Defining Acculturative Dissonance and Developing a Model of Expatriate Acculturative Stress

CHAPTER 24

Waheeda Lillevik

Introduction Outsourcing, globalization, and technology have all contributed to the increased mobility of individuals and workers all across the world. This movement has resulted in individuals becoming bi- and multi- cultural through the increased contact and interaction of individuals with differing backgrounds, customs, languages, and expectations. The employment of expatriates to develop subsidiary posts and engage in employment assignments in foreign locations has also seen continued activity. Such movement entails a considerable amount of learning on the part of the expatriate with respect to the host culture into which he or she enters. This learning provides the basis for the acculturation efforts that he or she must undertake in order to increase the likelihood of success for international assignments. In most cases, however, regardless of the steps taken to acculturate to the unfamiliar culture, expatriates experience some degree of emotional disturbance during this transition (Mumford, 1998). Such intercultural contact can happen domestically or abroad. Even moving within a nation can result in individuals having to learn new customs, terminology, and general methods of doing things integral for basic functioning. Having said this, much of the research done in this area in the business arena has been carried out in training efforts

A. A. Camillo (ed.), Global Enterprise Management © Angelo A. Camillo 2015 192 M Waheeda Lillevik to prepare expatriates for foreign corporate assignments, with the goal of minimizing what is popularly known as “culture shock” (Oberg, 1960) and maximizing the potential for a successful overseas mission. A considerable amount of this overseas preparation involves language instruction (where appropriate) and learning the customs, values, and so forth of the host country. A common element of orientation for an expatriate is engaging in a predeparture visit to the host country (Solomon, 1994). Of course, it is not possible to fully and completely acculturate to another culture or nation through all of these efforts. While these actions represent honest and meaningful attempts at understanding a new culture, there is little substitute for immersion into a culture and sustained interaction with members and artifacts from that culture. Studies have shown that the use of the above preparatory predeparture training activities has helped in increasing the success rates of acculturation of foreign expatriates (see Waxin & Panaccio, 2005); however, a gap in the level of cultural expectations of the expatriate prior to arrival and the reality of the cultural impact that an individual experiences is highly likely to exist. This phenomenon is introduced and defined in this chapter as acculturative dissonance. Acculturative dissonance is an important element to consider when assessing employees for foreign work assignments, as expectations can play a huge role in the success of an overseas assignment. The negative consequences of a failed assignment can include tangible costs such as poor performance, reduced efficiency, and damaged relationships, while individual, less visible costs include diminished self-esteem and confidence on the part of the expatriate (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). This chapter will first discuss the definition of acculturation and the term “culture shock,” along with development of the concept of “acculturative dissonance.” Acculturative dissonance will be further discussed as a possible antecedent of acculturative stress, and a model for this will be outlined. The chapter will conclude with future directions for research in the area of acculturative dissonance, acculturative stress, and cross-cultural training.

Acculturation and Culture Shock

Acculturation Individuals must make adjustments and changes to their feelings, behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics, consciously or subconsciously, Defining Acculturative Dissonance M 193 when they experience a new cultural environment. The concept of acculturation first appeared in the late nineteenth century (Al-Omari & Pallikkathayil, 2008; Berry, 1980). Acculturation has been defined as a process in which individuals experience cultural change and adaptation from interacting with others from different cultures (Gibson, 2001; Redfield et al., 1936). Some researchers examine this process from the perspective of the migrating group only, describing their adaptation to the “host” culture (Amer & Hovey, 2007); however, acculturation can occur in both minority and majority groups when these groups interact. As immigration has increased in the United States over the past century, concerns over intercultural contact and subsequent acculturation have also grown. Expatriates often experience difficulty in attempting to fully acculturate to their new environment. Doing so requires that they learn and adapt to a variety of different social arenas. Black (1988) classifies these into three main domains: work adjustment, relational adjustment, and general adjustment. This is especially difficult to achieve in a discrete period of time, as learning and internalizing the new values and behaviors often requires some level of transformation of one’s self-identity (Ryder et al., 2000). Culture is important to shaping an individual, and his or her self-identity is a reflection of the larger culture to which the individual belongs (Al-Omari & Pallikkathayil, 2008). As a cognitively and emotionally acceptable compromise, frequently these workers selec- tively adopt the values and behaviors that they consider appropriate and congruent to their own culture (Zakaria, 2000). Such “safe” adoptions typically do not rattle one’s self-identity dramatically at the outset of the overseas assignment. Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory is one of the main pillars upon which the notion that cross-cultural training can help the acculturation process for expatriates is based. Since training can assist and accelerate the process of learning a new culture for expatriates through observation and experience (both directly and indirectly), facing the consequences of various behaviors and ideally, the subsequent modeling of desirable behaviors (Bhagat & Prien, 1996; Black & Mendenhall, 1990) should minimize the level of culture shock experienced.

The Concept of Culture Shock While the idea of “culture shock” is popularized and well known, this is not an area that is well investigated in the literature, and as a result, has some different connotations. It is often used descriptively and 194 M Waheeda Lillevik anecdotally (Sims & Schraeder, 2004), with the assumption that the meaning is known and accepted. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (2009) defines culture shock as “a sense of confusion and uncertainty some- times with feelings of anxiety that may affect people exposed to an alien culture or environment without adequate preparation.” One of the first definitions of culture shock was offered by Oberg (1960). He identifies it as strain and anxiety that result from intercultural contact. This can include feelings of loss and confusion resulting from loss of familiar cultural cues and social rules (Oberg, 1960). Taft (1977) further outlined six different and distinct aspects of culture shock, which include strain from the effort of psychological adaptation, a sense of loss due to lost relationships, rejection by and of others, and confusion and ambiguity over role expectations and identity, and this outline of culture shock has been reinforced by Furnham and Bochner (1986). According to Smith (2008), culture shock is an anxiety that one experiences that is context specific. He defines in his paper the concept as often accompanying “intercultural communication encounters” (Smith, 2008). It manifests as frustration that one experiences when one is overwhelmed by too many uninterpretable cues in one’s new environment (Adler, 1997). Dodd (1997) views culture shock as a process that occurs in four stages: i) eager expectation, ii) everything is beautiful, iii) everything is awful, and iv) everything is okay (Dodd, 1997). Taft (1977) reviewed various definitions of culture shock, summarizing the term as a feeling of impo- tence arising from dealing with one’s new environment, due to lack of familiarity and cognitive aspects. The problem with this and other definitions of culture shock is that they are defined in many different ways—it is essentially a wide category of behaviors and experiences. Dodd (1997) views culture shock as a set of stages, rather than a singular feeling, that a sojourner can experience. Oberg (1960) defines culture shock as strain and anxiety, which is more of an outcome, akin to a more recently studied concept, acculturative stress. Taft (1977) identifies a number of factors, including feelings of role confusion, rejection by new colleagues, surprise and anxiety about the aspects of the new culture, identity issues, and loss of status, friends and power. In this definition, symptoms of the experience of engaging in a new culture are defined. Acculturation has been defined as both a process and a state of being (Ward, 1988). However, none of the definitions approach the fundamental reason(s) for the stress, role confusion, anxiety, and so forth that individuals experience in their new settings. Most definitions appear to describe the manifestations of this cultural anxiety, without necessarily addressing possible reasons for this anxiety Defining Acculturative Dissonance M 195 to arise. These aspects of culture shock also do not explain why individuals can experience different levels of culture shock despite the fact that they may transition from the same home country to the same host country, even with access to similar predeparture training experiences.

The Case for Acculturative Dissonance As identified above, expatriates who come into contact with a new culture often experience a variety of feelings that can be a source of distress. This stress and strain that occur when a worker enters a new cultural environment may be due to a gap in expectations between what he or she expects or is familiar with and what he or she encounters once in the new environment. Many expatriates receive cross-cultural training, but even so, culture shock can still be prevalent. This gap is the essence of acculturative dissonance. Some individuals may not experience as much of this dissonance as others. There may be other factors that contribute to this phenomenon, even if individuals receive little in the way of cultural preparation for their assignment abroad. Zakaria (2000) identifies two factors that moderate the acculturation process: the acculturating individual (which encompasses personal characteristics such as personality factors, cultural or emotional intelligence, intercultural communication competence, cognitive ability, etc.) and acculturation situation (including cultural distance between the expatriate’s home country and host country, duration and intensity of cultural contact, etc.). Overall there is a gap in the literature about this element of expectations. As identified above, there has been limited academic discussion of culture shock. However, regardless of the lack of understanding of culture shock, organizations continue to engage in cross-cultural training in order to ease this culture shock to increase job performance and the likelihood of a successful assignment. A related concept is discordant acculturation attitudes, in which the expectations of one group (e.g., expatriates) are not fulfilled by the attitudes and behaviors exhibited by the other group (e.g., members of the host culture) (Rohmann et al., 2008). However, this concept only identifies individuals’ attitudes, and in this study, attitudes toward specific cultural groups were assessed. Acculturative dissonance seeks to identify whether individuals feel that they were adequately prepared for their intercultural or overseas encounter, and identify the existence and size of the gap that individuals feel they have between what they feel they know about the customs, beliefs, values, and so on of the host country, and what they believe 196 M Waheeda Lillevik they need to understand about that environment to fully acculturate to it. Essentially, this gap is the bridge between feeling like an “unnerved guest” in a new environment, and feeling like an inhabitant who has lived there all his or her life. This variable is a perceptual variable. Similar to the literature on person-job fit (see Edwards, 1991), this gap helps explain how prepared workers felt about their jobs once they encountered the job itself. In this case, acculturative dissonance seeks to identify the fit of the expatriate to the new cultural environment, through a perceptual lens. It is important for expatriates to be able to make accurate attributions about behaviors and other elements that they will encounter in the host country, in order for them to accurately predict how host country nationals will treat that individual in future interactions. This ability to predict reactions helps reduce uncertainty in an expatriate’s intercultural relations (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). This may be a key element in further understanding how and why individuals experience culture shock, and why they may experience acculturative stress.

Theory of Met Expectations It is increasingly common for individuals sent to foreign locations for work to receive some type of cultural training prior to the assignment. Training is provided in a variety of formats. Littrell et al. (2006) found that researchers have identified six approaches to cross-cultural training: attribution, culture awareness, interaction, language, didactic, and experiential In that training, expectations of the cultural environment are naturally developed, which may lead to some amount of confidence in the employee’s abilities to function in the host culture. When he or she arrives in the host culture, this individual will have the chance to display his or her cultural skills. When there is a difference between what the individual has learned, and what he or she encounters, then the employee’s expectations of the host culture have not been met. This theory comprises the foundation for acculturative dissonance. This dissonance can result in difficulties adjusting to the host culture, possibly through the development of acculturative stress. It has thus been proposed that cross-cultural training should be effective in facilitating the overseas performance of expatriates through the theory of met expectations (Littrell et al., 2006). Comparison of an expatriate’s initial impressions of the culture in which he or she is immersed and what this individual actually experiences (i.e., acculturative dissonance) may lead to varied physiological and psychological Defining Acculturative Dissonance M 197 responses. This gap between the expatriate’s expectations and the reality once he/she engages in the global assignment may impede cross- cultural adjustment (Caligiuri et al., 2001), thus potentially resulting in acculturative stress. This theory is considered to be quite useful in explaining why cross-cultural training can enhance job performance for an expatriate (Littrell et al., 2006), and it should also help us understand why acculturative dissonance can effect individuals’ levels of acculturative stress. A further theory introduced to the intercultural adjustment literature by Gudykunst that relates to met expectations is the anxiety and uncertainty management theory (AUM) (Gudykunst, 1995; 1998). AUM theory posits that anxiety and uncertainty are key elements in determining whether an individual’s communication will be effective in an interaction with another person. In the cross-cultural realm, effective communication is facilitated by the ability to manage anxiety in social situations (Gudykunst, 1998). Too much uncertainty in a communication event will hinder an expatriate’s ability to anticipate others’ behaviors as well as correctly receive and interpret acts with potential message value (Brandl & Neyer, 2009). Too little anxiety, however, may result in overconfidence in interpretation and expectation of others, which can also result in a negative experience (Brandl & Neyer, 2009). Therefore creating a “realistic” portrait of the host culture for an expatriate is key to minimizing culture shock as this is based in large part on expatriate expectations of their interactions and experiences in their new environment. The gap between expectations and reality can cause anxiety and uncertainty, or acculturative dissonance, which can fuel the numerous symptoms and outcomes of culture shock.

The Role of Cross-Cultural Training Among other factors, intercultural communication competence is key for increasing the likelihood of successful acculturation to new cultures (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Since it is difficult to find individuals who are already prepared for expatriate assignments, corporate training is important for meeting this goal (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). Studies have demonstrated that training interventions were more successful in reducing the incidence of expatriate failure than providing no training at all (Earley, 1987; Latham, 1988; Tung, 1988). Despite this find- ing, most of the training that exists is insufficient or incomplete, and for many organizations, there is no training (Brewster, 1995; Selmer, 2000), and few organizations provide their expatriates with predeparture 198 M Waheeda Lillevik

cross-cultural training before sending them on foreign assignments (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Cross-cultural training can occur in a variety of shapes and forms, and at different stages of the acculturation process. Different types of training include behavior modification training, attribution training, and experiential and didactic training, among others (Littrell & Salas, 2005). Training can be offered at a variety of different times, from the predeparture phase to after an expatriate has begun his or her assignment overseas (and on an ongoing basis after arrival). Cross-cultural training can be offered using three different methods: cognitive, affec- tive, and behavioral (Brislin, 1979). To facilitate these different methods of cross-cultural training, the delivery of training can occur in a variety of formats, ranging from classroom instruction to engaging in a preassignment trip to the host country. More informal and ongoing types of cross-cultural training can include appointing host country “ambassadors” to facilitate entry and habitation in the new culture, and using more personal informal settings such as lunches and after-hours meetings to ensure that the newcomer is adjusting to the new environment (Ashamalla & Crocitto, 1997). What is important in developing and administering all forms of cross-cultural training is that since it is an attempt at helping to shape behaviors and attitudes, training cannot be a one-time event that occurs solely at the predeparture stage. As the expatriate engages in new experiences during the job assignment, the individual may realize that what he or she encounters at various stages of the assignment and immersion into the culture may differ from what he or she knows from prior experience and training. This acculturative dissonance between knowledge and reality may occur in different ways, in different situations, and at different times, warranting the need for ongoing and varied training to meet the needs of the particular expatriate in his or her particular foreign assignment.

Acculturative Stress In this chapter, it is proposed that acculturative stress is a possible and likely consequence of acculturative dissonance. When individuals attempt to operate in a new culture, and they find the process difficult to achieve for a variety of reasons, this is identified as acculturative stress (Amer & Hovey, 2007). Acculturative stress can occur at varying levels, depending on the strategy or preparation in which the individual engages prior to the foreign assignment. This stress arises from the need Defining Acculturative Dissonance M 199 to deal with uncertainties that occur when one is learning how to adapt to a new culture. It occurs during the transition period of acculturation, and can be psychologically disturbing (and even physically distressing) for the individual engaged in this cultural learning exercise (Bhagat & London, 1999). Manifestations of stress can include depression, identity confusion, and even psychosomatic symptoms and other mental health problems (Bhattacharya, 2008; Institute of Medicine, 2003). In immigrant popu- lations, acculturative stress has a significant influence on mental health as well as on physical health (Khusboo, 2013). Stressors can have both positive and negative consequences; however, there is still a level of anxiety that can be felt by the newly transplanted worker. Acculturative stress occurs as a consequence of an environment that produces three types of stressors: demands, opportunities, and constraints (Bhagat, 1985; Bhagat & London, 1999; McGrath, 1976; Schuler, 1980). For expatriates, there are a number of outcomes that have been found. For example, executives who relocated to another country produced an increase in a hormone that is stress sensitive and experienced a reduc- tion in mental health and an increase in addictive behaviors in the early stages of an assignment (Andersen & Arnetz, 1997; Lazarus 1986. Sanchez et al. (2000) provide a good overview of the various stages of expatriate experiences and the likely stressors that can occur during these stages. Regardless of the type of stress that one experiences when encountering a new culture, it results, more often than not, in distress for the individual, which can ultimately lead to a variety of undesirable outcomes, including diminished job performance and failed overseas assignments in extreme cases (Lee, 2007).

Proposed Model of Acculturative Dissonance and Acculturative Stress The following figure (figure 24.1) is a model of how acculturative dissonance is proposed to fit into the acculturation process experienced by expatriates preparing for foreign job assignments, and its potential prominence in determining acculturative stress. As demonstrated in the above figure, prior to an expatriate’s entry into his or her new foreign work assignment, this individual will pos- sess his or her own knowledge, skills, and abilities of the job and the new culture. In addition, this individual may receive some form(s) of cultural training. The expatriate takes this intercultural competence and training with him or her to the job assignment, where he or she 200 M Waheeda Lillevik

Prior KSA’s Individual (competence) characteristics

Cultural Acculturative Acculturative Outcomes encounter dissonance stress of stress

Cross-cultural Situation

training characteristics

Figure 24.1 Proposed model of acculturative stress for expatriate assignments. will try to reconcile what he or she knows and understands with what he or she encounters. This will lead to some level of acculturative stress, including depression, anxiety, and other symptoms described above. These reactions then can ultimately influence a variety of outcomes, including early termination of an expatriate assignment, and the subsequent effects on the expatriate’s self-esteem and self-identity (Lee, 2007; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985), potentially resulting in career setbacks for his or her livelihood and a damaged personal life (Ashamalla & Crocitto, 1997). Moderating the relationship between acculturative dissonance and acculturative stress are personal and situational characteristics. Each individual will likely have a different interpretation of cultural cues and react differently to these cues, depending on his or her prior knowledge and training, and the situation with which he or she is faced in the host country. One additional item to note about this model is that this training should occur through an iterative process. As mentioned above, training can occur at various stages in the preparation of expatriates and their job assignments. This is in alignment with a newer model of cross-cultural training identified by Selmer and his colleagues (1998), called the sequential model. This model identifies training as an ongoing process, tailored to the needs of the individual as he or she adapts to the new culture. This is demonstrated by the feedback loop between the realization of acculturation dissonance and cross-cultural training. When an individual realizes that there is dissonance between what he or she expects of a cultural interaction and what he or she experiences, then training (whether formal or informal) should be initiated to close the acculturative dissonance gap. There are four stages of adjustment outlined in this model: the ethnocentric phase, the culture-shocked phase, the conform- ist phase, and the adjusted phase (Selmer et al., 1998). Individuals may Defining Acculturative Dissonance M 201 adapt at quicker or slower paces than one another, and some may choose to adapt to select cultural aspects depending on their abilities, level of knowledge, and comfort level with those aspects. This could ultimately result in different types of training being administered to expatriates at different stages, in order to maximize the effectiveness of the training (Selmer et al., 1998). In effect, training initiatives are seen as part of a more comprehensive development plan for successful expatriate assignments, rather than required classes to be taken when it is convenient for the organization to administer them.

Conclusion This chapter seeks to identify the role of acculturative dissonance as a key component of acculturation and acculturative stress as experienced by expatriates or others who must work in a foreign culture. The major contribution of this chapter is to clearly separate acculturative dissonance as an independent construct that can be identified distinctly from the confounding and confusing definitions of culture shock and from the more recently studied area of acculturative stress. As identified previously, culture shock has been defined as a reaction involving a variety of psychological or physical symptoms, which overlap sub- stantially with the concept of acculturative stress. In addition, culture shock has been described as a set of phases. While these definitions in themselves are not problematic, they fail to identify what one of the potential real sources of acculturative stress is, which is the disparity in what one understands about a particular culture, and what one encounters once one engages in cultural contact. That gap between what expatriates think they know and what they actually do know about another culture is what may cause the anxiety and other factors associated with acculturative stress. In addition, the way in which expatriates can and do handle this discrepancy (through their own individual characteristics as well as the constraints and opportunities of their own situations during this cultural transition) can affect the levels of stress that they may experience. More research needs to be done on isolating acculturative dissonance and assessing its effects on acculturative stress, and subsequently, on job performance on overseas assignments. This research area can be extended to any type of immigrant or migrant worker. In addition, the profile of acculturative dissonance for any given individual may differ sharply. For some, there may be a substantial language barrier that is providing this dissonance, while for others, it may be more complex 202 M Waheeda Lillevik customs and values that conflict with their own sense of identity and belief system. However, it is most important to isolate this variable so that it can be studied in order to facilitate more accurate needs assess- ments for expatriate workers, to understand how organizations can create effective cross-cultural training and development programs to success- fully fulfill their international placement requirements. An understanding of the cultural expectations gap for any expatriate employee through examination of acculturative dissonance will help the expatriate feel that he or she may have some control over the success of his or overseas assignment, and will help both the expatriate and organizations identify and rectify lapses in cultural misunderstandings more quickly and more efficiently.

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