Megaflooding on Earth and Mars Edited by Devon M

Home , Aromatum Chaos, Ladon Valles, Lake Souris, Marte Vallis, Ravi Vallis, Sirenum Fossae

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86852-5 - Megaflooding on Earth and Mars Edited by Devon M. Burr, Paul A. Carling and Victor R. Baker Index More information

Index

abrasion 16 porosity 292 facies 249–258, 259, 260 accommodation space 41, 256, 262 temperature 292, 295 giant bars 38–40, 243, 244 adiabatic cooling 203 thermal conductivitiy 292 Katun valley bars 261 ages thermal gradient 292 Kezek-Jala bar 249, 251 channel ages 195–196 Aram Chaos 178, 179, 211, 291 Komdodj bar 247, 249, 251 exposure age 195 Ares Vallis 173, 174, 178–179, 211–213, Kuray Flood bars 147 formation age 195 216, 218, 221, 297 Inja bar 249, 254 age-dating (see also marine isotope Argyre basin 214, 215, 216, 218 Little Jaloman bar 248, 249–251, stages) 194–196 Argyre Planitia 174, 178, 179 254–256, 261 carbon-14 249 Armero, Columbia 131 Log Korkobi bar 249, 254 cosmogenic dating Aromatum Chaos 184, 291, 301 medial bars crater counting 195, 196, 198 Arsia Mons 267 Missoula bars 147, 261, 262 epoch boundaries Ascraeus Mons 194 morphology 247–248 isochrons 195 Asia 245 pendant bars 39 luminescence dating 249 association 36, 38 primary bars 262 secondaries 195 Athabasca Valles 36, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, push bars 40 sediments 249 195, 198, 199, 201, 203, 205, 211, secondary bars 267 size-frequency distribution 194 293, 300, 305 sedimentary characteristics 248–258 Aktash 246, 249 age 196 streamlined bars (see bedforms, Alaska 227 discharge 204 streamlined) Allegheny Plateau morphology 199–201 basaltic ring structures 200 Allegheny Vallis 187–188 tectonism 200 bedding alluvial deposits, alluvial fans 209, 210, volcanism 200 cross-bedding 251, 254, 255, 256, 257 218, 220, 245 Auqukuh Vallis 220 plane-bedding 251, 255, 257, 258 alluvial architecture 227 avalanches bedforms 305 Alps, Europe 133 debris 131 antidunes 13, 19–20, 21–22, 40–44, Al-Qahira Vallis 220 rock 129, 277 230, 231, 300 Altai Mountains, Siberia 14, 23, 38, 43, butte-and-basin scabland 71 44, 243, 245, 262, 300 backwater (see also ponding) 281, 283, depositional forms 70–71, 73–74, Amazonian Epoch 194, 195, 204, 205, 285 145–147, 287 294 Baetis Chaos 183, 287 dunes 6, 8, 21, 22, 33, 36, 38, 40, 43, Amazonis Planitia 196, 198, 199 Basin and Range Province, North 44–45, 65, 73–75, 200, 229, 236, American Cordillera 130 America 134, 136 243, 247, 248, 256, 299, 300 American Falls Lake 150, 155 basins (see also lakes) erosional 15–16, 68–70, 71–73, 78, 80, anastomosis (see also morphology,plan Lake Superior basin 118 86, 89, 97, 114, 145–147, 285, 286, view) 14, 66–67, 68, 107, 110, Mediterranean basin 136 287, 304 115, 120 Millican basin, Oregon, USA 134 flutes 17, 84, 88 Aniakchak River 136 moraine basins 132–134, 144 furrows 16, 17–19, 20 Aniakchak Volcano, Alaska 136, 298 natural basins 128 irregularities 300 Antarctica 44 Pasco basin 145 lemniscate forms 70 antidunes (see bedforms) tectonic basins 134–136, 140, 141, 142 loess hills (see also streamlined Apollo seismic network (see seismic volcanic basins 140, 141, 142 forms) 71 networks) bars 33, 36, 38–40, 70–71, 80, 108, 114, longitudinal s-forms 84, 85 AQUARIVER model (see modelling) 116, 117, 120, 229, 230, 232, 244, longitudinal forms 17, 19, 26, 44, 45, aquifers 201, 202, 204, 205, 267, 291, 306 251, 286 71, 107, 110, 111, 196, 214 confined (Mars) 291 architecture 249–258 macroforms 33, 68–71, 95–96, convection in 292, 294 Bonneville Flood bars 146 229–230 flow rates 301 Chuja valley bars 261 megaforms 96–97 perched aquifers 197 eddy bars 39 mesoforms 33, 71–74, 85–95, 114 permeability/-ies 292, 301 expansion bars 38, 39, 230 microforms 33, 80–85

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Index 313

non-directional forms 84 Cerberus plains 195, 198, 199, 200, 201, circum-Chryse channels (see channels) obstacle marks 22–23, 230, 231, 236 204 Claritas Fossae 203 potholes 14, 16–17, 19, 26, 72, 84–85, Chagun–Uzun River 244 clasts (see also interclasts, rip-up clasts) 107, 119 Chakachatna River, Alaska 132 shape 277 scallops 16 Champlain/Hudson sub-lobe 120 Clearwater Lower Athabasca spillway scour 73, 107, 108, 110, 116, 117, 121, Channeled Scabland 1, 2, 3, 13–14, 17, climate change 134, 136, 138 195, 196, 248, 304 19, 22, 23, 38, 39, 65–74, 107, 108, clinoforms 249, 251 streamlined forms 14, 20, 22, 26, 39, 176, 177, 218 clinostratification 251 69–70, 78, 85–86, 95, 107, 108, channels CO2 (see carbon dioxide) 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 196, 198, boulder dominated beds 296 cobble pods 254, 257, 259 199, 200, 299 circum-Chryse channels 194 collapse 201, 214, 301 transverse forms 22, 40–44, 85, 107, depths 196, 198, 199, 200, 290, 295, Collier Glacier, Oregon, USA 144 110, 111, 300 297, 298 Colorado River 14, 132, 134 transverse s-forms 84 flood 34 Columbia Plateau 66, 67 trenched-spur buttes 68 geometry 291 Columbia River Gorge 65, 74, 145 undulating features 178–179 gravel-dominated beds 296 Columbia Valles 175–177 bedload transport 248 inner channels 17, 19, 107, 110, 111, composite forms 80 Bhutan 133 117, 119, 121, 220, 286 concave features 80 Big Ilgumen River valley 247, 248 large-scale 17, 19, 295 Connecticut River 2, 9 Big Jaloman River 251 length 200 continuity equation 216 Big Stone moraine 114 Martian megaflood, outflow 23, 24, 27, convection 203 Black Sea 5, 7–8, 154 36, 297–298 convex features 80, 178 Bond crater 215 Missoula Flood 300 cooling 204 Bonneville flood (see floods, Bonneville) outflow channels 290, 306 Copernicus crater 219 Bosphorus Strait 8, 136 piping 137 Coprates Chasm 198 boulders roughness 295 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 3–4, 65 armour 106 sand-dominated beds 296 corrosion bars (see bedforms, bars) sapping Cottonwood spillway berm 248 sides 297 coulees 14, 67 clusters 276–281, 283, 286 slope 196, 198, 199, 200, 217, 276, Coulomb friction 268 lag 108, 115, 116 295, 297, 298, 299 Coveville level 122 braided morphology 196 small-scale 194 Crab Creek, Washington, USA 67 Bretz, J Harlen 1, 2, 65, 176 sources 290–291 crater counting British Columbia, Canada 133, 134 steep channels 296 Crater Lake, Oregon, USA Brule spillway subchannels 298 crater paleolakes (see lakes) burial 195 tunnel channels 86–88, 90, 91, 92–94, creationism 2 burst-and-sweep cycles 260 99 creation science 2 butte-and-basin scabland 71 water level 298 critical flow 21–22, 140 width 198, 199, 200, 218, 298 Crooked Creek, central Oregon, USA 134 C14 dating channelised flow cross-lamination (see lamination) caldera 52 chaos, chaotic terrain 23, 34, 197, 201, cross-stratification (see stratification) ice-filled 60 211, 213, 214, 216, 219, 290, 294 cryosphere 197, 201, 203, 204, 291, 293, calorimeter, natural 53 Chemal 247 294, 297, 301, 303, 305 Calumet level 116, 118 Cheney–Palouse Tract 66, 69 erosion of 303–304, 305 canyons 211, 213, 214 Chezy´ (friction) formula/coefficient 267, cut-and-fill structures 255, 257 ice 60 268, 269, 270 Capri Chasma 175–177, 214 Chia Crater 183 Dadu River, China 131 carbon dioxide 204, 205, 293–294 Chicago outlet 116, 117, 118 Daga Vallis 175–177 Cascade Range, Oregon, USA 134 Chile 227 dams Caspian Sea 134 China 130 beach berms (see also ice, dams) cataclysmic flooding 243, 244 Chryse Colles 186 compromised dams 211 cataracts (see dry cataracts, Chryse Planitia 172 constructed dams 129, 138, 143 waterfalls) 14, 20, 21 Chryse trough 213, 214 earthen dams 137, 211 catastrophism 1 Chuja basin 244, 246 experimental breaching 137 cavitation 174, 300–302, 306 Chuja palaeolake failure 129, 137–138, 209, 210, 213, Cedar Buttes lava flow 132 Chuja River valley 23, 34, 246, 247, 248, 220 Cenozoic 244, 245 249, 251, 262 glacial dams 209, 211 Ceraunius Fossae 194 Chuja–Kuray floods Gros Ventre landslide dam failure 137 Cerberus Fossae 198, 199, 200, 201, 204, Chuja–Kuray palaeolake 5 hyaloclastite dam 132 291, 293 chute–pool 20, 21 incision 214

314 Index

dams (cont.) peak 138–144, 145, 210–211, 213, Europe 130 Kuray ice dam 141 214, 275, 290, 298 evaporation, Mars 294, 302, 303, 305 landslide dams 129–131, 132, 137, rate(s) 201, 218, 291–292, 301 exhumation 195 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 dissolution 15, 16 explosive boiling 54 lava-flow dams 129, 132 downcutting, episodic outlet 106 Eyjafjallajokull¨ (ice cap) 265, 266, 267, Missoula ice dam 140 downstream fining 248 268, 270 moraine dams 50, 134, 137, 138, 144, drainage density 220 145, 146 drainage integration 134, 136 facies natural dams 128 drop-stones 261 fall and pool structure 296 Nurek rockfill dam, Tajikistan 129 drumlins 78, 80, 85–88, 89, 92, 94, 95, fans 67–68 rock-material dams 128 96, 97–98 Ephrata Fan 67, 73–74 stability 131, 137, 138, 143 dry cataracts terraced fan 198 unconsolidated dams 209 Dry Falls 72 faults, faulting (see also graben) 195, Usoi landslide dam, Tajikistan 129, Martian 176, 181, 182–183 202, 203, 246 145 Potholes 65 fault blocks 199 volcanogenic 131–132, 142 dunes (see bedforms, giant current Fauskheiði 269 Dana, James D. ripples, megaripples) Fennoscandian Ice Sheet 5 Darcy law 292–295 dykes 174, 186, 203, 204, 267 Finger Lakes 120 Darcy velocity 292 emplacement 195, 197, 200, 201, 203 Fish Creek spillway Darcy–Weisbach equation 296 dynamics (see flood, dynamics;flow, Fisher Caldera, Alaska 136 Darcy–Weisbach friction factors 296, dynamics) fissures 196, 200 298, 299 flaking dating (see age-dating) earthflows 129 flame structures 259 debris flows 129, 131, 133, 134, 138, 144, earthquakes 131, 137 Flims rockslide 129 145, 229, 259, 265, 266 East Fork Hood River, Oregon 129 floods (see also jokulhlaups¨ ) deglaciation (see glacial processes) Eberswalde crater delta 210 Altai floods (see also Altai depletive waxing flow 260 echo sounding 52 Mountains) 286 deposition (see also sedimentation) Echus Chasma 213 Bonneville flood 132, 134, 145, 146, debris flow deposits 255, 258, 260, 261 El Chichon,´ Mexico 131 286 flood sediment 131, 133, 146, 200 Elaver Vallis 188–190 breached basin floods 132 glaciolacustrine deposits 244 Elysium Fossae 194 breached valley blockage floods 129 grainflow deposits 254 Elysium Mons 194 Chuja–Kuray floods 129, 147, 244 hyperconcentrated flow deposits 200, energy 205 damburst, dam-failure floods 128, 137, 226–232 English Channel 5 210, 211 lacustrine deposits 247, 249, 254, 256, Entujokull¨ (glacier) 269 duration 146, 301 258 environmental conditions, Mars 290, 294, dynamics 244 lahar deposits 131 302, 305 glacier outburst (see also landforms 38, 108–109 Eos Chasma 214 jokulhlaups¨ ) 50, 225, 265 limnic units 262 Ephrata Fan 67, 73–74 hazard management 131, 132, 265, Missoula deposits (see bars, Missoula) Erbalyk 247, 249 271 pyroclastic debris 131 Eridania basin 218, 219, 220 hydrograph (see hydrographs, flood) run-up deposits 39, 248 erosion (see also bedforms, marine floods 134, 136 stoss/lee deposition 300 spillways) 14–15, 196, 273 marks 134, 267, 268, 269, 270 slackwater deposits 275 abrasion 15 meteorological floods 146 depth of flow (see flow, depth; channel, bed 297, 298, 300–301, 305 Missoula 19, 38, 39, 129, 145, 146, depth) bedrock 281, 286 147, 177, 244, 258, 286, 306 diamicton 254, 255, 256, 257 cavitation 14, 15, 16, 286 Noah’s Flood 9, 14 Dig Tsho, Nepal 144 constrictions 19 sediment-laden floods 130 digital elevation model (DEM) 274, 275, corrosion (see also dissolution) 15 sediment load 301 276 of cryosphere self-censoring 194 diluvial 34 flaking 15 temperature 300 dimensionless blockage index 138 fluid stressing 15 water volume 301 discharges 210, 211, 216, 301 melting 297 (Mars) flood geology 2 attenuation 281, 284, 285, 286 particle erosion 277 flows duration 301 plucking 15, 16 capacity 303 estimates 109, 209, 210, 213, 214, 216, surfaces 96 channelised 196 217, 218, 219, 290, 298 error 195 depth 210, 217, 276, 300 groundwater 203, 204 esker(s) 78, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, dynamics 204, 295–296 of jokulhlaups¨ 52, 54–55, 265, 99 laminar 304 266–269, 273 Eurasian Ice Sheets 5 momentum 300

Index 315

obstacles 198 Glacial Lake Milwaukee 67, 115 heat overland 196 Glacial Lake Missoula 1, 3, 14, 22, 23, frictional 55, 56 plug 304 33, 38, 44, 45, 65, 73, 78, 145, 229, sources 203 rheology 229, 302–305, 306 243, 244 heat flux 60 speed, (velocity) 109, 204, 216, 217, Glacial Lake Ojibway 65 HEC-2 modelling 109 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, Glacial Lake Regina 7, 110, 111 Hedstrom number 304–305 302, 305, 306 outburst 5 Heinrich events 6 sub/supercritical 281, 299–300, 305 Glacial Lake Saginaw 70, 74–75, 116, Hells Canyon 134 thermodynamics 302–305 118 Hesperian Epoch 194, 204, 209, 210, turbulence 304 Glacial Lake Souris 6, 111 211, 216, 219, 294 volume flux 297, 299 Glacial Lake Vermont 120, 121, 123 highland terrain 199 fluid stressing 15 Glacial Lake Warren 120 Himalayas 130, 134 flutes 17, 84, 88 Glacial Lake Whittlesey 116 Hitchcock, Edward 2 Fort Ann levels 122 Gr´ımsvotn¨ 52–57, 232, 266 Holden crater 215, 216, 218 Fort Wayne moraine 115 ice-dammed/glacier-dammed Holocene 133, 249, 262, 274 fossea 39, 248 lakes 4–5, 52, 58, 226, 265 horseshoe vortices fountains 201, 204, 205, 293, 294 marginal lakes (see ice-dammed lakes) Hou Hsing Vallis 220 frazil ice 56 proglacial 105 Hraundalur 281 freezing point 203 subglacial 52 Hudson Bay 105 friction (see Chezy´ (friction) under ice cauldrons 57–58 Hudson Valley 119, 120, 121, 123 formula/coefficient, Manning’s glacial processes 197, 200, 249, 295 hummocky terrain 88–89, 200 friction coefficient, advance 136 Huron–Erie lobe 105 Darcy–Weisbach friction factors) alpine/valley glaciers 129, 246 hyaloclastite 132 Froude number (see also flow, continental ice sheets 129 hydrofracturing 56 sub/supercritical) 73, 276, 281, moraines 132 Hydaspis Chaos 174, 178, 179, 211 299–300 retreat 130, 133, 134 hydrated sulfates 183 furrows 17, 84 glaciolacustrine deposits hydraulic formulae 167 Glenwood level 117 hydraulic damming (see ponding) Galerkin finite element method Global Positioning System (GPS) 275 hydraulic jumps 19, 40–44, 281 Ganges Cavus 189–190 GPR (see radar, ground penetrating) hydraulic radius 268 Ganges Chasma 175, 176, 177, 184, 185, graben 196, 197, 199, 201, 203, 204, 211, hydraulic seals 52, 54–55 186, 187, 188, 190, 191 290 hydrographs 55 Genesee River Valley 120 Grand Canyon 132 exponentially rising 227 geometry 34 Grand Coulee 17, 19, 20, 66 flood 138, 145, 228, 281 geothermal areas Grand Valley 116 linearly rising 227 subglacial 265 Granicus Valles 194 hydrothermal convection 53 geothermal heat, melting 50, 290, 291, gravel dunes (see bedforms, dunes; giant hydrothermal fluid 50, 203 292 current ripples, megaripples) hydrothermal vents 52 giant current ripples (see also dunes, Great Salt Lake hyperconcentrated flows 50, 108, 109, megaripples) 6, 65, 73–75 Greenland 227, 228 111, 226–232, 237, 251, 255, 258, Gilbert, G. K. 80 Gr´ımsvotn¨ (see glacial lakes) 297, 301 glacial lakes (see also lakes) GrjotaValles´ 39, 44, 198 hyperpycnal flow 7 Glacial Lake Agassiz 33, 111–115, age 195–196 hypotheses 118 morphology 199 megaflood hypothesis 79–80 eastern outlets 114–115 Gros Ventre landslide dam failure Noah’s Flood Hypothesis 8, 9 northwestern outlets 115 Grosswald, Mikhail G. 5 working 2, 9 southern outlet 114 ground ice 203 Glacial Lake Albany 120, 121 ground-penetrating radar Iamuna Chaos 185–186 Glacial Lake Algonquin 118 groundwater 202 Icaria Fossae 203 Glacial Lake Avon 120 discharge 203, 213 ice (see also glacial processes) Glacial Lake Chicago 1, 68, 71, 74, piping 131 barriers 52, 246 106, 116, 118 release 203, 205, 213, 294 blocks 197, 230–231, 236, 266, 305 Glacial Lake Duluth 118 table 219 conduits 53 Glacial Lake Hind 7, 111 Gulf of St Lawrence 119, 122 flow in 58 Glacial Lake Iroquois 119, 120, 121, Gulf Stream 6 melting of 266 122 gullies 34 crystals 297, 303, 305, 306 Glacial Lake Lesley 119, 120, 179 Gusev crater 219 dams 14, 129, 137, 141, 143, 146, 197, Glacial Lake Maumee 3, 67–70, 210, 249 116 Hale crater 215 flotation 55 Glacial Lake McConnell 67, 115 hanging valleys 67 droplets

316 Index

ice (cont.) Kerlingarhyggur 274, 277 lamination (see also layering) 255, 257, formation 197, 304, 306 kettle holes 200, 230–231, 236, 248, 258, 260 raft 305 305 cross-lamination 251, 257 shelves 53 Kezek-Jala bar (see bars) inverse graded laminations 255 tunnels 54 Khvalyn palaeolake 5 normal graded laminations 255 expansion 55 knickpoints 17, 19, 25 landscape change, evolution 131, 273, Iceland 50, 131, 225, 228, 232, 258, 262, Komdodj bar 283 265, 271, 273 Kuray basin 246, 249, 265 landscape unconformity 78, 88, 92, 96–97 Illinois Valley 116, 117 Kuray–Chuja floods (see Chuja–Kuray Largo Argentina 44 imbrication 248, 251, 258, 277–278 Floods) latent heat of evaporation 204 incision 134 Kuray palaeolake Laurentian Fan 80 infiltration 199, 201 Kverkfjoll¨ (volcano), Kverkfjallarani (see Laurentide Ice Sheet 4–5, 8, 104–105, Indus Vallis 220 also jokulhlaups¨ , Kverkfjoll¨ ) 274, 109, 111, 115 Inja 248 276, 277, 281, 283 lava flows 131, 132, 292 Inja bar emplacement 202 inner channels (see channels) lacustrine deposits 247, 258 platy-ridged material 200, 201 InSAR 58 Ladon basin 215, 216, 218 spatter-fed flows 201 interclasts 254, 255, 257, 258, 260 Ladon Valles 215 layering (see also lamination) 200, 244 interior layer deposits 174 lahars 131, 136, 265, 266, 297 convoluted layering 255 inverse grading 260 Lake Michigan lobe 105, 118 light-toned layered deposits, Mars 218 isochrons Lake Superior basin lemniscate form 70, 108 Issyk, Kazakhstan 131 lakes (see also basins, glacial lakes) Lenore Canyon 67 American Falls Lake 132, 137 Lethe Vallis 200 Japan 130, 132 Chuja palaeolake 246 Licus Vallis 220 Johnstown Crater 190 Chuja–Kuray palaeolake 5, 243, 246 life 205 jokulhlaups¨ 13, 34, 50–61, 225–227, 232, caldera and crater lakes 128, 136–146 Lillooet River, British Columbia, 255, 260, 265, 273, 274 Crater Lake, Oregon, USA 136, 137 Canada 132 deposits 108, 226, 262 crater palaeolakes, Mars 209, 219 Little Ice Age 133 depth 270 East Lake, Oregon, USA 137 Little Jaloman 248 dynamics 266–269 Great Salt Lake 132, 134 Little Jaloman bar fissure swarm eruptions 60–61 Kuray palaeolake 246 Little Jaloman River valley 248 hazard management planning (see Lake Agassiz (see also lakes, Glacial Lobo Vallis 181 flood, hazard management) Lake Agassiz) 5, 8, 105, 108, 109, location 34 Hraundalur 281 111, 115 Log Korkobi bar Katla 60, 129, 265, 268, 269 Lake Atitlan´ Loire Vallis 220 Kverkfjoll,¨ Kverkfjallarani 273, 274, Lake Alvord 134 longitudinal grooves (see bedforms) 276, 281, 283, 284, 286 Lake Bonneville 134 longitudinal vortices Lake Missoula 286 Lake Issyk 137 Lower Fort Ann level linearly rising 55–57, 226, 297 Lake Maumee 108, 115 luminescence dating modelling Lake Nipigon 115 Lunae Planum 213 November, 1996, Iceland 226 Lake Ojibway 111 Lyell, Charles 1, 2 prehistoric 265, 269, 270 Lake Tarawera, North Island, New release 54 Zealand 132 Ma’adim Valles 39, 210, 218–220, 221 sedimentation 227 Lake Taupo, New Zealand 136 macroturbulence 14 speed 270 Lake Toba, Indonesia 136 Mae Chaem River, Thailand 19 subaerial 266–271 Largo Argentina 44 magma Oraefaj¨ okull¨ 60 level 55 chambers 53 Jokuls¨ a´ aFj´ ollum¨ (river) 44, 268, 300 Mansi Lake intrusions 50 Juventae Chasma 181, 183 Martian palaeolakes 172, 173, 174, magmatic melting of ground ice 197 176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, Maja Valles 181, 182–183, 211, 221, 300, Kaministikwia River 115 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 197, 305 Kankakee River 117 199 Mamers Valles 220 Kasei Valles 23–27, 174, 179–182, 211, megaflood deposits in 109 Mangala Fossa 196, 197, 203, 204, 291 213–214, 221 meteor impact basins 128 Mangala Valles 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, North Kasei Vallis 213 moraine-dammed, moraine-rimmed 211, 301, 304 Katla lakes 128, 132, 133, 134, 141, age 195 flood (see jokulhlaups¨ , Katla) 142, 144 discharge 301 volcano 265, 266, 267, 268, 270 Paulina Lake, Oregon, USA 136, 137 ice processes 197 Katun River valley 246, 247, 248, 249, tectonic basins 128, 132 morphology 196–198 251, 255, 256, 258, 262 volcanic calderas, lakes 128, 132, 145 release mechanism 203

Index 317

sinks 197–198 ERODE model 138, 143 Noctis Labyrinthus 174 source 201, 291, 294 FLDWAV model 145 North Fork Toutle River 131 Mansi Lake forward modelling 37 Manning’s equation/formula/roughness/ Galerkin finite element method 268 obstacle marks (see bedforms) coefficient/number 109, 179, 216, HEC-2, HEC-RAS 145, 274, 283 Okmok Caldera, Umnak Island, Alaska, 267, 268, 270, 276, 281, 295–296 inverse modelling 37 USA 136 Manych spillway of jokulhlaups¨ 55, 270 olivine 178 Margaritifer basin 211, 213, 216 Mars outflow channels 302, 304, 306 Olympica Fossae 194 Margaritifer Terra 214 SAMOS snow avalanche model 268, Olympus Mons 194 marine floods 269 Ophir Catenae 187, 188, 191 marine isotope stages 243, 245, 249 slope area method 274–275, 276, 281, Ophir Cavus 187 Mars 18, 19, 23, 34, 209, 210–211, 214, 283, 284 Ophir Creek, Nevada 130 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 302, SOBEK 276, 281 Oraefaj¨ okull¨ volcano 60 305–306 two-dimensional (2-D) hydrodynamic Oraefaj¨ okull¨ floods exploration 205 modelling 274, 276, 281–283, Orcus Patera 198, 199 Mars Exploration Rovers 219 284–286 Oregon, USA 134 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) 21, 195, Mohawk Outlet 120 outburst floods (see also 196, 198, 199, 200 Mohawk Valley 119, 121 jokulhlaups¨ ) 128, 131, 145, 259, Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter Mongolia 6, 246 296 (MOLA) 24, 179, 184, 195, 196, Monterey East Channel 80 Glacial Lake Regina 110 198, 199, 200, 205, 210, 211, 301 Moon 292 outflow channels (see channels) Mars Pathfinder 179, 297, 298, 306 moraines 294 outlet geometry 137 Marte Vallis 198, 199, 205, 211 Rogen moraines 78, 89, 99 outlet valleys 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, age 195 moraine dams (see dams, lakes) 219, 220 Martian outflow channels 1, 6, 7, 108, Morava (formerly Margaritifer) Valles outwash plains (see also sandur) 60, 67 287, 290–306 Morella Crater 188–190 overfitness 14, 67–68 mass movements morphology overflow of basins 210, 211, 213, 214, Mawrth Vallis 173, 211–213 Athabasca Valles 199–201 216, 218, 219, 220, 221 Maumee Torrent 115, 116 Mangala Valles 196–198 overland flow Maumee Vallis 211 Mars channels 196–201 Oxia Chaos 184–186 Medicine Lake Volcano, California, Marte Vallis 198–199 USA 136 outflow channels 290 palaeocompetence 274, 277, 283 Mediterranean basin plan-view morphology 199, 220 palaeohydraulics 74–75, 129, 146, 274, Mediterranean Sea 136 anastomosing 198, 286 277 Medusae Fossae Formation 196, 198 braided 196, 256 palaeolakes (see lakes) megafloods 1, 6, 9, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, Moses Coulee 66, 67 palaeostage indicators (PSI) 275, 276, 136, 137, 243, 246, 247, 249, 251, Mount Everest 227 281, 283 254, 255, 256, 259, 260, 262, 286 Mount Mazama, Oregon 132, 137 Pardee, Joseph Thomas 3 Martian 6 Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand 136 partial freezing 203 terrestrial 3–6, 7 Mount Saint Helens 131 passive flooding 261 triggering mechanisms 201–203 Mount Spurr volcanic complex 132 Pathfinder (see Mars Pathfinder) megaripples (see also giant current Mount Toc Patagonia ripples) 78, 89–92, 182, 183 Myrdalsj´ okull¨ (ice cap) 52, 58, 60, 265, Paulina Lake Mekong River, Laos 22 270 Peru 133, 137 Memnonia Fossae 195, 196, 203, 204 phreatomagmatism 197, 201, 204 meteor impacts 128 Nanedi Vallis 220 Pinatubo, Philippines 136 Millican basin Naranjo River 131 pingos 200, 249 Minnesota River spillway natural basins 128 pitted mounds 196, 200, 201 Minnesota River valley 105, 108 Navy Submarine Fan 80 platy-ridged material Mississippi River 218 negative water balance 136 Pleistocene 65–74, 129, 133, 134, 243, Missoula floods (see floods, Missoula) Nepal 133, 227, 228 245 MOC (see Mars Orbiter Camera) Nevado de Colima (volcano) 131 Pliocene–Pleistocene transition 244 MOLA (see Mars Orbiter Laser Nevado del Ruiz, Columbia 131 plucking Altimeter) New Zealand 130, 131, 136 pluvial periods 136 modelling 199, 205, 267, 291–293 Newberry Volcano, Oregon 136 Pollalie Creek debris flow 129 AQUARIVER model 268 Newton crater 219 polygons (see also hummocky BEED model 138, 143 Nirgal Vallis 218 terrain) 200 breach-erosion models 143 Noachian debacle 2 ponding (see also backwater) 198, 200, BREACH model 138, 143 Noachian Epoch 194, 209, 210, 213, 215, 201, 247, 261, 283 DAMBRK model 138 216, 218, 219 pool–riffle sequence 20, 21

318 Index

pore pressure 202 Sandyland moraine 111 SOBEK pore space 204 scablands (see also bedforms) 78 Somerset Crater 190 Port Huron advance 116 Cheney–Palouse Tract 66, 69 sources 196, 201 Portage spillway definition 65 Athabasca Valles 199 Portland Delta 67 Grand Coulee 66 Mangala Valles 201 potholes 119, 174, 177 Moses Coulee 66, 67 Marte Vallis 198–199 Potholes Cataract 65 patterns 67–68 Mawrth Vallis 213 Preboreal Oscillation 115 Telford–Crab Creek Tract 66 subsurface 290 pressure, subglacial water 202, 266 topography 120 tectonic 196 proglacial lakes (see lakes) scale 34, 38 ULM 218 PSI (see palaeostage indicators) scallops spillways 105, 107 pyroclastic deposits Scamander Vallis 220 Brule 118 pyroclastic density currents 204 scour (see bedforms) Clearwater Lower Athabasca pyroclastic flows 132 sea level rise 136 115 secondary production Cottonwood 114 Qu’Appelle-Assiniboine spillway sediments erosional 106–107 Quaternary 229, 244, 262, 268 ice-volume fraction 302 Fish Creek 114 Quincy Basin 67 load 33, 37, 303, 304 Manych 5 size-distribution 298 Minnesota River 106 radar supply 283 Portage 118 ground penetrating radar 226, 233 transport 33, 34, 36–38, 301, 306 Qu’Appelle-Assiniboine 111 orbiting 306 sedimentology 36 St Croix 118 Ravi Vallis 184, 205, 211, 298, 299, 301 sedimentation Sheyenne 111 reactivation surfaces 228, 230 capacity-driven 286 Souris 110, 111 regression analysis, equations 138 competence-driven 286 Souris–Pembina 111 release mechanisms 197, 201–203, 204, from jokulhlaups¨ 226–232 Spirit Lake, Idaho 73, 131 205 seismic experiments, networks 292, Spokane Flood 3 combined 203 306 Staircase Rapids, Washington state 19 dyke-induced 201 seismicity 54, 130 standing waves 40, 41 stress release 197 sequences 255, 256, 260, 261 step–pool 20, 21 tectonic 197, 202–203 coarsening-upward 260 strandlines 249 volcanic 201–202, 203–204 fining-upward 260 stratification Reynolds number 73–74, 304 Shalbatana Vallis 173, 186–187 clinostratification 251, 256, 257 Rhine river, Switzerland 129 Shaw, John 6, 8 cross-stratification 251 rheology (see also flow) shear stress 146, 267, 276, 281, 284, 286, stratigraphic log 255 Newtonian material 297 287 streamlined hills (see bedforms) non-Newtonian material (Bingham shorelines 246 streamlining 78, 86 plastic) 304 Siberia (see also Altai Mountains, stream power 146, 221, 276, 281, 287, rhythms, rhythmites 254, 258, 259, 260, Siberia) 229, 243, 262 290–306 261, 262 Sierra Nevada, California, USA 133 stress field 203, 205, 290 rip-up blocks, rip-up clasts 231–232, 237, Simud Valles 173, 175–178, 211, 214, stress release 259 221 Straits of Gibraltar 136 river diversion 132 sinks 196 Straits of Mackinaw 118 rock size distribution 297 Athabasca Valles 201 stratigraphy 36, 130, 195 rockslides 59 GrjotaValles´ 199 subglacial megafloods 8–9 Rocky Butte 68 Mangala Valles 197–198 subglacial volcanic eruptions Rogen moraines Marte Vallis 199 supercooled water 57 Rome outlet 121 Sirenum Fossae 203 superfloods 1 rootless cones 196, 199, 200, 201 size-frequency distribution superposition 195 roughness 287 Skafta´ (river) 267 Susquehanna River 119, 120 characteristic roughness height 268 Skeiðara´ (river) 267, 268 sverdrups 1 form roughness 284 Skeiðararsandur´ 56, 232–237 Syracuse channels 120 Ruapehu, New Zealand 265 slope (see also channel slope, water Rush-Victor channels 120 slope) 196 Taylor channel 120 slope area method tectonic activity 136, 197, 200 Sacra Fossae 213 slot canyons 19 extensional 203 Samara Valles 220 Snake River, Idaho, USA 132, 134, pressurisation 293 SAMOS snow avalanche model 145 tectonic sources sandur (see also outwash plains) 50, 67, Snake River Plains, USA 134, 136 Tegermach River, Kirgizstan 129 227, 228 Soap Lake 19 Telford–Crab Creek Tract 66

Index 319

temperature Usoi landslide dam vortices aquifer 203 Uzboi–Ladon–Morava (ULM) horseshoe 80, 85, 89 flood Valles 210, 211, 213, 214–218, longitudinal 85, 86, 95, 96, 97 water 220, 221 Terra Cimmeria 219 Wabash Valley 115, 116 Terra Sirenum 219 Vajont, Italy 130, 251 Walla Walla Vallis 187–188 terraces 195, 198, 218, 243, 244, 247, Valles Marineris 172–191, 214, Wallula Crater, Mars 188 248, 251, 256 221 Wallula Gap, Washington 19 Tharsis 96, 174, 191, 194, 196, 197, 202, valley blockage 128 washload 36, 37, 301 203, 213 valley fill 243, 244, 247, 256 waterfalls (see also dry cataracts) 14, 20, Thaumasia Fossae 203 valley glaciers 40 Thermal Emission Imaging Spectrometer Valley Heads moraine 120 water ascent, Mars 291–293 (THEMIS) 196, 199 valley networks (Mars) 209, 210, 218, water–atmosphere interactions Þjors´ a´ (river) 269 220, 221, 290, 298 204 Tibet 130, 133 vapour bubbles 295, 300–302 water droplets 204 Tiu Valles 173, 175–178 vapour pressure 302 water release, Mars 292, 293–295 traction carpets, traction load 255, 260, varves 254 water-sheets 57, 58 261, 281 Vastitas Borealis formation 7, 177 weathering 15, 16 triple point 204 Vatnajokull¨ (ice cap) 5, 6, 8, 52, 60, 266, welded block-and-ash breccia 131 Tsangpo River gorge, Tibet 146 267, 274 Whangahu River 136 tunnel channels Viking 3–6, 198, 290, 298, 306 Whewell, William 2 tunnel valleys 95 volcanic arcs 130 Williamson River 132 turbidity currents 259 volcanic provinces 194 Wilmette bed 118 Turgai divide 5 volcanism 130 Wilson Creek 67, 68, 73 Two Rivers advance 118 calderas and craters 136 wrinkle ridge 199 eruptions 50, 204, 226, 265 Uinkaret volcanic field 132 fissures 60 Xanthe Chaos 186 undulating features intrusions 290, 291, 293 Xanthe Terra 173, 184 uniformitarianism 1, 2, 3, 75 stratovolcanoes 60 Upper Fort Ann levels subglacial 52, 59–60, 129, 265 Younger Dryas 6, 115, 118