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GOVERNING CITIZENS GOVERNING CITIZENS FRISO VAN HOUDT Governing Citizens is about the striking changes in the government of migration, crime and citizenship in the Netherlands over the past thirty years. The dissertation is based on a reconstruction of Foucault’s governmentality lectures. Citizenship is studied from a governmentality perspective as a technique that functions in relation to other techniques of sovereignty, discipline and government. Hence, it is related to mushrooming detention facilities, parenting courses, assimilation, selective incapacitation, responsibilization and other techniques invented to govern contemporary predicaments of control. The book presents new concepts to understand the present government of citizens such as neoliberal communitarianism, the migration control predicament, and the distinction between FRISO VAN HOUDT FRISO VAN facilitative resonsibilization and repressive responsibilization. It raises one question in the end: do we want to govern (non-)citizens the way we do? Friso van Houdt (1983) studied criminology and sociology at the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR). He has published in a variety of international journals. He is currently Assistant Professor of Sociology (EUR). The government of citizenship, crime and migration in the Netherlands 13 Friso_van_Houdt-Governing_Citizens-omslag-definitef.indd 1 14-04-14 10:51 GOVERNING CITIZENS The government of citizenship, crime and migration in the Netherlands GOVERNMENTALITY IN NEDERLAND De hedendaagse bestuursmentaliteit in relatie tot burgerschap, criminaliteit en migratie PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam op gezag van de Prof.dr. H.A.P. Pols en volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties. De openbare verdediging zal plaatsvinden op vrijdag 9 mei 2014 om 11.30uur door FRISO VAN HOUDT geboren te Zoetermeer Promotiecommissie Promotoren Prof.dr. W. Schinkel Prof.dr. H.B. Entzinger Prof.dr. G.B.M. Engbersen Prof.dr. D. Garland Prof.dr. R.J. van der Veen For my mother and father Contents List of abbreviations 9 Acknowledgements 10 I Introduction: governing citizens in the present 13 The King’s Speech and fragments from a sociologist’s notebook 14 The stakes in this governmentality study 16 From the bottom up 19 Research questions and the methodological strategies of a governmentality study 23 A “Weberian disclaimer” 24 The contents of this dissertation: an outline of what follows 26 II Governmentality and the government of citizens 35 Chekhov’s law and Foucault’s guns 36 2.1 A history of governmentality 38 2.1.1 Raison d’État 39 2.1.2 Liberalism 40 2.1.3 Neoliberalism 42 German neoliberalism: ordoliberalism and the construction of the social market economy 43 American neoliberalism: Chicago school and the theory of human capital 44 Neoliberalism’s singularity: not a revival of Smith, not decoded by Marx, not Solzhenitsyn on a world scale 46 2.2 Foucault in action 49 2.2.1 Foucault’s conceptual triangles 49 2.2.2 A research program on “crises of government” and the study of thinkers 51 2.2.3 Political rationalities, programs of action and techniques of government 54 Political rationalities: political rationality, strategy and struggle 54 Programs: problematization, practical objects and political subjects 55 Techniques: punishment, discipline and management 56 2.3 2.3.1 Governmentality and citizenship 62 2.3.2 Governmentality and crime 64 Classical liberalism: political economy, homo economicus and the dream of eradication 64 Neoliberalism: the anthropological erasure of the criminal and the management of crime 65 David Garland on governmentality and the problem of crime 66 2.3.3 Governmentality and migration 69 Conclusion 69 4 III Classical Dutch liberalism 71 The irony of the appointment of a young public servant and a lecture as battle cry 72 3.1 Liberal government of poverty 75 3.1.1 Dutch 1854 Poor Law 75 3.1.2 Political economy and workhouses for the poor: Mees (1844) 77 3.1.3 Governing the economy and poverty from the perspective of political economy 83 3.2 Liberal government of sovereignty 84 3.2.1 Dutch 1848 Constitution 85 3.2.2 About contemporary citizenship: Thorbecke (1844) 86 3.2.3 Democratization of sovereignty, political citizenship and freeing the market 89 3.3.1 Securing order by a rational and free people worthy of freedom: Donker Curtius (1849) 90 3.3.2 1886 Dutch Penal Code 92 Conclusion and discussion 96 Case 1 Poverty and poor relief 99 Case 2 Death penalty and the prison sentence 100 IV Governmentality & welfarism 103 The rise of Dutch sociology and the image of society as race (Steinmetz 1910) 104 4.1 Welfarism as governmentality 106 4.1.1 The singularity of welfarism as governmentality 106 4.1.2 The leverage of Beveridge (1944) 109 4.2 Welfarism in the Netherlands (1945-80): social security, social work and penal welfarism 111 4.2.1 The program of social security: Social citizenship rights and the state as primary political subject 111 4.2.2 The program of social work: the correction of problematic individual cases 113 4.2.3 Penal welfarism: the missing lemma in the Sage dictionary of criminology 116 1) Penal welfarism: the program of resocialization 116 2) Penal welfarism in the Netherlands (1945-80) 120 3) The crisis of Dutch penal welfarism: crime rates and the decline of the rehabilitative ideal 123 4.3 The problematization of welfarism and the emergence of a new consensus 126 Conclusion 128 5 V A genealogy of neoliberal communitarianism 131 5.1 Governing the crime control predicament (1980-2009) 135 5.1.1 Power-knowledge in the neoliberal communitarian government of crime 140 3) Neoliberal communitarian approaches: mixing and merging 148 5.1.2 Trends in the neoliberal communitarian governing of crime in the Netherlands 151 1) The punitive turn (the sovereign technique of punishment) and the preventive turn 151 2) The actuarialization of crime and the problematic subjects of government 152 3) The new safety infrastructure: the penal company, active citizenship and crime prevention 154 (B) Encompassing privatization and responsibilization 158 5.1.3 The recalibration of penal welfarism by neoliberal communitarianism 160 5.2 Governing the migration control predicament (1980-2008) 162 5.2.1 Migration and integration in the Netherlands: a short introduction 164 5.2.2 Trends in the government of migration and integration (1983-2008) 169 1) The emergence of the migration control predicament 169 2) The double helix of neoliberalism and communitarianism 171 3) Earning citizenship, the moralization of citizenship and sociologists as “zoo keepers” 174 A) The moralization of naturalization: conversion to the sacred Dutch community 174 B) The virtualization of citizenship 175 C) Power-knowledge: sociological “zoo keeping” meets governmentality 176 5.2.3 Governing the migration control predicament: 1) Government: the market order and the migrant entrepreneur 178 2) Discipline: the citizenship test and the good citizen 180 3) Sovereignty: territorialization and the non-citizen 182 A) Detection & detention 183 B) Deportation 185 C) Deterrence 185 5.3 Governmental realism and the merging of crime and migration: crimmigration 186 Conclusion 188 6 VI Governing citizens in the present 191 punishment and society studies 192 migration and immigrant integration studies 195 6.1 Generalization: the “horizontal” and “vertical” expansion of neoliberal communitarianism 197 6.2 Discussion: neoliberal communitarianism and the challenge of neo-conservatism 204 6.2.1 The birth of neoliberal communitarianism 204 6.2.2 The complexity of communitarianism: the Dutch variant and internal debates 206 6.2.3 The (neo-)conservative challenge or cementing of neoliberal communitarianism? 208 6.3 Critique and governmentality 212 Summary 215 Samenvatting 229 References 244 Local documents 259 7 Table 2.1 Conceptual tools governing this governmentality study 58 Table 2.2 The response to a contemporary predicament of control: crime 68 Table 3.1 Homologies in the government of state, economy and society 97 Table 3.2 Mapping 19th Table 4.1 The welfare program of social security 112 Table 4.2 The decline of the rehabilitative ideal: the Dutch case 125 Table 5.1 Political programs on crime and penal government in the Netherlands 136 Table 5.2 Political programs on crime and the theoretical background thereof 141 Table 5.3 The communitarian governing of crime 146 Table 5.4 The neoliberal governing of crime 148 Figure 5.1 The power/knowledge nexus of neoliberal communitarianism 149 Table 5.5 The recalibration of penal welfarism by neoliberal communitarianism 161 Table 5.6 Political programs on migration and integration 164 Table 5.7 Political programs on migration and integration: diagnosis/techniques/context 165 Table 5.8 Governing citizens in the present 189 Figure 6.1 The “horizontal” and “vertical” expansion of neoliberal communitarianism 198 Figure 6.2 Neoliberal communitarian citizenship in the Netherlands, U.K. and France 202 Figure 6.3 The discursive space of neoliberal communitarianism 212 8 List of abbreviations The following abbreviations appear in the text. Below they are ordered by date: SAC 1985 Society and Crime/ Samenleving en Criminaliteit: een Beleidsplan voor de Komende Jaren LIM 1990 Law In Motion/Recht in Beweging: een Beleidsplan voor Justitie in de Komende Jaren ISR 1993 Integral Safety Report/Integrale Veiligheidsrapportage CIEM 1994 Contourennota Integratiebeleid Etnische Minderheden/1994 Outline Integration Ethnic Minorities SPD
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