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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Contesting Citizenship: Race, Gender, and the Politics of Participation in the U.S. and Japanese Welfare States, 1962-1982 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Kazuyo Tsuchiya Committee in charge: Professor Michael A. Bernstein, Co-Chair Professor Takashi Fujitani, Co-Chair Professor Nancy H. Kwak Professor George Lipsitz Professor Rebecca Jo Plant Professor Daniel Widener 2008 Copyright Kazuyo Tsuchiya, 2008 All rights reserved. The Dissertation of Kazuyo Tsuchiya is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Co-Chair Co-Chair University of California, San Diego 2008 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page……………………………………………………………………... iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………... iv List of Figures……………………………………………………………………... vi List of Tables………………………………………………………………………. vii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………... viii Vita………………………………………………………………………………… xiv Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. xv Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 1 Chapter I . “The Definition of Community Action was Purposely not Spelled Out”: The Community Action Program in the U.S, 1961-1968………………………………………………………………………….. 39 1.1 Transforming the “Poor” into Productive and Participatory Citizens 1.2 Between Inclusion and Exclusion: Race, Gender, and Citizenship Chapter II . “The Local Governments Need to Make Efforts to Keep the Residents’ Movements Negotiable”: The Model Community Program in Japan, 1967-1973………………………………………………………………………….. 89 2.1 Reinventing the Tactics of Citizen Participation 2.2 Redrawing the Boundaries of Communities: Race, Gender, and Citizenship Chapter III . Making Claims to Citizenship: Race and the Politics of Welfare in Los Angeles, 1962-1965…………………………………………………………… 118 3.1 Revisiting Black Los Angeles in the 1960s 3.2 Contestations over the Los Angeles “War on Poverty” 3.3 The Watts Uprising and the Establishment of the Economic and Youth Opportunities Agency of Greater Los Angeles Chapter IV . Voicing Alternative Visions of Citizenship from “Inside” the American Welfare State: The Los Angeles Community Action Program, 1965-1973………………………………………………………………………….. 154 4.1 Recasting the Community Action Program at the Local Level: The Neighborhood Adult Participation Project 4.2 From “Maximum Feasible Participation” to Welfare Rights: The Watts Labor Community Action Committee and the ANC Mothers iv Anonymous Chapter V . Making Claims to Citizenship: Race and the Politics of Welfare in Kawasaki City, 1969-1974………………………………………………………… 205 5.1 Revisiting Koreans in Kawasaki in the 1960s 5.2 Translating Black Theology into Korean Activism: From the Hitachi Employment Discrimination Trial to the Struggles for Welfare Rights Chapter VI . Voicing Alternative Visions of Citizenship from “Outside” the Japanese Welfare State: The “Kawasaki-system” of Welfare, 1974-1982……….... 236 6.1 Contestations over Welfare, Housing, and Education 6.2 Kawasaki as an Alternative Model: Establishing the Kawasaki Association for Promoting Zainichi Koreans’ Education and the Fureai Hall Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………. 273 Appendix…………………………………………………………………………... 284 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………….. 300 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Southern Part of Kawasaki City…………………………………. 285 Figure 2: Percentage of African American Population in Los Angeles County, 1950/1960/1970………………………………………… 286 Figure 3: Los Angeles County Health Districts by EYOA ………………... 287 Figure 4: Opal C. Jones’ Critique of the “Professional” Anti-Poverty Workers………………………………………………………….. 288 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Estimated Funds in 1965 Budget for Use in the Poverty Program.. 289 Table 2: OEO Request and Congressional Authorization, Fiscal 1965……. 290 Table 3: Types and Numbers of Facilities Created Through the Model Community Program by Spring, 1977……………………………. 291 Table 4: Percentage of African American Population and Joblessness in South Los Angeles, 1960-1965…………………………………… 292 Table 5: Income of Families in South Los Angeles, 1960-1965…………… 292 Table 6: EYOA Programs, Amount of Grant from OEO, and Principal Delegate Agencies……………………………………………….. 293 Table 7: Population Characteristics of Los Angeles County, Total Funds from EYOA, and Funds from EYOA for Each “Poor” Family by 25 Health Districts………………………………………………... 294 Table 8: Korean Population of Kawasaki City, 1955-1985………………... 296 Table 9: Type of Business of Korean Merchants in Kawasaki City (1957).. 296 Table 10: A Chronological Table of Zainichi Activism in Kawasaki-city, 1951-1982………………………………………………………… 297 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS During the course of this project, so many people have nurtured both me and my dissertation. I would like to begin by expressing my deepest gratitude to all the people I interviewed for this project. They generously offered me the opportunity to talk to them despite their busy schedules. I also would like to thank the archivists and the staff members who, with their kind and patient assistance, helped me with my research documents, especially Joellen P. Elbashir at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center of Howard University, Allen Fisher at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Todd Gaydowski at the Los Angeles City Records Center, Lawrence H. McDonald at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland, Kadoyama Yasuaki of Japan’s Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications , and the generous staffs at the Southern California Library, the Department of Special Collections at the University of California, Los Angeles, the Department of Special Collections at the University of Southern California, the Kawasaki City Archives, and the Kawasaki City Fureai Hall. I owe special thanks to the director of the Kawasaki City Fureai Hall, Bae Joong Do, for sharing his experiences and for introducing me to the history of zainichi Koreans in Kawasaki and beyond. I feel incredibly lucky to have had the opportunity to work with my dissertation committee at the University of California, San Diego. It would be difficult to overstate my gratitude to my graduate advisors and committee co-chairs, Professor Michael A. Bernstein and Professor Takashi Fujitani. I could not have survived my graduate school life in San Diego nor completed this dissertation without Professor Bernstein’s generous viii guidance. He was so eager to offer his time and ideas. He read the entire manuscript, and provided me with incisive and helpful suggestions, not to mention abundant encouragement. I cannot thank him enough for all the kind support he offered me throughout the years. I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Professor Fujitani for his invaluable words of advice as he shared his vast knowledge of Japanese history with me. Although Japanese history was my minor field, he has had a profound influence on me and my project. Among the many things I acquired from his exciting seminars, I learned the significance of overcoming the nation-centered approach to history, and making connections between American and Japanese histories. I am truly blessed to have had the chance to work with Professor George Lipsitz. His wisdom, integrity, and continuous commitment to social justice have always been a source of inspiration and admiration. Professor Lipsitz helped me locate individual stories within a broader social and historical context. I will always cherish the heartfelt words of encouragement he has given me throughout the years. I also would like to thank Professor Rebecca Jo Plant for introducing me to the studies of welfare states and women’s history, and giving me so many insightful suggestions. I have always admired Professor Plant because she is such an amazing teacher, so willing to share her knowledge with her students. I am deeply grateful to Professor Daniel Widener, for his countless and helpful comments, continuous support, and warm friendship. He not only taught me how exciting it is to learn about the history of black Los Angeles, but he also showed me the significance of exploring African American history from transnational perspectives. I owe special thanks to Professor Nancy H. Kwak for providing warm ix friendship over the years, and sharing her time and deep knowledge with me. I have greatly benefited from Professor Becky M. Nicolaides’ insightful suggestions and invaluable advice on my work. I feel tremendously lucky to have had the opportunity to learn Los Angeles history from her. I am also enormously indebted to the faculty of the Program in American Studies at the University of Tokyo. I would like to thank Professor Yui Daizaburo for his heartfelt advice and guidance throughout the years. At Tokyo Woman’s Christian University and the University of Tokyo, he helped set me on my present path. Being a member of the family-like “Yui Seminar” for the past decade has not only given me the opportunity to discuss my work with extraordinary friends and colleagues in American, Asian, and European histories, but it has also helped me manage the ups and downs of my graduate school life. I am deeply grateful for his continuous support. Professor Notoji Masako always generously offered me suggestions and encouragement. I greatly benefited from my conversations with Professor Endo Yasuo, in addition to his inspiring seminars. I owe special thanks to Professor Yaguchi Yujin for welcoming me to the M.A. thesis and dissertation writing groups, for helping me write applications for admission to UC San Diego, and for providing generous