Experiences of Prejudice Among Individuals in African American and Caucasian Interracial Marriages: a Q-Methodological Study
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EXPERIENCES OF PREJUDICE AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN AFRICAN AMERICAN AND CAUCASIAN INTERRACIAL MARRIAGES: A Q-METHODOLOGICAL STUDY A dissertation submitted to the Kent State University College and Graduate School of Education, Health, and Human Services in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Patricia A. Schafer December 2008 © Copyright by Patricia A. Schafer 2008 All Rights Reserved ii A dissertation written by Patricia A. Schafer B.S., University of Pittsburgh, 1981 M. A., John Carroll University, 1997 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2008 Approved by ________________________________, Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Cynthia J. Osborn, Ph.D. ________________________________, Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Jason McGlothlin, Ph.D ________________________________, Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Steven R. Brown, Ph.D. Accepted by ________________________________, Chairperson, Department of Adult Donald L. Bubenzer, Ph.D. Counseling, Health, and Vocational Education ________________________________, Dean, Graduate School of Education, Daniel F. Mahony, Ph.D. Health, and Human Services iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge first and foremost my husband, Ken, for his kindness, patience, endurance “in sickness and in health and in dissertation” to help me reach the top of Dissertation Mountain. I wish to express my pride and gratitude to my two adult children, Kristi and Kenny, who over the years were patient as their dad and I switched household duties so I could be in class. They have survived many changes and are still alive and well and stronger to this day. Hopefully, they have forgiven me for never giving them an excuse to not do their homework because “Mom has homework, too!” Next, I wish to thank my twin brother Patrick and his wife who have always been kind and encouraging in very unique ways. To my brother Dan, and to my parents, John and Rose Marie Cooney (deceased); they have given me purpose to continue my goals. My family has been most supportive, and it is because of them, that I have been able to accomplish this task. A special thanks to the 40 participants in this study. They warmly welcomed me into their homes and made this a very enjoyable study. These participants are all very special people. They even fed me while they worked on their Q sorts. What a group! Next, I wish to thank my dissertation advisors, Dr. Cynthia Osborn and Dr. Jason McGlothlin, who through many hours of meetings and rewrites have shown great patience as I wrestled with words, APA style, tables and charts. They were always there through emails or meetings, answering questions, and being very supportive. Dr. Osborn was also my professor and I enjoyed her classes, her teaching style, and thus have learned a lot from her. I’ve attended workshops by Dr. McGlothlin whose presentations always iv offered a wealth of information. I have been very fortunate to have had these professors as committee members. Next, I wish to thank Dr. Steven R. Brown, “Dr. Q”, who introduced me to Q methodology through his classes and workshops. His vast knowledge and teachings of this fascinating methodology influenced me to write a dissertation using Q. Dr. Brown also willingly served as the outside member for my dissertation defense and patiently and meticulously scrutinized my dissertation. A special thanks to some of the many people who have greatly influenced my life and encouraged me to reach my goals. I wish to thank the members of the “Village.” We met in 1997 at Kent State and have encouraged each other over the years through our counseling studies, fun conferences, and our monthly Sunday afternoon dissertation meetings. Thank you to those who have made it to the Ph.D. level in counseling: Drs. Wei Huang, Gary Carrington, Luanne Brown-Johnson, Sofoh Hassane, and Tameka Taylor. Thank you to those who will soon reach the Ph.D. level in counseling: Sandra M. Jones, Dr. Valenta Ward-Gravely, Cassandra Harris-Williams, Felicia Townsend-Green, and a special thanks to Dr. Anita Jackson for mentoring the Village group. I wish to thank Dr. Irene Frieze of the University of Pittsburgh for being a wonderful professor and mentor during my undergraduate years. She has been a great influence in my pursuit for higher education. Also, I wish to thank Jway-Shi Hsu for her encouragement and friendship during the “Pitt years” and to Ceil Novick Edder for her special understanding. Next, I wish to thank my Navajo “family” and friends, especially those at Inscription House Mission (Ts’ah bi ikin) who have helped me to focus on the importance of helping people, sharing, and to always do my best. Finally, I would like to v thank my “Paraguayan Connection” – D. Benjamin Ferrarino - for financial support; and to Eric Lavins for contributing paper “to the cause.” This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my aunt: Sister Marjorie Flanagan (Sister Placide), S. C. August 16, 1916 –October 17, 2006 vi SCHAFER, PATRICIA A., Ph.D., December 2008 COUNSELING AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT SERVICES EXPERIENCES OF PREJUDICE AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN AFRICAN AMERICAN AND CAUCASIAN INTERRACIAL MARRIAGES: A Q- METHODOLOGICAL STUDY (286 pp.) Co-Directors of Dissertation: Cynthia Osborn, Ph.D. Jason McGlothlin, Ph.D. The purpose of this study was to investigate experiences of prejudice among individuals in African American and Caucasian interracial marriages. This study utilized Q methodology as a means of identifying and understanding the perceptions of experiences of prejudice held by 40 participants (20 couples). A set of 33 statements relating to experiences of prejudice was generated from a thorough literature review relating to African American and Caucasian interracial unions. Each participant was given a set of statements and asked to rank them on a continuum of -4, “most disagree,” to +4, “most agree” according to what they perceived were their experiences since being married. After the Q-sort process, participants responded to a post-sort interview. The specific research question that directed the study was: “What are the experiences of prejudice among individuals in African American and Caucasian interracial marriages?” The results of the Q-sort were factor analyzed utilizing the PQ Method 2.11 (Schmolck & Atkinson, 2002) software program producing four distinct factors, or groups, relating to experiences of prejudice. The four different groups were identified in vii the following way: (a) family and public acceptance; (b) public rejection; (c) public acceptance; and (d) rejection and acceptance. Each of the four factors revealed distinct experiences of prejudice according to participants’ subjective viewpoints. Understanding there were differences, and some similarities, of perceptions among the individuals in the study, and between spouses, offers considerations for future researchers to pursue these perceptions, and to use this information for the development and training of multicultural counselors. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..............................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................xiv CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................5 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................7 Research Considerations ......................................................................................8 Terminology ......................................................................................................10 Review of the Literature.....................................................................................10 Historical Perspective..................................................................................11 1600-1699 .......................................................................................11 1700-1799 .......................................................................................15 1800-1899 .......................................................................................17 1900-1990 .......................................................................................22 Summary of Historical Perspective..............................................................27 Interracial Relationships..............................................................................27 Attitudes and Polls...........................................................................30 Stereotypes and Myths.....................................................................33 Summary of Interracial Relationships..........................................................38 Theories of Prejudice ..................................................................................38 ix Critical Race Theory........................................................................38 Symbolic Racism Theory.................................................................40 Social Dominance Theory................................................................41 Summary of Theories of Prejudice ..............................................................48 Current Research.........................................................................................49 Interracial