MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY of EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

Lexical Sources in the English Vocabulary of Fashion and Clothing

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2013

Written by: Supervisor:

Sylva Peléšková Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D.

I hereby declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, and that I used only the sources cited in the bibliography. I give my permission to store this thesis at the library of the Faculty of Education of Masaryk University of Brno, and make it available for study purposes.

19 April 2013, Brno Sylva Peléšková

Acknowledgement I would like to thank Mgr Radek Vogel, PhD, for his kind and patient supervision, and professional advice.

Table of contents

I INTRODUCTION 5 II THEORETICAL PART 7 1 The history of the English language 7 1.1 Proto-Indo-European 7 1.2 Celtic and Roman period 7 1.3 Old English 8 1.4 Middle English 10 1.5 Early Modern English 11 1.6 Modern English 12 2 Lexical changes in English 15 2.1 Word-formation processes 16 2.1.1 Compounding 16 2.1.2 Derivation 16 2.1.3 Conversion 17 2.1.4 Other word-formation processes 18 2.1.5 Multiple processes 20 2.2 Borrowing from other languages 20 2.3 Semantic changes 22 3 A brief outline of the history of fashion in Europe 23 III PRACTICAL PART 26 1 An introduction to the practical part 26 1.1 List of abbreviations and sources for the tables of analyses 28 2 The analyses 30 2.1 General and abstract words 30 2.2 Materials 33 2.3 Patterns, decorations and needlework 39 2.4 Beachwear, nightwear, swimwear and underwear 41 2.5 Outerwear 47 2.6 Parts of clothes 55 2.7 Footwear 59 2.8 Headgear 62 2.9 Accessories 64 3 A conclusion to the practical part 70 IV CONCLUSION 71 VI BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

Introduction

Thinking about the topic of my thesis, I originally wanted to write about French loan words in English as French is my other foreign language. However, seeing the topic as too broad, I decided to limit it to an area that would be typically French. That is why I voted for fashion and clothing: on talking about fashion, many think of French names like Coco Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, Christian Dior and Louis Vuitton (and possibly followed by Italian brands such as Armani, Valentino, Versace, Gucci, Dolce & Gabbana and Prada). In fact, as we will see in chapter 3, France was indeed the cradle of modern fashion design industry, and it has been one of the leading trend-setters. In the course of time, Great Britain has established its position as a fashion superpower, too. Names like Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney, John Galliano and Vivienne Westwood are surely well-known in most of the world. So are some British clothing luxury stores, such as Burberry, or chain stores like Top Shop, Marks & Spencer or Debenhams (which have made their way even to the Czech Republic, a country with a rather relaxed attitude to fashion and clothing). The extent of the English vocabulary of fashion and clothing reflects this strong position. For example, it is certainly richer than the Czech one: for instance, the Czech word svetr (itself coming beyond any doubt from English) can indicate a jumper or a cardigan (no distinction in Czech, apart from random occurrence of the borrowing kardigan), there is no short Czech equivalent to racer-back T-shirt, and so on. However, a close look at the large English lexis of fashion and clothing made me think that it would be almost a pity to limit my thesis to French loans only, for some words sound so interesting that they literarily make wander about their origins. So I decided to take the topic more globally and look into various sources of the corpus. Another reason for such an extension of the topic is that I would like my thesis to serve as a helping tool for vocabulary study and teaching. It does help to learn a new word if we can make a link to a similar word from another language we can speak, or if its history tells us about places or people that it was named after. Nonetheless, the main purpose of the thesis is to examine lexical sources in the category of fashion of clothes, aiming at the study of the volume of foreign influences and word-formation processes that have helped establish the current lexical corpus in this field. After choosing the topic, I proceeded by making a preliminary list of possible words based on sources like fashion magazines, clothes glossaries for advanced English learners and

5 clothes-selling e-shops (e.g. ebay.co.uk). The ultimate choice, however, belonged to the study of the corpus described in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Too specific or extremely rare words were thus excluded, and the emphasis was put on the contemporary vocabulary (although many “modern” items took inspiration, and name, in the past), and on British English with no local variations. The reason for British English is obvious: this variety of English is in Europe largely preferred for learning and teaching. The last step of this preparatory phase was the division of the words into several categories. In structure, the thesis consists of two main parts – a theoretical one and a practical one. The theoretical part gives a study necessary for the analyses of the etymologies of the words and better understanding of the conclusions. The history of the English language described in the first chapter of the theoretical part takes a special regard to the influences of other languages. It outlines the main historical events of each period (the choice of the periods copies the common description of the history of the language), grammatical, spelling and pronunciation developments and focuses on the changes to the vocabulary. The last chapter offers also an overview of English varieties as well as its current position in the world. The second chapter is dedicated to the lexical influences in English. It presents a study of the main word-formation processes in English and the problematic of lexical borrowing in English, especially the reasons for it and its terminology. Finally, a short chapter deals with the history of fashion. This overview helps explain some tendencies found in the practical part. The practical part offers the etymological analyses of the collected words. As said before, these are divided into nine categories, which are at the same time chapters of the practical part. Each word is accompanied with the period of its first occurrence (in the defined sense), its meaning, etymology, the language(s) it comes from and the way it entered the English lexical corpus (loanword, compound, etc.). The analyses are concluded in Chapter 3, giving the totals of the loanwords of the languages in question. The final conclusion puts into relation the findings from the theoretical and the practical part.

Theoretical part

1 The history of the English language 1.1 Proto-Indo-European The first known ancestor of the English language is called Proto-Indo-European. It dates back to the times about 6000 years ago and it was spoken by a group of people probably somewhere in the European part of southern Russia. From its vocabulary it can be deduced that they knew agriculture and bred animals. Other decoded words indicate that the people were familiar with tools, weapons and even wheeled vehicles (Trask 116). Viney supposes that probably about 3500 BC the group, possibly called the Kurgans, began to move across Europe (westward) and Asia (eastward). Written records from about 2000 to 1000 BC show that the original common language had already developed into distinct languages by then, after separating into dialects as the Kurgan tribes spread apart from each other (Viney 4-6). One of these dialects was labeled as Proto-Germanic and it was probably used by the people in the south of Scandinavia in around 500 BC until its speakers finally reached Britain a thousand years later (Trask 114). It is evident that Proto-Indo-European must have issued from another, even remoter ancestor, but traces of it are still subject of many studies and no clear consensus has been reached yet. Nevertheless, as the name Proto-Indo-European suggests, it was the common source for the development of the Indo-European languages, just as Proto-Germanic splintered into Germanic languages (Trask 116).

1.2 Celtic and Roman period Before describing the beginnings of Old English, it is useful to look at the very first settlements in the British Isles, because they had a little impact on English, too. At about the end of the 5th century BC, the Celts, speakers of Indo-European, began to spread across Europe. Some of the tribes settled in the whole area Britain and Ireland and later emerged two main Celtic dialects emerged: Brythonic, spoken in southern England and Wales, and Goidelic (Gaelic), developing in Scotland and Ireland (Viney 6). In 43 BC Britain was attacked by the Romans, who seized it for almost four hundred years. They imposed a new way of life, and a new language - Latin (Viney 7). New words from this language were soon adopted. They mainly concerned plants, animals, food, drink

7 and household: plante „plant‟, cyse „cheese‟, catte „cat‟, candel „candle‟ or disc „dish‟. Other semantic fields included clothing, building and settlements, military and legal institutions, commerce, and religion (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 8). Nevertheless, the number of words of Latin origin at the dawn of the Anglo-Saxon period is estimated to fewer than 200, unlike Present-Day English. It is not certain why only such a small number were taken over, for some Latin must have been spoken after the leave of the Romans (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 8). The Celtic lexical heritage of that time is not well documented either, but it is detectable in Present-Day English. The number of Celtic loanwords is again very small. Crystal assumes that there are only two dozen Celtic loan words at maximum in Modern English (some of them originally came from Latin, which was imported by the Irish missionaries – before the Roman invasion). They include for example cumb „deep valley‟, binn „bin‟ or luh „lake‟, and a few place names, for example London, Dover, or the river Thames (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 8). The reason for not surviving of most of the Celtic words was probably the Roman influence and the chiefly warlike contact with the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, described in the next chapter.

1.3 Old English In the 5th century AD the British Isles, weakened by the decline of the Roman Empire, suffered another invasion: the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes came from present-day Germany and Denmark and pushed the British Celts to the north and west of Britain (Viney 7). This is where Welsh and Gaelic originated. These Germanic tribes spoke some variations of a language called Englisc (derived from the Latin word for the invaders Angli, used globally for all these Anglo-Saxon tribes), from which the English language got its name. It was Old English, or Anglo-Saxon (which is generally preferred to indicate not only the language, but also the culture, and the people) (Crystal, The English Language 146). The arrival of the Roman missionaries in the 6th century AD entailed a growth of monasteries and the production of Latin manuscripts. In such climate, there was a need of translations of Latin words into Old English; these became the first preserved Old English texts, dating from about 700. The period between the first settlements of the Anglo-Saxons and these first Old English manuscripts remains undocumented (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 10).

In AD 787 began the Viking raids on Britain, which first led to the establishment of an area controlled by the Danes – Danelaw, extending roughly from Chester to London, and then even to a 25-year Danish rule over England. The arrival of the Danes marked another important linguistic influence on Old English (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 25). It was in this period that the most significant work of Old English literature, the heroic poem Beowulf, was composed, although it was not written down until approximately 250 years later (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 10). According to Crystal, Old English differed from present-day English especially in three aspects: spelling, grammar and vocabulary. The main difference in spelling was the presence of letters not known in the Latin alphabet – Þ, ð, later replaced by th, and æ, representing a vowel between a and e (Crystal, The English Language 149-150). As for grammar, Crystal summarizes that Old English was an inflected language: the meaning of a sentence was obvious due to the various endings, not due to word order as it is today (Crystal, The English Language 151). Old English vocabulary building consisted mainly in prefixation and suffixation, like in ingān „go in‟ and upgān „go up‟, and compounding, for example æftergengness „succession‟, or ciricgang „churchgoing‟. In the poetry, the language was enriched by so- called “kennings”, figurative descriptions – compounds of a kind, such as hronrād „whale- road‟ for the sea, or moncynnes weard „guardian of mankind‟, indicating God (Crystal, The English Encyclopedia 2003: 22-23). Latin lexical impact from the Old English period can be detected in many religious words (Heaven, hell, Easter, sin), learning matters, biology, and domestic and general words. Many have survived in Modern English and several others underwent semantic modifications in the course of time (Crystal, The English Encyclopedia 2003: 24). As mentioned above, another lexical impact resulted from the Viking invasion. The language of the invaders (and kings for some time) was called Old Norse. About a thousand words have entered in Standard English; among the first, which appeared even in the Old English manuscripts, were for example landing, score, fellow, and take. However, most of the Old Norse borrowings were not adopted until the early 12th century. These include words beginning with sk-, such as skirt, sky or skin, and many more. Most amazingly, Scandinavian influence concerned even such common words like both, same, get, or give, some personal pronouns changed from their Old English forms into present-day they, them and they, and even the verb to be was possibly affected: the form are seems to have replaced the earlier form sindon (Crystal, The English Encyclopedia 2003: 25).

But these influences were still small compared to what was to come in the next centuries.

1.4 Middle English The period of Middle English can be roughly defined as a period of the 12th to 15th century. However, the trigger of its crucial event dates back to the year l066: William of Normandy conquered England (and later Wales) and became its king. He made Norman French its official language and appointed French-speaking abbots, bishops and nobility. Soon arrived numbers of French merchants and craftsmen to search for new commercial opportunities. English persisted, but the lexical influence of French was immense (Crystal, The English Encyclopedia 2003: 30). The English-French relations thus settled, some time after the conquest, as peaceful. However, some century later, in 1204, the two countries entered into a conflict, resulting in the loss of some English possessions. The rising English nationalism then weakened the position of the French language as upper-classes returned to the original language of their country. Nevertheless, the French influence on English lexis continued, as French still played the main role as the language of government, law, administration, and the church, and also because of numerous mixed marriages of French and English people. Despite the lack of a greater number of English texts from this period, it can be assumed that during these 150 years, it was also, and again, Latin that began to appear in English lexical corpus. The predominating area of Latin was education and worship. However, it is sometimes doubtful whether the Latin loans entered into English directly or via French (Crystal, The English Language 174). The 14th and 15th centuries witnessed two other important events: the Hundred Years‟ War, which raised another wave of English patriotism, and the Black Death, an epidemic of plague. As a consequence of the latter many educated churchmen, monks and school teachers had to be replaced by others, less educated, who spoke only English. With the first use of English in Parliament in 1362, a return to English as a number-one language was confirmed (Viney 17-18). Main grammar changes in this period consist in losing some endings for nouns, adjectives and pronouns, which demanded a strict word order so as to avoid ambiguity, and some prepositions were introduced. Many irregular past verb forms of verbs became regular (Viney 19-20).

Also, some new spelling conventions took root (for instance, sc was replaced by sh or sch, Old English letters Þ, ð and æ disappeared), as well as phonetic ones. For example, h became mute in some positions, and some diphthongs became single vowels and vice versa (Crystal, The English Language 178; Crystal, The English Encyclopedia 2003: 42). The outcome of this period is best described by the following words: “English had survived – but it had changed enormously.” (Viney 18)

1.5 Early Modern English The label “Early Modern English” usually refers to the period of the 16th and 17th centuries. Its main historical characteristics are thus those of Renaissance and Humanism: it was an age of new inventions and findings in technology and science, an age of travels which led to the discoveries of the “new continents”, and an age of the rise of learning. And particularly for the English language, two events of that time are of extreme importance: the work of William Shakespeare, and the apparition of the King James Bible (Crystal, The English Language 196). As education spread, more and more people were interested in learning and reading. Thanks to the invention of the printing machine and its import to Britain, the printers could try to meet such demand. However, as people wanted to read in English, the booksellers had to face several problems. The spelling and pronunciation were not unified, and there were so many dialects that even a common word was not sometimes understandable to a speaker of another dialect (Crystal, The English Language 196; Viney 25). Another problem surprisingly issued from the achievements in technology and science: there emerged a need to name things and idea which simply did not appear until then (Crystal, The English Language 192). As a result, about 30,000 new words were adopted, mainly from Latin, but also from Greek, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese (Viney 25-26). As the language of learning and science, Latin gradually fell out of use, in favour of English, during the 17th century except within the Roman Catholic Church (Crystal, The English Language 195). But lexical borrowing from Latin and other languages continued. Some of the words taken over in that period are: anatomy, compensate, expensive, gradual, peninsula, and physician (from Latin), or atmosphere, comedy, critic, data, history, pneumonia, skeleton, and tragedy (from Greek, some of them via Latin) (Kemmer 2011).

However, borrowing was not the only way of lexical enrichment. New words were created by affixation, compounding or conversion. An extraordinary imagination in new words creation is apparent in the work of William Shakespeare. This playwright invented not only new words, but also new idioms, often surprising, but understandable and accurate. His legacy in terms of English vocabulary has survived up to present days. Some of his inventions: it’s early days, tongue-tied, or the long and short of it (Viney 27). Apart from inventing new words and expressions, he deserved credit for writing some words in use for the first time, therefore making them known to people whose vocabularies missed them, and ensuring their permanent life in the language. They include for example accommodation, assassination, countless, or laughable (Crystal, The English Language 198). The second major influence was, as said before, the King James Bible. It was the translation made on order of the king, carried out by a group of translators as the “authorized version” (Crystal, The English Language 199). Its style was rather conservative with the usage of many old words, but it spread quickly, so the impact on general English was huge. It was aimed to be, above all, poetic and melodic to read. Some of the metaphoric expressions were for instance eat sour grapes, cast pearls before swine, a lamb brought to the slaughter, etc. (Ibid.) Most importantly, the confusion caused by the appearance of new words and variations in spelling, grammar and pronunciation usage resulted in the efforts of unifying these systems. They are subject of the next chapter.

1.6 Modern English From the 18th century on, there has been further progress in all fields of human activity. Especially technology has developed rapidly; economically, the 18th and 19th centuries were noticeably marked by the Industrial Revolution. Politically, Great Britain was recognized as a colonial superpower. The 20th century brought the decline of colonialism, as well as economical slow-down of Great Britain due to the world wars. At the beginning of the 21st century, it is the USA, Britain‟s former colony, independent since 1776, that is taken as the world market leader. In the domain of linguistics, the first dictionary (known as Johnson‟s Dictionary) was published, in order to put an end to the doubt about spelling and good choice of word in the Early Modern English period. More dictionaries followed soon after (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2009: 82). Also, a boom of grammar and rhetoric books started between 1750

12 and 1800 (although the first efforts of writing down the rules of English grammar are known from the 16th century) (Ibid. 78). The appearance of spelling books and pronunciation manuals was another step towards standardization of the language. Naturally, though, they were again subject of many disputes. The major problem was to decide whether the authors should only describe the grammar as it was used, or rather evaluate which forms were correct and which (they thought) were not. This is a dilemma which still lasts (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2009: 79). In any case, the middle of the 18th century is largely recognized as the beginning of Modern English. Of course, the English then was different from what we speak today. The main differences from present-day English, in terms of grammar, lay within “tense usage, auxiliary verbs, irregular verbs, articles, contracted forms, prepositions, adverbs, and the comparative” (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2009: 77). However, a brief glance at some examples of writing of that period implies that those forms were fairly comprehensible to today‟s reader. But what has changed enormously is the lexical corpus. The Industrial Revolution brought many new inventions and concepts, as well the social changes which went along. Burchfield speaks about two main groups of words in the English vocabulary then: words which were formed within the language, and loanwords. In fact, nearly all the word-formation processes, except compounds, derivation, and conversion, described further in chapter 2.2, were born in the Modern English period, especially in the 20th century (43-44). In derivation, many new prefixes and suffixes came into usage (micro-, mini-, non-, retro-, ultra-; -burger, -ette) (Ibid.). The rate of borrowing, compared to the previous periods, lowered (on the other hand, other languages started borrowing largely from English), but was far from ceding. It is through politics, war and travel, as Burchfield concludes, that many loanwords were taken in, and these were “from all the major languages of the world, many of them awkwardly pronounced and only half understood”. Examples include qi „life-force‟ from Chinese, Bildungsroman, Gestalt, and Gestapo from German, Noh, or origami from Japanese, nekulturny „boorish person‟, samizdat, and sputnik from Russian, etc. The lexical influence of French still went on, too (Burchfield 47-48). As a result of colonialism, English speakers were spread all over the world, they mingled with the local people and their languages, and each settlement area took its own course in the development of English. Thus, English as one language began to diverge. Today, there are many varieties of it, as well as dialects within these varieties.

Naturally, each variety has adopted some words from the local (and other) languages. Among these, we can name French and American Indian languages (mostly via French) in Canadian English, Aboriginal languages in Australian English, or Maori in New Zealand English (cf. Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2009: 95, 98-99). And most importantly American English, whose word stock has been influenced by many languages: the languages of the American Indians, the languages of the African slaves brought in the 16th and 17th centuries, the languages of Caribbean settlers, as well as European settlers and immigrants: French, Dutch, German, Spanish, Italian, and Yiddish (cf. Viney 40-42). Due to cultural, political and economical contact, American English (and other “Englishes”) has influenced British English, in return. Some well-known American English words, widely accepted in British English, are: supermarket, teenager and fast food (Viney 44). Lastly, as Crystal explains, the establishment of the USA as the main economical power of the world, together with the previous British imperial conquest, has led to the acknowledgement of English as the major global language (Crystal, English as a Global Language 60). The position of English today can be illustrated on Kachru‟s model of three circles (qtd. ibid.): The inner circle is represented by English “core” countries: the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The outer circle refers to countries where English is a second language: Singapore, India, Malawi and over fifty other territories. The expanding circle involves countries where English is taught as a foreign language, and it is recognized as an important international language. Unlike the first two, these countries have no history of colonization. They are for example China, Japan, Greece, Russia or Poland1. These circles are ground for multiple language contacts, whose impact will be reflected in the practical part.

1 And the Czech Republic, in my opinion. 14

2 Lexical changes in English Lexical changes in English described in this chapter include processes of creation of new words and some other changes that occur within the English word stock. Respective changes, such as phonological or morphological, are dealt as a part of the lexical changes, or are not included at all for their minor contribution to the topic chosen. The final subchapter concerns semantic changes with relevance to the topic. The reason why new words are created – and some words are “lost”, as Framkin and Rodman point out (336) – is a matter of many studies and discussions. Schendl simply declares that a language, like everything in the universe, develops, and “linguistic change tends to be the result of two equivalent forms coexisting as variants for some time, and one giving way to the other” (3). Another obvious reason, described in chapter 1.5, is the need to name new things. And sometimes it is very difficult to reveal a reason; nonetheless, the main aim of this chapter is not to describe why (except a little study in chapter 2.2), but how the language changes. This requires a classification of the lexical changes and an outline of their rules, which is the main theme of this chapter. However, such classification and such rules are themselves subject to many changes and irregularities. On this account, Burchfield states the following:

The English language absorbs, rejects, and adapts elements of vocabulary as it goes along. Its formative rules are no more than general guides, observed only when it is convenient to do so, and broken – because of the needs of euphony, analogy, or some other competing principle – at will. (…) Nothing will or should prevent linguistic conservatives form objecting to changes and innovations as they occur. At any given time a fastidious speaker will necessarily make his own choice of vocabulary, avoiding some words and accepting others, as an aspect of good taste or of circumstance or context. (Burchfield 113)

This statement will help explain the many exceptions, overlaps and other irregularities described in the next chapters. The generality of the rules and the instability of the language should be taken as one of the important features of the language.

2.1 Word-formation processes Most English lexemes are formed by compounding, derivation or conversion (Vogel 17). That is why there are three separate subchapters dealing with these processes, and the

15 others are treated in one common chapter. It should be noted that various authors give various names (or different hierarchy) to these processes and the following presentation was compiled just because this was the way I found it more appropriate with view of the purpose of the thesis. Some of the examples were consulted with Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005). This source is further referred to as OALD.

2.1.1 Compounding Compounding is one of the most productive word-formation processes in English. A compound can be defined as “a lexeme made up of two (or more) lexemes” (Bauer 38). It can be spelt as one word (headache), with a hyphen (dark-haired), or as separate words (travel agent) (OALD). Sometimes more ways of spelling are possible (workforce, work-force, work force) (Vogel 18). As compounds represent a vast area of the English lexis, there are various classifications of them. Here are the most important ones: - Subordinate, where one element modifies another (sunglasses – glasses used for protection from the sun), and coordinate, where the elements have the same status (Czech-English). (Hladký and Růžička 59) - Endocentric, where the compound is a hyponym of the grammatical head (armchair is a type of chair), exocentric, where the compound is a hyponym of some semantic head (redskin is not a type of skin, but a person), and appositional, where the compound is a hyponym of both of the constituent elements (maidservant is a type of maid and a type of servant). (Bauer 30, cf. Hladký and Růžička 60). - Word-class-based classification depends on the word class in which belong the constituent elements, such as adjective + noun (greenhouse), adjective + adjective (bittersweet), etc. (Vogel 18) - Sentence-elements-based classification depends on the role that the constituent elements have in a sentence, for example subject + predicate (washing machine), predicate + object (loss-making), etc. (Ibid.)

2.1.2 Derivation Derivation is a process where a new word is produced by adding one or more affixes (that is why this process is also called “affixation”, as in chapter 1.5). These include prefixes

(at the beginning of a word, such as un- in unhappy), suffixes (at the end of a word, such as –ful in respectful), and, in rather seldom and controversial cases, infixes (inside a word, such as –down- in putdownable.) However, sometimes there in no clear-cut border between derivation and compounding. The reason for this is that words sometimes become affixes and vice versa (Bauer 36), with the course of time. An interested example is provided by Bauer: When childhood was formed (Old English period), it was a compound, because hood then existed as a lexeme (precisely, its Old English equivalent, meaning “condition, rank”2). In contrast, a more recent personhood is a derivative, since at the time this was formed, -hood only was a bound morph, no longer existing as a lexeme (Ibid.). This means that for the analysis of controversial cases it is necessary to know whether all the parts of the word are lexemes or whether some of them have been establishes as an affix (and vice versa). Which itself can be uneasy. A similar problem arises if we consider some of the English words ending in –berry: cranberry and bilberry. The parts cran- and bil- look as if they were roots of lexemes, such as in blackberry, blueberry, etc., but they do not fit in the category of lexemes as they cannot stand independently. They are possibly not prefixes either, as they would be very limited in their other use. Bauer concludes that cranberry and bilberry are not derivatives nor are they compounds. (Ibid., cf. Adams 141) The solution must be of arbitrary kind, just as Jespersen suggests for the controversy derivation-inflection (see next paragraph). Another difficulty emerges when deciding whether the word is a result of derivation or mere inflection. After Bauer, derivation produces new lexemes, while inflection produces new forms of a single lexeme (Bauer 40). As an example, he examines the problematic of English past participles. Grammatically, they are inflectional forms of verbs, but they can be used as an attributing adjective, as in a married man, therefore as a lexeme. “The same ending, producing the same form”, says he, “is simultaneously inflectional and derivational.” (Bauer 40-41) As Jespersen declares, the difference between derivation and inflection is sometimes artificial (qtd. in Bauer 40).

2.1.3 Conversion Conversion is a process where a word of certain word class is used as a member of another word class. This goes without a morphological change. This process is most typical

2 Obviously, not in the sense of a part of clothes as it exists today. 17 for open-class words (verbs, nouns, and adjectives): need (noun) < to need (verb), to slow (verb) < slow (adjective), silver (noun) < silver (adjective), etc. But some cases of conversion from or into closed-class words (grammatical words, such as prepositions) are known too: down (adverb / preposition) – to down (verb) (Vogel 18-19).

2.1.4 Other word-formation processes Backformation Backformation can be considered (not always, though) as a reversed process of derivation: in it, a new word is form by detaching a part of the word that looks like an affix, but it is not really. Examples are: opt < option, edit < editor, burgle < burglar, etc. (cf. Yule 67, Bauer 231). Some less frequent occurrences of backformation are based on another kind of misinterpretation: pea was backformed from pease, which was taken for plural due to the final /z/, just as /z/ in the French cerise, which resulted in the creation of the English word cherry (Bauer 231). Clipping Bauer defines clipping as “a process whereby a lexeme (simplex or complex) is shortened, while still being a member of the same form class” (Bauer 233). Generally, the last syllables or the first syllables are removed. Examples of the maintenance of the first syllables are: ad < advertisement, photo < photograph, while the first syllables are on the contrary lost in bus < autobus, or phone < telephone. Rarely, clipping may consist in removing both the first and the last parts of a word: flu < influenza. Phrases may be clipped too: pop < popular music, prefab < prefabricated structure. Sometimes a small appropriate change in spelling takes place: bike < bicycle, telly < television (Adams 134-135). Lastly, it is possible to clip compound words: op art < optical art, sitcom < situation comedy (Bauer 233). Bauer suggests that clippings which take a compound word stress should be considered rather as compounds (made by clipping) than clippings as such (233). On the whole, the use of clipped words is a sign of some kind of familiarity, either with the objects it refers to, either with the audience. But sometimes, a clipped form replaces its original form as it is used more often (lunch < luncheon), or it can get a slightly different meaning3 (fan < fanatic) (Adams 135).

3 For more on meaning changes, see chapter 2.3. 18

Blends Blends are new lexemes made up of parts of two or more other words, while these parts are not easy to analyze as morphs (Bauer 234). Common examples are chunnel (channel + tunnel), smog (smoke + frog), or brunch (breakfast + lunch). The latter is sometimes classified as a member of a subcategory called compound-blends (Adams 146). Acronyms Bauer concludes that an acronym “is a word coined by taking the initial letters of the words in a title or phrase and using them as a new word” (Bauer 237). It can be read letter by letter, as in REM (for Rapid Eye Movement: /a:r i: em/), or as one word, as in PIN (Personal Identification Number: /pin/), or as a compromise of these two, as in CD ROM /si: di: rom/ (Bauer 237, Vogel 20). Some variations are represented by these examples: more than one letter is used from one word, as in GHOST (Global HOrizontal Sounding Technique); grammatical words are not included, as in PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) (Bauer 238); initial letters of key morphemes are used, as in HQ (HeadQuarters) (Vogel 20), etc. Besides, there are cases where it is not obvious whether the word is an acronym or a blend: linac (LINear ACcelerator) (Bauer 238). Coinage According to Yule, a relatively small number of new words are produced by coinage, i.e. creation of a totally new term. The most typical example is a trademark which became used as a general word, such as kleenex, aspirin, or xerox4. Sometimes the trade name itself is invented using some above-mentioned processes (e.g. teflon – tetra-fluor-on), or is just freely inspired, beyond this classification, by an existing word, such as Kleenex from the word clean. (Yule 64; Fromkin and Rodman 53) Another important case of coinage includes words that come from proper names of individuals or places. Espy gives the following examples: sandwich (after Earl of Sandwich), robot (after Karel Čapek‟s play R.U.R, standing for Rossum‟s Universal Robots), or gargantuan (after Rabelais‟ character Gargantua) (qtd. in Fromkin and Rodman 58). Reduplication is a word-formation process where the elements repeat with some minor changes (tick-tick, clickety-click, zig-zag) (Vogel 18).

4 Here, a punctuation problem arises: OALD records Kleenex and Xerox with a capital letter, the converted verbal form of the latter is spelt with a minuscule letter; aspirin is entered with a minuscule letter. The occurrence of the word with a minuscule letter seems to be an indicator of generalization of the word. In Yule‟s treatise, where these examples were taken form, they are all written with a minuscule. Note that in the next indirect citation, Kleenex is with a majuscule, again in accordance with the source. 19

2.1.5 Multiple processes As it stems from the previous subchapters, a new word can be an outcome of more than only one word-formation process (see compound-blends in 2.1.4). Such a case can be demonstrated on so-called derivational compounds, consisting of a compound word and a derivational suffix (time-saver, postage stamp) (Vogel 18). Another case is quoted by Bauer: the verb lase is the result of backformation from laser, which is itself an acronym (page). Certainly, many more cases could be found, but naming all of them would be rather obsolete and almost impossible. After all, the objective of this subchapter is to demonstrate that the processes listed above are not the only possible and that their rules change. Yet it is still necessary to describe them for scientific purposes and for the purpose of the thesis. Considering all the above-mentioned examples, we may conclude that lexical changes are conditioned by the society which needed them or just accepted them. Also the creativity, flexibility and even sense of humour of its speakers play their roles (consider Brangelina, an informal recent blend denoting a popular show business couple Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt), as well as the mood and the values of the period in which they were created (consider blamestorming, a compound-blend denoting “a group discussion regarding the assigning of responsibility for a failure or mistake”; it origins in the 1990‟s (“Oxford Dictionaries”)). This also explains why some words fall out of use: they simply lose their topicality.

2.2 Borrowing Although some authors classify borrowing as one of the word-formation processes (e.g. Yule 65), in this thesis it will be dealt as a separate issue for its complexity and for the importance of its role in this thesis. It should be pointed out that by borrowing we mean lexical borrowing, as the title of this chapter “Lexical changes in English” implies. Other types of borrowing include morphological, phonological and syntactic borrowing (Schendl 57). Borrowing is conditioned by language contact, which is itself a notion hard to define. Thomason proposes a simplified definition of language contact as “the use of more than one language in the same place at the same time” (3). This may range from direct contact resulting from colonization, immigration, trade, or geographical closeness, to traveling abroad for holiday, browsing on foreign pages on the internet, etc (cf. Thomason 3-6). But these occurrences do not have, of course, equal impact on lexical interchange; there are several factors which should be taken into account on considering the quality of language contact.

The factors influencing lexical borrowing are, according to Schendl, the following: the length of language contact, the extent of the communication, and the number and status of their bilingual speakers (55). Further on the status, Schendl points out that “since languages and speakers in contact are rarely of equal political, economic or social status and power, the less powerful or prestigious group is frequently disadvantaged” (Ibid.). Schendl further claims that borrowing mainly occurs with open-class words, especially nouns, followed by adjectives and verbs (55). Next, Schendl lists the the following main reasons for borrowing (56): - a perceived language gap, usually associated with cultural contact between the recipient and donor language speakers; - higher prestige of the donor language. This can be also illustrated on former colonies, which largely adopted words from the colonial languages, taken for one of higher status. - predominance of the donor language in a specific domain (and at a particular period of time): an example is the prevalence of English words in the computing domain in many languages, or French words in the semantic areas of fashion and food in English. There are more possible classifications of borrowing. The usual terminology includes loan words (also called loan-words, loanwords, loans, or borrowings – these are all frequently used) – words, that are “both semantically and formally borrowed from the source language” (Schendl 57), and loan-translations (or calques). These are direct translations of the elements of a word. A well-known example is illustrated by English sky-scraper, translated into French as gratte-ciel („scrape-sky‟), or into German as Wolkenkratzer („cloud scraper‟)5 (Yule 65). Loan words may be further divided into subcategories according to the changes they submit in the recipient language, but this is too vast an area to incorporate into this thesis. Native words, in contrast, are those “whose history can be traced back to the earliest known stages of the language.” (Fromkin and Rodman 332-333) Today, over 70 per cent of the words in English are loan words6 (compared to only 3 per cent in Old English); almost half of Modern English general vocabulary come from Latin or French, as a result of the language contact in the Middle English period. (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2003: 27)

5 Compare Czech mrakodrap („cloud scraper‟). 6 Supposingly in the broader sense, that is with changes incorporated. 21

2.3 Semantic change Language changes consist not only in lexical changes such as those studied in the previous two subchapters. As the language develops, changes in meaning of the existing items, without any spelling or phonetic change, occur, again very much in unforseeable ways. They are usually called semantic changes. There are four main types of such changes (Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia 2009: 138; cf. Vogel 10-11): - Extension of the meaning, for example the word bird first denoted only „young bird‟, while now it means „any bird‟. - The opposite process to extension, narrowing of the meaning, is evident when comparing Old English hund – „dog‟ generally, now it occurs only in names of a particular breed of dog, such as dachshund or greyhound. - Amelioration means an improvement in meaning: knight, now a positive word, formerly meant „servant‟. - Pejoration again is the opposite of amelioration: today‟s negative villain, in Middle English, meant neutrally „feudal serf‟. As subtypes of extension, Schendl adds metaphor and metonymy to the above list (30). Although these are usually treated in a separate chapter as figures of speech, they certainly involve a change in meaning of a kind. They are listed here as they may occur in the vocabulary of clothes and fashion, too. For the same reasons, we include synecdoche too. Metaphor is based on a transfer of meaning in result of an imagined similarity: head, a part of body, can be used in the metaphoric sense as „head of state‟, etc. (Schendl 30). Metonymy means that a typical attribute is used to denote the whole entity: crown indicates „king‟ or „queen‟, etc. (Ibid.). Similar to metonymy, synecdoche is a figure where a part is used for the whole (wheels standing for „cars‟), or vice versa (Vogel 27).

3 A brief outline of the history of fashion in Europe Most people would agree that clothing started in prehistoric times, where furry hides were used as protection from cold. The origins of fashion are more recent, and more difficult to trace. This is because the notion of fashion is itself complicated to define: clothing is simply regarded as “clothes, especially a particular type of clothes” (OALD), but the definitions of fashion may vary according to the points of view. OALD gives two definitions of fashion relevant to the purpose of this thesis: it is “a popular style of clothes, hair, etc. at a particular time or place” and “the business of making or selling clothes in new and different styles.” However, what should be taken into account are the connotations the word carries: Craik suggests that today‟s concept of fashion is very much related with “consumerism, fast-changing trends, prestige and well-being” (21-23). It is true that most people today will probably connect fashion with clothes currently in vogue; these are often presented by popular and successful (thus rich) people, such as actors or singers. And trends do change quickly, so Craik‟s point of view seems justified. Such outline of today‟s perception of fashion is the reason why its beginning is usually dated to middle of the 19th century, with the rise of Parisian couture houses (cf. Palomo-Lovinski 8). This is acceptable, but it should be noted that marks of this modern concept of fashion were perceptible much earlier (cf. Craik 21). Signs of changing trends are known already from Ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, Greek or Rome, as well as liking in jewellery and other decorations, showing clear victory of foppishness over usefulness. Their quality and elaboration depended on the social status of the wearer (“History of fashion”). In Europe, early Middle Ages did not see many changes or extravagance in style of clothing, which stemmed both from numerous military, political and social conflicts, as well as the prevailing strict Christian moral. This began to change in the 13th and 14th centuries, when clothes were getting more ornamented, and although a new style was usually put forward by royal courts, bourgeoisie quickly adopted the manner of displaying richness by means of clothes (“History of fashion”). Foley and Stearn point out that “fashion dolls”, made and dressed to promote new modes to be copied by seamstresses and tailors across Europe, existed as early as in the 14th century (and maybe earlier) (qtd. in Craik 64), so new trends spread easily. As stated in the previous chapters, Renaissance was an age of distant travels. This resulted in the discovery of new textiles and consequent development of new trades. Under

Queen Elisabeth I (16th century), there was great demand in Britain for French and Italian luxury materials, and domestic cloth (woolen cloth) was traded for luxury textiles from the empire (Craik 65). Until the 18th century, clothing was closely connected with “identity, status and role” (Craik 67). This feeling was reinforced by the Sumptuary Laws (across Europe, in Englisnad in the 16th century), which prescribed what people of different social ranks could wear (regardless to their actual wealth). They vanished in the 17th and 18th centuries. After the French Revolution (1789) fashion became a means of expression of individual choice rather than expression of status, but perception of fashion as a sign of prestige remained. First second-hand clothing markets appeared as early as the 16th century, and by the 17th century, it was possible to buy ready-to-wear clothes in the marketplace (Craik 67). The Industrial Revolution triggered mass-production of clothes, and pursuing colonial expansions discovered more new fabrics and fibers. They also brought inspiration from exotic countries. The invention of photography was followed by the first publications of fashion magazines in the 18th century (Craik 69). Last half of the 19th century saw good conditions for the rooting of fashion as it is seen today: regular income for all classes, ready-made clothes, second hand market, and fashion magazine industry. First department stores opened (Craik 68). When in 1858 the Englishman Charles Worth established a fashion house in Paris, he already used today‟s known model of fashion promotion: he hired models to present his clothes, and invited the media for his presentations. Some more houses opened soon after. It was the beginning of the “haute couture” (Palomo-Lovinski 8). Paris was renowned as the main trendsetter until World War II. During the war, Parisian fashion houses did not close down, but they were out of connection with other countries. As a result, designers beyond France had to find their own styles, independently from the French ones. After the war, many French designers started to create both haute couture and ready-to-wear collections, like today, as it was difficult to earn a living on couture alone (Palomo-Lovinski 8-9). The 20th century witnessed the birth of other fashion capital cities. While Paris already was a respected fashion centre, it was only after the war that there were recognized three other fashion-leading cities: New York, known for its practical, casual wear; Milan, for its fine materials and high-quality tailoring; and finally London, with its ambiguity of “conservatism on the one hand, and experimentation and even shock tactics on the other” (Palomo-Lovinski 9).

Simultaneously, there was a significant improvement in marketing strategies, as Palomo-Lovinski reflects. Since the 1960s, fashion industry has relied hugely on licences and diffusion lines (cheaper lines of clothes sold by the same retailer). Owners of licences have profited from other related goods sold under the designer‟s name (Palomo-Lovinski 9). These include accessories, decorative arts, perfumes, domestic products, etc. (cf. ibid.) The 21st century sees the fashion industry firmly ingrained in national economies. A report on the United Kingdom from 2010 reveals that the direct contribution of the fashion industry to the UK economy is £21 billion, with another £17 billion coming from related domains (tourism, etc.) (“Value of Fashion Report”). The report further states that the UK fashion industry “is the 15th largest industry (out of 81) in UK – similar in size to the food / beverage services and telecommunications industries and bigger than the wholesale and retail of automotives, sports activities, chemical manufacture and advertising/video sectors” (Ibid.). As it stems from what was said previously, Great Britain is one of the capitals of fashion, so these figures are not so surprising. But they do reflect the extent to which fashion has grown. Surely, the size and importance of fashion industry varies from country to country, but it has become an inevitable part of everyday life – just like fashion itself: any clothes people choose to wear have been influenced by it; cut, material, decoration, or style, it is all a result of this specific domain on the confines of art, craft, and business.

Practical part

1 An introduction to the practical part The theoretical part dealt with three main topics: the history of English language, lexical changes in English, and the development of fashion in Europe. Especially the first two will be the starting point of the practical part, which consists in the analyses of 418 lexical items. It can be concluded from the theoretical part that the English language has developed over four main stages: Old English (5th – 11th centuries), with the Anglo-Saxon influence as the basis and an influence of Latin (and a marginal impact of Celtic vocabulary), Middle English (12th – 15th centuries), with an significant influx of French words and continuation of Latin impact, Early Modern English (16th – 17th centuries), with mainly Romance languages and Greece as donor languages, and Modern English (from 18th century on), with a wide range of foreign influences. Also, a number of English varieties have developed. Major word-formation processes include compounding, derivation and conversion. Other, relatively recent processes comprehend backformation, clipping, blends, acronyms, coinage and reduplication. In some cases, it is difficult to state clearly by which word- formation process an item was created, and the processes can multiply. There can be some more processes beside the listed ones, and there is not a unified terminology. Borrowing is a result of a language contact and main reasons for it are a lexical gap, prestige or predomination of the donor language in a specific area. Lexical changes may also occur on the semantic field. The last chapter of the theoretical part implies that fashion today is perceived with connotations conditioned by modern society and fashion industry. The beginning of fashion in this concept is dated to the 19th century, but clothes submitted to changing trends, as well as decorations, earlier. An important lexical impact is a result of travel starting at the Early Modern English period, and consequent trade with distant countries. As stated in the introduction to the thesis, the basis for the practical part is a collection of words connected with clothing and fashion from OALD. Informal, old-fashioned and obsolete words are not comprised. The aimed word stock is British, so the definitions given are valid for British English. The derivatives that I included are only those which describe a

26 new semantic reality (e.g. interweave < weave), but not those which are only related to the same meaning (weaver, weaving, woven, etc.). The origins of the affixes are not analyzed. I divided the words into nine categories, which is just one of the many options. Some of them need a little foreword: The most difficult to choose and name was the category called “general and abstract words”. It includes the general and abstract words used as titles of the other categories, whose items are rather concrete objects, and various other words connected mainly with fashion. I tried to choose those which appear frequently in catalogues, fashion magazines and internet pages. The third category “patterns, decorations and needlework” comprises everything that serves for embellishment of clothes or materials, and some processes of material and clothes making. The chapter “outerwear” includes, in fact, all clothes which are not listed in the category of underwear and related words, so it is a broader sense of the word. This category has most items. The final category “accessories” was difficult to delimit. I attempted to involve all items that are typically sold as accessories in fashion stores, although most of them are very practical things and are not often worn only to “complement an outfit or a garment”, as the definition of accessories proposes (OALD). Footwear and headwear, also taken for accessories, have separate analyses though. Most of what is called accessories were, anyway, first only functional and it was only later that the fashion-makers realized that they could sell more of them when these are matched to clothes by colour, style, etc. The tables of analyses give a definition of the word, its etymology, the language(s) it originated from and the way and period it has entered into the English lexicon in the defined sense (so the period identified in the Etymology sometimes differs from that in the Period column). The etymology usually describes the original word with its original meaning, and sometimes also related words from other languages. This is for purposes of study or interest. The column “Languages” describes all the history of languages the word went through on the way to the English word stock. The abbreviations mark also the stages of the languages (late, medieval, etc.), but these are not taken account in the conclusion. Sometimes it is difficult to decide which the original language was, as French (and other Romance languages) developed from Latin, so some words described as loans ultimately from Latin were in fact loans from French; but the basis is Latin and so it is classified. Obviously, not all the sources have been identified, or identified with certainty. By simplification, even uncertain cases are processed in the statistics as certain, but in the tables will be also found the totals of uncertain and unidentified cases for statistic purposes. Sometimes only the language branch is given.

Each chapter gives an overview table (a tables) and a table of analyses (b tables), and it describes and explains the main tendencies. The final chapter (a conclusion to the practical part) provides the figures of totals (tab. 2.10) and a short comment. A more detailed conclusion is drawn in Conclusion at the end of the thesis.

1.1 List of abbreviations and sources for the tables of analyses

List of abbreviations

? unidentified (or “probably” when com compound preceded by another abbreviation) Cz Czech - and der derivative / or Du Dutch « via, from, or based on (e.g. It « Ar EMoE Early Modern English = “from Arabic via Italian”) Fl Flemish * see the separate entry of the word Fr French # number of uncertain items (in Ga Gallic origin conclusion tables) Ge German An Austronesian languages (spoken GO Germanic origin (when not know mainly in Indonesia) which language branch) ANFr Anglo-Norman French Gr Greek Ar Arabic In a language spoken in India AS Anglo-Saxon origin Ir Irish ASp variety of Spanish spoken on the It Italian American continent Jap Japanese Ao Asiatic origin MP a language of Malay-Polynesian Ba Balti (a Tibetian language) language branch bf back-formation MDu Middle Dutch bld blend MHGe Middle High German Ce Celtic origin MiE Middle English Chi Chinese languages mLa medieval Latin clip clipping MLGe Middle Low German cnv conversion MoE Modern English coin coinage

28 moLa modern Latin Sl Slavonic origin NA a language of Native Americans Ta Tatar languages La Latin Tu Turkish Lan language or languages from or Ur Urdu through which a word was adopted US American English LGe Low German VE non-standard variety of English lLa late Latin We Welsh loan loanword OE Old English Note: All the items are nouns unless OFr Old French indicated differently. OIr Old Irish ON Old Norse Sources OPr Old Provençal (see also bibliography) or Germanic origin (no known word- formation process, name possibly Dictionary.com (Period of some of the coined arbitrarily) compound words) op another word-formation process, not mentioned in the theoretical OALD (Items and Meaning) part Per Persian Online etymology dictionary (etymologies Per period of the English language of proper and place names in the coined when a word entered the English words) lexis in the defined sense pLa popular Latin Oxford dictionaries (Etymology, Po Portuguese Language, Process and Period, and Pr Old Provençal sometimes Meaning) Pro process by which an item entered the English lexis re reduplication SaC Serbian and Croat Scd Scandinavian origin ScG Scottish Gaelic Sd Swedish Se Semitic languages

2 Analyses 2.1 General and abstract words The category “general and abstract words” includes the total of 34 items. A huge majority of them (22 items) have been adopted during the Modern English period, which reflects the history described in chapter 3 of the theoretical part, as well as the criteria of choice for this category (topicality of the words). In terms of variety of languages, the sources are not diverse: compared to other categories, it is the most limited scale. In fact, the only significant sources are Anglo-Saxon and Latin (12 item out of 19), see French language (contributing with 4 own items, and mediating another 8). This is because Anglo-Saxon words are often parts of compounds (11 items; compounding the second most frequent process after borrowing in all the categories). Most of them denote a general subcategory of clothes (swimwear, knitwear, etc.), while the loanwords indicate most typically a kind of evaluation of clothes or appearance (casual, chic, elegance, glamour, etc.), or words closely linked to fashion in today‟s sense: style, vogue, model, etc. Latin is, anyway, the predominating donor language throughout all the categories. This is due to its long-term influence, as well as high prestige of the language. Only 3 items have remained unchanged from the original Anglo-Saxon lexicon: clothes, wear, and trend. The first two are apparently basic, daily used words; trend originally carried a different meaning. However, the word trend is far not the only item semantically changed. In fact, the most remarkable trait of this category is that many of the notions are in fact old words, which only gained new meaning: undoubtedly in order to fill in the lexical gap, formed by the birth of fashion. This would also explain, together with acceleration of progress and development of fashion, why most of the items date from the Modern English period (only two are from Old English times). Tab. 2.1.a General and abstract words (34 items) AS La Fr Ge Gr It Scd # ? Lan 14 12 4 1 1 1 1 3 2 loan com or der cnv re clip op # ? Pro 19 11 3 4 1 1 1 1 0 1 MoE EMoE MiE OE Per 22 6 4 2

Tab. 2.1.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per late Middle English: from medieval a small article or item of clothing MoE Latin accessorius 'additional thing', mLa accessories carried or worn to complement a loan from Latin access- 'increased', from « La garment or outfit the verb accedere from beach (mid 16th century (denoting shingle on the seashore): clothing suitable for wearing on perhaps related to Old English bæce, beachwear the beach, though not necessarily AS com MoE bece 'brook', assuming an for swimming in intermediate sense 'pebbly river valley') + wear* without formality of style or late Middle English: from Old French OFr casual manner, in particular (of clothing) casuel and Latin casualis, from casus - loan MoE (adj) suitable for everyday wear rather 'fall' La than formal occasions elegantly and stylishly mid 19th century: from French, Fr chic (adj) loan MoE fashionable probably from German Schick 'skill' « Ge? clothes items worn to cover the body Old English clāthas, plural of clāth AS or OE Middle English (in the sense 'put put on one‟s clothes straight'): from Old French dresser OFr dress (v) loan MiE 'arrange, prepare', based on Latin « La directus 'direct, straight' late 15th century: from French, or the quality of being graceful and elegance from Latin elegans, elegant-, related Fr/La loan MoE stylish in appearance or manner to eligere 'choose, select' mid 19th century (originally dialect): probably the second element of fidfad, contraction of fiddle-faddle loan an intense and widely shared (late 16th century: reduplication of - enthusiasm for something, fiddle - Old English fithele, denoting VE fad re MoE especially one that is short-lived; a violin or similar instrument , based « La - a craze on Latin vitulari 'celebrate a festival, clip be joyful', perhaps from Vitula, the name of a Roman goddess of joy and victory) 1 a popular or the latest style of Middle English (in the sense 'make, clothing, hair, decoration, or shape, appearance', also 'a particular behaviour OFr fashion make or style'): from Old French loan MoE 2 the production and marketing of « La façon, from Latin factio(n-), from new styles of clothing and facere 'do, make' cosmetics from fashion* + conscious (late 16th century (in the sense 'being aware of loan fashion- aware of the latest fashions and wrongdoing'): from Latin conscius La - MoE conscious wanting to follow them 'knowing with others or in oneself' com (from conscire 'be privy to') + -ous) late Middle English: of unknown EMoE fit (v) be of the right shape and size for ? ? origin ? formal very correct and suitable for late Middle English: from Latin La loan MoE? (adj) official of important occasions formalis, from forma 'shape, mould' outer coverings for the feet, such from foot (Old English fōt, of footwear AS com MoE as shoes, boots, and sandals Germanic origin) + wear* Middle English: from Old French garment an item of clothing garnement 'equipment', from garnir OFr loan MiE 'equip' early 18th century (originally Scots in VE loan physical beauty that also suggests the sense 'enchantment, magic'): «OFr glamour - MoE wealth or success alteration of grammar (late Middle « La op English: from Old French gramaire, « Gr

via Latin from Greek grammatikē) 1 expensive, fashionable clothes produced by leading fashion haute houses French, literally 'high dressmaking' Fr loan MoE couture 2 the designing and making of haute couture clothing from head (Old English hēafod, of AS loan hats, helmets, and other items headgear Germanic origin) + gear (Middle - - EMoE worn on the head English: of Scandinavian origin) Scd com from knit (Old English cnyttan, of knitwear knitted garments AS com MoE West Germanic origin) + wear* late 16th century (denoting a set of Fr a person employed to display plans of a building): from French model « It loan MoE clothes by wearing them modelle, from Italian modello, from « La an alteration of Latin modulus relating to the present or recent late Middle English: from late Latin modern lLa times as opposed to the remote modernus, from Latin modo 'just loan MiE (adj) « La past now' needle- sewn or embroidered items from needle (Old English nǣdl, of AS com MiE work collectively Germanic origin) + work (Old English weorc, of Germanic origin) clothing worn over other clothes, outerwear from wear* AS der MoE especially outdoors a set of clothes worn together, outfit especially for a particular from fit* ? der MoE occasion or purpose from ready (Middle English: from made for the general market and Old English rǣde (from a Germanic ready-to- sold through shops rather than base meaning 'arrange, prepare' + y) AS com MoE wear (adj) made to order for an individual + to (Old English tō (adverb and customer preposition), of West Germanic origin)+ wear* Middle English (denoting a stylus, also a literary composition, an official 1 a particular design of clothing OFr style title, or a characteristic manner of loan MoE 2 elegance and sophistication « La literary expression): from Old French stile, from Latin stilus from swim (Old English swimman swimwear clothing worn for swimming AS com MoE (verb), of Germanic origin) + wear* from tailor (Middle English: from 1 the style r the way in which a loan Anglo-Norman French taillour, ANFr tailoring suit, jacket, etc. is made - EMoE literally 'cutter', based on late Latin « La 2 the job of making men‟s clothes der taliare 'to cut') Old English trendan 'revolve, rotate', trend a fashion AS or MoE of Germanic origin der a person who leads the way in from trend* + setter (from set: Old trendsetter AS - MoE fashion or ideas English settan, of Germanic origin) com loan undergar- an article of underclothing from garment* OFr - EMoE ment com clothing worn under other clothes, underwear from wear* AS com MoE typically next to the skin late 16th century (in the vogue, denoting the foremost place in the prevailing fashion or style at a Fr vogue popular estimation): from French, loan EMoE particular time « It from Italian voga 'rowing, fashion', from vogare 'row, go well' wear (v) have (something) on one‟s body Old English werian, of Germanic AS or OE

as clothing, decoration, or origin, from an Indo-European root protection shared by Latin vestis 'clothing' clothing suitable for a particular wear (n) from wear (v)* AS cnv EMoE purpose or of a particular type Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.2 Materials Unlike the previous chapter, only 29 items – not even a half of the 69 – were introduced in the English lexicon during the period of Modern English. Words from Early Modern English period and Middle English period count same number – 16 items, and 9 items originate from the Old English period (this number is still considerable compared to some other categories). The names from the Old English period indicate bare animal-based materials (leather, hide, wool), or simple processed materials, animal or plant-based (cloth, felt, linen). Silk is the only luxurious material from this period and its presence in the English word stock is a proof of the early existing trade with this commodity (and of its unstopping popularity). The lexis from the other periods shows how new textiles and processes were invented in the course of time; some of them were discovered by travel, or introduced by merchants from abroad. They range from more elaborate textiles (corduroy, satin) to newly invented materials (nylon, Spandex™). The sources for the materials are animal products (fur, hair, hide, etc.), plants (fibres), or chemical products. The names of some materials are thus animal‟s names at the same time; sometimes the name of the plant is given to the material made from it (cotton, bamboo) with no precision of the process of production. There are 52 items borrowed from other languages. They include all the three subcategories of materials: names of animal-based materials were adopted for products from animals not living in the UK (mink, sable), or like the following subcategory, by coining the place name (astrakhan, cashmere, morocco). Plant-based material names often describe a physical resemblance with an object or quality (chenille, cord, gingham, seersucker), the original use of the material (plaid, gabardine) or, in most cases, the place name where they were first known from. Many loanwords are then coinages at the same time (calico, muslin, astrakhan, cashmere, morocco). Some of the names are a result of ellipsis (omission of an elements or elements: alpaca < alpaca wool, angora < angora goat, etc.). Synthetic materials were given names as variations of chemical substances (acrylic, Terylene™), names involving a quality of the material (Spandex™ - “it expands”) or process of production (latex), or other patterns (nylon). The word Terylene™ is the only blend among the 418 items; blending here

33 was combined with another process (inversion of the constituting elements), just like with another coined word - Spandex™. The aim of such formations was undoubtedly an easy pronunciation, thus easy remembering. With 1 case the origin is not traced at all (Lycra™), but the effort for euphony is noticeable like with the previous trademarks. The total of coinages is 15 (all of them have a foreign element, or the origin is not known), the most of all the categories; it is even more than the number of compounds. Another noticeable proportion of word-formation processes is represented by compounds (12 items). These consist usually of the name for an animal product (wool, skin) and for the animal it comes from (pigskin, sheepskin, lambswool). Only in 1 case (moleskin) the sense of the name is not literal (semantic change). As for plant-based products, they indicate again a similarity (fishnet) or the original use (cheesecloth). The number or words having an original Anglo-Saxon element is 12, and there are only 4 words of Celtic origin.

Tab. 2.2.a Materials (69 items) AS La Gr ON Ar Ce Fr An NA Per 20 13 6 5 4 4 4 2 2 2 Lan Chi, Ge, GO, In, San, Scd, Sd, Sl, Ta # ? 1 10 8 loan coin com or op der bf bld # ? Pro 52 15 11 9 6 3 1 1 5 2 MoE EMoE MiE OE Per 29 16 16 8

Tab. 2.2.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per mid 19th century: from the liquid loan aldehyde acrolein (from Latin acer, acrylic an acrylic textile fibre La - MoE acri- 'pungent' + ol(eum) 'oil' + -in) + der -yl + -ic late 18th century: from Spanish, from Sp alpaca fabric made from alpaca wool loan MoE Aymara allpaca « NA early 19th century (denoting a long- loan a yarn or fabric made from the haired breed): from the place name angora Gr - MoE hair of the angora goat or rabbit Angora (from Greek; modern Ankara coin in Turkey) mid 18th century: named after the loan the dark curly fleece of young city of Astrakhan (a city in Russia, astrakhan Ta? - MoE karakul lambs from central Asia founded by Tatars), from which the coin fleeces were exported

the hollow jointed stem of the late 16th century: from Dutch Du bamboo loan EMoE bamboo plant, used as material bamboes, based on Malay mambu « An mid 16th century: probably from Fr? a stout dull yellow leather with a French buffle, from Italian bufalo, buff « It loan EMoE velvety surface from late Latin bufalus. The original « lLa sense in English was 'buffalo' leather made from the hide or skin from calf (Old English cælf, of AS loan calfskin of a calf, used in bookbinding and Germanic origin) + skin (late Old - - MoE shoemaking English scinn, from Old Norse skinn) ON com mid 16th century (originally also loan a type of cotton cloth, typically calicut): alteration of Calicut (a city calico In? - EMoE plain white or unbleached in southern India), where the fabric coin originated late 17th century: an early spelling of loan fine, soft wool, originally that cashmere Kashmir (a region on the northern San - EMoE from the Kashmir goat border of India and NE Pakistan) coin a type of soft pliable leather now mid 16th century: from French, of Fr chamois loan EMoE made from sheepskin or lambskin unknown ultimate origin « ? thin, loosely woven, unsized from cheese (Old English cēse, cȳse, AS cheese- cotton cloth, used typically for of West Germanic origin) + cloth - com EMoE cloth light clothing and in preparing or (Old English clāth, of unknown ? protecting food ultimate origin) mid 18th century: from French, a tufty, velvety cord or yarn, used literally 'hairy caterpillar', from Latin Fr chenille for trimming furniture and made loan MoE canicula 'small dog', diminutive of « La into carpets or clothing canis mid 18th century (originally plural, a light, transparent fabric chiffon denoting trimmings on a woman's Fr loan MoE typically made of silk or nylon dress): from French, from chiffe 'rag' Old English clāth, related to Dutch woven or felted fabric made from AS cloth kleed and German Kleid, of unknown ? OE wool, cotton, or a similar fibre « ? ultimate origin Middle English: from Old French OFr corde, from Latin chorda, from cord ribbed fabric, especially corduroy « La loan MiE Greek khordē 'gut, string of a musical « Gr instrument' late 18th century: probably from cord loan * + duroy, denoting a kind of OFr a thick cotton fabric with velvety - corduroy lightweight worsted formerly made in « La MoE ribs com the West of England, of unknown « Gr? ? origin a soft white fibrous substance which surrounds the seeds of the late Middle English: from Old French OFr cotton loan MiE cotton plant and is made into coton, from Arabic quṭn « Ar textile fibre and thread for sewing late 18th century: French, from Old Fr crepe (also a light, thin fabric with a wrinkled French crespe 'curled, frizzed', from «OFr loan MoE crêpe) surface Latin crispus « La late Middle English: from Damaske, a rich, heavy silk or linen fabric Gr loan early form of the name of Damascus damask with a pattern woven into it, used « Se - MiE (a city in Syria), where the fabric was for table linen and upholstery « ? coin first produced late 17th century (as serge denim): a hard-wearing cotton twill fabric, Fr loan from French serge de Nîmes, denim typically blue and used for jeans « La - EMoE denoting a kind of serge from the and other clothing « Ga? coin town of Nîmes a kind of cloth made by rolling and pressing wool or another Old English, of West Germanic felt AS or OE suitable textile accompanied by origin; related to Dutch vilt, also to the application of moisture or

heat, which causes the constituent filter fibres to mat together to create a smooth surface from fish(Old English fisc, of a fabric with an open mesh fishnet Germanic origin) + net (Old English AS com MoE resembling a fishing net net, nett, of Germanic origin) a kind of soft woven fabric, Middle English: probably from loan flannel typically made of wool or cotton Welsh gwlanen 'woollen article', from We? MiE ? and slightly milled and raised gwlân 'wool' loan a napped cotton fabric resembling ? flannelette from flannel* We? MoE flannel - der a soft warm fabric with a texture Old English flēos, flēs, of West fleece similar to sheep‟s wool, used as a Germanic origin; related to Dutch AS or MoE lining material vlies and German Vlies animal skin with fur on it, or Middle English (as a verb): from Old OFr fur fabric resembling this, used in French forrer 'to line, sheathe', from loan MiE « GO making or trimming garments forre 'sheath', of Germanic origin early 16th century: from Old French gauvardine, earlier gallevardine, OFr a twill-woven cloth, of fine perhaps from Middle High German « gabardine worsted or cotton, frequently wallevart 'pilgrimage' and originally loan MoE MH waterproofed 'a garment worn by a pilgrim'. The Ge textile sense is first recorded in the early 20th century early 17th century: from Dutch lightweight plain-woven cotton gingang, from Malay genggang Du gingham cloth, typically checked in white loan EMoE (originally an adjective meaning « An and a bold colour 'striped') the fibre of the cannabis plant, Old English henep, hænep, of extracted from the stem and used Germanic origin; related to Dutch hemp AS or OE to make rope, strong fabrics, hennep and German Hanf, also to fibreboard, and paper Greek kannabis Old English hȳd, of Germanic origin; the skin of an animal, especially hide related to Dutch huid and German AS or OE when tanned or dressed Haut late 16th century (denoting woollen La loan worsted fabric made in Jersey): from jersey a soft, fine knitted fabric / - EMoE Jersey (the largest of the Channel Scd? coin Islands) fine, soft wool from lambs, used from lamb (Old English, of Germanic lambswool to make knitted garments, AS com EMoE origin) + wool* blankets, etc. a synthetic product resembling latex ( a milky fluid found in mid 17th century (denoting various many plants, such as poppies and bodily fluids, especially the watery latex spurges, which exudes when the La loan MoE part of blood): from Latin, literally plant is cut and coagulates on 'liquid, fluid' exposure to the air) used to make paints, coatings, etc. Old English lether, of Germanic a material made from the skin of origin; related to Dutch leer and leather an animal by tanning or a similar German Leder, from an Indo- AS or OE process European root shared by Irish leathar and Welsh lledr Old English līnen (as an adjective in linen cloth woven from flax the sense 'made of flax'), of West AS or OE Germanic origin; related to Dutch

linnen, German Leinen, also to obsolete line 'flax' = Spandex™ an elastic polyurethane fibre or Lycra™ 1950s: of unknown origin ? coin MoE fabric used especially for close- fitting sports clothing a soft woollen or wool-and-cotton late 18th century: from Spanish, of Sp merino material resembling cashmere, loan MoE unknown origin « ? originally of merino wool late Middle English: probably from an unrecorded Old English word material made of a network of mesh related to (and perhaps reinforced in AS? or? MiE wire or thread Middle English by) Middle Dutch maesche, of Germanic origin late Middle English (denoting the mink the thick brown fur of the mink Sd loan MiE animal's fur): from Swedish late 16th century: from Arabic muḵayyar 'cloth made of goat's hair' a yarn or fabric made from (literally 'choice, select'). The change Ar loan mohair mohair (= the hair of the angora in ending was due to association with - - EMoE goat), typically mixed with wool AS op hair (Old English hǣr, of Germanic origin) from mole (late Middle English: from MDu loan a thick, strong cotton fabric with a the Germanic base of Middle Dutch - ML moleskin - MoE shaved pile surface and Middle Low German mol) + skin Ge com (see calfskin) - ON fine flexible leather made (originally in Morocco) from from Italian Marocco „Morocco‟, loan It morocco goatskins tanned with sumac, from Arabic variant of Marrākeš - EMoE «Ar used especially for book covers „Marakesh‟ coin and shoes early 17th century: from French Fr loan lightweight cotton cloth in a plain mousseline, from Italian mussolina, muslin « It - EMoE weave from Mussolo 'Mosul' (where it was « Ar coin first manufactured) fabric or yarn made from nylon 1930s: an invented word, on the coin nylon AS MoE fibres pattern of cotton and rayon - op from oil (Middle English: from Old ONFr loan heavy cotton cloth waterproofed Northern French olie, Old French oilskin « La - MoE with oil oile, from Latin oleum '(olive) oil' ) + - ON com skin (see calfskin) leather with a glossy varnished from patent (late Middle English: OFr loan patent surface, used chiefly for shoes, from Old French, from Latin patent- « La - MoE leather belts, and handbags 'lying open' ) + leather* - US com Middle English: either from obsolete pellet 'skin', from an Old French diminutive of pel 'skin', from Latin loan the skin of an animal with the fur, OFr pelt pellis 'skin', or a back-formation from / MiE wool, or hair still on it « La peltry (from Anglo-Norman French bf pelterie, based on Old French pel 'skin', from Latin pellis) from pig (Middle English: probably AS from the first element of Old English pigskin the hide of a domestic pig - com MoE picbrēd 'acorn', literally 'pig bread') + ON skin (see calfskin) early 16th century: from Scottish chequered or tartan twilled cloth, plaid Gaelic plaide 'blanket', of unknown ScG loan EMoE typically made of wool ultimate origin raccoon the fur of the raccoon early 17th century: from Virginia NA loan EMoE

Algonquian aroughcun loan a textile fibre or fabric made from rayon 1920s: an arbitrary formation Fr? ? - MoE regenerated cellulose (viscose) coin late Middle English: from Old OFr French, in the sense 'sable fur', from « sable the fur of the sable loan MiE medieval Latin sabelum, of Slavic mLa origin « Sl a smooth, glossy fabric, usually of OFr silk, produced by a weave in late Middle English: via Old French « loan satin which the threads of the warp are from Arabic zaytūnī 'of Tsinkiang', a Ar - MiE caught and looped by the weft town in China « coin only at certain intervals Chi? early 18th century: from Persian šir o šakar, literally 'milk and sugar', (by a lightweight fabric with a seersucker transference) 'striped cotton garment' Per loan MoE crimped or puckered surface because seersucker formerly was typically striped late Middle English: from Old French OFr a durable twilled woollen or serge sarge, from a variant of Latin serica « La loan MiE worsted fabric (lana) 'silken (wool)', from sericus « Gr a sheep‟s skin with the wool on, from sheep (Old English scēp, scǣp, AS loan sheepskin especially when made into a scēap, of West Germanic origin) + - - MiE garment or rug skin (see calfskin) ON com Old English sioloc, seolec, from late Latin sericum, neuter of Latin lLat thread or fabric made from the sericus, based on Greek Sēres, the silk « loan OE fibre produced by the silkworm name given to the inhabitants of the Gr East Asian countries from which silk first came overland to Europe AS loan from snake (Old English snaca, of snakeskin the skin of a snake - - MoE Germanic origin) + skin (see calfskin) ON com loan 1950s: an arbitrary formation from a type of stretchy polyurethane - op Spandex™ expand (from Latin expandere 'to La MoE fabric - spread out') coin leather with the flesh side rubbed mid 17th century: from French (gants EMo suede Fr loan to make a velvety nap de) Suède '(gloves of) Sweden' E late Middle English (originally OFr a fine lustrous silk or similar denoting a plain-weave silk): from / taffeta synthetic fabric with a crisp Old French taffetas or medieval Latin loan MiE mLa texture taffata, based on Persian tāftan 'to « Per shine' a fabric with raised uncut loops of terry thread covering both surfaces, late 18th century: of unknown origin ? ? MoE used especially for towels loan an artificial textile fibre made 1940s: formed by inversion of Fr - from a polyester, used to make Terylene™ (polyeth)ylene ter(ephthalate) (from « bld MoE light, crease-resistant clothing, French, from Greek) Gr - bed linen, and sails op a soft, fine silk, cotton, or nylon early 19th century: from Tulle, a loan tulle material like net, used for making town in France, where it was first La? - MoE veils and dresses made coin

a rough-surfaced woollen cloth, mid 19th century: originally a typically of mixed flecked misreading of tweel, Scots form of tweed VE op MiE colours, originally produced in twill, influenced by association with Scotland the River Tweed Middle English: from a Scots and northern English variant of obsolete or a fabric so woven as to have a twill twilly, from Old English twi- 'two', VE - MiE surface of diagonal parallel ridges suggested by Latin bilix 'two- op threaded' Middle English: from Old French OFr a closely woven fabric of silk, veluotte, from velu 'velvety', from « velvet cotton, or nylon, that has a thick loan MiE medieval Latin villutus, from Latin mLa short pile on one side villus 'tuft, down' « La OFr loan a cotton fabric with a pile « velveteen from velvet* - MoE resembling velvet mLa der « La a thin, semi-transparent fabric of late 19th century: French, literally voile Fr loan MoE cotton, wool, or silk 'veil' Old English wull, of Germanic origin; yarn or textile fibre made from related to Dutch wol and German wool(the fine, soft curly or wavy wool Wolle, from an Indo-European root AS or OE hair forming the coat of a sheep, shared by Latin lana 'wool', vellus goat, or similar animal) 'fleece' Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.3 Patterns, decorations and needlework The mixed-up category of patterns, decorations and needlework is characterized by a well-balanced presence of items coming from the three later stages of the English language (12 items from Modern English, 10 from Early Modern English, 11 from Middle English). On the other hand, only 2 items were adopted in the period of Old English. These include two basic, yet important ways of material-processing: sew (v) and wave (v). Naturally, there were scarcely good conditions in the Old English period for inventing and making decorations or complicated patterns: as it was stated in chapter 3 of the theoretical part, it was only in the 13th century that clothes began to be ornamented. The lexical enrichment of this category is hugely made up of loanwords (23 items out of 35); most of the items originate in Latin (7 items), followed by French (5 items), which was also often the mediator for Latin borrowals. Other languages include Arabic (2 items), German (2 items), and Flemish, Italian, and Old Norse, each counting 1 item. There is also a Czech representative (polka in polka dot), 1 Celtic word and 1 Javanese word. The number of Anglo-Saxon elements is 9, of which 6 were the original, unprocessed words. These denote rather simple techniques of material processing or mending (darn, knit, sew, weave), or a semantically modified naming unit for another basic notion (rib), while loanwords, derivatives (3 items) and compounds (3 items) indicate more elaborate forms of

dealing with materials (bobble, crochet, interweave, pleat, ruche, etc.). Only 1 case of coinage is recorded, and that describes, in fact, newly invented decorated material (Lurex™).

Tab. 2.3.a Patterns, decorations and needlework (35 items) AS La Fr Ar Du Ge An, Ce, Cz, Fl, It, On # ? Lan 9 7 4 2 2 2 1 6 5 loan or com der bf coin, op # ? Pro 23 6 3 3 2 1 1 1 MoE MiE EMoE OE Per 12 12 9 2

Tab. 2.3.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per ornamental needlework in which mid 18th century: from French, past appliqué pieces of fabric are sewn or stuck Fr participle of appliquer 'apply', from loan MoE on to a larger piece to form a « La Latin applicare picture or pattern a method (originally used in Java) of producing coloured designs on late 19th century: from Javanese, batik textiles by dyeing them, having An loan MoE literally 'painted' first applied wax to the parts to be left undyed 1920s: diminutive of bob (a weight a small ball made of strands of on a pendulum, plumb line, or kite- bobble wool used as a decoration on a hat ? der MiE tail, from late Middle English: of or on furnishings unknown origin) late 16th century: from Spanish and Sp a rich fabric woven with a raised Portuguese brocado (influenced by / brocade pattern, typically with gold or French brocart), from Italian loan EMoE Po silver thread broccato, from brocco 'twisted « It thread' late Middle English: probably from chequer (a pattern of squares, typically alternately coloured, Middle English: from exchequer. The check a pattern of small square AS bf MiE original sense 'chessboard' gave rise to chequered meaning 'marked like a chessboard'; hence chequer (early 16th century)) a handicraft in which yarn is mid 19th century: from French, Fr crochet made up into a textured fabric by diminutive of croc 'hook', from Old loan MoE « ON means of a hooked needle Norse krókr from cross (late Old English: from needlework done using cross- Old Norse kross, from Old Irish cros, ON cross-stitch stitches (stitches formed of two from Latin crux) + stitch (Old « OIr com EMoE stitches crossing each other) English stice 'a puncture, stabbing « La pain', of Germanic origin) a place in a garment that has been early 17th century: perhaps from darn darned (mended by interweaving dialect dern 'to hide', which is from VE or EMoE yarn with a needle) Old English diernan, of West

Germanic origin; compare with Middle Dutch dernen 'stop holes in (a dyke)' the art or pastime of embroidering late Middle English: from Anglo- embroide- (sewing a design on cloth) with Norman French enbrouderie, from ANFr loan MiE ry thread cloth: enbrouder 'embroider' a strip of gathered or pleated late 16th century: from or related to material sewn on to a garment or Flemish frul frill Fl loan EMoE larger piece of material as a decorative edging or ornament interweave weave or become woven together from weave* AS der EMoE (v) Old English cnyttan, of West Germanic origin; related to German make (a garment or other item) by dialect knütten, also to knot. The interlocking loops of wool or original sense was 'tie in or with a knit (v) AS or MiE other yarn with knitting needles knot', hence 'join, unite'; an obsolete or on a machine Middle English sense 'knot string to make a net' gave rise to knit in this sense fabric with interwoven gold or Fr lamé 1920s: French, from Latin lamina loan MoE silver threads « La a fine open fabric of cotton or Middle English: from Old French laz, silk, made by looping, twisting, or las (noun), lacier (verb), based on OFr lace knitting thread in patterns and loan MiE Latin laqueus 'noose' (also an early « La used especially for trimming sense in English) garments a type of yarn or fabric which Lurex™ incorporates a glittering metallic 1940s: of unknown origin ? coin MoE thread mid 19th century: French, from the art of knotting string in Fr Turkish makrama 'tablecloth or macramé patterns to make decorative « Tu loan MoE towel', from Arabic miqrama articles « Ar 'bedspread' from patch (late Middle English: needlework in which small pieces perhaps from a variant of Old French OFr? loan of cloth in different designs, patchwork pieche, dialect variant of piece - - MoE colours, or textures are sewn 'piece') + work (Old English weorc, AS com together of Germanic origin) Middle English patron 'something serving as a model', from Old French. pattern a repeated decorative design The change in sense is from the idea OFr loan EMoE of a patron giving an example to be copied Middle English: from Old French without a pattern; in only one OFr plain plain, from Latin planus, from a base loan MiE colour « La meaning 'flat' a double or multiple fold in a late Middle English: a variant of plait garment or other item made of OFr pleat (from Old French pleit 'a fold', based loan MiE? cloth, held by stitching the top or « La on Latin plicare 'to fold') side from polka (via French and German from Czech půlka 'half-step', from Fr půl 'half‟) + dot (Old English dott - one of a number of round dots 'head of a boil'. The word is recorded loan Ge polka dot repeated to form a regular pattern only once in Old English, then not - MoE « Cz on fabric until the late 16th century, when it is com - found in the sense 'a small lump or Du? clot', perhaps influenced by Dutch dot 'a knot')

mid 18th century (originally denoting a small woollen ball attached to a a bunch of ribbons, feathers, etc. Fr pompon garment, especially a hat, for worn by women in the hair or on a loan MoE « ? decoration dress): French pompon, of unknown origin late 16th century (as a verb): probably frequentative, from the base of poke (a bag or small sack, Middle ONFr loan a tightly gathered wrinkle or English: from Old Northern French pucker « - EMoE small fold poke, variant of Old French poche OFr der? 'pocket') and pocket (suggesting the formation of small purse-like gatherings) Middle English: imitative of the a gathered mass of material in a puff sound of a breath, perhaps from Old AS? op? MiE dress or other garment English pyf (noun), pyffan (verb) join together (layers of fabric or Middle English: from Old French padding) with lines of stitching to OFr quilt (v.) cuilte, from Latin culcita 'mattress, loan MiE form a bed covering, a warm « La cushion' garment, or for decorative effect a combination of alternate plain Old English rib, ribb (noun), of rib and purl stitches producing a Germanic origin; related to Dutch AS or MoE ridged, slightly elastic fabric rib(be) and German Rippe a frill or pleat of fabric as early 19th century: from French, from Fr ruche decoration on a garment or soft medieval Latin rusca 'tree bark', of «mLa loan MoE furnishing Celtic origin « Ce an ornamental gathered or Middle English (as a verb): of goffered frill of lace or other cloth ruffle unknown origin. Current noun senses ? ? EMoE on a garment, especially around date from the late 17th century the wrist or neck each of a series of convex rounded projections forming an Middle English: shortening of Old ornamental edging cut in material French escalope, probably of OFr loan scallop EMoE or worked in lace or knitting in Germanic origin. The verb dates from « Ge? /or imitation of the edge of a scallop the mid 18th century shell late 16th century (meaning „Venetian Fr a small shiny disc sewn on to gold coin‟): from French, from Italian sequin « It loan MoE clothing for decoration zecchino, from zecca 'a mint', from « Ar Arabic sikka 'a die for coining' Old English siwan, of Germanic join, fasten, or repair (something) origin, from an Indo-European root sew (v.) by making stitches with a needle AS or OE shared by Latin suere and Greek and thread or a sewing machine suein a long, narrow band or strip late Middle English: perhaps a back- Du loan stripe differing in colour or texture from formation from striped, of Dutch or / - MiE the surface on either side of it Low German origin LGe? bf? late 15th century (originally Scots): a woollen cloth woven in one of perhaps from Old French tertaine, several patterns of coloured VE denoting a kind of cloth; compare loan tartan checks and intersecting lines, « MiE with tartarin, a rich fabric formerly ? especially of a design associated OFr? imported from the east through with a particular Scottish clan Tartary a tuft of loosely hanging threads or cords knotted at one end and Middle English (also denoting a clasp OFr tassel attached for decoration to soft for a cloak): from Old French tassel loan MiE « ? furnishings, clothing, or other 'clasp', of unknown origin items form (fabric or a fabric item) by Old English wefan, of Germanic weave (v.) AS or OE interlacing long threads passing in origin, from an Indo-European root

one direction with others at a right shared by Greek huphē 'web' and angle to them Sanskrit ūrṇavābhi 'spider', literally 'wool-weaver'. Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.4 Beachwear, nightwear, swimwear and underwear The category of beachwear, nightwear, swimwear and underwear is very specific in terms of periods during which the individual items were adopted. It is because there are no words from Old English period, and those of Middle English and Early Modern English times are rare (5 items from Middle English, 2 from Early Modern English). The rest (32 items out of 39) come from Modern English. This is not so surprising when considering the fact that activities such as public swimming or sunbathing are the phenomena of uniquely modern times. The history of underwear is not very long either, and most pieces of clothing that served as underwear in the past are not used any longer (braies, loincloths). Many expressions denoting underwear today originally designated different kinds of clothes (camisole, gown, petticoat), and these new meanings were coined again in the Modern English period. Commercial struggle, connected with the birth of fashion industry, brought in many new types of women‟s and men‟s underwear; names for them were usually sought in the past: they describe a quality (slip, briefs, tights), a resemblance (boxer shorts, Y-fronts), or they were coined (knickers). The number of words of foreign origin is 29; most of them are again Latin (14 items) or French (4 items). An exotic influence is represented by a Japanese word (kimono, with a shifted sense) and a Malay word (sarong).The Anglo-Saxon lexical basis in this category is 15 items (3 out of them are unprocessed); these originally carried a different meaning (girdle, tights, trunks), or now make part of a compound, again with a different original meaning (shorts in boxer shorts, G-string, nightshirt, etc.). There are 12 compounds within this category, and most of them involve an Anglo-Saxon element. There are 5 derivatives and 4 converted words (those which describe a quality of the garment, which is typically expressed by an adjective). The 3 clipped words and 2 coined words are all from the Modern English period; this proves that these word-formation processes are relatively new.

Tab. 2.4.a Beachwear, nightwear, swimwear and underwear (39 items) AS La Fr Gr An GO Ce, Du, Ge, Jap, It, Per-Ur # ? Lan 15 14 4 3 2 2 1 4 3 loan com der cnv clip or coin # ? Pro 29 12 5 4 3 3 2 1 0 MoE MiE EMoE OE Per 32 5 2 0

Tab. 2.4.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per a close-fitting bodice extending mid 19th century: from Basque (from from the shoulders to the waist Fr basque French, from Latin Vasco), referring loan MoE and typically with a short «La to Basque dress continuation below waist level from bathing (from bathe: Old AS a close-fitting elastic cap worn English bathian, of Germanic origin) - loan bathing while swimming to keep the hair + cap (Old English cæppe 'hood', lLa - MoE cap dry or to reduce friction from late Latin cappa, perhaps from « com Latin caput 'head') La? AS - com a dressing gown, especially one from bath (same origin as bathe in bathrobe OFr - MoE made of towelling bathing cap) + robe* « GO loan 1940s: named after Bikini, where an loan a two-piece swimming costume atom bomb was exploded in 1946 ? bikini An? MoE for women (because of the supposed 'explosive' - effect created by the garment) coin from boxer (from box: late Middle men‟s loose underpants similar in English (in the general sense 'a ? com boxer shape to the shorts worn by blow'): of unknown origin) + short: - - MoE shorts boxers Old English sceort, of Germanic AS cnv origin 1930s: abbreviation of brassiere loan an undergarment worn by women (early 20th century: from French bra Fr - MoE to support the breasts brassière, literally 'bodice, child's clip vest') brassiere = bra* see bra* Fr loan MoE from brief: Middle English: from Old loan short, close-fitting underpants or OFr briefs French brief, from Latin brevis - MoE knickers « La 'short'. cnv early 19th century: from French, Fr a woman‟s loose-fitting either from Italian camiciola, « It undergarment for the upper body, diminutive of camicia, or from camisole / loan MoE typically held up by shoulder Spanish camisola, diminutive of Sp straps camisa, both from late Latin camisia « lLa 'shirt or nightgown' a woman‟s tightly fitting Middle English: from Old French, undergarment extending from OFr corset diminutive of cors 'body', from Latin loan MoE below the chest to the hips, worn « La corpus to shape the figure from dress (Middle English (in the loan dressing a long, loose robe, typically worn OFr sense 'put straight'): from Old French - MoE gown after getting out of bed or bathing « La dresser 'arrange, prepare', based on com

Latin directus 'direct, straight') + gown* Middle English: from Old French a band worn around the leg to gartier, from garet 'bend of the knee, OFr garter loan MiE keep a stocking or sock up calf of the leg', probably of Celtic « Ce? origin 1 a long elegant dress worn on Middle English: from Old French OFr gown formal occasions goune, from late Latin gunna 'fur loan MoE « La 2 a dressing gown garment' Old English gyrdel, of Germanic a woman‟s elasticated corset girdle origin; related to Dutch gordel and AS or MoE extending from waist to thigh German Gürtel a garment consisting of a narrow strip of cloth attached to a G + string (Old English streng G-string waistband that covers only the (noun), of Germanic origin; related to AS com MoE genital area, worn as underwear German Strang, also to strong) or by striptease performers from house (Old English hūs (noun), AS a woman‟s long, loose, hūsian (verb), of Germanic origin) + loan - housecoat lightweight robe for informal coat (Middle English: from Old - MoE OFr wear around the house French cote, of unknown ultimate com « ? origin) a garment similar to a kimono (a long, loose traditional Japanese mid 17th century: Japanese, from ki kimono robe with wide sleeves, tied with Jap loan MoE 'wearing' + mono 'thing' a sash) worn elsewhere as a dressing gown a woman‟s or girl‟s late 19th century (in the sense 'short undergarment, covering the body coin trousers'): abbreviation of knickers from the waist or hips to the top Du - MoE knickerbockers (named after Diedrich of the thighs and having two holes clip Knickerbocker) for the legs mid 18th century (denoting a kind of negligee loose gown worn by women): from a woman‟s light dressing gown, (also French, literally 'given little thought Fr loan MoE typically made of a filmy fabric négligée) or attention', feminine past participle of négliger 'to neglect' from night (Old English neaht, niht, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch AS loan a light, loose garment worn by a nacht and German Nacht, from an nightdress -Fr - MoE woman or child in bed Indo-European root shared by Latin « La com nox and Greek nux) + dress (see dressing gown*) from night (see nightdress*) + shirt a long shirt worn in bed especially nightshirt (Old English scyrte, of Germanic AS com MoE by boys or men origin) diminutive of pants (from French Fr loan legless underpants worn by panties pantalon, from the Italian name « It - MoE women and girls; knickers Pantalone 'Pantaloon', from Greek) « Gr der late Middle English: from petty (from a phonetic spelling of the a woman‟s light, loose pronunciation of French petit 'small') loan undergarment hanging from the + coat (Middle English: from Old Fr petticoat - MiE shoulders or the waist, worn French cote, of unknown ultimate «? com under a skirt or dress origin), literally 'small coat': the word originally referred to a garment worn by men under a coat or doublet early 19th century: from Urdu and Ur a loose-fitting jacket and trousers pyjamas Persian, from pāy 'leg' + jāma - loan MoE for sleeping in 'clothing' Per

Middle English: from Old French, a long, loose outer garment from the Germanic base (in the sense OFr robe loan MiE reaching to the ankles 'booty') of rob (because clothing was « GO an important component of booty) a garment consisting of a long piece of cloth worn wrapped round the body and tucked at the mid 19th century: Malay, literally sarong waist or under the armpits, An loan MoE 'sheath' traditionally worn in south-east Asia and now also by women in the West mid 18th century (originally denoting a man's short jacket): from single loan a sleeveless garment worn under (because the garment was unlined, OFr singlet - MoE or instead of a shirt; a vest Middle English: via Old French from « La der Latin singulus) + -et, on the pattern of doublet Middle English (in the sense 'move loan a loose-fitting garment, typically ML slip quickly and softly'): probably from - MoE a short petticoat Ge? Middle Low German slippen (verb) cnv Old English socc 'light shoe', from a garment for the foot and lower Latin soccus 'comic actor's shoe, light La sock part of the leg, typically knitted loan MiE low-heeled slipper', from Greek « Gr from wool, cotton, or nylon sukkhos a women‟s garment, typically late 16th century: from stock (Old made of translucent nylon or silk, English stoc(c) 'trunk, block of wood, stockings that fits closely over the foot and VE der EMoE post', of Germanic origin) in the is held up by suspenders or an dialect sense 'stocking' + -ing elasticated strip at the upper thigh from suspend: Middle English: from an elastic strap attached to a belt OFr loan Old French suspendre or Latin suspender or garter, fastened to the top of a / - MiE suspendere, from sub- 'from below' + stocking to hold it up La der pendere 'hang' from swim (Old English swimman (verb), of Germanic origin) + AS a garment worn for swimming, loan swimming costume (early 18th century: from - Fr especially a woman‟s one-piece - MoE costume French, from Italian costume 'custom, « It swimsuit com fashion, habit', from Latin « La consuetude) from swim (see swimming costume*) AS + suit (Middle English: from Anglo- - loan a woman‟s one-piece swimming Norman French siwte, from a swimsuit ANFr - MoE costume feminine past participle of a « Ro com Romance verb based on Latin sequi « La 'follow') Old English thwang, thwong, of a skimpy bathing garment or pair thong Germanic origin; related to German AS or MoE of knickers like a G-string Zwang 'compulsion' from tight: Middle English (in the a woman‟s close-fitting garment sense 'healthy, vigorous', later 'firm, made of nylon or other knitted solid'): probably an alteration of tights AS cnv MoE yarn, covering the legs, hips, and thight 'firm, solid', later 'close- bottom packed, dense', of Germanic origin; related to German dicht 'dense, close' late 19th century (originally US): men‟s shorts, worn especially for from an earlier theatrical use trunks US or MoE swimming or boxing denoting short breeches of thin material worn over tights an undergarment, especially for from pants: mid 19th century: Fr loan underpants MoE men or boys, covering the lower abbreviation of pantaloons(see « It -

part of the body and having two panties*) « Gr clip holes for the legs -der an undergarment worn on the upper part of the body, typically early 17th century, denoting a loose Fr vest having no sleeves outer garment, from French veste, via « It loan EMoE Italian from Latin vestis 'garment' « La

from Y + front (Middle English men‟s or boys' underpants with a AS (denoting the forehead): from Old Y-front™ branching seam at the front in the - OFr com MoE French front, from Latin frons, front- shape of an upside-down Y « La 'forehead, front') Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.5 Outerwear Similarly to the previous chapter, the distribution of the words adopted during individual periods is largely disproportional in this category. There were 79 items taken in during the Modern English period (out of 91), while 3 come from the Early Modern English times, 5 from the Middle English times and only 1 from Old English times. This again reflects the rapid development of fashion industry in the past three centuries, and also the striking changes the society have gone through. The fall of absolutist regimes (old or modern ones, such as communism) or colonial overrule resulted in acquisition of personal freedom. This meant free choice of clothing – according to personal attitude, lifestyle, taste, etc., and various entrepreneurs have been trying to fill this gap. Many trade routes had already been established then, and new ones opened. Lower costs of production entailed affordability across social spectrum. The birth of leisure time activities, such as sport or hiking tourism, led to the production of new kinds of wear (and materials), and these began to be used outside these activities, either for their practicality, or as an expression of lifestyle. Conventions in behaviour and clothing released, and new types of clothing, such as shorts or short skirts, were consequently introduced to the market. Just like in the first category, many items have only acquired a new meaning in the Modern English period. A large number of them originally denoted a material, and the meaning was extended to a kind of clothes made of such materials (leathers, fleece, fur, denims, chinos, mink, oilskin, pinstripe, etc.). The occurrence of the word chinos has become more frequent than that of chino as material, so only the first is recorded in OALD. The lexical origins lay mainly within the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (40 items) and Latin words (29 items). Anglo-Saxon is the basis of numerous compounds (41 in total), mostly subordinate, where the modifying element is often borrowed. The modifier usually denotes an occasion or time suitable for wearing the garment (dinner jacket, sports jacket,

47 cocktail dress – a dress suitable for a cocktail party, jogging suit, tracksuit), shape or cut (bell-bottoms, crop top, tank top, turtleneck), or weather conditions (raincoat, wind-cheater – protection from rain or wind, and sundress – dress suitable for hot, sunny days). The total of loanwords is 70; apart from the mentioned modifying elements (not all of these were borrowed, though), they designate traditional clothes of other cultures (caftan, bolero, kilt, poncho, sari), or clothes designed to resist special weather conditions of a country or region (anorak, parka, mackintosh). Some of the very common words were adapted via French (coat, jacket, jeans, suit). Otherwise, French does not seem to play a significant role as a language or origin (3 items), but it was a mediator language for 38 items – more than half of the loanwords, of which 26 were directly from Latin (so they may be originally French in the sense of the controversy described in the introduction to the practical part). Half of the 12 derivatives were made using the suffix –er (blazer, jumper, romper, sweater, etc.). Other processes are rather insignificant with view of the number of items (5 coined words, 1 backformation, 4 of another kind). 7 items were used by the original Anglo-Saxon tribes, all of them with different initial meanings. The scale of foreign languages present in this category range from very close to distant ones, both geographically (languages of India, Native Americans, Latin America, a Tibetan language, Greenland Eskimo) and historically (Sanskrit). It is a wide scale, but not surprisingly when considering the number of items.

Tab. 2.5.a Outerwear (91 items) AS La Ar Ce ON Gr Fr Ba Du In NA Ge 40 29 6 6 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 Lan ASp GEs GO Per Ru San Scd Sd Sp # ?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 11 loan com der or coin op bf # ? Pro 70 41 12 7 6 4 1 6 8 MoE EMoE MiE OE Per 79 6 5 1

Tab. 2.5.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per a waterproof jacket, typically with anorak a hood, of a kind originally used 1920s: from Greenland Eskimo anoraq GEs loan MoE in polar regions

1950s (originally US): from baby Babygro™ an all-in-one stretch garment for (probably imitative of an infant's first US com MoE babies attempts at speech) + grow (Old English grōwan, of Germanic origin) from bell (Old English belle, of bell- trousers with a marked flare Germanic origin) + bottom (Old AS com MoE bottoms below the knee English botm, of Germanic origin) loan from Bermuda (a group of islands Sp - bermuda named after a Spanish sailor, Juan casual knee-length shorts - coin MoE shorts Bermúdez, who sighted the islands AS - early in the 16th century) + short* com late 19th century: from blaze (Old English blæse 'torch, bright fire', of a plain jacket not forming part of Germanic origin) + -er. The original blazer a suit but considered appropriate general sense was 'a thing that blazes or AS der MoE for formal wear shines' (mid 17th century), giving rise to the term for a brightly coloured sporting jacket a woman‟s upper garment early 19th century (denoting a belted Fr blouse resembling a shirt, typically with loose garment worn by peasants): from loan MoE « ? a collar, buttons, and sleeves French, of unknown origin a woman‟s close-fitting stretch body garment for the upper body, Old English bodig, of unknown origin ? ? MoE? fastening at the crotch a close-fitting one-piece stretch ANFr loan bodysuit garment for women, worn from body* + suit* « La - MoE typically for sporting activities - ? com bolero a woman‟s short open jacket late 18th century: from Spanish Sp loan MoE Fr from bomber (from bomb: late 17th « It a short jacket tightly gathered at century: from French bombe, from «La? loan bomber the waist and cuffs by elasticated Italian bomba, probably from Latin « Gr - MoE jacket bands and typically having a zip bombus 'booming, humming', from - com front Greek bombos, of imitative origin) + OFr jacket* « Ar? 1970s: from French, from buste - see Fr a close-fitting strapless top worn bust: from French buste, from Italian bustier « It loan MoE by women busto, from Latin bustum 'tomb, « La sepulchral monument' caftan late 16th century: from Turkish, from 1 a woman‟s long loose dress Tu (also Persian ḵaftān, partly influenced by loan EMoE 2 a loose shirt or top « Per kaftan) French cafetan a lightweight, hooded, thigh- cagoule 1950s: from French, literally 'cowl' Fr loan MoE length waterproof jacket mid 16th century: from French, from Fr « a sleeveless cloak, typically a cape Provençal capa, from late Latin cappa Pr « loan EMoE short one 'covering for the head' lLa mid 19th century (Crimean War): named after James Thomas Brudenel, loan a knitted jumper fastening down cardigan 7th Earl of Cardigan (1797–1868); We - MoE the front from Welsh Ceredigion, literally coin „Ceredig's land.‟ a woman‟s close-fitting one-piece ANFr loan garment with trouser legs, from cat (Old English catt, catte, of « La catsuit - MoE covering the body from the neck Germanic origin) + suit* - com to the feet AS 1940s: from Latin American Spanish, casual cotton trousers made from chinos literally 'toasted' (referring to the ASp loan MoE chino or a similar fabric typical colour)

Middle English: from Old French a sleeveless outdoor overgarment OFr cloke, dialect variant of cloche 'bell, cloak that hangs loosely from the « loan MiE cloak' (from its bell shape), from shoulders mLa medieval Latin clocca 'bell' an outer garment with sleeves, Middle English: from Old French cote, OFr coat (1) worn outdoors and typically loan MiE of unknown ultimate origin « ? extending below the hips a woman‟s tailored jacket, worn OFr coat (2) see coat (1)* loan MoE with a skirt or dress « ? from cocktail (early 17th century: from OFr cock: Old English cocc, from medieval loan cocktail a smart dress suitable for formal « La Latin coccus, + tail: Old English - MoE dress social occasions - tæg(e)l, from a Germanic base meaning com AS 'hair, hairy tail') + dress* a woman‟s casual sleeveless or short-sleeved garment or from crop (Old English, of Germanic crop top undergarment for the upper body, AS com MoE origin; related to German Kropf) + top* cut short so that it reveals the stomach mid 19th century: French, 'knee women‟s knee-length trousers, cut Fr culottes breeches', diminutive of cul 'rump', loan MoE with full legs to resemble a skirt « La from Latin culus Fr jeans or other garments made of from denim (late 17th century (as serge denims « La loan MoE denim denim): from French serge de Nîmes) « Ga? a man‟s jacket without tails, from dinner (from Old French disner, OFr loan dinner typically black, worn with a bow probably from desjëuner 'to break fast', « La - MoE jacket tie for formal occasions in the from des- (expressing reversal) + jëun - Ar? com evening 'fasting' (from Latin jejunus) + jacket* from donkey (late 18th century a heavy jacket which has a patch (originally pronounced to rhyme with AS loan donkey of waterproof leather or plastic monkey): perhaps from dun: Old / - MoE jacket across the shoulders, worn English dun, dunn, of Germanic origin, OFr com typically by building workers or from the given name Duncan) + « Ar? jacket* Middle English (in the sense 'put a one-piece garment for a woman straight'): from Old French dresser OFr« dress or girl that covers the body and loan EMoE 'arrange, prepare', based on Latin La extends down over the legs directus 'direct, straight' US loan duffel (also mid 17th century: from Duffel, the « ? - a coat made of duffel, typically duffle) name of a town in Belgium where the - coin MoE hooded and fastened with toggles. coat cloth was originally made OFr - « ? com a garment consisting of trousers from dungaree: late 17th century, from with a bib held up by straps over loan Hindi duṅgrī dungarees the shoulders, made of calico, In - MoE denim, or a similar material and coin worn as casual or working clothes from evening (Old English ǣfnung AS 1 elegant clothes worn for formal loan evening 'dusk falling, the time around sunset', - occasions in the evening - MoE dress OFr 2 a woman‟s long formal dress from ǣfnian 'approach evening', from com « La ǣfen of Germanic origin) + dress* from flannel (Middle English: probably flannels men‟s trousers made of flannel from Welsh gwlanen 'woollen article', We? loan MoE? from gwlân 'wool') a jacket or other garment made Old English flēos, flēs, of West fleece AS or MoE from a fleece fabric Germanic origin fur a coat, cape, or similar garment Middle English (as a verb): from Old OFr loan ?

made of fur French forrer 'to line, sheathe', from « GO forre 'sheath', of Germanic origin trousers cut to fit and fasten at the from hip: Old English hype, of hipsters AS der MoE hips Germanic origin AS from hot (Old English hāt, of Germanic loan very tight, brief women‟s shorts, - Fr hot pants origin) + pants (mid 19th century: - MoE worn as a fashion garment « It abbreviation of pantaloons*) com « Gr late Middle English: from Old French an outer garment extending either jaquet, diminutive of jaque – see jack: to the waist or the hips, typically OFr jacket late Middle English: from Old French loan MiE having sleeves and a fastening « Ar? jaque; origin uncertain, perhaps based down the front on Arabic mid 19th century: plural of jean: ate 15th century (as an adjective): from Old French Janne (now Gênes), from hard-wearing casual trousers medieval Latin Janua 'Genoa', the OFr jeans made of denim or other cotton place of original production. The word « loan MoE fabric comes from jean fustian, literally mLa 'fustian from Genoa', used in the 16th century to denote a heavy twilled cotton cloth late 16th century (denoting woollen La loan a knitted garment with long jersey worsted fabric made in Jersey): from / - MoE sleeves, worn over the upper body Jersey Scd? coin from jogging (from jog - late Middle AS English (in the sense 'stab, pierce'): loan jogging - = tracksuit* variant of jag: perhaps symbolic of - MoE suit ANFr sudden movement or unevenness) + com « La suit* mid 19th century: probably from dialect jump 'short coat', perhaps from VE Scots jupe 'a man's (later also a « woman's) loose jacket or tunic', via Old loan a knitted garment typically with OFr French from Arabic jubba, or from ? jumper long sleeves, worn over the upper « MoE jump: early 16th century (in the sense / body Ar? 'be moved or thrown with a sudden der? / jerk'): probably imitative of the sound AS of feet coming into contact with the ground a garment incorporating trousers 1940s (originally US): so named US - loan and a sleeved top in one piece, because it was first used to denote a jumpsuit ANFr - MoE worn as a fashion item, protective parachutist's garment; from jump (see « La com garment, or uniform jumper) + suit* Middle English (as a verb in the sense a knee-length skirt of pleated 'tuck up around the body'): of tartan cloth, traditionally worn by Scandinavian origin; compare with kilt men as part of Scottish Highland Scd loan MoE Danish kilte (op) 'tuck (up)' and Old dress and now also worn by Norse kilting 'a skirt'. The noun dates women and girls from the mid 18th century Old English lether, of Germanic origin; leather clothes, especially those leathers related to Dutch leer and German AS or MoE worn by a motorcyclist Leder loan tight-fitting stretch trousers worn from leg: Middle English: from Old leggings ON - MoE by women and children Norse leggr, of Germanic origin der a man‟s suit consisting of a AS from lounge (early 16th century (in the loan matching jacket and trousers, - lounge suit sense 'move indolently'): perhaps - MoE worn during the day, especially in ANFr symbolic of slow movement) + suit* com the workplace « La

mid 19th century: named after Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), the Scottish loan mackin- a full-length waterproof coat inventor who patented the cloth; from ScG - MoE tosh Gaelic Mac an toisich „Son of the coin chieftain.‟ loan miniskirt a very short skirt from skirt* ON - MoE der late Middle English (denoting the mink a coat made of mink Sd loan MoE? animal's fur): from Swedish a man‟s formal coat with a long from morning (Middle English: from AS op morning back section cut into tails which morn (Old English morgen, of - - MoE coat curves up to join the waist at the Germanic origin) on the pattern of OFr com front evening) + coat* « ? a man‟s morning coat and striped AS loan morning trousers, worn on formal from morning (see morning coat*) + - - MoE dress occasions such as weddings, dress* OFr com typically with a top hat « La from oil (Middle English: from Old OFr Northern French olie, Old French oile, loan « La oilskin garments made of oilskin from Latin oleum '(olive) oil') + skin - MoE - (late Old English scinn, from Old com ON Norse skinn) close-fitting trousers formerly worn as part of an army uniform, from all (Old English all, eall, of overalls AS der MoE now only on ceremonial or formal Germanic origin) occasions OFr overcoat a long warm coat from coat* der MoE « ? late 16th century (in the sense of a Venetian character in Italian commedia Fr women‟s baggy trousers gathered dell‟arte represented as a foolish old pantaloons « It loan EMoE at the ankles man wearing pantaloons) from French « Gr pantalon, from the Italian name Pantalone 'Pantaloon' a large windproof jacket with a late 18th century: via Aleut from Al parka hood, designed to be worn in cold loan MoE Russian « Ru weather or/ from pin (late Old English pinn, of AS loan West Germanic origin) + stripe (late - - pinstripe a suit made of pinstripe cloth Middle English: perhaps a back- Du MoE bf formation from striped, of Dutch or / - Low German origin) LGe? com from polo (late 19th century: from a sweater with a polo neck (a AS loan Balti, 'ball') + neck (Old English polo neck high, close-fitting, turned-over - - MoE hnecca 'back of the neck', of Germanic collar on a sweater) – part! Ba com origin) a casual short-sleeved cotton shirt AS loan polo-shirt with a collar and several buttons from polo (see polo neck*) + shirt* - - MoE at the neck Ba com a waterproof garment in the style of a poncho (a garment of a type ASp originally worn in South America, early 18th century: from South poncho « loan MoE made of a thick piece of woollen American Spanish, from Araucanian NA cloth with a slit in the middle for the head) worn as a raincoat a knitted garment put on over the from pull (Old English pullian 'pluck, AS pullover head and covering the top half of snatch'; origin uncertain) + over (see - com MoE the body overalls*) ?

a long coat, typically having a from rain (Old English regn (noun), AS - loan raincoat belt, made from waterproofed or regnian (verb), of Germanic origin) + OFr - MoE water-resistant fabric coat* « ? com from reefer (probably from reef: MDu loan a thick close-fitting double- Middle English: from Middle Dutch ? ? reefer MoE breasted jacket reef, rif, from Old Norse rif, literally « - 'rib', used in the same sense) ON der loan from romp: early 18th century: perhaps ? - a young child‟s one-piece outer an alteration of ramp : Middle English: OFr romper op? MoE garment from Old French ramper 'creep, crawl', « ? - of unknown origin der a long piece of fabric that is wrapped around the body and late 18th century: from Hindi sāṛī sari worn as the main piece of In loan MoE clothing, especially by Indian women a casual outfit consisting of a AS loose jacket and trousers with loan from shell (Old English scell (noun), of - shellsuit elasticated waist, having a soft - MoE? Germanic origin) + suit* ANFr lining and a shiny polyester outer com « La shell Old English scyrte, of Germanic origin; a garment for the upper body related to Old Norse skyrta (compare made of cotton or a similar fabric, shirt with skirt), Dutch schort, German AS or OE with a collar and sleeves, and Schürze 'apron', also to short; probably with buttons down the front from a base meaning 'short garment' short trousers that reach only to from short: Old English sceort, of shorts AS or MoE the knees or thighs: Germanic origin a woman‟s outer garment fastened Middle English: from Old Norse skyrta skirt around the waist and hanging 'shirt'; compare with synonymous Old ON loan MiE down around the legs English scyrte, also with short Old English smoc 'woman's loose- a dress or top for a woman or girl, fitting undergarment'; probably related smock gathered at the chest and having a to Old English smūgan 'to creep' and AS or MoE loosely fitting lower part Old Norse smjúga 'put on a garment, creep into' from sport (late Middle English (in the OFr sense 'pastime, entertainment'): « La loan sports a man‟s jacket resembling a suit shortening of disport - late Middle - - MoE jacket jacket, for informal wear English: from Old French desporter, OFr com from des- 'away' + porter 'carry' (from « Latin portare)) + jacket* Ar? OFr loan a man‟s shirt for informal sports shirt from sports(see sports jacket*) + shirt* « La - MoE occasions - AS com Middle English: from Anglo-Norman a set of outer clothes made of the French siwte, from a feminine past same fabric and designed to be participle of a Romance verb based on ANFr suit worn together, typically loan MiE Latin sequi 'follow'; this sense derives « La consisting of a jacket and trousers from an earlier meaning 'set of things or a jacket and skirt to be used together' a light, loose, sleeveless dress, AS loan from sun (Old English sunne, of sundress typically having a wide neckline - OFr - MoE Germanic origin) + dress* and thin shoulder straps « La com from sweat: Old English swāt (noun), a knitted garment worn on the sweater upper body, typically with long swǣtan (verb), of Germanic origin; AS der MoE sleeves, put on over the head related to Dutch zweet and German Schweiss

loose, warm trousers with an AS from sweat (see sweater*) + pants (mid loan elasticated or drawstring waist, - Fr sweatpants 19th century: abbreviation of - MoE worn when exercising or as « It pantaloons*) com leisurewear « Gr a loose, warm sweater, typically sweatshirt made of cotton, worn when from sweat (see sweater*) + shirt* AS com MoE exercising or as leisurewear a man‟s formal morning or AS loan evening coat, with a long skirt tailcoat from tail (see cocktail dress*) + dress* - OFr - MoE divided at the back into tails and « La com cut away in front from tank (early 17th century: perhaps a close-fitting sleeveless top from Gujarati tānkũ or Marathi tānkẽ In? loan tank top typically worn over a shirt or 'underground cistern' (languages « San - MoE blouse spoken in India), from Sanskrit tadāga - AS com 'pond') + top* a garment covering the upper part late Old English topp (noun), of top of the body and worn with a skirt, Germanic origin; related to Dutch top AS or MoE trousers, or shorts 'summit, crest' OFr a loose, warm set of clothes from track (late 15th century (in the «LGe consisting of a sweatshirt and sense 'trail, marks left behind'): from loan / tracksuit trousers with an elasticated or Old French trac, perhaps from Low - MoE Du? - drawstring waist, worn when German or Dutch trek 'draught, com ANFr exercising or as casual wear drawing') + suit* « La from trench (late Middle English (in the senses 'track cut through a wood' OFr loan a loose belted, double-breasted and 'sever by cutting'): from Old « La trench coat - MoE raincoat in a military style French trenche (noun), trenchier - com (verb), based on Latin truncare) + ? coat* early 17th century: from archaic trouse an outer garment covering the Ir (singular) from Irish triús and Scottish EMo trousers body from the waist to the ankles, - op Gaelic triubhas, on the pattern of E with a separate part for each leg ScG drawers Ir - loan a pair of trousers and a matching ScG - trouser suit from trouser (see trousers*) + suit* - MoE jacket worn by women ANFr com « La a short-sleeved casual top, generally made of cotton, having T-shirt from T + shirt* AS com MoE the shape of a T when spread out flat a loose, thigh-length garment, Old English, from Old French tunique OFr tunic worn typically by women over a loan MoE or Latin tunica / La skirt or trousers from turtle (mid 16th century: Fr apparently an alteration of French «mLa loan a sweater with a turtleneck (a tortue, from medieval Latin tortuca, of turtleneck « ? - MoE high, round, close-fitting neck) uncertain origin) + neck (Old English - com hnecca 'back of the neck', of Germanic AS origin) late 19th century: from Tuxedo Park, loan a suit of formal evening clothes tuxedo the site of a country club in New York, NA? ? - MoE including a tuxedo where it was first worn com from tweed: mid 19th century: tweeds clothes made of tweed originally a misreading of tweel, Scots VE op MoE form of twill the distinctive clothing worn by mid 16th century (as an adjective): loan uniform Fr/La MoE members of the same organization from French uniforme or Latin -

or body or by children attending uniformis der certain schools a garment with a V-shaped V-neck from V + neck (see turtleneck*) AS com MoE neckline a close-fitting waist-length garment, typically having no from waist (late Middle English: AS loan sleeves or collar and buttoning apparently representing an Old English - waistcoat - EMoE down the front, worn especially word from the Germanic root of wax) + OFr com by men over a shirt and under a coat* « ? jacket from wind (Old English, of Germanic loan origin) + cheater (from cheat - late AS a wind-resistant jacket with a - wind- Middle English: shortening of escheat: - close-fitting neck, waistband, and com MoE cheater Middle English: from Old French OFr cuffs - eschete, based on Latin excidere 'fall « La der away') Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.6 Parts of clothes The category of parts of clothes is specific by a unique presence of the primary and early lexical sources (Anglo-Saxon: 28 items, Latin: 14 items, Old Norse: 5 items, French: 2 items, and 4 unspecified Germanic and 5 unknown origins). Only Greek (1 item) began to penetrate in the English lexis a little later; the word (elastic) nevertheless took its root probably in an early stage of Greek (and was adopted via Latin); its original sense was quite different. Other languages are not present at all (5 sources are unidentified). There are only 4 items coming from Old English period. They describe parts of clothes that can be found even on very simple pieces of clothes (hem, seam, sleeve), or a simple way of attachment (band). Most of the items originate, in fact, from Modern English (19 items), which is in sharp contrast with what was said in the first paragraph. This very much indicates the already mentioned feature of the language: it uses old sources and gives them a new (shifted) meaning. As many as 16 items were adopted during the Middle English period. This is again related to the fact that it was during this period that clothes started to be more sophisticated. Many of these words then describe more elaborate, yet practical parts, such as collar, cuff, eyelet, lining, gusset, or pocket (some of them can be decorative too, but most of them help improve the functions of the clothes, unlike the elements described in category 2.3). The total of items from Early Modern English period is only 5: this can be explained by a relatively shorter duration of this period, and also by the simple fact that many names had been already introduced in the previous stage, while many of the modern things such as fasteners (drawstring, press stud, Velcro™, zip) were not invented yet.

The number of loanwords is only about half of the list (24 items). The number of original unprocessed words is 12. This is probably because the basic shapes of clothes do not change so much . Tab. 2.6.a Parts of clothes (47 items) AS La ON GO Fr Gr # ? Lan 28 14 5 4 2 1 1 5 loan or com op der clip # ? Pro 24 12 12 4 3 1 2 3 MoE MiE EMoE OE ? Per 19 16 5 4 3

Tab. 2.6.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per from arm (Old English arm, earm, of each of two openings in a garment Germanic origin) + hole (Old English armhole through which the wearer puts AS com MiE hol (noun), holian (verb), of Germanic their arms origin) late Old English, from Old Norse, a flat, thin strip or loop of reinforced in late Middle English by band material, used as a fastener, for ON loan OE Old French bande, of Germanic origin; reinforcement, or as decoration related to bind mid 16th century (originally bodies): plural of body (from Old English bodig, of unknown origin), retaining the the part of a woman‟s dress original pronunciation. The term AS bodice (excluding the sleeves) which is op EMoE probably first denoted an « ? above the waist undergarment, then known as a pair of bodice, although this sense is not recorded until the early 17th century Old English bōsm, of West Germanic a part of a dress covering the bosom origin; related to Dutch boezem and AS or MoE? chest German Busen Old English botm, of Germanic origin; the lower half of a specified two- related to Dutch bodem 'bottom, bottom AS or MoE? piece garment ground' and German Boden 'ground, earth' Old English brēost, of Germanic the part of a garment that covers breast origin; related to Dutch borst and AS or MoE? the chest German Brust a flat, typically rectangular frame Middle English: from Old French OFr Mi buckle with a hinged pin, used for bocle, from Latin buccula 'cheek strap loan « La E joining the ends of a belt or strap of a helmet', from bucca 'cheek' a small disc or knob sewn on to a garment, either to fasten it by Middle English: from Old French OFr button loan MiE being pushed through a slit made bouton, of Germanic origin « GO for the purpose or for decoration a slit made in a garment to receive from button* + hole (Old English hol OFr loan buttonhole EMoE a button for fastening (noun), holian (verb), of Germanic « GO -

origin) - AS com the part around the neck of a shirt, Middle English: from Old French OFr collar blouse, jacket or coat, either colier, from Latin collare 'band for the loan MiE « La upright or turned over neck, collar', from collum 'neck' mid 16th century (denoting an agricultural or garden fork, also a crutch): perhaps related to Old French the part of a garment that passes crotch croche 'crozier, shepherd's crook', AS or MoE? between the legs based on Old Norse krókr 'hook'; partly also a variant of crutch (Old English crycc, cryc, of Germanic origin) the end part of a sleeve, where the material of the sleeve is turned late Middle English (denoting a glove cuff ? ? MiE back or a separate band is sewn or mitten): of unknown origin on a device for fastening together the sides of a shirt cuff, typically a from cuff* + link (late Middle English ? ? pair of linked studs or a single (denoting a loop; also as a verb in the cufflink - - MiE plate connected to a short sense 'connect physically'): from Old ON loan swivelling rod, passed through a Norse hlekkr, of Germanic origin) hole in each side of the cuff either of the two parts of a bra Old English: from popular Latin cuppa, pLa cup shaped to contain or support one loan MoE probably from Latin cupa 'tub' « La breast a string in the seam of the from draw (Old English dragan, of material of a garment or a bag, drawstring Germanic origin) + string (Old English AS com MoE which can be pulled to tighten or streng (noun), of Germanic origin) close it from elastic (mid 17th century (originally describing a gas in the sense moLa 'expanding spontaneously to fill the loan elastic « Gr a rubber band available space'): from modern Latin - MoE band - elasticus, from Greek elastikos com ON 'propulsive', from elaunein 'to drive') + band* an ornamental shoulder piece on late 18th century: from French Fr an item of clothing, especially on épaulette, diminutive of épaule epaulette « loan MoE the coat or jacket of a military 'shoulder', from Latin spatula in the lLa uniform late Latin sense 'shoulder blade' late Middle English oilet, from Old French oillet, diminutive of oil 'eye', Fr a small round hole in leather or loan from Latin oculus. The change in the « La eyelet (1) cloth for threading a lace, string, - MiE first syllable in the 17th century was - or rope through op due to association with eye (Old AS English ēage, of Germanic origin) Fr loan a metal ring used to reinforce an eyelet (2) see eyelet (1)* « La - MoE? eyelet in leather or cloth - AS op early 18th century: from an alteration a wide ornamental strip of of obsolete frounce 'a fold or pleat', OFr flounce material gathered and sewn to a loan MoE from Old French fronce, of Germanic « GO skirt or dress; a frill origin a flap of material covering the Old English flēogan, of Germanic fly (also opening or fastening of a garment origin; related to Dutch vliegen and AS or MoE? flies) or of a tent German fliegen a piece of material sewn into a late Middle English: from Old French OFr gusset garment to strengthen or enlarge a gousset, diminutive of gousse 'pod, loan MiE « ? part of it shell', of unknown origin the part of a sock covering the heel AS or ? heel Old English hēla, hǣla, of Germanic

origin; related to Dutch hiel the edge of a piece of cloth or Old English 'border of a piece of cloth', hem clothing which has been turned AS or OE of West Germanic origin under and sewn a covering for the head and neck Old English hōd, of West Germanic with an opening for the face, hood origin; related to Dutch hoed, German AS or MiE? typically forming part of a coat or Hut 'hat', also to hat cloak a small metal hook and loop used from hook (Old English hōc, of hook and together as a fastener on a Germanic origin) + eye (Old English AS com EMoE eye garment ēage, of Germanic origin) a cord or leather strip passed Middle English: from Old French laz, through eyelets or hooks on las (noun), lacier (verb), based on OFr lace opposite sides of a shoe or loan MiE Latin laqueus 'noose' (also an early « La garment and then pulled tight and sense in English) fastened the part on each side of a coat or mid 17th century: diminutive of lap jacket immediately below the lapel (Old English læppa, of Germanic AS der EMoE collar which is folded back on origin) either side of the front opening Middle English (superseding shank): a part of a garment covering a leg from Old Norse leggr (compare with ON leg loan MiE or part of a leg Danish læg 'calf (of the leg)'), of « GO Germanic origin from line: Old English līne 'rope, an additional layer of different series', probably of Germanic origin, loan material attached to the inside of a from Latin linea (fibra) 'flax (fibre)', lining La - MiE garment or curtain to make it from Latin linum 'flax', reinforced in der warmer or hang better Middle English by Old French ligne, based on Latin linea part of a piece of clothing that is from open: Old English open opening made to open and close so that it (adjective), openian (verb), of AS der ? can be put on easily Germanic origin a double or multiple fold in a late Middle English: a variant of plait garment or other item made of (late Middle English: from Old French OFr pleat loan MiE cloth, held by stitching the top or pleit 'a fold', based on Latin plicare 'to « La side fold') Middle English (in the sense 'bag, sack', also used as a measure of a small bag sewn into or on quantity): from Anglo-Norman French pocket clothing so as to form part of it, ANFr loan MiE poket(e), diminutive of poke 'pouch'. used for carrying small articles The verb dates from the late 16th century from press (Middle English: from Old OFr a small fastener on clothing, French presse (noun), presser (verb), loan « La press stud engaged by pressing its two from Latin pressare 'keep pressing') + - MoE - halves together stud (Old English studu, stuthu 'post, com AS upright prop') a line where two pieces of fabric Old English sēam, of Germanic origin; seam are sewn together in a garment or related to Dutch zoom and German AS or OE other article Saum from shirt (Old English scyrte, of Germanic origin) + front (Middle AS loan the breast of a shirt, in particular English (denoting the forehead): from - shirt front - MoE that of a stiffened evening shirt Old French front (noun), fronter (verb), OFr com from Latin frons, front- 'forehead, « La front') shirtsleeve the sleeve of a shirt from shirt (see shirt front*) + sleeve* AS com MoE? the lower, typically curved, part from shirt (see shirt front*) + tail (Old shirt tail AS com MoE of a shirt which comes below the English tæg(e)l, from a Germanic base

waist meaning 'hair, hairy tail') a shaped pad sewn into the from shoulder (Old English sculdor, of AS shoulder shoulder of a garment to provide West Germanic origin) + pad (of - com ? pad bulk and shape unknown origin) ? com a narrow strip of material going AS shoulder from shoulder (see shoulder pad*) + - over the shoulder from front to - EMoE strap strap* loan back of a garment La? ? the part of a garment that wholly Old English slēfe, slīef(e), slȳf; related sleeve AS or OE or partly covers a person‟s arm to Middle Dutch sloove 'covering' late Old English slite (noun); related to slit a long, narrow cut or opening Old English slītan 'split, rend' (of AS or MoE Germanic origin) a strip of leather, cloth, or other late 16th century: dialect form of strop VE flexible material, used to fasten, (late Middle English: probably a West loan strap « MiE secure, or carry something or to Germanic adoption of Latin stroppus ? La? hold on to something: 'thong') a short rod of wood or plastic sewn to one side of a coat or other mid 18th century (originally in nautical toggle garment, pushed through a hole or ? ? MoE use): of unknown origin loop on the other side and twisted so as to act as a fastener a fastener for clothes or other items, consisting of two strips of thin plastic sheet, one covered loan with tiny loops and the other with 1960s: from French velours croché Velcro™ Fr - MoE tiny flexible hooks, which adhere 'hooked velvet' clip when pressed together and can be separated when pulled apart deliberately late Middle English: apparently the part of a garment around or waist representing an Old English word from AS or MiE covering the waist the Germanic root of wax ON from wing (Middle English (originally loan a high stiff shirt collar with - wing collar in the plural): from Old Norse vængir, - MiE turned-down corners OFr plural of vængr) + collar* com « La a device consisting of two flexible strips of metal or plastic with interlocking projections closed or zip mid 19th century: imitative AS op MoE opened by pulling a slide along them, used to fasten garments, bags, and other items Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.7 Footwear There are 19 items out of 29 adopted during the Modern English period. The Early Modern English and Middle English periods count roughly the same number of items (5 or 4), while Old English contributed with just 1 item, the very basic and the most important one: shoe. Many compounds (4 out of 10) are formed out of this word, so the presence of Anglo- Saxon influence is significant in many items (14 items). Some of the shoes were originally

designed for sport, just like with some cases from the category of outerwear. Another basic word is boot, whose ultimate origin is unknown, but it forms 3 compounds and 1 derivative. There are 3 derivatives in this category, and 2 converted words (from verbs describing the way the shoes are put on), 2 unidentified processes, 1 coinage, and 1 imitative (not listed in the theoretical part), which is at the same time reduplicated (flip-flops). 2 Anglo-Saxon words have remained unprocessed in their form (the quoted shoe, and heels, with a change of meaning). The number of loanwords is 19, while there are 10 borrowing languages. This implies that (British) English speakers are open to new styles or inspirations, for each of the languages come from a country where a different kind of shoes was worn. This openness is very much visible in the next category, too.

Tab.2.7.a Footwear (29 items) AS La Ge Ao, ASp, Du, Fr, Ge, It, NA, ON # ? Lan 14 7 2 1 2 9 loan com der cnv op or re, coin # ? Pro 19 10 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 MoE MiE EMoE OE Per 19 5 4 1

Tab. 2.7.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per ON a sturdy item of footwear Middle English: from Old Norse bóti / boot covering the foot and ankle, and or its source, Old French bote, of loan MiE OFr« sometimes also the lower leg unknown ultimate origin ? 1a baby‟s soft woollen shoe. 2a ON late 18th century: from boot* loan bootie / woman‟s short boot. 3 a / - MoE bootee protective shoe or lining for a OFr« der shoe. ? a strong outdoor shoe with late 16th century: from Scottish ScG brogue ornamental perforated patterns in Gaelic and Irish bróg, from Old - Ir loan EMoE the leather Norse brók « ON Middle English (in the sense 'block of clog a shoe with a thick wooden sole wood to impede an animal's ? ? MiE movement'): of unknown origin a woman‟s plain, lightweight shoe from court (Middle English: from OFr loan that has a low-cut upper, no court shoe Old French cort, from Latin cohors, «La - MoE fastening, and typically a medium cohort- 'yard or retinue') + shoe* / AS com heel deck shoe a flat canvas or leather shoe with from deck (late Middle English: from MDu loan MoE

rubber soles Middle Dutch dec 'covering, roof, / - cloak', dekken 'to cover'. Originally AS com denoting canvas used to make a covering (especially on a ship), the term came to mean the covering itself, later denoting a solid surface serving as roof and floor) + shoe* from desert: Middle English: via Old OFr French from late Latin desertum loan a lightweight boot with the upper « desert boot 'something left waste', neuter past - MoE made from suede La participle of deserere 'leave, forsake', com - ? + boot* late 19th century: from French, from Fr a light canvas shoe with a plaited espadrille Provençal espardi(l)hos, from espart « Pr loan MoE fibre sole 'esparto', from Latin spartum « La mid 17th century (in the general a light sandal, typically of plastic sense 'something that flaps or flops'): op flip-flop or rubber, with a thong between imitative reduplication of flop (early AS - MoE the big and second toe 17th century: variant of flap, MiE, re probably imitative) Middle English (denoting a type of clog): via Old French from late Latin a waterproof overshoe, typically OFr galoshes gallicula, diminutive of Latin gallica loan MoE made of rubber « La (solea) 'Gallic (shoe)'. The current sense dates from the mid 19th century Old English hēla, hǣla, of Germanic heels high-heeled shoes origin; related to Dutch hiel, also to AS or MiE hough women‟s shoes with tall, thin from high (Old English hēah, of high heels AS com MoE heels Germanic origin) + heels* ? - from hobnail (hob: alteration of hub, a heavy shoe whose sole is AS hobnail unknown origin, + nail: Old English attached to the upper part with - ON com MoE boot nægel (noun), of Germanic origin) + short heavy nais / OFr boot* « ? a leather-thonged sandal, huarache originally worn by Mexican late 19th century: Mexican Spanish ASp loan MoE Indians from lace (Middle English: from Old loan OFr French laz, las (noun), lacier (verb), - a shoe or boot that is fastened « La lace-up based on Latin laqueus 'noose') + up com MoE with laces - (Old English up(p), uppe, of - AS Germanic origin) cnv mid 19th century: perhaps from a leather shoe shaped like a German Landläufer 'tramp', from loan Loafer™ Ge? MoE moccasin, with a flat heel Land 'land' + laufen (dialect lofen) 'to ? run' a soft leather slipper or shoe, strictly one without a separate early 17th century: from Virginia heel, having the sole turned up on Algonquian mockasin. The word is moccasin all sides and sewn to the upper in NA loan EMoE also found in other American Indian a simple gathered seam, in a style languages originating among North American Indians AS / a warm, thickly padded boot with loan from moon (Old English mōna, of ON / moon boot an outer surface of fabric or - MoE Germanic origin) + boot* OFr plastic com « ? plimsoll a light rubber-soled canvas shoe, late 19th century: probably from the ? coin MoE

worn especially for sports resemblance of the side of the sole to a Plimsoll line, named after Samuel Plimsoll pump a light shoe for dancing mid 16th century: of unknown origin ? ? EMoE late Middle English: via Latin from a light shoe with either an La Greek sandalion, diminutive of sandal openwork upper or straps « Gr loan MiE sandalon 'wooden shoe', probably of attaching the sole to the foot « Ao? Asiatic origin a covering for the foot, typically Old English scōh (noun), scōg(e)an made of leather, having a sturdy shoe (verb), of Germanic origin; related to AS or OE sole and not reaching above the Dutch schoen and German Schuh ankle from slip (Middle English (in the loan ML sense 'move quickly and softly'): - Ge slip-on a slip-on shoe probably from Middle Low German cnv MoE - slippen (verb)) + on (Old English on, - AS an, of Germanic origin) com a comfortable slip-on shoe that is slipper derived from slip (see slip-on*) AS der MiE worn indoors a woman‟s shoe with a thin, high early 17th century: from Italian, stiletto It loan EMoE tapering heel diminutive of stilo 'dagger' from tennis (late Middle English a light canvas or leather soft-soled Fr loan tenetz, tenes 'real tennis', apparently tennis shoe shoe suitable for tennis or casual - - MoE from Old French tenez 'take, receive') wear AS com + shoe* derived from train: Middle English (as a noun in the sense 'delay'): from loan a soft sports shoe suitable for OFr trainer Old French train (masculine), traine - MoE casual wear « La (feminine), from trahiner (verb), der from Latin trahere 'pull, draw' OFr loan training from training (from train – see = trainer* « La - MoE shoe trainer*) + shoe* - AS com early 19th century: named after the a knee-length waterproof rubber wellington 1st Duke of Wellington (who AS coin MoE or plastic boot defeated Napoleon at Waterloo) Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.8 Headgear The disproportion of lexical influences across the four language stages of English is most perceptible in this category: 22 items (out of 23) are names from Modern English, with 1 item from Old English (hat). The predominance of Modern English words has similar reasons as in the category of underwear and related words: old types of headgear are not worn any more, and the remaining names for them indicate different types. Besides, there was a booming fashion of hat-wearing in the 19th and 20th centuries. There are 13 loanwords, and interestingly enough, most of them come from a different language each (Turkish, French, a Native American language, Spanish, Persian), while in the previous category there were two loanwords per one language. 2 words are from Old Norse, 3 are Greek and 5 of Latin origin. This only indicates how much this domain was influenced by

62 foreign inspiration. Within the loanwords (but not only there), there is an outstanding number of coined words (6), like in the category of materials.

Tab. 2.8.a Headgear (23 items) AS La Gr ON GO Fr NA Per Sp Tu # ? Lan 12 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 loan com coin der or clip # ? Pro 13 9 6 4 1 1 0 0 MoE OE EMoE MiE Per 21 2 0 0

Tab. 2.8.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per a close-fitting garment covering late 19th century (worn originally by Tu loan balaclava the whole head and neck except soldiers on active service in the / - MoE for parts of the face, typically Crimean War): named after the port of Gr? coin made of wool Balaclava in the Crimea OFr from baseball (from base: Middle a cotton cap of a kind originally « La English: from Old French, from Latin loan baseball worn by baseball players, with a « Gr basis 'base, pedestal', from Greek, + - MoE cap large peak and an adjustable - ball: Middle English: from Old Norse com strap at the back ON – bǫllr, of Germanic origin) + cap* La? 1940s (originally US): perhaps from a small close-fitting hat worn on beanie bean (in the sense 'head'), Old English US der MoE the back of the head. bēan, of Germanic origin early 19th century: from French béret Fr beret a round flattish cap of felt or 'Basque cap', from Old Provençal «OPr loan MoE cloth berret, based on late Latin birrus « La 'hooded cape'. a flat-topped hardened straw hat from boat (Old English bāt, of boater AS der MoE with a brim Germanic origin) mid 19th century: named after William bowler a man‟s hard felt hat with a Bowler, the English hatter who AS? coin MoE round dome-shaped crown designed it in 1850 late Old English cæppe "hood, head- covering, cape," from Late Latin lLa cap a type of soft hat with a peak cappa "a cape, hooded cloak", loan OE « La? possibly shortened from capitulare "headdress," from Latin caput "head" a woman‟s close-fitting bell- late 19th century: from French, cloche Fr loan MoE shaped hat literally 'bell' lLa loan a man‟s flat woollen cap with a from cloth (Old English clāth, of cloth cap «La? - MoE peak unknown ultimate origin) + cap* - ? com from deer (Old English dēor, of a soft cloth cap, originally worn Germanic origin) + stalker (from stalk: AS com for hunting, with peaks in front deerstalker Middle English: probably a diminutive - - MoE and behind and ear flaps which of dialect stale 'rung of a ladder, long VE? der can be tied together over the top. handle')

AS – a pair of soft fabric coverings, from ear (Old English ēare, of Du « connected by a band across the Germanic origin) + muff (mid 16th loan MDu earmuffs top of the head, that are worn century: from Dutch mof, Middle - MoE « over the ears to protect them Dutch muffel, from medieval Latin com mLa from cold or noise muff(u)la, of unknown ultimate origin) « ? late 19th century (originally US): from US a low, soft felt hat with a curled loan Fédora, the title of a drama (1882) « Fr fedora brim and the crown creased - MoE written by the French dramatist « Ru lengthways coin Victorien Sardou « Gr ON loan from flat (Middle English: from Old flat cap = „cloth cap‟* / lLa - MoE Norse flatr) + cap* « La? com a shaped covering for the head Old English hætt, of Germanic origin; hat worn for warmth, as a fashion related to Old Norse hǫttr 'hood', also AS or OE? item, or as part of a uniform to hood a man‟s wide-brimmed hat of mid 19th century: named after the loan straw-like material, originally country of Panama; probably from un panama NA? - MoE made from the leaves of a unknown Guarani word, traditionally coin particular tropical palm tree said to mean „place of many fish‟ from pith (Old English pitha, of West AS a lightweight sun helmet made Germanic origin) + helmet (late loan pith - from the dried pith of the sola or Middle English: from Old French, - MoE helmet OFr a similar tropical plant diminutive of helme, of Germanic com « GO origin) a broad-brimmed felt or straw sombrero hat, typically worn in Mexico Spanish, from sombra 'shade' Sp loan MoE and the south-western US com from south (Old English sūth, of - a waterproof hat with a broad sou‟wester Germanic origin) + wester (from west: AS der MoE flap covering the neck Old English, of Germanic origin) - clip a hat with a high crown and a late 19th century: named after John B. very wide brim, traditionally stetson Stetson (1830–1906), American hat US coin MoE worn by cowboys and ranchers manufacturer (trademark in the US) in the US a broad-brimmed hat that from sun (Old English sunne, of sunhat protects the head and neck from AS com MoE? Germanic origin) + hat* the sun a man‟s formal hat with a high from top (late Old English topp top hat AS com MoE cylindrical crown (noun), of Germanic origin) + hat* late 19th century: from the name of the a soft felt hat with a narrow brim heroine in G. du Maurier's novel trilby AS? coin MoE and indented crown Trilby (1894), in the stage version of which such a hat was worn a woman‟s hat designed to Fr mid 16th century: via French from turban resemble a turban « Tu loan MoE? Turkish tülbent, from Persian dulband « Per Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

2.9 Accessories In the category of accessories, the numbers of the contributions of each period are similar to those in parts of clothes. The number of words adopted in the Modern English period is 16, another 9 are from Early Modern English, 15 from Middle English and 5 from

Old English. Many of the items from Middle English describe decorative objects (bracelet, brooch, cameo, jewel, pearls). Other items denote more practical things, such as variations of bags (pouch, satchel) or other functional accessories (gauntlet). Some more decorative accessories appear in the Early Modern English period (necklace, amulet), as well as elegant textile accessories (shawl, scarf, cravat). If the duration of the periods is taken into account, it can be said that Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English have made about the same amount of contributions, with a slight prevalence of Modern English. The 5 items from Old English are either very ancient pieces of jewellery (ring, earring), or, in contrast, very practical things (belt, glove, purse). Cheap jewellery is an invention of modern times. As for the means of lexical enrichment, there is a noticeable predominance of loans (35 items), followed by 18 items of compounds. There are almost no other processes (only one similar to derivation in anklet). Especially the total absence of derivatives (anklet is not classified as a derivative, because the suffix –et with this meaning does not usually occur) is striking. On the other hand, there are 6 unprocessed original words. The fact that no other processes except typical loanwords and compounds are present, as well as the occurrence of original words, is maybe due to the fact that accessories do not change so much over the time in their nature. Only the form does.

Tab. 2.9.a Accessories (51 items) AS La ON Fr Gr In GO Ge, It, SaC # ? Lan 21 11 6 5 4 3 2 1 4 5 loan com or coin op # ? Pro 35 18 6 1 1 6 0 MoE MiE EMoE OE ? Per 19 15 9 5 3

Tab.2.9.b Item Meaning Etymology Lan Pro Per an ornament or small piece of jewellery thought to give late 16th century: from Latin La amulet loan EMoE protection against evil, danger, or amuletum, of unknown origin « ? disease early 19th century: from ankle (Old anklet an ornament worn round an ankle English ancleow, of Germanic origin) AS op MoE + -let, on the pattern of bracelet a flexible container with an Middle English: perhaps from Old loan bag opening at the top, used for ON? MiE Norse baggi ? carrying things

a large coloured handkerchief, mid 18th century: probably via Po? bandanna typically with white spots, worn loan MoE Portuguese from Hindi « In tied around the head or neck a rigid ornamental band worn late 18th century: from Hindi baṅglī bangle round the arm or occasionally the In loan MoE 'glass bracelet' ankle Old English gebed 'prayer', of a small piece of glass, stone, or Germanic origin; related to Dutch similar material that is threaded bede and German Gebet, also to bid. bead AS or MiE with others to make a necklace or Current senses derive from the use of rosary or sewn on to fabric a rosary, each bead representing a prayer a strip of leather or other material worn, typically round the waist, to Old English, of Germanic origin, belt La loan OE support or hold in clothes or to from Latin balteus 'girdle' carry weapons a black bow tie worn with a from black (Old English blæc, of black tie AS com MoE dinner jacket Germanic origin) + tie* a long, thin stole of feathers or fur late Middle English: from Latin La boa worn around a woman‟s neck, (mentioned in the writings of Pliny), loan MoE « ? typically as part of evening dress of unknown ultimate origin a necktie in the form of a bow or from bow (Old English boga 'bend, bow tie AS com MoE a knot with two loops bow, arch', of Germanic origin) + tie* Middle English (as a verb meaning a pair of straps that pass over the 'clasp, fasten tightly'): from Old OFr shoulders and fasten to the top of French bracier 'embrace', from brace braces « La loan MiE trousers at the front and back to 'two arms', from Latin bracchia, « Gr hold them up plural of bracchium 'arm', from Greek brakhiōn late Middle English: from Old OFr an ornamental band, hoop, or bracelet French, from bras 'arm', from Latin « La loan MiE chain worn on the wrist or arm bracchium, from Greek brakhiōn « Gr Middle English: variant of broach, a noun originally meaning 'skewer, an ornament fastened to clothing OFr brooch bodkin', from Old French broche 'spit loan MiE with a hinged pin and catch « La for roasting', based on Latin brocchus, broccus 'projecting from bum (mid 19th century: a small pouch on a belt, for loan probably from bummer - perhaps bumbag money and other valuables, worn Ge? ? - MoE from German Bummler, from round the waist or hips com bummeln 'stroll, loaf about') + bag* a piece of jewellery, typically late Middle English: from Old French oval in shape, consisting of a camahieu, cama(h)u; later influenced cameo portrait in profile carved in relief by Italian cam(m)eo, from medieval OFr loan MiE on a background of a different Latin cammaeus, related to the Old colour French word a decorative chain worn round the Middle English: from Old French OFr chain neck as jewellery or as a badge of chaine, chaeine, from Latin catena 'a loan MiE « La office chain' 1 a flexible or spring-loaded device for holding an object or Old English clyppan (verb), of West clip objects together or in place Germanic origin. The noun use dates AS or MiE 2 a piece of jewellery fastened by from the late 15th century a clip from clutch (Middle English (in the loan sense 'bend, crook'): variant of AS a slim, flat handbag without ? clutch bag obsolete clitch 'close the hand', from - MoE handles or a strap - Old English clyccan 'crook, clench', ON? com of Germanic origin) + bag* costume jewellery made with inexpensive from costume (early 18th century: Fr loan MoE

66 jewellery materials or imitation gems from French, from Italian costume « It - 'custom, fashion, habit', from Latin - com consuetude) + jewellery (from OFr jewel*) « La mid 17th century: from French cravate, from Cravate 'Croat' (from a short, wide strip of fabric worn Fr German Krabat, from Serbian and cravat by men round the neck and tucked « Ge loan EMoE Croatian Hrvat), because of the scarf inside an open-necked shirt « SaC worn by Croatian mercenaries in France from duffel (early 20th century loan US duffel a cylindrical canvas bag closed by (originally US): from Duffel, the ?- « ? (duffle) a drawstring and carried over the name of a town in Belgium where the coin MoE - bag shoulder cloth was originally made), originally - ON? denoting a bag for equipment) + bag* com a piece of jewellery worn on the from ear (Old English ēare, of earring AS com OE lobe or edge of the ear Germanic origin) + ring* late Middle English: from Old French a strong glove with a long, loose OFr gauntlet gantelet, diminutive of gant 'glove', loan MiE wrist « GO of Germanic origin a covering for the hand worn for protection against cold or dirt and glove Old English glōf, of Germanic origin AS or OE typically having separate parts for each finger and the thumb from hair (Old English hǣr, of AS loan a band for securing or tying back Germanic origin) + band (late Old hairband - - ? one‟s hair English, from Old Norse, reinforced in late Middle English by Old French ON com bande, of Germanic origin) from hair (see hairband) + grip (Old a flat hairpin with the ends close English grippa (verb), gripe 'grasp, hairgrip AS com ? together clutch' (noun), gripa 'handful, sheath') from hair (see hairband) + pin (late a U-shaped pin for fastening the hairpin Old English pinn, of West Germanic AS com MoE hair origin) AS loan a small bag used by a woman to from hand (Old English hand, hond, handbag - ?- MoE carry everyday personal items of Germanic origin) + bag* ON? com mid 16th century: from hand (see a square of cotton or other finely handbag) + kerchief (Middle English AS loan handker- woven material intended for kerchef, from Old French - - EMoE chief wiping one‟s nose cuevrechief, from couvrir 'to cover' + OFr com chief 'head') an ornament or piece of jewellery Middle English: from Old French OFr jewel containing a precious stone or joel, from jeu 'game, play', from Latin loan MiE « La stones jocus 'jest' a small ornamental case, typically made of gold or silver, worn late Middle English: from Old French round a person‟s neck on a chain OFr EMo locket locquet, diminutive of loc 'latch, or and used to hold things of « GO E lock', of Germanic origin sentimental value, such as a photograph mid 18th century: abbreviation of mitten (Middle English: from Old mitt (also a glove leaving the fingers and French mitaine, perhaps from mite, a OFr loan MoE mitten) thumb-tip exposed pet name for a cat (because mittens were often made of fur)) muff a tube made of fur or other warm mid 16th century: from Dutch mof, Du « loan EMo

material into which the hands are Middle Dutch muffel, from medieval MDu E placed for warmth Latin muff(u)la, of unknown ultimate « La origin « ? from neck (Old English hnecca 'back AS an ornamental chain or string of of the neck', of Germanic origin ) + loan - EMo necklace beads, jewels, or links worn round lace (Middle English: from Old - OFr E the neck French laz, las (noun), lacier (verb), com « La based on Latin laqueus 'noose') Middle English (also in the sense 'accessory'): from Old French OFr ornament an object that is worn as jewellery ournement, from Latin ornamentum loan MiE « La 'equipment, ornament', from ornare 'adorn' late Middle English: from Old French perle, perhaps based on Latin perna OFr pearls a necklace of pearls loan MiE 'leg', extended to denote a leg-of- « La? mutton-shaped bivalve Middle English (denoting an architectural decoration projecting a piece of jewellery that hangs downwards): from Old French, OFr pendant loan MiE from a chain worn round the neck literally 'hanging', present participle « La of the verb pendre, from Latin pendere a small flexible bag, typically Middle English (as a noun): from Old pouch carried in a pocket or attached to a Northern French pouche, variant of ONFr loan MiE belt Old French poche 'bag' a small pouch of leather or plastic late Old English, alteration of late lLa purse used for carrying money, Latin bursa 'purse', from Greek bursa loan OE « Gr typically by a woman 'hide, leather' a small circular band, typically of precious metal and often set with Old English hring, of Germanic one or more gemstones, worn on ring origin; related to Dutch ring, German AS or OE a finger as an ornament or a token Ring of marriage, engagement, or authority a bag carried on the shoulder by a Middle English: from Old French OFr satchel long strap and closed by a flap, sachel, from Latin saccellus 'small loan MiE « La used especially for school books bag' mid 16th century (in the sense 'sash (around the waist or over the a length or square of fabric worn shoulder)'): probably based on Old scarf ONFr loan EMoE around the neck or head Northern French escarpe, probably identical with Old French escharpe 'pilgrim's scrip' a piece of fabric worn by women early 17th century: from Urdu and Ur - shawl over the shoulders or head or Persian šāl, probably from Shāliāt, Per loan EMoE wrapped round a baby the name of a town in India « In? AS loan shoulder a bag with a long strap that is from shoulder (Old English sculdor, - ?- MoE bag hung over the shoulder of West Germanic origin) + bag* ON? com a straight pin with an ornamental from stick (Old English sticca 'peg, stickpin head, worn to keep a tie in place stick, spoon', of West Germanic US com MoE or as a brooch origin) + pin (see hairpin*) a woman‟s long scarf or shawl, Old English (in the senses 'long robe' especially of fur or similar and 'priest's vestment'), via Latin La stole loan MoE material, worn loosely over the from Greek stolē 'clothing', from « Gr shoulders stellein 'array' from sun (Old English sunne, of glasses tinted to protect the eyes sunglasses Germanic origin) + glass (Old AS com MoE from sunlight or glare English glæs, of Germanic origin)

a strip of material worn round the collar and tied in a knot at the Old English tēah (noun), of Germanic tie front with the ends hanging down, AS or ? origin typically forming part of a man‟s smart or formal outfit an ornamental pin for holding a tiepin from tie* + pin (see hairpin*) AS com MoE tie in place a device consisting of a circular early 17th century: from Italian canopy of cloth on a folding metal It umbrella ombrella, diminutive of ombra loan EMoE frame supported by a central rod, « La 'shade', from Latin umbra used as protection against rain a white bow tie worn by men as from white (late Old English hwīt, of white tie AS com MoE part of full evening dress Germanic origin) + tie* Sources: see chapter 1.1 of the practical part and the bibliography

3 A conclusion to the practical part The table of conclusion reveals that most words have been adopted during the Modern English period. Much lower, but similar numbers were reached in the Middle English and Early Modern English periods; with view of the fact that the first period lasted four centuries, while the latter only two, it can be stated that more towards present days, more new (semantically different) items appeared. The predominating language source is Anglo-Saxon, but this number would be overcome if the other sources were added up. There are a total of 32 diverse foreign origins. This also means that the number of loanwords is huge: it is 284 items, followed by 129 compounds, mainly subordinate, and 49 unprocessed, original words. The reason why the number of items incorporated during the Old English period is much smaller is that among these 49 items many got new meanings during later stages. Given the fact that derivation is one of the three most common word-formation processes, it is surprising that it has created only 37 items. Among the less frequent word-formation processes, it is coinage that takes the first place. The second rank is taken by non-specified processes. By contrast, there is not a single acronym, taken all the processes listed in the theoretical part. To sum up, it can be said that English takes many foreign languages as a source, but processes them in its own way, and it has a strong tendency to reuse old words.

Tab. 2.10 Totals (418 items) AS La ON Fr Gr Ce Ar Ge, GO Du, In, NA 173 112 29 28 24 13 12 10 6 Lan ASp, Ba, Ao, Chi, Cz, GEs, Fl, Jap, An, It Per, Scd # ? San, Sd, Sp Ru, SaC, Sl, Ta, Tu, Ur 4 3 2 1 48 39 loan com or der coin op clip cnv bf re bld # ? Pro 284 129 49 37 28 18 8 6 4 3 1 22 17 MoE MiE EMoE OE ? Per 252 73 63 24 6

Conclusion

One of the most noticeable characteristics of the English vocabulary of fashion and clothes is the huge variety of sources, especially in terms of foreign influences. Among these, the most important donor language is Latin. This has two reasons: while other languages alternated during the individual periods of development, Latin influenced English throughout all of them. Another reason is that many words were adopted via French, which ultimately developed from Latin. Some of the words classified as Latin borrowals are actually French ones, depending on the point of view. In any case, French is an important mediator language, putting forth words not only from Latin, but also Greek, Arabic, and other languages. At the same time, together with Old Norse, it is the second most contributive language. This is undoubtedly the consequence of the Norman conquest. The high number of Old Norse words is the evidence of huge Old Norse influence from the Old English times; it contributed, as stated in the theoretical part, even with words for basic concepts. Old Norse words are also, alongside with Anglo-Saxon words, often heads in compounds. Another major influence is carried by the Greek language. More specifically, it is Ancient Greek, and it served rather as a base language than a direct donor language. The reason for such a wide use of its words is probably, just like with Latin, high prestige of the language. The next important source, contributing nonetheless by only about half the number that Greek did, are Celtic languages. They are especially Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Irish – i.e. modern Celtic languages; this is not surprising given the intensive contact with British English, conditioned geographically and historically. While the original Celtic tribes left little direct lexical legacy in the English word stock, they gave birth to languages which do exercise an important influence on the English lexicon. Other notable sources come from trade activities – with countries having strong commercial positions (Arab countries and Persia in ancient times), with former colonies (India, American colonies, contributing by words from Native Americans, and Indonesia, a former Dutch colony with business relations with Great Britain), and with the Dutch as a colonial power. Among European sources, there is a slight prevalence of other Germanic languages; Italian has not been very influential despite the reputation of Italy as a fashion

71 centre. Other sources are marginal: almost all of them are languages of European and Asiatic countries, with a wide scale, but each contributing by about one or two items. As for English varieties, there is only an influence of regional varieties of British English and American English (motivated by the strong economic position of the USA). Other varieties of the inner circle have not been detected. As it results from the previous paragraphs, most items have entered the English vocabulary by borrowing (it is almost three quarters of the list). Compounds count about half of the number of the loanwords; this is not surprising because most of the compounds include a loaned element. The other two generally most productive word-formation processes – derivation and conversion – are not very numerous. This is a result of the methodology: the work, aiming at primary sources, included only semantically distinguished items; if all the derived words had been included, this number would multiply. The number of converted words would change too, but possibly not on such a large scale. The original, unprocessed Anglo-Saxon words outnumber both derivation and conversion. This is because they are often used in compounds, or denote basic things whose nature has not changed over time. Among other word-formation processes, there are a striking number of words created by coinage. This is probably a unique trait of this domain of vocabulary. Other processes are relatively not very productive; the acronym was not identified at all. On the other hand, there are a few other processes which are productive and are not listed among the minor processes. These include for example imitation of sound or change in spelling due to association with another, more familiar word. Despite the fact that a lot of items come from old sources (Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Norman French, and Greek), more than a half of them were adopted during the Modern English period, followed by the Middle English and the Early Modern English periods, the two contributing by a similar number. With view of the fact that the Early Modern English period lasted much shorter than the Middle English one, it can be assumed that the production of new words has risen with the flow of time. This seems to be motivated by two reasons: the development of fashion as a large-scale business, accelerated by the technical and social progress, and the fact a lot of words have been not newly created, but only semantically refashioned in the Modern English period. And this is, together with the willingness to accept foreign words, one of the most significant traits of the English language, presumably not only in the domain of fashion and clothing.

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