La Casuística: Una Metodología Para La Ética Aplicada

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La Casuística: Una Metodología Para La Ética Aplicada 1 La Casuística: Una metodología para la ética aplicada Coordinadores Robert T. Hall José Salvador Arellano 2 A Rowynn, Haydeé y María Esther Inspiradoras de vida 3 Agradecimientos El presente texto es el resultado de la investigación: La casuística y la comprensión de dilemas morales para Latinoamérica. Proyecto aprobado por el Programa de Mejoramiento del Profesorado (PROMEP) de la Secretaría de Educación Pública a quien agradecemos profundamente de su apoyo. Asimismo a la Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro y a la Facultad de Filosofía por las gestiones y los apoyos necesarios en este trabajo. A los investigadores participantes en este texto por su diálogo, aportación de ideas y trabajos, muy en especial a Jerry Folk. A Jorge Vélez e Imanol Martínez González por su apoyo en el trabajo de edición. Nuestra gratitud a Rodolfo Vázquez por su apoyo para la publicación de nuestras ideas y letras. Asimismo, nuestro profundo reconocimiento a los profesores Albert Jonsen y Carson Strong, filósofos que permitieron el renacimiento de la casuística contemporánea a nivel mundial y quienes colaboraron generosamente en el presente libro. Finalmente nuestra mirada en María Catalina Buchmelter y Patricia Pérez por tolerar nuestras ausencias y hacer del pensamiento de casa una piedra de toque. Robert T. Hall José Salvador Arellano Patio Barroco, Santiago de Querétaro, Invierno 2012-2013. 4 Contenidos Introducción -- María José Guerra Palmero Parte I La casuística reanimada 1. La toma de decisiones éticas en la medicina clínica -- Albert R. Jonsen 2. La Casuística -- Carson Strong 3. La Casuística Retomado -- Robert T. Hall 4. Justificación de una metodología -- Robert. T. Hall Parte II Casos y asuntos 5. El Síndrome de Patau -- José Salvador Arellano y Robert T. Hall 6. Aprobación del maíz transgénico en México -- Robert T. Hall y José Salvador Arellano 7. Universalismo y valores éticos -- José Salvador Arellano y Robert T. Hall 8. La desigualdad jurídica –J. Patricia Pérez Munguía Parte III Comentarios Críticos 9. De la ética constructivista social a la casuística. - José Salvador Arellano y Jorge Vélez Vega 10. Pascal y la casuística -- Mauricio Ávila Barba 11. Razonamiento jurídico en México – Raúl Ruíz Canizales 12. La casuística como método y experiencia ética -- Fernando González Vega Parte IV Casuística y religión 13. Razón práctica y circunstancias en Tomás de Aquino – Ángel de Moral Palacio 14. Una casuística de valores – Robert T. Hall 15. Sobre la posibilidad de una Casuística Católica -- Jorge Hernández Arriaga y Robert T. Hall 16. Dos versiones de la casuística protestante – Robert T. Hall Índice de Autores 5 Introducción Casuística y razonamiento moral María José Guerra Palmero Decimos que sólo los espíritus soberbios que presumen de conocer todas las verdades, o las almas engañadas persuadidas de tener revelaciones de todo, pueden censurar las opiniones probables y decir que una opinión probable no basta para obrar prudentemente y para eximir de pecado a quien la sigue.1 ¿Qué, de manera más precisa, es la casuística? En general, la casuística es la tarea de resolver problemas, buscando interpretar y resolver cuestiones prácticas del día a día. La meta global es establecer “casos de conciencia”, instancias en las que estamos inseguros sobre cómo juzgar o llevar a cabo una acción. Con claros paralelos con el razonamiento legal (especialmente con la common law) , la casuística es un género de investigación moral que atiende a los problemas morales concretos, a su interpretación correcta, y a su resolución razonable.2 Vamos a presentar, en este libro, la nueva casuística, sus propuestas y su apuesta por el razonamiento moral contextual. El hecho de hablar de “nueva” nos obliga a decir algo sobre la vieja casuística. La nueva casuística de Toulmin y Jonsen ha forjado sus propuestas a través del trabajo de ambos desarrollado en el ámbito de la ética médica. La bioética, y su atención a las dificultades y complejidades de los casos concretos, desencadenarán para estos autores una revisión de la teoría ética moderna, especialmente, de lo que denominarán la “tiranía de los principios” en alusión a los excesos rigoristas kantianos y neokantianos. La aplicación automática de un principio a un conjunto de casos puede traer consigo consecuencias 1 Apologie pour les casuístes, p. 40 2 R. B. Miller, Casuistry and Modern Ethics. A Poetics of Practical Reasoning. The University of Chicago Press, 1996,p. 4-5. 6 indeseables. Otro modo de razonamiento moral, atento a lo concreto y a las circunstancias, es posible como método de la bioética. Toulmin y Jonsen van a engarzar su propuesta con la de la vieja tradición casuística, descontextualizándola de su origen católico, con el fin de aprovechar sus enseñanzas para un nuevo enfoque de los problemas morales. “In dubio, libertas” Tenemos que remontarnos al siglo XVI, a la Escuela de Salamanca de las que eran miembros Francisco de Vitoria, Melchor Cano y Domingo Soto para remontarnos a la vieja Casuística. Delumeau, en su estudio, nos refiere lo siguiente: ...bajo sus plumas aparecen fórmulas y juicios que atestiguan una evaluación cada vez más sutil de la complejidad de las determinaciones morales.3 Delumeau habla de una “prehistoria del probabilismo”. Por ejemplo, Melchor Cano postula que “allí donde hay entre doctores diversidad de opiniones probables, todas y cada una son seguras (en términos de salvación) para el fuero de la conciencia.”4 Medina, según Delemeau el verdadero fundador del probabilismo, dirá que se puede elegir, a través de la ponderación, entre opiniones probables. Las obras de estos autores, ligadas a un contexto confesional donde se problematizaban los modos de hacer en la institución católica de la confesión, contribuyeron a permitir una elección libre de la conciencia moral, tras la deliberación acerca de las opciones más razonables. Los diccionarios de casos de conciencia se multiplicaron en los países católicos durante el XVI y el XVII. Los expertos en moral elucidaban casos hipotéticos cada vez más difíciles y complejos. Esta proliferación acabó por esterilizar y arruinar el esfuerzo casuístico que fue pasto de la crítica más feroz por parte de Pascal en sus Cartas Provinciales. El jesuita Suárez (1548-1617), no obstante, fue el sistematizador de la doctrina probabilista. La novedad, que esta corriente de origen español proponía, era la de que en caso de duda, puede seguirse cualquier opinión simplemente probable. El supuesto que alimenta esta afirmación es la idea de Guillermo de Ockham de que la libertad es “el patrimonio propio y original del hombre.”5 El probabilismo va a desafiar, en suma, la noción medieval de seguridad moral objetiva. 3 J. Delumeau, La confesión y el perdón, Madrid, Alianza, 1992. P. 114. 4 Ibid. 5 Op. cit., p.119. 7 Las tesis probabilistas tuvieron éxito en los siglos aludidos para decaer en el XVIII. Antes de esta inflexión, la teología moral tendió a convertirse en una recopilación e inventario de opiniones clasificadas según su mayor o menor probabilidad al modo de resoluciones de casos de conciencia. ¿Cuáles fueron los peligros y ventajas de la revolución probabilista? Del lado de los peligros quedó la desviación laxista – la excesiva indulgencia o la mera componenda6-, del lado de las ventajas la contribución a “modelar una moral mejor adaptada que la del pasado al ascenso de la civilización occidental. El probabilismo subrayaba, en efecto, el respeto que se debe a las conciencias y la necesidad de limitar la esfera de la obligación para proteger la de la libertad.”7 Podría entenderse como un proceso que, en el mundo católico, propiciaba o anticipaba muy tímidamente los vientos posteriores de la Ilustración en torno al Sapere Aude, una vez que la tutela religiosa hubiera sido desafiada en los siglos posteriores. La “vieja” Casuística va a ser ridiculizada y deslegitimada, como ya avanzábamos, por las Cartas Provinciales de Pascal. Esta era ejercida, básicamente, por los jesuitas en la dirección espiritual y en la ponderación de los pecados de los fieles: ...la muchedumbre de los casuistas relajados se dedica a la multitud de aquellos que buscan la relajación (Carta V). Pascal va a exagerar los vicios de la casuística, de la mala casuística y así va a condenar un modelo de razonamiento moral preocupado por la ponderación y el sopesamiento de las circunstancias, que se asemeja a los modos del razonamiento jurídico que establecen penas en función de agravantes y atenuantes situándose contextualmente y siendo sensibles a las modulaciones de la acción. De la mano de una ética de los principios el rigorismo, que, muchas veces desconoce las complejidades de lo real y los conflictos entre deberes, se impondrá en la historia de la filosofía moral con el Kant de la Crítica de la Razón Práctica a su cabeza. La nueva Casuística de Toulmin y Jonsen En 1974, en EEUU, se creó la National Commision for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research formada por científicos, abogados y “eticistas”. Su tarea era regular la investigación con sujetos humanos y recomendar reglamentaciones que protegieran 6 “El arte de los casuistas indulgentes consistió en permitir, en más de un caso, gracias a opiniones probables, lo que opiniones más probables situaban en el lado de lo prohibido.” Op. cit., p. 121. 7 Op. cit., p. 121. 8 los derechos de los sujetos de las investigaciones. Tópicos como el “consentimiento informado”, “la relación riesgo-beneficio”, el respeto a la autonomía, los problemas planteados por los sujetos no competentes –niños, discapacitados psíquicos, etc.- saltaban a la palestra determinando la cascada de la producción textual bioética al tiempo que se impulsaba la institucionalización de los comités éticos de ensayos clínicos8. En consecuencia, la reflexión bioética abordó el aspecto del cuidado clínico que conlleva la relación medico-paciente. Asuntos como la información, la confidencialidad, la asistencia legal, y sobre todo el “consentimiento informado”9 fueron temas recurrentes, pero el problema que atraería sobre si la mayor atención será la confrontación con la muerte, en concreto, el dilema planteado entre dejar morir y matar en lo que se vino a llamar la controversia sobre la eutanasia.
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