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Sustainable Resource Management and Ecological Conservation of Mega-Biodiversity: the Southeast Asian Big-3 Reality

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Sustainable Resource Management and Ecological Conservation of Mega-Biodiversity: the Southeast Asian Big-3 Reality International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 6, No. 11, November 2015 Sustainable Resource Management and Ecological Conservation of Mega-Biodiversity: The Southeast Asian Big-3 Reality Choy Yee Keong provides ample evidence of higher-order tragedies of the Abstract—This article uses a combination of quantitative and commons across the Southeast Asian region. It is argued that qualitative approaches to assess the effectiveness of local and nurturing a sense of environmental stewardship could serve as regional environmental protection laws, declarations and action an important force to mitigate the perversity of the tragedies plans in promoting sustainable resource use and environmental protection in the three most biologically diverse regions in of the commons particularly when actors at each level have an Southeast Asia, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines, ethical sense of ecological connection. In this regard, the collectively called here the Southeast Asian Big-3. The argument paper examines how human environmental attitudes and is that despite the plethora of multi-protection initiatives and values help to influence individual behaviour and government safeguards, the regional environment is in the throes of an policy concerning resource management and conservation unending episode of degradation and depletion. In addressing practices. The findings are from a case study carried out in the this paradox, this paper considers the role of environmental ethics in ecological conservation and proposes it as one of the state of Sarawak in Malaysia between 2007 and 2011. It is main keys in managing environmental sustainability. acknowledged that there is no other way for our planet in general, and the Southeast Asian Big-3’s natural environment Index Terms—Environmental degradation, environmental in particular, to survive the scourge of unrestrained ethics, environmental protection and conservation laws, environmental exploitation and degradation except by Southeast Asian Big-3. altering the theater of our actions premised on a holistic cast of environmental beliefs, ecological attitudes and values. I. INTRODUCTION Among the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, three are II. THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND found in Southeast Asia, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia and the THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIG-3 REGION: AN OVERVIEW Philippines (referred to here as the Southeast Asian Big-3). Although occupying only three percent of the earth’s total Recognizing the role of biodiversity for socio-economic area, the tropical rainforests in Southeast Asia are home to progress and development, leaders in the region have made over 20 percent of all known plant, animal and marine concerted efforts at strengthening environmental protection. species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. At the national level, each country has enacted a variety of Three of the world’s 17 “mega-diverse” countries, Indonesia, environmental laws to protect the environment and natural Malaysia and the Philippines, characterized by species resources. At the regional level, the ASEAN Centre for richness and species endemism and endangerment, are also Biodiversity has been established to enhance cooperation and located in the region. Species endemism in Southeast Asia is coordination for the conservation and sustainable use of extraordinarily high. As of 2008, for example, a total of biodiversity. 26,268 endemic species was recorded in the whole Southeast Despite these environmental initiatives, however, Asian region. The region also contains high concentrations of paradoxically, the overall regional environment has hardly restricted ranges of bird, plant and insect species. It is improved, and has in fact worsened, and new environmental threats and challenges continue to emerge. Against this noteworthy that the Southeast Asian Big-3 have each backdrop, this study aims to examine why the national and recorded more than 7,000 endemic species [1]. regional environmental protection initiatives have failed to Among the three Southeast Asian mega-diverse countries, halt further local and regional environmental degradation, and Indonesia leads as the most biologically rich nation in the to suggest ways to mitigate the problems at hand. region and the second most diverse territory on earth after The analysis is based on investigations, using qualitative Brazil. It is also the world’s third largest forested country after and quantitative approaches, of the changes in the regional Congo and Brazil. Its rainforests contain 10 percent of the ecological state over the past few decades amid increasing world’s flowering plant species; 12 percent of the world’s legal and regional environmental controlling efforts. It mammal species; 16 percent of all reptile and amphibian species, and 17 percent of the world’s bird species. Indonesia ranks first in the world for species richness for mammals (515 Manuscript received September 14, 2014; revised December 30, 2014. This work was supported in part by the MEXT*-Supported Program for the species with 36 percent classified as endemic) and first in the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities, 2014-2018. world for swallowtail butterflies (121 species with 44 percent (*Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan). classified as endemic) [2]. Choy Yee Keong is with the Graduate School of Economics, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan (e-mail: choy3293@ gmail.com). Malaysia ranks 14th on the list of the 17 global DOI: 10.7763/IJESD.2015.V6.715 876 International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 6, No. 11, November 2015 mega-diverse countries. Its forests support an array of unique Deeply concerned by the growing trend of environmental flora and fauna species with exceptionally high degree of degradation due to rapid economic growth and increasing densities and very high rates of endemism and uniqueness. material consumption, regional leaders have enacted a Malaysia is also ranked 14th in the world for its concentration number of environmental legal instruments in order to of vascular plants (15,500 species as recorded in 2004). safeguard the ecological integrity of the environment and to Home to 336 species of mammals, roughly 750 species of promote sustainable resource use (Table I). Also, on a birds with high level of endemism, 212 species of amphibians, regional basis, the Southeast Asian leaders have adopted a Malaysia’s ecosystem is considered as one of the globally wide range of declarations and conventions in order to ensure important and representative unique ecosystems with high that the regional rich biological diversity is conserved and conservation priority [3]-[5]. sustainably managed towards enhancing social, economic and The Philippines ranks 17th on the 17-global mega list. It environmental well-being. also has among the highest rates of biological discovery in the The abovementioned legal instruments have a common world. For example, in the last 10 years, 36 new species of purpose in securing sustainable use of natural resources and plants and animals have been discovered [6]. In addition, its environmental protection while promoting economic growth forests harbour an exceptionally high number of endemic and social progress. One of the strategic means employed by species [5]. Sixty-one percent of the total number of mammal the regional policy makers to achieve this ideal path of species (165 species), 35 percent of the total number of birds development is through the creation of legally protected (530 species) and one-third of more than 9,250 vascular plant areas, nature reserves, national parks or totally protected areas species found in the country are classified as endemic [7]-[9]. where economic exploitation of natural resources is It is thus increasingly clear that the ecosystems in Southeast prohibited. A wide range of rare and endangered flora and Asia in general and in the Southeast Asian Big-3 region in fauna species are also protected by specific laws in each of the particular are some of the Earth’s most distinctive biological countries. Fundamentally, unsustainable use of resources such treasures. Their exceptionally rich endowment of unique biota as illegal logging and extensive monoculture development is also representative of the world’s diverse ecosystems, which threatens the continued survival of biological species is hence the term "Megadiverse" given by the World regulated by various national legislations. Conservation Monitoring Centre of the United Nations Recognizing the importance of environmental cooperation Environment Programme. The region’s high concentrations for sustainable development, the Southeast Asian leaders of endemic species also make it one of the most important have, since 1977, cooperated closely in promoting priority conservation eco-regions in the world. ecologically sustainable development. Leaders in the region have also adopted various documents as listed below to protect the regional terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity III. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION INITIATIVES: NATIONAL [1], [10]: AND REGIONAL LEVELS 1) Manila Declaration on the ASEAN Environment (1981) 2) ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks and Reserves TABLE I: ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIG-3 (1984) REGIONS 3) Bangkok Declaration on the ASEAN Environment Indonesia Malaysia The Philippines (1984) Environmental National Wildlife Act The Philippines 4) ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Management
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