils, who work at a process. Educational technology is regarded specified rate under a teacher-specialist. Ac- as a tool in the hands of a skillful and wise cording to the APS vice-president, pupils teacher. with deep mental retardation complete the Although many factories have changed four-year course of study in eight years, or are in the process of changing to a five- while those less retarded complete the eight- day work week, Soviet primary and secon- year course of study in ten years.Such dary schools still operate on a six-day week. claims provoke much debate among visiting Soviet educators envision no change to a American educators. five-day school week, but acknowledge the Pupil learning and instruction in the possibility of a changeover at some future Soviet Union are carried on by the right date. hand. Soviet educators claim a physiological Soviet educators assert they do not basis for right-handedinstruction.They want to leave out of their educational main- assert that a benefit of such practice is a stream anything interesting,creative, and lighter load on the left side wherein the heart worthwhilein American education.The is located. That the left side of the body has present value of American programmed texts more nerves, more blood vessels, more inner is not being overestimated. Such te2its are organs, and controls the right side also points considered as one instrument available to the to the Soviet need for right-handed instruc- teacher m addition to others. Soviet education. A pragmatic reason for right-handed- tional researchers do not limit their horizon ness can be found in factory, workshop, and to American educational theories and prac- laboratory demands of Soviet technology tices, but study educational literature pub- and science. lished in all countries. Test types of the American and English system are not used in Soviet education, but instead achievement tests of the essay variety Transition to the New Curriculum are employed. Such Soviet tests reflect the The main thrust of Soviet education as subject matter presently under study. After it moves into the seventies is the transition being administered, those tests are then analyzed for mistakes. As a result of that to the new curriculum which attempts to analysis, special tasks are assigned to individ- bridge the gap between scientific progress ual pupils as the need indicates. and the old program. Due to the educative force of radio and television and develop- 2 See:Elizabeth Moos. Soviet Education: ments in science, technology, and culture, Achievements and Goals. New York: National Council of AmericanSoviet Friendship, 1967. pp. much educational material had become obso- 20, 58-73. lete.Therefore, unneeded and superfluous

23 0 In a World Setting 281 elements of the old curriculum faced elimi- class. Chemistry will stress molecular-atomic and nation. theories and reflect modem science The contentsofSovieteducation technology. changed after 1966 with the adoption of a Optional (elective) subjects begin with new syllabus agreed upon by theCPSU's the seventh class and continue throughthe otdel shkol (school section) and the USSR tenth. Such optional courses allow for meet- Council of Ministers. In developing the new ing individual differences in a Soviet version. curriculum, the APS of the USSR Ministry Pupils are given opportunity to study more of Education sought advice and assistance deeply such subjects as art, literature, or from both educators and scientists. Revision science. The teacher must interest the pupil in mathematics and the Russian language in a different field; however, optional courses has been especially complicated. As of April are not required for everypupil but are being 1969, forty percent of the schools transferred encouraged. In the ninth and tenth classes, to the new curriculum. The transition is optional courses are included in the regular scheduled for completion by 1973-74. school day either before or after thesched- The new curriculum will require new uled lessons. Such courses are obligatoryfor textbooks and teacher guides, which pres- the school and are included in theteacher's ently are under preparation at the APS. The load; however, they are optional for pupils. APS believes that the main difficulty with the The new curriculum, theoretically de- new curriculum will be with theteachers signed to include a well-balanced volumeof and not the pupils. Books, guides, materials, knowledge required of all pupils, is to serve and articles will be needed to help upgrade for a ten-year period.Obviously, such a teachers. Some parents, however, do not lengthy period of implementation will result share the confidence of the APS educational in curricular dysfunctionality due to therapid workers. They contend that the advanced developments in science, technology, and level academic content introduced into the culture.Apparently the Soviet educational new curriculum 3 is beyond theintellectual bureaucracy cannot move any faster. capacity of many children.Furthermore, those parents contend that the instruction Soviet Educational Problems and Trends has become too abstract, resulting in con- educatorsidentifiedseveral fusion and a loss of pupil interest. Perhaps Soviet pressing problems.4 Problem 1related to the APS went academically overboard in the shortage of men teachers in thelower developing the new curriculum disregarding classes. Repeated observation by this writer the learning characteristics and potential of reveals that men teachers are in very short the pupil. supply in all classes and in all types of As of 1970 under the new design, the schools. The institutes and universities, in primary level will consist of the first three comparison, are staffed with more men, but classes rather than the first four classes. The the exact ratio is unknown. It isdoubtful fourth class will transfer into the subject whether Soviet men would be interested or 500 matter system, resulting in an additional permitted to teach in the primary level, hours of academic instruction. Rather than which has become a woman'sstronghold. being taught arithmetic, primary classes will Other classes of the ten-year school would be taught mathematics. Physics, stressing undoubtedly be open to men. Identified as atomic thwry, will be taught in the sixth 3 For detailed curricular plans, see: Alex- 4 For an accounting of Soviet educational ander M. Chabe. "Soviet Curricular Developments weaknesses, see: Alexander M. Chabe. "Assessing and Trends." Educational Leadership 26 (7): 667- Soviet Education." Education 88 (2): 3-6; Novem- 68; April 1969. ber-December 1967. 291 282 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era educational problem 2 was the shortage of the detskii sad (kindergarten) are being teachers in foreign languages, mathematics, consolidated into one establishment known and physics. Similar types of teacher short- as yasli-derskii sad; (b) the preschool net- ages exist in American education. work is being widened optimistically to be Educational problem 3 dealt with con- available within three to five years to all those solidation needs in the rural areas where too Soviet children desiring such experiences; many small schools were operating.Such and (c) higher education evening classes and schools were either one-teacheror two- correspondence courses are being dropped teacher primary (four-year) schools or in- since they are considered to be of low complete(eight-year)secondaryschools. quality. The small eight-year rural schools have the As Soviet education faces the seventies, separate subject curriculum, and some even it recognizes its many achievements.The provide boarding facilities. educational and cultural level of the nation Not identified by Soviet educators as a has been raised. In economic development, problem, but evident to American educators, the USSR occupies a place second to the is the smallness of room size. Space allot- world-leading United States. Soviet educa- ments at primary and secondary levels are tors, however, are aware of the many prob- minimal, curtailing any type of group ac- lems and difficulties which lie ahead. Rapid tivity. Seats and desks are crowded together, developments in science and technology call thus limiting the movement of pupils and for a continued reexamination of school or- teacher alike.One senses physical restric- ganization,methodology, and curriculum. tion and confinement. Soviet educational planners must concern Three educational trends 5'6 were noted themselves with the demands of an indus- by Soviet educators: (a) yasli (nursery) and trialized society and perhaps a post-industrialized cybernetic society such as that which 5 For an enumeration of Soviet educational generalizations, see: Alexander M. Chabe. "Soviet is evolving in the United States. The seven- Society and Education." The Clearing House 41 ties will show continued Party and govern- (5): 262-63; January 1967. ment concern with education. Education will 6 For an evaluation of Soviet education, see: be expected to create that "new" Soviet man Alexander M. Chabe. "Evaluating Soviet Educa- tion."School and Society 95 (2297):458-62; able to live in the "perfect" Communist November 25, 1967. society.

292 In a World Setting 283

EL 27 (2): 124-28; November 1969 C 1969 ASCD Aspirations for Educationin the "New" and Free Nations ofAfrica

ENOKAH.RUKARE

O'Connell, WRITERS andcriticsofthe the Commission report. Cowan, Nation- systems of education inAfrica during the and Scanlon, in their Education and colonial period very oftenunderestimate Building in Africa, 1965, have given an ex- educational policy the quality and quantity ofthe educational cellent review of the of the British, work that was actually achievedin that era. statements and directives between One often gets the impressionthat under French, and Belgian governments these policy the colonial regime education wascompletely 1925 and 1950. A study of is, of course, true that the statements reveals that thecolonial powers neglected.It sig- colonial powers could conceivablyhave done had educational insights which are not that much more than they did in educationdur- nificantly different from the insights ing the long period theygovernedthe have so far been expressed bypolitical and independent African territories. educational leaders in the newly It is equally true that, during mostof nations of Africa. colo- the 19th century and early partof the 20th One example of an attempt by a work in the nial power to adapt a Western typeof century, initiative in educational and British, French, and Belgian territories was education to the mentality, aptitudes, almost exclusively taken by theChristian traditions of the colonial peoples is con- missionary bodies. We know that at a contained in the policy memorandum, Education 1925, pub- ference held in Cambridge in 1910,mission Policy in British Tropical Africa, Native groups strongly urgedcolonial governments lished by the Advisory Committee on Education in the British TropicalAfrican to take a more active andresponsible part in the development of education intheir Afri- Dependencies.In one section the memo- can territories. It wasindeed because of such randum says: criticisms that the Phelps-StokesCommission Education should be adapted to the men- was appointed in theearly 1920's. The first tality, aptitudes, occupations, andtraditions of report of this famousCommission was pub- the various peoples, conserving asfar as pos- lished in 1922. It confirmed earliercriticisms sible all sound and healthy elementsin the by missionaries and governmentofficers re- fabric of their social life; adaptingthem where garding the inadequacy of thecurricula, or- necessary to changedcircumstances and pro- ganization, and administration ofAfrican gressive ideas, as an agent of naturalgrowth schools. and evolution.1 Credit should, however, be given to 1 Advisory Committee on NativeEducation the colonial governments inLondon, Paris, in the British Tropical AfricanDependencies. Ed- and Brussels for taking at leasttheoretical ucation Policy in Britkh TropicalAfrica, 1925. action on the important recommendationsof PP. 3-8.

Kampala, Uganda, Enoka H. Rukare, Senior Inspector ofSchools, Uganda Ministry of Education, East Africa 293 284 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Needs and Actions down under five main headings: overall needs; material needs such as buildings, textbooks, It is still true, however, that most of equipment; need for teachers; need for changes these aspirations, which were developed by and reforms in methods of teaching and school educational advisers in Paris, London, and curricula; need for the development of African Brussels, never went beyond the desks of the culture. Woven inseparably through all these colonial administrators in the African terri- are two other paramount needsfinancing and planning.2 tories. There was thus an unfortunate gap The participants at the Addis Ababa between what was intended or planned and Conference did not merely draw up an inwhat was actually implemented. Yet is this ventory of educational needs; they went fur- gap not also identifiable in the educational ther and devised an educational development policies of the free and independent African plan for the whole continent. This plan was nations? If political and educational leaders later revised and clarified at the Paris and the in Africa today are tr avoid the inevitable Tananarive conferences. In the main the 20- condemnation of future generations, serious year plan set as targets the attainment of attempts must be made to bridge the gap be- universalprimar yeducationthroughout tween their declared educational aspirations Africa by 1980; the enrollment at secondary and needs on one side and the practical ac- school level of 30 percent of the children tions taken on these aspirations on the other leaving primary schools; and the admission side. of some 20 percent of those completing sec- If education is to be an effective ladder ondary education to higher and university for polidcal, social, and economic advance- education, mostly in African institutions. ment, professionaleducationists,political At the Abidjan Conference in 1964, the leaders, and social science scholars in Africa Addis Ababa plan was further reviewed. It (and outside Africa?) must learn to accept was then agreed that an additional target in a practical way the challenge and respon- should be to eradicate illiteracy. It was also sibility of coordinating their effort and knowhow. There are too few personnel in each recommended that for reasons of efficiency professional camp for the African elite to special emphasis should be given to national educational planningof course within the assume the "mind-your-business" attitude. It is here that the spirit of what has been de- continental targets in the Addis Ababa master plan. Another refinement of the Abidjan scribed as African socialism may begin to Conference was the general endorsement of bear tangible fruits. the principle of Africanization. One of the clearest inventories of Afri- can educational needs was spelled out at a These needs and aspirations seem to present two distinct types of challenges. Unesco-convenedConference of African First, there is the quantitative aspect of edu- States on the -Development of Education in cational development, and second, there is Africa at Addis Ababa in May 1961. Rich- the qualitative aspect of educational develop- ard Greenough, who was an active observer ment. It is the contention of this writer that at the conference, has described these needs the general tendency of both the colonial as follows: governments and the independent African Basically, spread across the full spectrum governments so far has been to devote very of education from the Primary School through great attention to the quantitative aspect higher and university education levels and em- of educational development almost to thz bracing adult education, as well as all the auxiliary and related services essential to effective 2 Richard Greenouz4h.AfricaCalls,1961. programmes of education, they can be broken pp. 15-16.

2;14 In a World Setting 285 neglect of its qualitative elements.Faced "Community" Experience which over 80 with the gloomy situation in African leaders ought to follow the lead 170 million Afri- percent of the more than President Nyercre has given, as expressedin cans could neither read norwrite; in which school-age chil- hisbooklet Education for Self-Reliance, less than 50 percent of the 1967, and reexamine the social andeconomic dren had any opportunity ofstepping inside modes of which, of those who were en- relevance of the curricula and a school; in thought that have been inheritedfrom the rolled, less than half completedtheir primary colonial systems of education.Such a review education; in which only three outof every should hundred school-age children ever sawthe of the relevance of existing curricula lead to a redefinition of the aimsof educa- inside of a secondary school;and in which tion.In this process of redefiningeduca- less than two out of every thousandchildren clarify the higher educational goals, one would have to had a chance of some sort of wishes to develop and for the newly type of society he tion, it is quite understandable possibly to know more about thepsychology independent African nations tohave focused of the African child. attention on the quantitative aspectof edu- Yet giventhegoodwillofparties cational development. concerned, the exercise of improvingthe It is, however, equallyimportant that quality of African educationshould present the qualitative aspect ofeducation in the in- problems. Many of us dependent Africar nations begiven serious no insurmountable who claim to be educationistsmight, how- attention. This is because theinherited sys- ever, have to shed manyof our professional tems of education werein many respects longer hang-ups.It might also be necessary to based on assumptions which are no adopt non-conventional methods in ouredu- states. relevant to the people of the new cational reorganization. One of theprob- President Nyerere has, for example,identi- to of lems I have encountered, in attempts fied four such assumptions in the system aspects of Africanculturein education Tanzania inherited from itsfor- introduce Ugandan Teacher Training Colleges,has These are: mer colonial masters. been the scarcity of men and womenwith

1.That education is deiigned to meetthe the necessary experience. interests and needs of the very fewwho are Very few of the members of thecollege intellectually stronger than their fellows, a prac- faculties were prepared to acceptresponsi- tice that induces feelings ofsuperiority for the bility for teaching African art,African mu- elite and inferiority among the majority sic,Africandance,Africanhistory,or African ways of worshiping God orgods. 2. That it tends to divorce itspartici- within easy the school here There were plenty of people pants from the society, so that reach of these institutions who werefully has practically nothing to do with thesociety competenttointroduce theseimportant within which it is set aspects of our culture, but noneof them had 3. That the "system encouragesschool the "paper" qualificationdemanded by offi- pupils in the idea that all knowledgewhich is cial regulations to allow them tooffer their worthwhile is acquired from books" oronly services even on a part-time basis! from people who have been to schools Anotherprofessional hang-upthat African educationists may have tocontend That the system has led to the acqui- 4. with is the "inherited" belief thatthe "illiter- sitionofattitudes which regard"manual" offer. work and ate" African has nothing of value to work as being inferior to "mental" ignorant of is below The colonial educationists, being hence to the view that manual work hardly be ex- the status of the "educated" person. the "native" languages, could 295

!- 286 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era pected to know better. We do know, how- of tapping such "community" experience is ever, that many of these so-called "illiterate" in widespread and systematic recording of people actually represent mines of African such human resources.Tht..assistance of wisdom.I know an old woman in South international educational organizations and/ Uganda who knows the names and classes or other agencies would be greatly welcomed of nearly every plant and grass in the region in such a program. and who is believed to be the private family medicine adviser to a number of the African In conclusion, it must be emphasized medical doctors at the neighboring govern- that the cry to revolutionize education does ment hospitals. There are many other ex- not imply that the African educationist has perts in other fields. to adopt everything that is contained in the It is thus true that those who have had surviving African culture(s).Our turning most of what Western education could give to the cultures of our precolonial past, to the are least prepared to offer practical guidance tribalandkinshipsocialand economic in the revolution to Africanize education for sanctions that helped to maintain law and the African childand those wbo are best order, and to our "primitive" conceptions(s) qualified to interpret African culture are not of the physical and spiritual woAd(s) is not given the platform in our schools. One way an end in itself.It is but a necessary means of resolving this unfortunate situation is by in the process of rediscovering our identity. modifying current red tape to enable educa- It is a means in the process of making our tional institutions to make full use of "com- educational aspirations more realistic and munity" experience. Another important way qualitatively meaningful.

References The A.A.A. Programme, Annual Reports, Richard Greenough. Africa Calls, 1961. 1965-68. Sir Gordon Guggisberg. The Keystone, 1924. Advisory Committee on Native Education Judith L. Hanna. "African Dance as Educa- in the British Tropical African Dependencies. Ed- tion." In : Impulse, 1965. ucation Policy Ls British Tropical Africa, 1925. Joseph Ki-Zer'bo."Education and African PP. 3-8. Culture."Presence Africaine (English edition) Governor General R. Antonetti.Circular 10: 52-66; 1962. Number 8: "Concerning the Organization of Pub- T. Mboya. "African Socialism." In: Transi- lic Education in French Equatorial Africa." In: tion, March 1963. David Scanlon, editor. Traditions of African Edu- Tanyji Mbuagbaw. "The African Educator cation, 1964. pp. 119-25. andAfricanization." Revue Camerounnaise de Paul Bohannan. Africa and Africans. New Pidagogie 5: 9-14; 1965. York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964. pp. 124- J. K. Nyerere. Education for Self-Reliance, 250. 1967. J. Campbell. The New Africa, 1962. M. Read. "Cultural Contacts in Education." L. Gray Cowan et at., editors. Education and In:Education and Social Change inTropical Nation-Building in Africa. New York: Frederick Areas. Camden, New Jersey: Thomas Nelson & A. Praeger, Inc., 1965. pp. 3-42. Sons, 1955. W. S. Di lton."NLtion-Building b Africa: Unesco. Outline of a Plan for African Edu- Challenge to Education." Teachers College Record cational Development, 1961. pp. 1-27. 62: 152-61; November 1960. Unesco. "A Working Party of Consultants W. A. Dodd. "Education for Self-Reliance" on the Secondary School Curriculum in Africa." in Tasavnia, 1969. Accra, Ghana, December 1-8, 1964. G. Fradier."EducationalProgress and Mulugeta Wadajo. 'The Content of Teacher Prospects in Africa." Unesco Chronicle 10:155- Education."Education Panorama 8 (1):5-8; 511; 11144. 1966. 0 INDEX

article in this volume. Page numbers in bold face typeindicate authorship of a complete

Continuing education, 248-52 Abington School District v. Blackstudies,seeInstruc- Core classes, 39, 43 Schempp,184,185,189, tional materials, multi-ethnic 192 Bloom, B. S., 20 Corey, Elinor K., 230-33 Academy of Pedagogical Sci- Board ofEducation of Cen- Corey, Stephen M., 2 30-33 ences, U.S.S.R., 279 tral School District No. 1 v. Corporation for Public Broad- Accountability, 111, 118 James E. Allen, Ir., 192 casting, 251 Accrediting associations, BRIDGE project, 39 Coser, Lewis A., 259 school, 187 Broadcasting, nonprofit, 251 Costs of education, 1 65, 169, Adams, Henry, 33 Broudy, Harr/ S., 17 1 90-94, 205, 206 Alberty, Harold, 113 Brown, Ma Corinne, 276-78 Counter culture, see Cultural Alexander, Albert, 14 Bruner, Jerome S., 87, 8 9, and class differences Allport, Gordon, 13 97-104 Cousins, Norman, 16 All-year schools, 245-48 Bryant, I. B., 70-73 Cowan, L. Gray, 28 3 Almond, Gabriel A., 273 Buethe, Chris, 17-19, 225 Creativity, 33, 44-4 8, 48-51; Bystrum, John W., 251 influence on world under- Alternative schools, see Free standing, 266-71 schools Crutchfield, R. S., 50 see American Indian studies, Carnegie Commission on Ed- Cultural and class differences, Instructional materials, ucational Televis:on, 251 4, 9, 70, 101, 116, 120, 130, multi-ethnic Carnegie Corporation, 243 169-73,177, 195-97, 213, Anti-establishment groups, Carnes, Alice, 126-28 219, 23 6, 254, 256, 258, seeFree schools Chabe, Alexander M., 278- 264, 267-68, 273-7 8 Anti-rationalism, 178-84 83 Cultural pluralism, see Cul- Atkins, Neil P., 142-44 Chandler, Charles C., 184-87 tural and class differences Attucks, Crispus, 126 Change agent,5,144, 211, Cunnington, B. F., 50 Auster, Simon L., 194-200 243 Curriculum content, Ameri- Ausubel, David, 88 Chekhov, Anton, 31, 34 can history, 259;ecology, 263; inU.S.S.R.,280-81; Ayer, P. F., 73-75 Chesler, Mark A., 155-59 multi-ethnic, 275; relevance Child, I. L., 1 69 of, 155, 226; structuring of Bailey, Joan L., 35 Clark, Kenneth B., 114 knowledge, 28, 89, 99; study Battle, J. A., 211, 213 Clark Jney A., 52-56 of nations, 254; study of Becoming, process of, 35, 46, Clements, Millard, 96 politics, 203 53, 74 Cloak, F. T., Jr., 173-78 Curriculum planning, alterna- tivedesigns, 21 8-220; for Behavior, model, 12 Clute, Morrel J., 144-46, 1 60 change, 158; for racial inte- Behavioral objectives, 20-21, Coleman, James S., 79 gration, 113, 114; for rele- 64, 77, 175, 254 Coll eges ,correspon den ce vance, 161, 225-2 6; for stu- Benjamin, Harold. 223 courses, 250; entrancere- dent choice, 21 4-16; idea- Bereiter, Carl, 77 quirements,249;evening centered, 236 programs,2 49;extension Bern, Henry A., 248-52 courses, 250; independent Bernstein, Basil, 77 study programs, 250 Darwin, Charles, 1 74 Binet, Alfred, 51 Conant, James B., 38 Black, C. E., 255 Conservation of naturalre- Davis, Allison, 72 sources, 18, 168,220, 222, Decentralization, see School- Black Muslims, 167 community relations Black Separatists, 111, 112 261-63

287 297 288 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Desegregation.school,69, Flexible All-Year School Horace Mann League v. 110,112, 2:1;alsoInte- Plan, 247-48 Board of Public Works, 191- gration Ford Foundation, 243 93 Dewey, John,13,30,183, Foshay, Arthur W., 220 Houghton, Raymond W., 223 Four-Quarter Plan, 246-47 234-37 E., 159-62 Dierenfield, Richard B., 187 Frazier,Alexander,28-34, House, Jan Diop, Birago, 269 219, 257-60 Huebner, Dwayne, 94 Disadvantagedlearners,70- Free schools, 234-245 Human potential, 2-3, 8, 28, 84, 101, 111, 114, 118-19, Friedenberg, Edgar Z., 13 37, 49, 52, 53, 75, 111, 198, 133,209, 212, 224, 254, 228-33, 260 256-57 Frothingham v. Mellon, 190, Human values, see Values Discipline, 2-3, 20, 42, 51, 191 Frymier, Jack R., 146-51 Hunt, J. McV., 76 155, 238; also Self-discipline Huxley, Julian, 277-78 Dodson, Dan W., 110-12 Fuller, Edgar, 189-94 Dropouts, school, 41-43, 81- Furth, Hans, 228, 229 I/DIE/A, 243 83, 237, 239 Individual differences, 35-37, Drugs and drug use, 194-200 Gay, Geneva, 133-36 52-56 Duras, Marguerite, 269 Gellhorn, Walter, 151 Individualized instruction, 28- Durkheim, Emile, 38 Ginsburg, Sol W., 11 34, 139, 245 Globalvillage,seeWorld Inglehart, Ronald, 274 Eccles, Henry E., 225 community Instructionalgoals,28, 30, Ecology, see Conservation Goldman, Harvey, 223-28 64, 93, 98 Economic Opportunity Act, GOodlad, John, 243 Instructionalmaterials,for 206 creativedevelopment,51; Goodman, Paul, 96 for disadvantagedlearners, Edgar, Robert W., 37-40 Goodman, Walter, 179 78-80;individualized,29; Educational parks, 5, 6 Gorr, Alan, 187-88 international need for, 255; Educational Policies Commis- Grades and tests, see Evalua- multi-ethnic,120-40,156, sion,11 tion of learners 240, 258-59 Elementary andSecondary Gratz, Pauline, 261-63 Instructional methods, 11, 81- Education Act, 207-209 84,88-89,91,103,107, Greene, Maxine, 264-71 126-28, 155, 227; also In- Eleven-Month Plan, 246 Grievance procedure, 157 Ellison, Ralph, 264-65 dividualized instruction Grouping students, 29, 36, 51, Instructional theory, 86-112 Encounter groups, see Human 113, 115, 116 potential Integration, school, 5, 110-24 Groves, Eugene, 267 Interaction, teacher-pupil, 2- England, educationin,see Gupta, R., 49 United Kingdom 3, 12, 21, 39, 40, 53, 54, 60, 69, 95, 96, 100, 106, 123, Environmental pollution, see 143, 156, 158, 226 C31 iservation Haberman, Martin, 76-81 Esahm Institute, 180, 231-32 Harmin, Merrill, 126 International, see World; also entries for specificnations Ethhic groups, see Cultural Harnack, Robert S., 115 and class differences IPI model, 21 Harrington, Michael, 167 IQ tests, see Evaluation of Evaluation of instruction, 25- Head Start Program, 82, 229 learners 26, 83, 92, 227 Health, mental, see Mental Evaluation of learners,19, health; physical health, 31 Jacob, Philip E., 11 29, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 62, Henry, Nelson, 113 71, 72, 149-50,162,170, Jacobson, Theron H., 2-3 243, 255 Herbert, John, 219 James, Henry, 32, 33 Evolution, behavioral, 173-78 Herrick, Virgil E., 93 James, M. Lucia, 120-24 Hess, Robert D., 259 James, William, 34 Fanon, Frantz, 182, 260 Higher EducationFacilities John Birch Society, 167 Fantini, Mario D., 243 Act, 207 Johns, Roe L., 6 Faunce, Roland, 113 Highland Park Free School Jones, Ernest, 34 Financing schools, see Costs (Boston), 238 Jones, Vernon, 12 of education Hippies, 197 Flanders, Ned, 92 Hobson v. Hanson, 110 !Callen, Horace M., 266 Flast v. Cohen, 191 Hoover, Herbert, 64 Karplus, Robert, 90

2 98 Index 289

Kelley, Earl C., 41-43 Mead, Margaret, 166 Olson, Willard C., 35-37 Kerner Report, 4 Medley, Donald M., 92 Ombudsman, 150, 161 Kettering Foundation, 243 Melville, Herman, 268 "thie-to-nne" Project, 81-84 Kilson, Martin, 130 Mental health, 1, 19, 33, 38, Ortega y Gasset, José, 89-90 King (Martin Luther) Center, 53, 69, 171 "Other Ways," 240 235-37 MexicanAmerican studies, King, Mai in Luther, Jr., 119, seeInstructionalmaterials, 156, 234 multi-ethnic ParkwaySchool(Philadet. Klohr, Paul R., 218-20 Middle-class conformity,see phia), 240, 242 Cultural and class differences Knobloch, Hilda, 76 Pasamanick, B., 76 Miel, Alice, 224 Passow, A. Harry, 114 Kohl, Herbert, 240 Miller, LaMar P., 137-40 Krathwohl, D. R., 20 Pasternak, Boris, 270 Minority groups,seeDisad- Peace Corps, 266 Krug, Edward, 113 vantaged learners,alsoCul- Kubie, Lawrence, 11, 20, 21, tural and class differences PeoplesCollege,seeFree 166 schools Minute Men, 167 Perkins, Hugh, 92 Monroe City Simulation, 219 Lambert, Wallace E., 274 Pfeiffer, John, 137 Morality, world, 7, 9, 164 Phelps-Stokes Commission, Landrum, John W., 81-84 Morphet, Edgar L., 6 Lanier, Vincent, 226 283 Morrill Act, 209 Phillips, RomeoEldridge, Learning, conditions for, 57; Moustakas, Clark, 61 nature of, 51, 59, 87, 228- 116-19 Multi-Culture Institute, 240 30;seealsoInstructional Pilder, William F., 215 theory Multi-ethnic study materials, Plessy v. Ferguson,110 Learning center, 78-80 seeInstructional materials Political socialization, 7, 258- Leeper, Robert R.,vii-viii, Murray v. Cur lett,184 59, 272-76 68-69 Murray Road School (New- Politics and education, 202- Leonard, George B., 180-81 ton, Mass.), 220, 240 16; in free nations of Africa, Myers, R. E., 50 283-86; in universities, 152- Lerner, Max, 64 54; struggle for control, 256- Loving, Alvin D.,Sr.,4-6, 57; also Political socializa- 211-13 Najam, Edward W., Jr., 152- tion 54 Population explosion, 7, 164, Macdonald, James B., 86-97, National Advisory Commis- 167, 222 105-107 sion on Civil Disorders, Re- port of, 4 Porter, Hercules M., 237 Mackenzie, Gordon N., 202- Programmed instruction, see 204 National assessment,see Instructional methods; also Macy, John W., Jr., 251 Evaluation of learners Individualized instruction Malcolm X, 126, 156 National Defense Education Psychotherapy in education, Male, George A., 255-57 Act, 207 56-65, 198 National Science Foundation, Puerto Rican studies, see In- MLan, John S., 213-16, 219 205, 208 Manpower Training and De- structional materials, multi- National Training Laboratory, ethnic velopment Act, 207 231-32 Marcuse, Herbert, 182 Neighborhood Youth Corps, seeDrugs Marijuana, 81, 82 Queens College, Dept. of Ed- Markushevich, Aleksei, 279 New SchoolforChildren ucation, 39 Martin, Mary D., 81-84 (Boston), 238 Masia, B. B., 20 Newton's Law of Moments, Massialas, Byron G., 272-76 102 Racism, 4, 212; see Desegre- Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 270 Nongraded schools, 6 gation, school; also Disad- Mayer, Martin, 71 Nyerere, J. K., 285 vantaged learners McGee, Howell, 249 Rasey, Marie I., 44-48 McKibbon, Eugene F., 18 O'Casey, Sean, 33 Raths, James D., 11-16, 20-26 Raths, Louis, 11, 13, 15, 126 McLain, John, 245-48 Ohio State University Center McLuhan, Marshall, 32, 180, for Study of Curriculum, Raywid, Mary Anne, 178-84 198, 234 219 Redistricting, school, 5 299 290 Curricular Concerns in a Revolutionary Era

Reich, Charles A., 218 Smith, Robert, 164-69 Universal Declaration of Hu- Religion, and public schools, Smith-Hughes Act, 209 man Rights, 266 184-94; in the curriculum, Snow, C. P., 95 Universities, see Colleges 185-88; laws affecting, 184- Sobel, Harold W., 180 Urban Educational Center of 86, 189-94 Rhode Island, 235-37 Socialclasses,seeCultural Re Iler, Theodore L., 6 and class differences U.S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, 208-210 Research, educational, 11-14, Socialprotest,68,142-62, 21, 106, 107, 210, 255 166, 214-16, 248, 255-56, U.S. Constitution, First Rhode Island State Colleges, 259, 273, 279 Amendment to, 190-94 234 Soviet Union, education in, U.S. Office of Education, 205, Rickover, Hyman, 64 249-50, 278-82 206, 210 Robinson, Donald W., 241- Stegner, Wallace, 32 U.S.S.R., educationin,see 45 Stern, G. B., 249 Soviet Union Robison, Helen F., 78 Stoppard, Tom, 265 U.S.Supreme Court,110, Rogers, Carl R., 56-65 144,184-86, 189-94, 212; Storefront schools, see Free see also specific decisions by Rogers, Vincent R., 254-55 schools name Rosen, Seymour M., 250 Streetacademies,see Free Rosenbaum, Dorothy, 114 schools Roxbury Community School Studentdissent,seeSocial Valery, Paul, 28 (Boston), 238 protest Values, 2-26, 172, 177, 225, Rukare, Enoka H., 283-86 Student rights and responsi- 243-44, 259, 267-68 bilities, 142-62 Van Til, William, 223, 225 Suchman, Richard J., 91 VocationalEducationAct, Survival behaviors, 221 207 Sargent, Porter, 242-43 Szasz, Thomas, 96 Voznesensky, Andrei, 270 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 33 Saylor, J. Gaylen, 205-211 Weinstein, Gerald, 243 School-communityrelations, Taba, Hilda, 230 71, 111, 158, 203, 207, 210, West Virginia State Board of 212, 224, 228, 236, 239, 246 Tanzania, education in, 285 Education vs. Walter Bar- Taylor, Harcld, 266 nette, 145 Schrag, Peter, 18 White, Lynn, 244 Schwab, Joseph L., 89 Teacher education, 115, 117, 118,143, 158, 240;in White Citizens Councils, 167 Schwartz, Seymour, 145 U.S.S.R., 281 Whitehead, Alfred North, 25, Self-concept, 32, 41, 46-48, Television, educational, 251; 97 53-55,59,79,121,134, also Instructional methods 138, 195-200, 223, 265-69 Whiting, J. M., 169 Tenenbaum, Samuel, 169-73 Wiles, Kimball, 6-10 Self-discipline,13,18,161, T-group, see Human poten- Wilhelms, Fred T., 228-30 238 tial Seligman, Ben B., 258 Wilson, Charles E., 129-33 Theory of instruction, see In- Withall, John, 92 Sensitivity training, see Hu- structional theory Wofford, Harris, 266-67 man potential Toepfer, Conrad F., Jr., 112- Sex education, 18, 19 115 World community, 7, 8, 166, Sexton, Patricia C., 167 177, 204, 234, 254-86; fur- Toffler, Alvin, 4 thered by the arts, 266-71 Shane, Harold G., 220-23 Torrance, E. Paul, 48-51 World Education, 1966 Con- Shoemaker, Francis, 267 Trilling, Lionel, 34 ference on, 266 Silberman, Charles, 243, 244 Turing's theorem, 101, 102 Simon, Sidney, 126-28 Tyler, Ralph, 93 Siu, R. G. H., 86 Year-Round Education, Sec- ond National Seminar on, Skinner, B. F., 64, 88 245 Small-School-Within-a- Uganda, education in, 285-86 School, 39 Ulich, Robert, 266 Smith, B. 0., 13 United Kingdom, education Zilz, Edwin, 28 Smith, Joshua L., 237-41 in, 238, 250 Znaniecki, Florian, 93 ASCD Publications, Autumn 1971 Yearbooks The Elementary School We Need (611-17636) $1.25 Ethnic Modification of the Curriculum (610-17274) $5.00 Balance in the Curriculum (611-17832) $1.00 Evaluation as Feedback and Guide(610-17700) $6.50 Freeing Capacity To Learn(611-17322) $1.00 Fostering Mental Health in Our Schoois Guidelines for Elementary Social Studies $4.00 (61017256) (611-17738) $1.50 Freedom, Bureaucracy, & Schooling(610-17508) $6.50 The High School We Need(611-17312) $ .50 Guidance in the Curriculum(610-17266) $3.75 Human Variability and Learning (611-17332) $1.50 Individualizing Instruction (610-17264) $4.00 The Humanities and the Curriculum Leadership for Improving Instruction (610-17454)$3.75 (611-17708) $2.00 Learning and Mental Health in the School Humanizing Education: The Person in the (610-17674) $5.00 Process(611-17722) $2.75 Learning and the Teacher(610-17270) $4.50 Humanizing the Secondary School(611-17780) $2.75 Life Skills in School and Society(610-17786) $5.50 Hunters Point Redeveloped-A Sixth-Grade New Insights and the Curriculum(610-17648) $5.00 Venture (611-17348) $2.00 Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming: A New Improving Educational Assessment & An Focus for Education(610-17278) $4.50 Inventory of Measures of Affective Research for Curriculum Improvement Behavior(611-17804) $3.00 (610-17268) $4.00 Influences in Curriculum Change (611-17730) $2.25 Role of Supervisor and Curriculum Director Intellectual Development: Another Look (610-17624) $4.50 (611-17618) $1.75 To Nurture Humaneness: Commitment The International Dimension of Education for the '70's(610-17810) $5.75 (611-17816) $2.25 Youth Education: Problems, Perspectives, Interpreting Language Arts Research for the Promises (610-17746) $5.50 Teacher (611-17846) $4.00 The Junior High School We Need (611-17338) $1.00 Books and Booklets The Junior High School We Saw (611-17604) $1.50 Language and Meaning(611-17696) $2.75 Bases for World Understanding and Cooperation: Learning More About Learning(611-17310) $1.00 Suggestions for Teaching the Young Child Linguistics and the Classroom Teacher $1.00 (611-17834) (611-17720) $2.75 Better Than Rating(611-17298) $2.00 A Man for Tomorrow's World (611-17838) $7.25 The Changing Curriculum: Mathematics New Curriculum Developments (611-17664) $1.75 (611-17724) $2.00 New Dimensions in Learning (611-17336) $1.50 The Changing Curriculum: Modern Foreign The New Elementary School (611-17734) $2.50 Languages(611-17764) $2.00 Nurturing Individual Potential (611-17606) $1.50 The Changing Curriculum: Science(611-17704) $1.50 On Early Learning: The Modifiability of Human Changing Supervision for Changing Times Potential (611-17842) $2.00 (611-17802) $2.00 Personalized Supervision(611-17680) $1.75 Children's Social Learning (611-17326) $1.75 Removing Barriers to Humaneness in the High Cooperative International Education(611-17344) $1.50 School(611-17848) $2.50 Criteria for Theories of Instruction (611-17756) $2.00 Selecting New Aids to Teaching(611-17840) $1.00 Curriculum Change: Direction and Process Social Studies Education Projects: An ASCD (611-17698) $2.00 Index (611-17844) $2.00 Curriculum Decisions Social Realities Strategy for Curriculum Change(611-17666) $2.00 (611-17770) $2.75 Student Unrest: Threat or Promise?(611-17818) $2.75 A Curriculum for Children(611-17790) $2.75 Supervision in Action(611-17346) $1.25 Curriculum Materials 1971(611-17510) $2.00 Supervision: Emerging frofession (611-17796) $5.00 Dare To Care / Dare To Act: Racism and Education Supervision: Perspectives and Propositions (611-17850) $2.00 (611-17732) $2.00 Discipline for Today's Children and Youth The Supervisor: Agent for Change in (611-17314) $1.00 Teaching(611-17702) $3.25 Early Childhood Education Today (611-17766) $2.00 The Supervisor: New Demands, New Dimensions Educating the Children of the Poor (611-17762)$2.00 (611-17782) $2.50 Educating the Young People of the World The Supervisor's Role in Negotiation (611-17798)$ .75 (611-17506) $2.50 Theories of Instruction(611-17668) $2.00 Elementary School Mathematics: A Guide to Toward Professional Maturity(611-17740) $1.50 Current Research(611-17752) $2.75 The Unstudied Curriculum: Its Impact Elementary School Science: A Guide to on Children (611-17820) $2.75 Current Research(611-17726) $2.25 What Are the Sources of the Curriculum? Elementary School Social Studies: A Guide (611-17522) $1.50 to Current Research (611-17384) $2.75 Child Growth Chart(618-17442) $ .25

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