C h a p t e r 6.

The Northern Rocky Mountain Station, 1926-1953

ildland fire was a major research projection. The same report also claimed Warea for the Northern Rocky mountain pine beetle control was being Mountain Station throughout its history. done for 5 cents per acre, but didn’t At the Station’s inception, fire did more indicate its effectiveness. than pose difficult scientific questions. Progress was made in several Its very presence interfered with the administrative areas. The trail system at research program. Priest River almost reached completion, A disastrous fire season in 1926 and the University of Idaho started the seriously interrupted research field work Idaho Forest Experiment Station. The in northern Idaho and western Montana. Harry Gisborne speaking to University Northern Rocky Mountain Station also Forest Service policy at the time was to of Montana Forestry School seniors in began to look at the possibilities of give fire fighting top priority, and that 1940 at the Priest River clearcut inflam- creating additional experimental forests. meant researchers were shifted from mability station. Priest River was a place District 1 changed the name of its their normal duties to the fire lines as for natural resource students to learn Investigative Committee to Investigative needed. Although current policy calls for from its earliest days as a research and Council and expanded its membership research personnel to continue with their demonstration area. outside the Forest Service for the first research assignments except for serious time. Members were concerned that emergency situations, the old policy some projects being submitted to the was understandable because the Stations was undertaken with the University of council really were not research items. continued to be units of the National Idaho, University of Montana, the Forest Forest System Districts. Products Lab, the Bureau of Entomology The council undertook, apparently for The Northern Rocky Mountain and the Bureau of Plant Industry. Of the first time in District 1, to define Station annual report for the preceding course, the extent of cooperation varied the terms “research,” “investigation,” year stated, “Although it is questionable with the organizations involved. “study,” and “experiment.” They identi- whether the highest efficiency is served Cooperation with the University of fied 63 categories of research, including, by keeping research men on fire lines Idaho went beyond research activity. for example, “nursery practices” and for protracted periods of a normal fire The Idaho School of Forestry began to “wood chemistry.” season, as was done for nearly four man- hold a field session at Priest River cover- months in 1925, there is no doubt that in ing investigative work and timber sale such a grave emergency as last summer practices as taught by the staff of the Experimental Areas— the research man should be mobilized.” Kaniksu National Forest (Wellner1976). The northern Rockies have a short Although the idea of Priest River as a Establishment and field season, and the field assistants, who model sustained-yield forest had been Disestablishment were mainly forestry students, returned discarded, the demonstration forest to their universities in September. Thus, concept was very much in effect to show a bad fire season was a significant foresters and lumbermen a variety of Despite continued meager funding, impediment to research progress. Harry things without the small research staff the Station began expansion plans to Gisborne was out on so many fires in having to travel over a wide area. have three experimental forests for the summer of 1926 that he planned on Other USDA agencies were studying western white pine, and one in each of no research getting done. But, in spite mountain pine beetle control in lodge- the lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, and of the bad fire season, the energetic pole and ponderosa pine stands, along larch-fir types. Priest River and Bernice Gisborne was able to prepare a manu- with Ribes ecology and chemical control in Montana already existed, and an script, Measuring Forest Fire Danger in of white pine blister rust. Early estimates experimental forest at Coram, Montana, Northern Idaho. were that it would take 15 years to con- was approved. Priest River and Bernice As a means to expand the Station’s trol blister rust in the northern Rockies. had been earmarked much earlier for research program, cooperative research This turned out to be a wildly optimistic research purposes, but their use as

–33 experimental forests was not confirmed bring a “friendly lawsuit” against Idaho Regional Forester of the approval to use with an official designation until 1931. to recover the lands. This was done, and it as a research area. Two years later, Deception Creek the Supreme Court decreed that owner- Bailey also said that a “Fort gained formal recognition as an ship would be returned to the United Missoula Experimental Range” of 40 experimental forest. At about the same States. acres had been established in 1949 by time, the Station concentrated its range Other problems with land titles in “informal agreement” with the Regional research at what was known initially as the Benton and Canyon Creek drainages Forester on land transferred from the the U.S. Range Livestock Experiment were gradually solved without recourse War Department to the Bureau of Land Station at Fort Keough, Montana. to the highest court in the land. But it Management. The report noted that the Before the 1930s, the Forest Service was 20 years from the time Priest River area was reserved for research use by did not have mechanisms to make was established until the Chief of the the Forest Service, although no studies meaningful designations of experimental Forest Service signed an order making it had been started there, and the newly forests and ranges. New regulations official in 1931. Some other ownership formed Agricultural Research Service administered by the Secretary of changes followed, and another 30 years might want to use it for revegetation Agriculture changed that (Regulation passed before Public Land Order 2377 research. L-20 was usually the authority for withdrew the final 6,368-acre experi- Bernice and Priest River were establishing experimental areas). The mental forest. Even then, the order had formally designated, but their use and change was important in preserving the the acreage wrong! development were much different. areas for their intended purposes. When The specter of severe disruption of Although subject to big swings in an experimental forest or range was research studies by mining activities and funding, research generally grew and designated officially, it also was with- questionable land ownership, such as diversified at Priest River over the years. drawn by the Department of the Interior that at Priest River, evidentally caused It never really got going at Bernice. from mining entry. If this was not done, Forest Service Research to start a pro- Station administrative files contain mining law (until 1994) allowed private gram to formalize designations. Getting a chart titled “Bernice Experimental parties to prospect for valuable deposits, everything in order took a long time. In Forest,” with data from a timber inven- stake a claim, and take title to the land a 1955 letter to the Chief, Reed Bailey, tory made in 1914. Bernice included should the claim produce commercial director of the newly merged Northern 2,909 acres in the Deerlodge National quantities of ore. Even if the claim did Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Forest near Basin, about 30 miles from not change title by being “patented,” Stations, reported progress, but also Butte. Most of the area was covered by the miner could occupy and work the listed several actions still to be taken timber, and 70 percent of the trees were land by paying small annual fees and (Bailey 1955). Two areas in the old lodgepole pine. demonstrating that some development Northern Rocky Mountain Station terri- Because Butte was booming at the work had been done. This apparently did tory never achieved formal status. time as a center of the mining industry, not happen within experimental areas in Bailey’s report listed a 5,000-acre and the mines needed large numbers of the Station territory, but it surely could “Piquette Creek Experimental Forest” timbers, it was thought there would be have, especially in heavily mineralized on National Forest land near Darby, a ready market for Bernice timber. This parts of Montana and central Idaho. Montana, that was “established Dec. situation, and the presence of a local At Priest River, a different kind 20, 1939 by administrative approval of charcoal burner that used small-diameter of problem took 17 years to unravel [the] Regional Forester.” In the remarks wood, fit into the District 1 plans for ex- (Wellner 1976). At the time the ex- section, Bailey listed “none.” All or periments at Bernice. Early documents perimental forest was being established, part of this tract may have been used said the area was “teeming with deer officials of the State of Idaho and USDA for research in an informal way for and elk,” so studies of effects of various were reaching an agreement to convey years. Ultimately, the Lick Creek habitat alterations on big game also were lands to the State to compensate for Ecosystem Management/Research envisioned. sections within National Forest boundar- Demonstration Area was established in The master plan was to make a ies. This would have removed all of the this part of Montana by a cooperative variety of selection, strip, and clear experimental forest lands from Federal agreement between the Intermountain cuts on a regular, sustained-yield basis ownership. Station and Bitterroot National Forest to gain experimental data and conduct The State and the Forest Service in 1991 (see “The Ecosystem Approach management demonstrations. To trans- agreed that ownership of the Priest River Comes to Lick Creek,” chapter 11). port the logs, a 3-mile road was built lands would remain as it was, but some- Wellner (1976) noted that the “Piquette into the area in 1917. However, World how that agreement never got to the Experimental Forest” was in a War I manpower needs and transfers right people. The lands were selected by ponderosa pine timber area within the of several people most interested in the the State and the transfer was approved Bitterroot National Forest, and that it project prevented further development by the Secretary of the Interior. No had been “disestablished.” Because it of the area by District 1. The 1931 one in State government had authority never had been established formally at experimental forest establishment docu- to correct the mistake. Finally, it was the national level, this change probably ment said, “Research was not able to necessary for the Federal government to simply involved a revocation by the do work on the area, because of limited

34– This composite photo of central Montana slopes covered with lodgepole pine was made in 1915 as part of an intensive topo- graphic and mapping survey of the Bernice Experimental Forest area. The map makers added landmark information by hand to supplement data from old survey markers they found to define the Bernice location. funds and the need to concentrate The original proposal by research closed and Priest River should operate its activity in the western white pine was to hold “from 100 to 500 acres” only as a summer facility. Station man- type.” within the experimental forest as a agement insisted that Priest River was The research organization never was Research Natural Area (see next sec- needed, and it was retained. In 1961, able to do work at Bernice, although tion). Gisborne assessed the parcel in Intermountain Station Director Bailey Harry Gisborne, chief of the division 1943 and recommended a 300-acre decided all the headquarters buildings of forest management research in RNA. The District Ranger posted it would remain and so would year-round 1942, encouraged development of the as a “closed area.” When Bernice was operations (Wellner 1976). However, demonstration forest concept. Gisborne disestablished in 1962, the report said funding problems continued. said he was confident that the Bernice the tract had never been recommended One side effect of the move to single- District Forest Ranger and a willing to the Washington Office for formal discipline research was that funding was local timber operator would be able designation as a natural area. The provided by several individual units to conduct a harvesting program that report said, “Because there appears to rather than as a lump sum allocated by would “leave on the ground some be no sentiment either public or Forest Station Headquarters. Disagreements excellent demonstration of applied sil- Service against abandoning the proposed flourished over how much each unit viculture, utilization, and brush disposal natural area, all boundary signs shall be should contribute, and how the funds which will be of great value to future removed.” would be spent. The bickering became foresters.” Not surprisingly “the father The report authors apparently hadn’t so extreme that some high-profile of forest fire research” included a bit of checked the “sentiment” of Chuck research was moved away from Priest advice about cutting and leaving brush Wellner, the Station’s persistent cham- River to other National Forest lands. in a few areas so that “if a fire gets in pion of RNA establishment (See “Chuck The strong-willed scientists got there, the results will be obvious.” Wellner—Forest Science Visionary,” together some years later and devised a The single road was extended to chapter 11). Wellner probably put the three-tiered funding system that created cross the Bernice parcel and some area on his “to examine” list. After a different levels of contributions by timber was cut. The largest timber detailed analysis, a 451-acre Bernice various types of users. The Priest River sales were made during World War II Research Natural Area was formally system worked so well that after the years, not for experimental purposes, designated in 1996. Intermountain-Rocky Mountain Station but as part of the war effort to provide Wellner (1976) said national research merger, the new Station applied it to timbers and charcoal wood for the local reorganization away from research other experimental forests (Graham copper mines and smelters. centers to single-discipline projects in 2004). Acting on the recommendation the 1960s threatened the continued exis- of the Station, the Forest Service tence of Priest River as an experimental disestablished the Bernice Experimental forest. Part of the reorganization was a Other Special Areas Forest in 1962. The land was returned move away from experimental forests to to the Deerlodge National Forest for laboratories. general management purposes. The The buildings and other improve- Nine Research Natural Areas (RNAs) disestablishment recommendation ments at Priest River required costly were selected by forest type in 1929, said “no investigative work had been maintenance and national office person- and District 1 began looking for possible done” there and that Bernice had “no nel suggested that the experimental wilderness areas to set aside. RNAs are outstanding characteristics to qualify it forest should be disestablished as special areas designated by the Forest above other comparable National Forest Bernice and Piquette had been, or at Service within National Forests that are lands as an area for future research.” least that many buildings should be permanently protected and maintained in

–35 natural conditions to conserve biological ment will permanently be maintained to of the Coeur d’ Alene field laboratory. diversity. They are available for research the fullest practicable degree.” During the lab’s existence, under the that does not manipulate the vegeta- The first National Forest “wilder- direction of Jim Evenden, research in- tion and for low-impact educational ness” had been designated in 1924 in volved the biology and natural enemies activities. Stations are responsible for New Mexico. In 1928 the Forest Service (parasites and predators) of the mountain administering research activities in developed a formal program to assess pine beetle; biology of the Douglas-fir RNAs. The National Forests have lands and designate those with wilder- beetle; methods of controlling bark general administrative and protection ness qualities as primitive areas. By beetles, including using toxic sprays; the responsibilities for them. RNAs should 1937 the service had set aside 72 primi- western spruce budworm; and surveys not be confused with wilderness areas, tive areas encompassing 13.5 million of insect infestations. which are established by Congress under acres in 10 western States (Alexander Tom Terrell was the second staff provisions of the Wilderness Act of 1987). The area served by the Northern member hired by Evenden. His career in 1964, and have different purposes. Rocky Mountain Station eventually forest entomology began quite acciden- The Wilderness Act refers to research included millions of acres of designated tally. Terrell was reporting to work as a use only in a very general way. One Wilderness, an important consideration fire guard for the Forest Service when, provision states: “Except as otherwise in locating the Nation’s first wilderness he said, “At Wisdom (Montana) I got provided…wilderness areas shall be research unit in Missoula. on the wrong Forest Service truck and devoted to the public purposes of ended up at a bark beetle control camp recreational, scenic, scientific(emphasis where I met Jim Evenden. Jim thought added), educational, conservation, and Cooperators Join Council that I might be a good spotter (locating historical use.” Stations are not spe- infested trees to be treated).” cifically made responsible for scientific In 1930 Terrell scored a first in the activities within designated wilderness- In 1929, District 1 still had its survey work that was to become an es, as they are for RNAs. The National Investigative Council chaired by Evan Intermountain Station responsibility in Kelley, the District Forester. Included in Forests that administer the acreage 1954. He made the first aerial survey the council were the forestry schools of exercise control over scientific activities of forest insect damage in the Northern Idaho and Montana, the Office of Blister in wildernesses, although individual Rocky Mountains, covering Yellowstone Rust Control, consulting foresters, cases often involve consultation with National Park. The first flight of the private timber operators, the Weather survey, from a field in Livingston, Station personnel, and Intermountain Bureau, the Bureau of Entomology, Montana, was an adventure, and an Station scientists conducted studies in forestry researchers in British Columbia, unsuccessful one at that (Furniss, in wilderness starting in the early 1960s. State Foresters, the Timber Protective preparation). Terrell gave this account: The concept of wilderness in the late Association, and the Indian Service. At 1920s and early 1930s differed from the annual meeting in Spokane, empha- Away we went and got lost in the that defined in the Wilderness Act and sis was placed on speeding publication Absaroka Mountains where we were generally understood today (Alexander and getting research results out and caught in a violent rainstorm. The plane 1987). A major purpose of National into use (Annual Report, NRM 1930). was a small open-cockpit biplane, the pilot in the rear and me up front. The Forest wilderness areas under the early District 1 was still in the research busi- concept was to recapture a sense of past engine went quiet! Then loud pounding ness via administrative studies. In fact, behind me! I was about to dive over times, but resource use was allowed. District 1 was doing more research in the side and pull the ripcord when I Forest Service Chief Robert Y. Stuart 1929 through administrative studies than discovered that the pilot was pounding argued consistently in 1928 that wilder- was the Station. Cooperation between on the plane to get my attention. He got ness designation would not unduly it. He wanted to know if I didn’t think we the two units appeared to be good, ought to go back? He had cut the engine “curtail timber cutting, grazing, water however, with the Station using District so he could talk to me. I most certainly development, mining, or other forms of 1 field men to work on research projects. agreed with him. I was scared stiff. economic utilization…but rather…guard Four more centers of blister rust We made it back to the field where Jim against their unnecessary invasion by infection of western white pine were Evenden was waiting. By that time the roads, resorts, summer-home communi- storm was real bad. The pilot taxied the found during the year, adding to the ur- plane up to the fence where we jumped ties, or other forms of use incompatible gency of blister rust research. Mountain out and with the help of Jim hung onto with the public enjoyment of their major pine beetles continued to be significant the plane and the fence to keep the plane values.” pests as well. Control techniques studied on the ground until the storm let up. Thus, some forms of environmental included the use of parasites, peeling change could be allowed, but economic and burning the bark of infested trees, The Station staff didn’t change in activities and recreation involving tech- and the use of chemicals to kill the 1931 but the first major increases in nological development were excluded. beetles (Annual Report, NRM 1930). funds in a decade materialized. Funding Stuart envisioned areas “within which A variety of studies of forest insects jumped from $22,254 to $45,000. A big primitive conditions of subsistence, was being conducted by Bureau of share, $20,000, was to start the Forest habitation, transportation, and environ- Entomology researchers working out Survey. Fire research received $15,000,

36– high interest the Forest Service had, and continued to have, in forest fire control in the northern Rockies. Because Forest Service policy now was to place all research activity within the Stations, forest products, fire, and silviculture research undertaken by the District were transferred to the Station, adding $14,000 to the Station budget. An increase of $43,000 went to fire research, Forest Survey, and range research. The Station was slow to expand in the latter two areas because of the impossibility of recruiting trained Tom Terrell posed at the Spokane airport in 1932 with a plane equipped by the personnel during fire season. Range Bureau of Entomology with insect traps mounted between the wings. The plane research was centralized at Fort Keogh. was ready for a flight over Priest Lake country in studies to “test out flight habits District 1’s 1931 annual meeting of of beetles at high altitude.” Terrell used a similar aircraft for his historic insect the Investigative Council had produced a damage survey flights over Yellowstone National Park in 1930. number of significant recommendations. All of the research agencies, including the Station, were again criticized for and $10,000 went to the cooperative The Montana inventory, including the failure to get much-needed information range research program at Fort Keogh, collection of growth and timber removal out to forest administrators and lumber- Montana. The range program gained information, began in 1934. Before its men promptly and in a form showing recognition of the highest order—the interruption by World War II, the survey direct application to forest practice. Station added it to its name. The orga- was completed for that part of the State This was neither the first nor last time nization officially became the Northern west of the Continental Divide and in research organizations were to hear this Rocky Mountain Forest and Range four counties east of the Divide. criticism. As a partial solution to the Experiment Station (Wellner 1976). While the nationwide Forest problem council members asked that Survey proceeded, independent forest inventories were conducted by the Forest Survey Begins and National Forests to strengthen the data base for management planning. These Interest Grows in Other inventories, however, were limited in Work scope because of a drastic reduction in funding for timber survey allotments. The entire District was allocated $5,100 Congress had authorized a nationwide to $5,700 for surveys during each fiscal survey of all forested areas, irrespective year between 1929 and 1935. The work of ownership, in the McSweeney- usually was done for the commercial McNary Act of 1928. There was, timber parts of each National Forest however, little enthusiasm to start the sur- and defined by block, working circle, or vey at a time the market for timber was some other geographic area. virtually nonexistent at the beginning of From 1929 to 1938 some form of the Great Depression. A committee did timber inventory work was conducted meet in 1930 to establish policy for the by most of the National Forests of the survey (Baker and others 1993). District, and in several, including the Using the $20,000 it received earlier, Deerlodge and St. Joe, five inventories the Station began its first survey in were made during the 8-year period. northern Idaho in 1932. It was complet- These inventories, although limited, ed in 1937. During the project, private facilitated the development of timber Inventory work in National Forests sometimes turned up surprises. This and public information on the condition management plans and contributed to lodgepole pine, having an increment and volume of timber was checked and early attempts to develop sustained-yield core removed here by Region 1 forester adjusted to conform to Forest Survey programs (Baker and others 1993). Harvey Toko, was 19 inches in diameter standards. Areas that included merchant- In 1932, District 1 was using $10,000 in 1966. It and other lodgepoles were able timber for which information was per year for studies on the placement the largest trees in a white pine planta- unavailable were cruised using the line- of fire lookouts, smoke chasers, roads, tion established in 1911 in the Coeur transect method. trails, and telephone lines, reflecting the d’Alene National Forest.

–37 Onward and Upward Applied Forestry Notes, discontinued in 1926, be revived. Three men who served at the Northern Rocky Mountain Station went on to become Questions arose regarding the Deputy Chief for Research, the highest administrative position in the research arm of Forest Service’s ability to perpetuate the Forest Service. western white pine, the prime timber species of the area. Western white pine George Jemison’s first Forest Service job was in 1931 as a junior forester at Priest was difficult to protect from fire, was River in fire research under the direction of Harry Gisborne. After several career attacked during pine beetle epidemics, advancements, Jemison was named Northern and was susceptible to blister rust. With Rocky Mountain Station Director in 1950. In 1953 he moved to the Pacific Southwest the onset of the Great Depression some Station as Director and then spent 12 years unemployment relief funds were made in the Washington Office, where he became available to use for blister rust control at Deputy Chief. Jemison had great respect for the same time regular blister rust control Gisborne. He maintained his interest in fire funds were being reduced. With the research throughout his career, and made potential demise of western white pine numerous efforts to obtain financial support as a commercial species, it was apparent for fire programs in general, including those at to the District 1 timber management universities (Maunder 1978). staff that little research information was Jemison led the first group of U.S. foresters available to help stem the losses. This ever to visit Russia to observe forest conditions was true as well for western redcedar, and practices. He served for 3 years as another commercially valuable species. President of the International Union of Forest The summer of 1931 proved to be a Research Organizations. After leaving the bad fire season in the District, necessitat- Forest Service, he became a professor at ing calling the Station staff to help fight Oregon State University. fires. The annual report of the Station M. B. Dickerman, who had served at the old included the comment, “It was necessary Lake States Station, as a member of the War to practically turn Station manpower George Jemison started his career Production Board (1943-44), and as a forester over to District 1.” in fire research at Priest River. with the Allied Control Commission after Changes in 1932 weren’t restricted World War II, came to the Station in Missoula to research. The National Forest System in 1947. He was put in charge of the economics unit and Forest Survey. Districts were renamed Regions to avoid confusion with Ranger Districts. The Dickerman returned to the Lake States Station in 1951 as Director. He served there for identifying numbers used throughout the 14 years and started many new programs. Among them was recreation research in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. To head the program, Dickerman hired Bob Lucas, a Forest Service were unchanged: District social scientist (see “Aha! The Wilderness Unit Discovers a Better Approach,” chapter 1 became Region 1; District 4 was 10). Hiring a social scientist for Forest Service research work was a novel idea at the designated Region 4. time, but Dickerman said, “Bob Lucas had the capacity to understand that there were many social implications in recreation and forestry.”

Dickerman moved to Washington in 1965 for a special assignment in USDA research Depression Years planning. He became Associate Deputy Chief for Research in 1972 and Deputy Chief in 1973 (Arnold and others 1994). The stock market crashed in October Bob Buckman was looking for a job in 1953 and landed one with Forest Survey 1929 signaling in dramatic fashion the in Missoula (Jemison was Station Director). Near year end, the merger with the start of the Great Depression, which Intermountain Station was announced, and part of the plan was to move Forest Survey lasted for a decade. Following the crash, to Ogden. Instead of making the move, Buckman chose to return to school for a Ph.D. many businesses folded, investments program at the University of Michigan. were lost, and unemployment soared. Buckman became a scientist at the Lake States Station, moved to the Washington Lack of recovery from the depression Office, and then served many years as Director of the Pacific Northwest Station. He caused voters to defeat President was named Deputy Chief for Research after Dickerman retired (Arnold and others Herbert Hoover in his reelection bid in 1994). favor of Franklin D. Roosevelt and a Congress dominated by the Democratic Party. Roosevelt immediately initiated his “New Deal” of activist Federal Government programs to attempt to bring the Nation out of the depression. Thus, 1932 found the Forest Service in a position of financial retrenchment,

38– but with the New Deal programs information clamor to get the data the Considerable rivalry between the two the Federal Government became the moment it is taken. divisions ensued (Wellner 1976). employer of last resort and the Forest In addition to help from Region 1, Facilities at the Deception Creek Service was a beneficiary of many of the emergency program funds from the Experimental Forest were built by a make-work programs. Both the Northern “alphabet soup” New Deal programs 250-man CCC contingent working Rocky Mountain and Intermountain such as the National Industrial Recovery from a camp established at Skookum Station programs were impacted by Act (NIRA), the Emergency Work Corps Creek in 1934. The first CCC camp funding cuts and New Deal attempts to (EWC), and the Economic Recovery superintendent was Elton Bentley, who put people to work. Act (ERA) helped to replace the regular provided an oral history many years The general economic depression in appropriations cuts. later (Russell 1984). Bentley said some the Midwest and West was made worse The Investigative Council went on of the CCC boys had never known work by drought in the Great Plains during record recommending several additional and “wouldn’t recognize discipline.” He the early 1930s. The drought and Great experimental forests be set aside in related a story of an incident where disci- Depression came on the heels of an 1933. These included a western white pline was established in a forceful way. existing agricultural depression, which pine experimental forest at Deception Bob Nearing was foreman for a crew had been going on for years before the Creek in the Coeur d’Alene National building trail. One boy sat down and stock market crash. The West suffered Forest and another at Pine Creek in the refused to work. Nearing said, “If you a loss of many farms and ranches and Clearwater National Forest, both in don’t pick up that shovel and help the diminishing livestock numbers. Idaho, and a larch-fir experimental forest others, I’ll throw you in the river.” The In eastern Montana the number of near Coram in the Flathead National boy didn’t move, and Nearing picked farms decreased by more than 10,000 Forest and a ponderosa pine experi- him up and tossed him into the river. over a decade. Thousands of acres of mental forest at Little Trapper Creek in The crewmen had been members of a dry farms and homesteads were aban- the Bitterroot National Forest, both in street gang in New York City, and they doned. Within Region 1’s territory, the Montana. understood physical demonstrations of numbers of horses and cattle decreased Recommendations to establish power. Bentley said they worshipped gradually from 202,000 head in 1919 Deception Creek and Coram Nearing after the incident. to 146,000 in 1930—a 26-percent drop. Experimental Forests were forwarded to Bentley became superintendent at the Sheep numbers went from 988,000 to Washington, but no immediate answers Deception Creek Experimental Forest in 765,000 during the same period. The were forthcoming. When the answers 1937. Working under the supervision of human population also dropped in the came, they were positive. a silviculturist, he led crews developing plains. In the mountains to the west, planting experiments and special cutting the distressing economic conditions studies. Bentley served at Deception meant forest land was rapidly being cut Where the Tall Timber Creek until 1942, when he left the Forest over and abandoned as tax-delinquent Grew Service. He said, “It became obvious property. that without a college degree I’d reached The Federal Government began to the maximum advancement.” emphasize land-use planning as one tool Deception Creek Experimental Forest While at Deception Creek, the in its efforts to combat the depression. was established in 1933 in the heart of Bentley family was assigned a house These plans placed demands on the one of the most productive forest areas “with nice hardwood floors, plastered Station for various kinds of data about in the Rocky Mountains. Priest River walls and heated by a furnace.” Bentley standing timber species, growth, size, had been supervised directly by Rocky said the home was treated with respect. and removal. The Station’s annual report Mountain Station Director George Loggers took off their caulked boots to for 1934 said it was satisfying to have Jemison with advice by the Divisions sit on the front porch during summer various Federal agencies using its data of Silviculture and Fire, but when he evenings, and Forest Service personnel in connection with livestock loans and left the responsibility largely passed to wouldn’t sit on the family davenport land evaluation. Gisborne’s Fire Research Some of the Northern Rocky Division, although Mountain Station’s programs, Forest Silviculture remained Survey for example, were maintained responsible for many activ- as in earlier years with money and ities. Fire research activities manpower help from Region 1. Survey were growing, and eventu- work was done largely by men assigned ally there was no room to the Station from the Region for short for a strong silvicultural periods of time, but lack of funds meant program at Priest River. the cycle between surveys was too long. So Priest River became the To this day, pressure to reduce cycle center for fire research and time remains, regardless of the area of Deception Creek led the the country, because users of survey way in silvicultural studies.

–39 until a protective blanket was thrown over it. Some things weren’t ultra- modern, however. Bentley said the caretaker at the nearby Riverside Mine once invited the Deception Creek ladies, including his wife Doris, for a special visit to inspect a newly installed flush toilet. Western white pine was by far the most valuable tree in great supply in the region, but it was declining because of its susceptibility to fire and insect and disease attacks. Funds were available to make valiant attempts to control fire, blister rust, and the mountain pine beetle, so the hard question of whether it was economically feasible to grow white pine was deferred (Wellner 1976), and Station silvicultural research continued to focus on white pine. Deception Creek The headquarters compound at Deception Creek in the 1940s. The 160 acres was a good place to do that. surrounding the headquarters was once a homestead claim. Most of the white pine was cut in 1914 and 1915, leaving a stand of grand fir and hemlock. The Deception Creek, 22 miles from young white pines adjacent to the buildings in this scene came in after the Coeur d’Alene, consisted of 3,520 acres land next to the old homestead buildings was cleared from about 1905 to 1910 that included large stands of old-growth (Wellner and Foiles 1951). white pine and associated species. It was an excellent place for timber manage- ment and forest ecology research, and report by Gisborne in 1942 showed just constituted the total technical staff, with even after the white pine there declined how trying the times were at Deception Miss Johnson continuing to serve as markedly in the 1940s it thrived as a Creek and Priest River: compilation clerk and stenographer for center for regeneration, growth, and the division. A high school boy served at Deception Creek Experimental Forest genetic studies. Fire effects, insect and …the major effort of both silvicultural disease, watershed, and soils studies and a college professor at Priest River and fire research has been to maintain Experimental Forest as temporary were added after the early years (Jain the continuity and standards of the most assistants during most of June, July, and and Graham 1996). essential long-time research projects August. Three Civilian Public Service The forest included the 330-acre which were under way when the war men from the R-1 smokejumper squad started. Gisborne, Lyman, and Helmers Montford Creek Natural Area, which was set aside as a sample of virgin, old- growth timber in the western white pine type. Deception Creek was divided into five blocks for research and demonstra- tion purposes. In addition to Montford Creek, two blocks were for small-plot studies, one for continuing tests of tree vigor after selection cutting, and one for demonstrations. As was true for every unit throughout Station history, the research program at Deception Creek grew or shrank with the national economic situation and the unstable nature of Federal funding. World War II had many effects. One might have included a little bit of good with the bad. In 1942, the Station combined the Fire and Silvics divisions under Harry Gisborne to conserve funds. That probably ended most of the This aerial view of part of Deception Creek in 1957 included more than 20 reported rivalry that strained relations study and demonstration areas featuring various types of regeneration meth- between the two units. However, a ods and stand ages.

40– helped on the silvicultural fall plot year to handle the infusion of New Deal work from September 15 to November program workers with trained temporary 25. One of these men is being used supervisors. Civilian Conservation throughout the winter at Missoula on compilation of plot data, while two others Corps (CCC) camps were established are serving as caretakers at Deception at Priest River, Deception Creek, and Creek. These men receive no salary Coram. The young men at these camps and cost us only $5 per month plus were under off-duty supervision by their actual travel and subsistence. the U.S. Army, and were employed on Forest Service projects during work Despite the obstacles, research hours. Road construction was the major produced useful results over the long activity, but they did other things such term. Ray Boyd summarized a few of as establishing thinning and stand them from the early years of silvicultural improvement plots, treating old burns research (Boyd 1960) in a leaflet de- Elizabeth Reinhardt, research forester to reduce fire hazards, pullingRibes scribing Deception Creek: in the fire effects unit, collected sam- bushes, poisoning rodents, planting ples from a cutting unit at Deception • White pine regenerated well trees, and making timber surveys of the naturally following strip clear Creek in 1986 before crews from the Fernan Ranger District burned slash. experimental forests. The camp at Priest cutting, shelterwood, and seed River was a full-year operation, the tree cuttings, except on south and Coram camp closed for half the winter southwest exposure slopes. and Deception Creek operated only in being studied. Other studies included the summer. • Planting was the best artificial fire effects on sedimentation and soil nu- NIRA funds were used to make major regeneration method. Direct trients, management effects on overstory improvements at Priest River. In fact, seeding was often successful, and understory species composition, most of the buildings currently at Priest but not as dependable. growth and yield, forest genetics, and River were constructed at this time. A • Thinning usually proved to be root disease (Jain and Graham 1996). fire-weather observation tower, a four- a poor investment in white pine The multidisciplinary nature of room cottage, five three-room dwellings, stands of pole-sized trees, unless the research that developed was reflected garages, a gas house, a water system, thinnings could be sold. Thinning in studies started in the mid-1980s. and electric power lines were built. by removing commercial-sized Research Forester Russ Graham an- New facilities also were constructed at timber could be successful without nounced plans to harvest 100 acres Deception Creek and Fort Keogh. reducing general productivity. of old-growth timber for silvicultural The intensity of cooperative research research at Deception Creek and in- • Carefully designed selective cutting with the Bureau of Animal Industry vited others to participate. Fire Effects in mature stands was useful to at Fort Keogh was increased in 1934, Project Leader Jim Brown wanted to salvage weak or diseased trees, aid particularly studies of artificial reseeding test existing fuel consumption models blister rust control, and develop techniques for the range on the short- and develop new ones, so personnel good distribution of age classes, grass plains of eastern Montana (Crafts in his unit took advantage of the op- although it could not be safely 1938). portunity to design burns of the logging used where less than half the trees In addition to experimental forests, slash to gain new data. Fire manage- had excellent or good vigor. new experimental ranges were proposed ment personnel from the Fernan Ranger during this period as the Station saw These summaries are presented District handled the burning. When the opportunities for expansion, particularly to show the scope of early silvicul- fire work was done, personnel from the with the passage of the Taylor Grazing tural research within the Station, and Station’s silviculture and pathology unit Act. The act was of great importance in to illustrate how the studies resulted in at the Moscow moved in to plant tree the West. Its passage in 1934 effectively specific management guidelines. Later seedlings and determine how the soil ended previously free and unregulated research became progressively broader was impacted by the fire INTercom( grazing use of vast acreages of public as it addressed more general problems 7/24/86). and more scientific disciplines were lands and introduced Federal protection included. and management of the lands and their By the 1990s, research at Deception resources. Creek involved studies of how forest The Boys Roll Up Their Among other things, the Taylor management affects ecosystem struc- Sleeves—The CCC Era Grazing Act shaped the Bureau of Land tures and functions. Scientists assumed Management’s range management that clearcuts probably would be used program. The act also reversed the long- less in future forest management. Regular appropriations were reduced standing Federal policy of encouraging Therefore, many variations in both even- in 1934, but the Station was much settlement by granting homestead age and uneven-age silviculture were better prepared than in the previous ownership of public lands to farmers.

–41 Much of this land in the semi-arid West which silvicultural research was unsuitable for crop agriculture, and was operating. several million acres were reacquired I. T. Haig, who had through purchase by the Federal studied western white Government when the homesteaders pine at Priest River for went bankrupt during drought years 12 years, transferred into (USDI 1984). the Washington Office, The most serious drought then on and Ken Davis, field su- record in eastern Montana occurred in perintendent at Deception 1934. Miles City, for example, received Creek, took on responsibil- only 5.5 inches of precipitation for the ity for leading western entire year. Some of the range research white pine research. Davis focused on artificial reseeding of went on in later years abandoned dry-land ranches. Proposals to serve as head of the for experimental ranges at Rochester Forestry Department in the Basin and Vigilante in the Beaverhead University of Michigan’s National Forest in Montana were made School of Natural to accommodate new research on high Resources. Lloyd Hornby, mountain ranges. Experimental forests who had transferred from at Clearwater and Pleasant Valley, Idaho, fire control to the Station, to address ponderosa pine research were was in charge of silvicul- also proposed. ture research. Fire research, under Gisborne, When Melvin Bradner produced a technique for measuring became acting director of dryness and flammability of dead the Station in 1938, white branchwood and duff under field pine was still the backbone conditions. By this time, the results of the forest products The majestic, commercially valuable western white pine long was the mainstay of the timber industry of Gisborne’s fire control planning industry as it had been in northern Idaho. Its decline due to logging and ef- and fire danger measurement research since pioneer days. It was fects of fire, insects, and blister rust caused Station were so good that they were applied the only Inland Empire scientists to begin focusing their attention on other by National Forests and various State species able to compete in species during the 1930s. and private fire protective systems. The the large market centers research results guided organizational of the U.S. closer to major planning for manpower and physical timber supplies. white pine declined, research began to facilities needed in fire control. In Western white pine commanded shift slowly toward western larch. Once Region 1 the improved efficiencies premium prices because of its many Station researchers moved their focus to in construction and location of fire favorable characteristics. Its wood larch, they assembled a huge knowledge lookouts and transportation systems, was straight grained, not resinous, and base to guide management of the species along with allocation of smoke chasers, relatively easy to machine because it in the northern Rockies. Their field labo- resulted in an estimated 20-percent was softer than the wood of many other ratory, the Coram Experimental Forest, reduction in fire fighting costs. conifers. Clear grades did not shrink was to become recognized as a world During the depression years, there or swell very much with moisture center for larch information. was a strong feeling that lumbering was changes and therefore were desirable for and would continue to be the major high-value uses such as pattern making, industry of the Inland Empire (north- furniture making, and home hobby proj- Learning About Larch eastern Washington, northern Idaho, ects. Most grades were highly desired and Montana west of the Continental for the manufacture of moldings and Divide). The Anaconda Copper trim boards, products that carried higher The Coram Experimental Forest Company, which exerted tremendous retail prices than general construction was established in 1933 on 7,460 acres political and economic influence in lumber. White pine could be processed within the Flathead National Forest. Montana, expressed interest in the pos- to produce decorative plywood as well Western larch and Douglas-fir were the sibilities of practicing sustained yield as plywood for industrial uses (Burns dominant tree species. Many were older forestry on its considerable acreage of and Honkala 1990). than 300 and a few larch were more than forest lands. In contrast, however, many The species had problems with fire, 500 years of age. Second-growth trees private landowners were liquidating insects, and disease, and these problems ranged in age from 5 to more than 50. their investments by clearcutting due continued to serve as much of the Earlier work was done at Coram, but to distressed economic conditions. In justification for the Station’s research Station research began there in earnest the 1930s, this was the environment in program in the 1930s. But, as western in 1948 (Shearer 1996).

42– The new emphasis on wildlife habitat featured establishing permanent study plots within the Coram Research Natural Area, which included 839 acres in an undisturbed area of old-growth forest. As in other natural areas, no tim- ber cutting of any kind was permitted, and controlled fires used in other parts of Two leaders in western larch research, the experimental forest also Ray Shearer (left) and Wyman Schmidt, were prohibited. were equally at home in the Missoula One result of research Forestry Sciences Lab and in the field at that included plots in the Coram. natural area was a summary of studies of breeding birds. As part of his master’s Fifty years after Station scientists degree program at the concentrated on work at Coram, University of Montana, Research Silviculturist Ray Shearer Zoologist Bret Tobalske studied the site-specific, results at Coram and wrote a detailed summary of all the presence of 32 species of small birds other program study sites in the Rocky studies conducted there and the results in various small logged areas and the Mountains had application to manage- (Shearer and Kempf 1999). Shearer, undisturbed natural area plots. The re- ment of coniferous forests in general Project Leader Wyman Schmidt, and sults showed the significance of logging (Shearer and Kempf 1999). Forester Jack Schmidt were the guiding methods and the number of snags left on Research results from Coram studies lights over many years in making Coram the sites in maintaining bird populations. had been presented in more than 200 a successful experimental forest. The Station research paper presenting publications by 1997. Shearer was senior Shearer summarized the research by the findings included numerous manage- author of 29, Wyman Schmidt produced decade: ment recommendations. 20. Jack Schmidt provided data for • Studies in the late 1940s and the The first comprehensive research many publications, and was a co-author 1950s determined how to regenerate and development larch and other conifers naturally program in the Northern using even- and uneven-age cutting Rocky Mountains to strategies coupled with a wide evaluate multiple factors range of site preparation methods. associated with intensive forest management was • Research in the 1960s centered centered at Coram (see on how to regenerate larch using “Special Programs Bring seeding and planting and how young Special Problems and larch forests, grown with a wide Achievements,” chapter range of tree densities, respond 11). In 1974, a multidisci- in growth, understory vegetation plinary team used Coram to development, water use, and insect, investigate alternative tree disease, and animal interactions. harvesting practices that • Studies in the 1970s and 1980s promote intensive, environ- determined how to establish desired mentally compatible, tree tree mixtures after cutting leaving utilization. Participants had varying amounts of woody residue, skills in engineering, wood determined effects of thinning on technology, economics, tree and understory vegetation meteorology, microbiology, development, and sought to reduce mycology, pathology, entomology, silviculture, insect and disease problems, and Participants in a novel Station research and develop- enhance watershed, esthetic, and bird fire management, hydrol- ment program studied numerous techniques at and other wildlife habitat values. ogy, and wildlife habitat. Coram for harvesting and regenerating larch effec- Although the studies were tively, such as this strip thinning operation in a 30- to 40-year-old larch and lodgepole pine stand.

–43 of several. Jack Schmidt served as species in the northern Rockies, had superintendent and the research contact potential to produce seedlings that could person for Coram for many years. better survive freezing, a subject of great Early in Coram’s history, researchers interest to foresters in Iceland, Germany, began to collect climate data, a process and Switzerland. Other genetics work automated to a great extent later with had potential to extend the range of the advanced instrumentation. Data col- hardy larches southward in the U.S. lected at 18 locations at various times by improving resistance to insects and were summarized and published by diseases (Tippets 1996a). researchers from Missoula in 1984. In Not all the genetics research on larch the late 1990s, seven climate stations originated at Coram. Research Forester were operating at Coram, measuring Clint Carlson and University of Montana air, soil and water temperatures; wind Professor George Blake found rare directions and intensities; precipitation; offspring of western and alpine larch stream flows; and relative humidity produced by natural cross-pollination Station Director Roger Bay unveiled (Shearer 1996). the plaque recognizing Coram as a growing on a rocky outcrop in the Carlton In 1976, Coram entered the interna- Biosphere Reserve during dedication Ridge Research Natural Area in the late tional arena in a big way. It and nearby ceremonies in 1980. 1960s. Carlson produced additional Glacier National Park were designated hybrids through controlled cross-pollina- as Biosphere Reserves by the United tion and sent seeds to Iceland for growth Nations Educational, Scientific, and The 521-page proceedings (Schmidt trials on harsh sites. Seedlings were Cultural Organization (UNESCO). and McDonald 1995), published by the planted in eastern and western Canada, UNESCO followed up in 1979 with a Station, included more than 100 papers and a commercial tree grower in the U.S. similar designation for Waterton Lakes by authors from 20 countries (Kingsbury was interested in the hybrids. National Park in Canada, which abuts 1992). It was the largest compendium of A small greenhouse was built at the Glacier Park. The trio of special areas information on larch ever issued. Many Forestry Sciences Lab in Missoula to became known as “The Crown of the of the papers by U.S. scientists reported perform tests in several environments Continent Biosphere Reserves.” on research wholly or partly conducted and develop additional hybrids. Some The UNESCO program sought, at Coram. 700 hybrids were growing in the green- where possible, to pair one manipulated A highlight of symposium activities house by the early 1990s. The work research area, such as Coram, with one was establishment of the International was jointly funded by the Station and essentially preserved area. Glacier and Larix Arboretum, featuring plantings Region 1. Coram were a good fit because they of all larch species of the world, on a “This study demonstrates the were very close to each other and had 1.2-acre site next to the Coram forest importance of Research Natural Areas similar terrain, soil, plants, and animal headquarters at Hungry Horse. The in forestry research,” Carlson said. populations. Their designations were goal was to provide a place for species “Studies conducted in these RNA’s, commemorated at a joint ceremony comparisons and genetics research. It such as Carlton Ridge, lead to a better featuring Station, Flathead National was a large undertaking. Spanning much understanding of forest ecosystems and Forest, Park Service, and U.N. officials. of southern Canada and the northern more appropriate management of forest The designation assured that research United States, larch forests also cross resources” (INTercom June/93). from Coram on the ecology and man- parts of Western Europe and Eurasia. Coram was rich in demonstration agement of western larch forests would The trees occur as 10 species with sites, and most were within short walk- be shared worldwide. The purpose of the numerous varieties and hybrids. ing distance from roads. A self-guided three reserves was to play a major role Shearer and Jack Schmidt designed auto tour featured stops at eight sites, in protecting and conserving examples the arboretum, and Schmidt assumed plus the entrance to two nature trails of the world’s alpine and subalpine the maintenance job, making annual that provided outdoor classrooms for ecosystems, provide scientific research measurements of survival and growth schools. Guided tours were available. opportunities, and monitor the sustain- of all the plantings. He took photos as For example, Region 1 held a 1-day field ability of development. part of the assessments, so the informa- tour as part of its annual meeting of for- Coram added to its status as an tion made available at Coram included est timber staff officers in 1986. Timber international center for larch research images of virtually all the types of Management Director John Hughes said in 1992. Wyman Schmidt chaired the larch found in forests worldwide. These of the event, “The group was especially first comprehensive examination of photos added to Coram imagery already interested in viewing the western larch larch species of the world, a symposium available to scientists in several sets of studies because much of what Region 1 that drew 340 participants to Whitefish, aerial photos taken in the 1950s. is doing regarding management of larch Montana. The gathering was sponsored Larch genetics research was is based on information gained from re- by 10 natural resource agencies and important. Hybrids from western and search conducted at Coram” (INTercom organizations in the U.S. and Canada. alpine larch, the two naturally occurring 5/29/86).

44– Forester Jack converting the failed dryland farms Schmidt installed an within the land utilization projects identification sign to highly productive rangelands. The for Japanese larch at the International facility, near Miles City, Montana, was Larix Arboretum operated by USDA’s Bureau of Animal established in 1992 Industry. Station researchers began next to Coram cooperative work there in 1924 shortly Experimental Forest after the area was established as a headquarters. research site when Congress transferred the land from the U.S. Army to USDA (Wellner 1976). Fort Keogh originally was set aside as a military post following the Battle of Little Big Horn in which General George Custer and his men were over- whelmed by Indian warriors. It included Greening the Grasslands The National Grasslands had a check- 55,000 acres southwest of Miles City, and Summer Ranges ered history. Much of the land within and was composed mainly of native and near them was homesteaded late, grasslands typical of the Northern Great some in the 1910-20 era. The family Plains that historically supported vast After the Northern Rocky Mountain farms did fairly well for a time, but in numbers of buffalo (Schmidt and Friede and Intermountain Stations merged the late 1920s and early 1930s grasshop- 1996). in 1954, the tendency was to think pers, dust storms, and the collapse of Early cooperative research at Fort of the northern part of the territory farm prices wiped them out. The Federal Keogh included evaluations of sheep, as the forestry research area and the Government stepped in, bought up the turkeys, swine, horses, and cattle and southern part as the center of range and ruined farm land, and resettled farmers their relationship to the range. The work watershed research. This was not the to irrigated areas where crop agriculture was the major part of the total Northern case throughout the time the Northern was sustainable. The 4 million acres Rocky Mountain Station range program. Rocky Mountain Station existed as of utilization areas acquired by the It included studies of forage plant a separate entity. Although Station Government in the Northern Great development and range readiness for research continued to concentrate on Plains were first administered by the livestock grazing, evaluations of grazing fire and silvicultural studies as it had Farm Security Administration; they were impacts, studies of grazing patterns in early days at Priest River, range transferred to the Soil Conservation and range utilization, and development research begun in a small way in the Service in 1941. The Forest Service was in nurseries of grasses and legumes 1920s was expanded as management given jurisdiction in 1954. suitable for improving rangelands. Tony problems increased in Region 1. The The Montana land utilization acreage Evanko, retired Station range scientist, common territory of both the Region was transferred in 1958 to the Bureau thought the most important studies and Station included vast rangelands of Land Management, despite Forest were of range readiness, with work on in eastern Montana, North Dakota, Service protests, especially by Johnny range revegetation next in importance and part of South Dakota, plus many Forsman, Supervisor of the Custer (interview, 2005). higher elevation summer grazing areas National Forest. He called the transfer Management of the extensive grass- important to livestock operations. “a tragic mistake.” The rest of the lands lands in the land utilization project areas Until 1934, virtually the entire region (about 1.2 million acres) became part had an unusual cooperative aspect. The had experienced dramatic increases in of the National Forest System and were Soil Conservation Service had promoted livestock use for almost a half century. designated as National Grasslands in formation of large grazing associations In early years of the Forest Service, 1961. The National Grasslands came to when it was responsible for the lands, policies strongly favored increased be recognized as some of the best graz- and the Forest Service continued to have use of public rangelands in the Region ing lands in the semi-arid West (Baker close relationships with these groups. 1 National Forests. Later, demands and others 1993). Northern Rocky By working with the boards of for permits increased use on many Mountain Station research played a directors of the associations, rather allotments into the early 1930s even as major role in the improved management than individual stockmen, the Forest overuse became apparent (Wyckoff and that resulted in that happy situation and Service could resolve issues and transfer Hansen 1991). In the Great Plains part in parallel improvements in the moun- research results most effectively. The of Region 1, a combination of forces tain grazing areas in the National Forests Region 1 associations ultimately orga- resulted in “dust bowl” conditions that to the west. nized into an Association of National led to New Deal land utilization projects Research at what became known as Grasslands, which operated nationally. and subsequent creation of National the Fort Keogh Livestock and Range Private lands were intermingled with Grasslands. Research Laboratory was a key to public lands in the grassland areas,

–45 so through communication with the associations, management policies and research results were applied to almost twice the 1.2 million grassland acres under the jurisdiction of the Custer National Forest (Baker and others 1993). Evanko said working relations in the area “were the best encountered in my career, especially with private land own- ers—both ranchers and farmers—whose utilization of research information was most rewarding and beneficial to all parties.” More than 1 million acres of privately owned lands were seeded in the late 1930s and early 1940s as a result of the range research programs conducted by the Station at Fort Keogh (Baker and others 1993). Improvements The first CCC camp in Region 1 was set up in 1933 at the Ruby River Ranger in the grasslands and higher elevation Station (Guth and Cohen 1991) where the Vigilante Experimental Range was established in 1935. The building at far right, erected before 1925, became an ranges in National Forests to the west experimental range cottage. continued, and Evanko attributed some of them to valuable range and watershed information generated by Station scien- tists at the Research Center in Spokane, and other grasslands continued to ben- acters. Miscreants were tried by “miners’ which opened in 1948. efit from studies of plant genetics and courts,” but justice apparently was too reproduction, nutrition and growth of slow and unevenly applied to suit some beef cattle, and range pasture develop- residents. They formed a Vigilante ment, improvement, and management Committee patterned after an earlier (Schmidt and Friede 1996). The 1954 group in San Francisco and launched 1935 reorganization also assigned primary a wave of lynchings. In 6 weeks, the Forest Service research responsibilities Montana Vigilantes hanged 22 men after in North Dakota, western South Dakota, “trials” conducted in secrecy. On one oc- and eastern Washington to other casion, the Vigilantes hanged a man for Northern Rocky Stations. murder while his victim was still alive. Mountain Forest & Range The Vigilante Experimental Range The victim later recovered (Schmittroth Experiment Station was established in 1935 on 8,468 acres 1998). in the Beaverhead National Forest Development and use of the near Alder to study the problems of Vigilante Experimental Range appears Missoula Headquarters the high-elevation summer ranges to have been nearly as inconsistent as Bernice Exp. Forest in southwestern Montana. Mountain the early frontier justice in the area. Coop Unit – Fort Keough bunchgrass studies had begun there in The original plan was to divide the Coram Exp. Forest 1924, but were discontinued in 1928, so whole area into pastures for seasonal Deception Creek Exp. Forest the establishment marked a reentry into grazing and other management studies. Priest River Exp. Forest that line of research (Crafts 1938). A This plan was abandoned, presumably Vigilante Exp. Range 3,937-acre cattle allotment was fenced for lack of funds. The proposal to dis- and used for grazing experiments. A establish the range in 1962 said “only 126-acre area within a large sheep limited range research has been done, allotment was fenced and also used for and no studies of grazing techniques.” Fort Keogh was assigned to the research. The range was closed at the start of Agricultural Research Service as part The Forest Service was adept at World War II and reactived in 1948, of the 1954 USDA reorganization. selecting names for its facilities that but initially the post-war staff consisted Research continued in cooperation with conjured up romantic images of the of a single scientist. Nevertheless, the Montana Agricultural Experiment “Old West,” and Vigilante was a prime research at Vigilante produced useful Station, Montana State University. example. It was located in the Virginia results. Although Forest Service research no City-Bannack area where gold strikes Seeding trials started shortly after longer was directly involved, lands in 1863 caused a mass influx of miners Vigilante was established formed part of managed by the Custer National Forest accompanied by assorted unsavory char- the basis for a Department of Agriculture

46– The “south house” continue to provide useful data. Montana where Station State University continued some studies personnel lived at Vigilante after administration of the when the Vigilante Experimental Range area was returned to the National Forest. was an active re- Sagebrush-grass rangeland manage- search site, 1935-41 ment in Region 1 also benefited from and 1954-62. The results of research at the U.S. Sheep photo was taken in Experiment Station near Dubois, Idaho. 1987. The sheep station’s experimental area represented several major ecosystems and included thousands of acres in the Centennial Mountains in Montana. Although of less importance than in Region 4, spring-fall grazing studies conducted by Intermountain Station scientists, including use of fire as a man- bulletin, Regrassing Montana Range A scale house was built near agement tool, were applicable to many Lands, published in 1943. After the Cottonwood Creek where Station re- Region 1 areas. site reopened in 1954, Tony Evanko, searchers weighed cattle as part of their the “one-man staff,” did research that studies. Results of the cattle-weighing resulted in publications on methods research had benefits in some cases. One World War II Intervenes to control undesirable range plants. finding was that weight gains stopped Seasonal trends in cattle weights were or diminished after mid-September, defined over a 3-year period and the an incentive for ranchers to remove Concerns about decreasing funding results were of interest to area stockmen. their stock from the public lands earlier from New Deal emergency programs Range Scientist Jack Schmautz authored than was customary, giving the range proved to be well-founded, because by publications on the weight gain work a slightly longer rest period. Retired 1940 the regular research appropriations and vegetation preferences of cattle on Ranger Dan Chisholm said in 2005 that for fire, silviculture, and forest products summer range. Schmautz left the Station years later he intended to sell the scales were 30 percent less than in 1931 when to join the Region 1 range management as surplus property. When he arrived at all lines of research were transferred staff in the early 1960s. Some of the the site, he found that persons unknown from Region 1 to the Northern Rocky data from vegetation surveys and plots had made off with the scales (Tippets Mountain Station (Annual Report, at Vigilante were used by Region 1 in interview, 2005). NRM 1940). The country still had not The CCC-built facilities, plus an completely pulled out of the Great 1961 to develop a simplified approach to older four-room dwelling, were turned Depression, although the economic estimate forage utilization. over to the Beaverhead National Forest situation had improved from the worst The first Civilian Conservation Corps in 1963 when the experimental range days. But along with the improvement, camp in Region 1 was established at was disestablished. The value of the a new uncertainty was brought about by Vigilante in 1933. Corpsmen built most outhouse was listed as $100.42 in the the start of World War II in Europe in of the improvements used by Station official property transfer records. No the late 1930’s. scientists and seasonal workers over indication was given as to how that World War II created a major impact the years. These included a three-room figure was determined. Earlier, the on the Northern Rocky Mountain dwelling, a water system, a combination Ranger Station had become the Ruby Station, just as it did on almost every woodshed and garage, a corral, more River Work Center, and administration aspect of American life. Many Forest than 12 miles of fence, and an outdoor of its area was assigned to the Sheridan Service employees were drafted or vol- toilet. Ranger District. unteered for military service. Rationing Someone involved in the construction The disestablishment recommenda- of resources such as gasoline, rubber, knew at least part of Vigilante history tion (Shepherd 1962) gave two main metals, wood, and other materials in the area. The mark “3-7-77” was set reasons for returning the Vigilante acre- needed for the war effort meant they into the brick work of the dwelling’s age to National Forest management: (1) weren’t available for civilian pursuits. fireplace. Local legend said this mark The area represented only one of several In many areas of research, the programs was branded or painted on the doors of kinds of range for which research was were essentially put on hold for the suspected “bad guys” by the Vigilantes. needed; and (2) the Station did not have duration of the war. It was said to represent the grave the funds to develop and operate Vigilante Thirteen men and women from the villain would occupy if he didn’t get out as an effective experimental facility. Station were in military service, and of the territory—a space 3 feet wide, 7 The Beaverhead National Forest only one of the vacant positions was feet long, and 77 inches deep (Prevedel agreed to maintain many of the study filled, largely because the salary and interview, 2005). plots that Station scientists said would operating expense funds for the vacant

–47 recovery for Forest Service research at Evenden, assisted by Phil Johnson, the Northern Rocky Mountain Station. gave scientific advice for a project to Expectations were that the research pro- control an outbreak of the Douglas-fir grams that had been reduced during the tussock moth that threatened to defoli- war would not only regain their former ate 400,000 acres of forest in northern vigor, but also grow. Idaho. Eleven assorted aircraft (three The war had caused a backlog in the crashed during the project) sprayed dissemination of research results. The one pound of DDT in one gallon of oil Forest Research Council was revived in per acre in the area centered in Latah Missoula, and forest products research at County. the various Stations was organized into a Coincidentally, the western spruce newly formed Forest Utilization Service budworm had begun to infest vast areas conceived by the Washington Office. Its in Oregon and Washington. The appar- concept was to have utilization experts ent success of the Idaho tussock moth Not only the men went to war. Helen B. at the Stations capable of discerning project caused Bureau of Entomology Davis, a member of the clerical staff of forest products industry research needs personnel to test the spray success- the Northern Rocky Mountain Station, (mainly for consideration at the Forest fully against the budworm in 1948. served in the Women’s Army Corps. Products Lab), and disseminating utili- Thereafter, 9 million acres were sprayed zation research findings to industry. during the 1949-58 period, mostly in In American society “research” was Oregon, Washington, and Idaho but also positions had gone to war, too. The a word used more frequently in relation in Montana and the northern part of money simply wasn’t there to allow the to human and industrial events than ever Yellowstone National Park (Furniss, in Station to hire anyone. Forest Survey before. Every man and woman on the was busy because of the relatively high preparation). street knew that the atomic bomb was priority given to working with the War the result of scientific research. People Production Board. Silviculture research, were associating the word “research” at the other extreme, was down to a one- The Research Center with progress. Three bills were intro- man effort. duced in Congress in 1946 to expand Concept World War II was a relatively short nearly all types of scientific research. Dr. span in the history of the Northern Vannever Bush, high-profile director of Rocky Mountain Station, but a signifi- Ed Kotok, Sr. was the Deputy Chief the U.S. Office of Scientific Research cant one. Not only did many of the staff for Research in 1946 and he promoted and Development, wrote Science the leave for military service, but some the concept of research centers, some Endless Frontier. The Stations strove to never returned to the Forest Service after of them at existing experimental forests develop statements of research needs in the war. Other resources necessary for and ranges. (His son, Ed Kotok, Jr. concert with the Bush report, hoping for the conduct of research weren’t avail- headed the Forest Utilization Service more forestry research support. able because the military had first call on unit at the Intermountain Station in As expected, lumber demand them. Much of the activity that did go the 1960s). Centers were intended to increased dramatically during the war, on was related to the war effort. be tied to a geographical area or a but the lumber went to the war effort Some degree of post-war planning single-problem area, and to be staffed and few new homes were built. Post-war was initiated before the war ended and it by researchers from more than one demand for housing was spurred by the provided an opportunity to think about discipline. formation of new families as ex-service- change both in research and in organiza- Mel Bradner, who had served as men married and reentered the civilian tion. Post-war planning at the Northern Northern Rocky Mountain Station labor force. Lumber demand doubled Rocky Mountain Station foresaw chang- Director since 1938, died in early 1946 and the cut from the National Forests in es from the over-cutting taking place in and was replaced by Charles L. Tebbe. 1946 increased 200 percent over the av- the forests of Idaho and Montana toward In the interim, Harry Gisborne, serving erage for the previous five years. Forest a sustained-yield management system. as Acting Station Director in 1946, an- Service research funding, however, A shift from western white pine as the nounced the establishment of a western remained down. premier timber species to greater utiliza- Montana forest research work center in Everything about timber gained tion of western larch and lodgepole pine Missoula. It was to be one of several importance in the Forest Service, was also predicted. included in long-range plans developed including programs to control forest in- under Deputy Chief Kotok’s concept sects that defoliated or killed trees. Two of research centers. Investigations con- Research Recovers entomologists who later transferred ducted by researchers at the Missoula to the Intermountain Station provided center included: technical guidance in 1947 for the larg- World War II ended in August of est aerial spraying project undertaken • Timber harvesting methods to 1945, beginning a post-war period of up to that time in western forests. Jim increase the yield of forest products

48– • Regenerating forests of Forest Management Research (INT following logging 1958). When Wellner left Spokane, he 1951 was replaced by Bob Callaham, who • Improving young timber stands by later became Director of the Pacific cultural practices such as thinning Southwest Station. A press release quoted Gisborne Northern Rocky “Empire” may have been a fitting as saying, “Expansion of this kind Mountain Forest & Range descriptive word for the Spokane of research in western Montana is Experiment Station operation in more ways than one. Al urgently needed…[because] much Stage recalled, “In those days, Research of the Station’s forest research has Centers were on the verge of becoming heretofore been concentrated in the more Missoula Headquarters little Experiment Stations. Their leaders intensively exploited white pine territory Inland Empire Research Center had considerable political pull. They of Idaho. Now because of the national No. Great Plains Research Center also had a very close involvement with scarcity of lumber, increasing demands Upper Columbia Research Center forest professionals in industry, the are being made on Montana forests Upper Missouri Research Center State, and the rest of the Forest Service” for all kinds of forest products” (NRM Bernice Exp. Forest (Stage 2003). 1946). Russell K. LeBarron, Chief of Coram Exp. Forest Stage noted that people concerned the Station’s Division of Silvicultural Deception Creek Exp. Forest with forest research and management Research, was put in charge of the new U.S. Range Livestock Exp. Station had an organization in Spokane called Missoula Research Center. Vigilante Exp. Range the Hoo Hoo Club, a place where Establishment of this center proved industry and Forest Service people timely. New markets for lodgepole pine got together once a month for lunch timber from the northern Rockies began and talked about problems. “And then to develop in 1947 as the pulp and paper headquarters, for coordinating research some of them would go talk to their industry in the Lake States sought new within disciplines among the centers. politicians,” he said. “And problems pulpwood supplies for the mills con- Having research centers at both Priest generated money. Money generated centrated there. The demands for timber River and Spokane was a very tempo- people, and that’s sort of how things species that practically couldn’t be given rary arrangement. Chuck Wellner was grew the way they did.” away prior to World War II were spec- named center leader for both operations. Stage pointed out that because all the tacular. The cut of timber from Region 1 Less than a year later, the Spokane orga- scientists at a Research Center reported National Forests rose 150 percent above nization was renamed the Inland Empire directly to the center leader, the orga- 1940 levels. Research Center. Wellner continued as nizations were long on cooperation. He Research centers were decidedly leader. Priest River was returned to its said, however, they were “rather shallow nonuniform. Each was assigned a geo- earlier designation as an experimental technically in any one field.” Stage graphic area that was normally, but not forest. Wellner said this change made believed this situation reversed later always, at or near an experimental forest no real difference—the two locations when centers were discontinued in favor or range. They were planned to solve already were being managed as one of research work units at laboratories. the primary management problems of (Wellner 1976). Some of the fundamental strengths an area, although some at times were as- At Spokane, plans called for studies of the centers led to abandonment of the signed problems not specific to the area. of: concept. Each center was specifically Usually a center had research involving • Converting old-growth forests identified in Congressional appropria- several functional fields, but this was not to managed forests tions measures. Some Forest Service always the case. By 1947, Forest Service administrators came to believe that Research had established 34 centers; 19 • Cutting young, second-growth strong center leaders and strong local more were authorized and established forests to obtain the most products ties lessened support of the broader that year. The plan was to have 80 • Determining the growth goals of the Stations. There was also centers eventually (Storey 1975). rate of forested areas unwanted pressure from Congress to By 1948, the Northern Rocky establish unneeded centers. In the future, Mountain Station was on the way to • Starting new forests, both Research leaders would be challenged reaching its goal of establishing research naturally and artificially to control the situation without losing centers at Bozeman, Priest River, Fort • Restoring depleted rangeland scientific creativity (Steen 1998). Keough, and Spokane, as well as the one to full productivity Organizational changes occurred in in Missoula. Under the research center the Washington Office as well as at the concept, each organization was headed by • Managing rangeland to Stations in the late 1940s. The Division a center leader who served as a line officer yield the most products of Forest Fire and Atmospheric Sciences in charge of all the research at the center, Wellner served as Center Leader for Research was established (West 1990), regardless of discipline. Division chiefs 10 years until he was named Chief of a development that was to be of great had the staff responsibility, at Station the Intermountain Station’s Division importance to the Station.

–49 Sticks for Cash The effectiveness of efforts to stem the losses of western white pine to blis- Because of the success of Harry Gisborne’s ter rust through Ribes eradication began earlier work with fuel moisture indicator to receive serious challenges, and a new sticks used in evaluating fire hazard, the problem labeled “pole blight” emerged. Station in 1948 was given the assignment Pole blight ravaged pole-sized stands of manufacturing the sticks for all the forest of western white pine, and its cause protective agencies west of the Mississippi and ways to control it were unknown. River. The job was transferred from Region 5 It joined the list of research problems (the California Region) to Priest River where addressed by the Station. 1,500 sets per year were manufactured at a Post-war shifts in agricultural live- cost of $1.50 per set. It was not big money, stock production were also reflected in but the fuel moisture indicator sticks became important tools in forecasting forest fire danger. changes in the Station’s range research program. In the Interior West, Sheep By 1954, the process of making indicator numbers were down 51 percent from sticks had been automated and moved to a their 1942 peak of 3.9 million; horses Forest Service warehouse in Spokane. A two- were in a steady decline from 450,000 man team worked 6 or 7 weeks each winter in 1930 to 173,000. But there were producing 1,800 sticks. All indicator sticks Chuck Wellner displayed the half- twice as many cattle as in 1938, reach- used at fire-weather stations were replaced inch versions of Harry Gisborne’s ing an all-time high of 1.8 million in annually (Hardy 1954). fuel moisture indicator sticks that earned a few extra dollars for the January 1945. On the Great Plains, Northern Rocky Mountain Station. wheat acreage was increasing because (Gisborne Collection, 98 (vii): 205) farmers were plowing fields that hadn’t been used in years. By 1950, the United States was already involved in a cold war with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. That summer, a hot war broke out in Korea as communist North Korea New Emphasis Areas Service research locations. In the invaded South Korea, immediately Northern Rocky Mountain Station area, involving the U.S. in the fighting. This wildlife research was done by a USFWS dramatic change in events was reflected As the 1940s came to a close, biologist located at the Missoula in the Station’s annual report. The changes occurring in the forest products Research Center (Annual Report, NRM authors wondered if events were leading industry began to influence changes in 1949). toward World War III, and what the the Station’s Forest Utilization Service The late 40s and early 50s continued Station’s role would be. program. Lodgepole pine, small in to feature change in research program It was also a time when the Forest size, growing at high elevations with emphases. Watershed management Service began viewing forest genetics difficult access and far from markets, research was assuming more importance as the “glamour item” within forestry had not been extensively utilized. Yet, in the eyes of forest managers by 1949, research. Significant and well-publicized the volume of lodgepole pine in the and the Station cited the need to inte- gains had been made in agricultural forests of the northern Rockies was grate watershed research into the area crop production. If productivity gains significant. The Station’s efforts to aid called “forest influences.” The allocation could be made in agriculture, why not industrial development were directed of funds for forest economics research in forestry? The question came naturally toward utilization of lodgepole pine began, adding a new dimension to the because commodity production as a in a developing pole industry, and in research programs. goal was common in the Forest Service aiding the pulp and paper industry’s Research programs within the at that time. This was reflected in the consideration of establishing pulp mills Stations, including the Northern Rocky Station’s mission statement: “The in the Inland Empire. Mountain, were still organized accord- Northern Rocky Mountain Station’s Federal funding for wildlife research ing to functional divisions—timber mission is to aid in the production of went to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife management, fire, range manage- timber, forage, and water (in harmony Service (USFWS), with none to the ment—but there was a realization that with animals).” Forest Service. However, because some integration was desirable and Some frustration was evident in a management of the National Forests should occur. It also was recognized 1948 annual report statement, “The obviously involved wildlife habitat, the that funds and people were still out of general public may not be aware that problem of addressing Forest Service balance with the research needs identi- Forest Service research is under way, or research needs in this area was met by fied by the Station (Annual Report, if they are, is skeptical about its value.” assigning USFWS personnel to Forest NRM 1948). Such frustrations and sentiments were

50– not unique to either the Station or the in Gisborne’s unit Barrows prepared with foam. They were hauled to the time. They have been voiced by many a detailed working plan and started top of a 150-foot tower with a rope and Forest Service researchers and research machine compilation of 23,000 punch- dropped at targets on the ground. Results administrators through the years. carded National Forest fire reports. This were “less than promising.” Developments in fire research were soon work was the foundation of an improved Despite Gisborne’s interest, he turned to make Forest Service research more design for fire control planning that cap- the entire Aerial Bombing Project over visible to the public and to demonstrate italized more fully on new knowledge of to Barrows, limiting his participation to its value. fire behavior in the northern Rockies and providing occasional advice. Massive, new equipment and techniques available fast-moving enterprises were really to field forces. not Gisborne’s thing. When the project Fire Research Takes off So Barrows did fulfill his obligation ended, he was reluctant to go along with with Barrows to resume work in the general fire sweeping conclusions based on limited control planning arena, but he made his data and experience. Big, high-tech mark using his boundless energy, organi- enterprises and quick results definitely Harry Gisborne convinced Jack zational skills, and military and political were Barrows’ thing. Barrows to join the Northern Rocky connections to introduce revolutionary The project sought to use wartime Mountain Station staff in 1946. Barrows “high-tech” methods into wildland fire bombsights, modern aircraft, and other was destined to carry fire research into research and management. innovations to make accurate drops and new realms made possible by wartime Barrows’ military assignments during try to find an ideal drop height. It was technological developments (Hardy World War II had included serving as a strongly backed by David Godwin, the 1983). Lieutenant Colonel on the staff of Gen. Forest Service Director of Fire Control, Gisborne and Barrows admired Curtis LeMay doing work related to the who was a close friend of Air Force each other. They had become close incendiary fire bombing of Japan. After Commander Hap Arnold. The first sea- spending 3 years formulating aerial friends during the 1930s when Barrows son was devoted to fitting the “bombs” bombing strategy and tactics with the conducted fire control and fire behavior with fins and fuses and preparing a fire Army Air Corps in the Pacific, he was workshops and later became Chief of site about 20 miles from Missoula. discharged and accepted the employ- Fire Control Training for the National The exciting part started in 1947. ment offer Gisborne had made in a Park Service. Gisborne thought Barrows A B-29 Superfortress and two P-47 letter while Barrows was still in the Air was exactly the right person to continue Thunderbolts arrived from Eglin Air Corps. Because of his military experi- research started by Lloyd Hornby, who Force Base and made many practice ence, Barrows was a natural choice as had developed the first basic principles runs, first over level ground and later in liaison between the Army Air Corps and for fire control planning. Barrows said mountainous terrain. The P-47s bombed Gisborne was “certainly a man that I the Forest Service in the cooperative a few fires caused by lightning near wanted to know and be associated with work that was necessary for the Aerial the end of the season; results of those because he was obviously way ahead Bombing Project to succeed. attacks are unknown. of his time. His concepts, his thinking, Gisborne was enthusiastic about the Hardy (1977) said, “This probably his vigorous approach to problems were Aerial Bombing Project. He had backed was the most publicized fire research absolutely infectious to people. He a few abortive attempts at testing water endeavor ever to occur in this Region inspired me to do things” (Hardy 1977). drops on fires in the 1930s. One was a (Region 1).” At a public ceremony at The 3-year Barrows-Gisborne asso- drop of an oak beer barrel filled with ciation didn’t turn out to be exactly what water from 250 feet. It created a hole Great Falls, the mayor christened the Gisborne envisioned. After less than a and a wet spot. “Looked as if someone B-29 the “Rocky Mountain Ranger.” month getting ready to analyze a huge had tried to drown out a badger,” said Frequent newspaper articles kept the backlog of fire reports to begin his plan- Gisborne’s close friend and cooperator public well-posted on developments in ning research, Barrows was detailed to Howard Flint (Hardy 1977). The next the project. Three progress reports were lead a new Aerial Bombing Project for try was with a specially built iron can. issued, the last an 83-page illustrated the Forest Service. According to Hardy, It broke “like a fresh egg dropped on document giving details of the research, Gisborne might have been a bit disap- a concrete walk.” Other attempts were recommendations, and conclusions. It pointed in this change, because Gisborne drops from a Ford Trimotor equipped was prepared jointly late in 1947 by had waited a long time to restart fire with a 100-gallon tank. This technique the Station and the Air Force Proving control planning work. But Gisborne eventually worked from 30 feet above Ground Command. had picked the right man to move the ground but didn’t provide enough water Ambitious plans were made for tests total program forward. to “faze a light grass fire.” in 1948. They included using bigger and “Barrows was not one to let anything Flint said Gisborne wondered if foam better bombs, trials of foam and chemi- stand still if he was convinced it should fire suppressants might be applied from cal retardants, bombing a large fire head, start moving,” Hardy said. Despite his the air. So for several hours he and a and formation bombing. None of this reassignment, during his first winter technician filled paper shopping bags came about. The project was terminated.

–51 Jack Barrows spoke oxygen tubes leading to the rear of the at the christen- cabin where the crew could chop and ing of the B-29 cascade dry ice. On a test flight, each Superfortress, “The Rocky Mountain man was tied to the plane by a rope in Ranger,” which case he fell out the door. Bob Johnson, was outfitted to founder of the Johnson Flying Service drop water in large that owned the plane, gave this account containers that of the flight: would burst on or above the ground We got to 26,000 feet but the darned as part of the Aerial thunderhead was moving up pretty near Bombing Project. as fast as we were. We finally got into and almost on top of it and they started letting loose the dry ice. But in the deal somebody back there either stepped on the oxygen tube or kicked it loose, letting it run all over the plane. I don’t know C. S. Crocker, Region 1 Chief of Fire vanished. Gisborne, who apparently kept what [happened], but they had no oxygen Control, blamed the old guard. He said, track of all sorts of people and things, and all at once Gisborne came busting up to the cockpit yelling “go down, go “There were too many Forest Service had met Langmuir in 1933. Barrows down, do down, we got no oxygen.” men that were back in the horse and said when Gisborne learned about the Gis’ face was purple. But anyway we buggy days” and didn’t want this kind new dry ice test results, “he just sparked took the nose down and we came down of work continued. A different view immediately and proceeded to find out pretty fast—a lot faster than we went up. was given by a project representative if it could become a tool in fire control” who attended an Air Force meeting at (Hardy 1977). The C-47 proved to be unsuitable the Pentagon: “I got the feeling that the Although the Forest Service did not for cloud-seeding, so Barrows used his junior officers were interested and sym- want to be involved in cloud-seeding connections to get a B-29 from Fairchild pathetic toward continuing the program, research because other agencies already Air Force Base. It was equipped with a but the senior officer, who was new, and were working in this area, Schaefer specially designed ice hopper and Forest presumed to represent the Secretary, was was invited to Priest River to visit for a Service radios. Although the plane very adamant that orders from above month in the summer of 1948. Informal made several test runs near Priest River were to discontinue it. I never learned meetings and experiments that included that summer, no clouds appeared that exactly why” (Hardy 1977). Gisborne and Barrows during his stay were suitable for a proper experiment. The idea of fighting wildfires with resulted in a sort of “bootleg” participa- Gisborne said he “got heavy pressure to the aid of aerial retardant drops was tion by the Station in cloud-seeding get busy and do something, go up and pretty much put on hold by the Forest research. ice a cloud, any cloud, and see what Service until 1954 when tests began in The next summer, Region 1 made a happens.” “But,” he said, “I am not California of dropping free-falling or contract C-47 aircraft available and it going to do that. I am not going to try to cascading water as part of “Operation was rigged with a dry-ice hopper and plug the gap by pulling a stunt instead of Firestop.” Producing new retardant technology became an important part of the Missoula Fire Lab program later, and Jack Barrows (right) aerial fire attack became a vital part of operated the radio fire control efforts throughout the world. near a mobile radar Undaunted by termination of the unit in 1956 as Don Fuquay (left) and aerial bombing program, Gisborne and Vincent Schaefer Barrows became involved in another used a cloud the- high-tech fire research adventure—cloud odolite to check seeding to control the lightning that was cloud speed and by far the principal cause of wildfires direction. throughout the western United States. Immediately after World War II, Irving Langmuir and Vincent J. Schaefer of the General Electric Company’s research laboratory in Schenectady, New York, accidentally discovered that when dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) was dropped into a freezer containing a fog cloud, snow resulted and the cloud

52– conducting an experiment, as much as I the U.S. Weather Bureau, Montana • Detailed analyses of the results would like to go up and see what we can State University, the University of of cloud seeding experiments. do” (Hardy 1977). Washington, the General Electric • Studies of lightning storm Schaefer wrote a report in January of Research Laboratory, Boeing, the forecasting to determine methods 1949 that summarized the efforts up to National Park Service, the California for predicting storms in local areas then and proposed a detailed procedure Experiment Station, the California and differences in the storms. for conducting further research on cloud State Division of Forestry, and all seeding for fire prevention. He said in Forest Service western Regions. The The researchers found that they could an interview, “It was Harry Gisborne, broad objectives were to (1) gain basic reduce the incidence of lightning, but along with his young assistant Jack information on the occurrence, behavior, national Forest Service officials put a Barrows, who planted the seed in my and control of lightning-caused forest stop to the studies for fear of lawsuits mind for the development of the full- fires and the characteristics of storms filed by people adversely affected by blown research endeavor which became that produce the fires, and (2) to develop induced weather changes (Rothermel Project Skyfire.” Gisborne died that methods for suppression of lightning interview, 1993). The research, however, year. Barrows took his place as Division fires, including cloud modification produced several spinoffs. One of the Chief of Forest Fire Research at the (Barrows and others 1957). most important to natural resource Station and also as the chief advocate of The list of Skyfire activities was as management agencies was the early Project Skyfire. impressive as the role call of cooperators work on development of lightning detec- Langmuir and Schaefer came to (Barrows and others 1957). It included: tors placed on mountain tops, which Priest River in 1952 to help conduct the ultimately became part of a network first training school for lookouts who • Statistical studies of lightning fires of remote reporting stations recording would keep track of lightning storms throughout the western U.S. that lightning conditions and feeding the and make cloud surveys. Skyfire became showed where lightning-caused data into the National Interagency Fire a formal Forest Service research pro- fires were most prevalent, dates Center in Boise. gram in 1953, a move enthusiastically and times of occurrences, the speed Barrows and Gisborne shared several supported by Barrows. of detection, rate of fire spread, characteristics, perhaps most notable Project Skyfire came to include many areas burned and other data. their personal dedication to fire research, diverse cooperators, and assembling and • Development of a network meticulous organization skills, and keeping the team together and motivated of 22 lookout stations that an emphasis on meeting ambitious was a role Barrows played well. He provided information on clouds goals. But there were differences, too. was a master at locating and obtaining and lightning storms in the Gisborne tended to demand perfec- funding and the right personnel. In Northern Rocky Mountains. tion from himself, his subordinates, a progress report (Barrows 1954) he and cooperators. Barrows appears said the first Station cooperator was • Studies of the theory of cloud to have shared this appreciation for the Munitalp Foundation, a private, seeding and techniques for excellent work, but he tempered it with nonprofit organization dedicated to cloud modification. diplomacy. fostering basic research in meteorology. • Specially developed equipment, In the course of his unending “The man who endowed the money including a mobile atmospheric crusade for better fire-weather forecast- that made this foundation possible was laboratory, mobile radar unit, ing, Gisborne created some bitter a mining engineer who did not wish airborne cloud-seeding generator, relationships with personnel of the U.S. to publicize his own name,” Barrows ground-based cloud-seeding Weather Bureau (later Service). His said. “However, he did make his fortune generator, wind tunnel for generator impatience with progress in weather in platinum and therefore Munitalp is tests, and many modifications forecasting turned to irascibility in his simply platinum spelled backwards.” of standard meteorological later years (Hardy 1983). The Region 1 The name of the foundation’s benefactor equipment. Director of Fire Control, Crocker, be- remains unknown. rated Gisborne in 1948: “You advocate With funds in hand, Barrows hired • Special time-lapse motion picture (and practice) needling, aggravating, Meteorologist Don Fuquay to lead the cameras used at numerous fighting, and antagonizing the Bureau. Station research. Fuquay had conducted points to record the life cycle That approach over the years has research on thunderstorms and lightning of clouds and thunderstorms. brought us nothing that could not have physics at the University of Washington, been realized through other more ethical • Studies of the origin, development, where he earned BS and MS degrees in means.” and intensity of thunderstorms in the meteorology, and also for the Munitalp Barrows healed wounds by including Northern Rocky Mountain area, and Foundation. He designed much of the the Weather Bureau in Project Skyfire of the associated atmospheric factors. specialized research equipment used in as an important partner and carefully the Skyfire program. • Studies in Arizona and the northern acknowledging good work by bureau The Project Skyfire cooperator Rockies of freezing nuclei of silver personnel and other cooperators in list mushroomed. It came to include iodide and other seeding agents. his progress reports. Like Gisborne,

–53 Barrows campaigned for improved Brackebusch was the last Fire Lab funding for fire research. Gisborne Chief. The Lab had functioned much as openly criticized the Forest Service’s the large research centers did. The lab budget for fire studies as “grossly chief, like a strong center leader, had inadequate.” Barrows worked more considerable autonomy and was able to indirectly with key individuals, includ- develop political contacts. The Fire Lab ing Montana Senator Mike Mansfield, had its own administrative officer with to gain increased funding (INTercom several assistants to deal with manage- 3/16/89). One result was establishment ment of the physical plant and personnel of the Fire Lab at Missoula, which cost and financial matters, plus a few $1 million to build and opened in 1960 employees performing publishing and with Barrows as chief administrator The spot where Smokejumper Stanley public information program functions. (see “The Fire Lab Fires Up,” chapter J. Reba died was one of 13 marked at This situation made the lab a prime can- 10). the Mann Gulch fire site. The place didate for change when Forest Service A firefighting tragedy was another where Harry Gisborne died nearby was Research decided to move to research impetus for fire research, and ultimately marked later. The tragic Mann Gulch work unit-Assistant Station Director construction of the Fire Lab. Thirteen fire focused national public attention configurations, with general support firefighters, 12 of them smokejumpers, on wildland fire fighting and one result functions managed from Station head- lost their lives in the Mann Gulch Fire was increased support for the Station’s quarters (see “Administrative Changes,” fire research program. in Montana in 1949. This was not the chapter 11). Although the transition took biggest loss of life due to wildland fire several years, the lab chief position was before 1949 or since, but it and several abolished and the administrative support investigations that followed the disaster increase in fire research funding from personnel ultimately were moved out captured the attention of national news 1945 to 1970. Other research budget of the lab and supervised from Station media and thus the public and politi- items increased 5- to 8-fold during the Headquarters in Ogden. cians. Red Skies of Montana, a movie same period. Barrows taught at Colorado starring Richard Widmark that appeared State University, where he had earned his in television reruns for many years, bachelor’s degree in forestry, for several was said to have been based on events years after his retirement in 1972. during the Mann Gulch Fire. It was After he died in 1989, Barrows was produced by Twentieth Century Fox in honored with a scholarship fund in his 1952, when investigations and lawsuits name at Colorado State to help graduate related to the fire were still in progress. students studying fire management or Mann Gulch did not immediately inspire research subjects. His former research a quest for new knowledge of forest fire associates recognized his achievements behavior, but over time it did ( Maclean by displaying his portrait in the Fire 1992). It also was the place where Harry Lab, an honor he shared with his friend Gisborne died. Harry Gisborne. Barrows’ administrative talents and Art Brackebusch took over as Fire connections to the military did not go Lab Chief in 1964, and the high-tech unnoticed in Washington, DC. In 1964, research programs continued and ex- he was promoted to Chief of Fire and panded. By 1968, the staff numbered 50, Atmospheric Sciences Research. He and as many as 100 were employed dur- continued to be a strong advocate of fire ing summer fire seasons. Brackebusch behavior research and control methods said the staff was working on six major Research Forester Art Brackebush took that incorporated new technology. projects, including infrared sensing, the helm at the Fire Lab in 1964 when Evidence of Barrows’ political instincts lightning detection and control, fire Jack Barrows was promoted to direct and effective use of contacts to make retardants, fuel combustion, and com- the Forest Service’s national fire science things happen is shown in the 19-fold puter data analysis (Morrison 1968). program.

54–