FREE CONSTANTINE THE EMPEROR PDF

David Potter | 368 pages | 17 May 2013 | Oxford University Press Inc | 9780199755868 | English | New York, United States Who Was Constantine the Great?

His mother, Helenawas Greek Constantine the Emperor of low birth. Constantine served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius campaigning in the eastern provinces against barbarians and the Persiansbefore being recalled west in to fight Constantine the Emperor his father Constantine the Emperor Britain. After his father's death inConstantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum York. He emerged victorious in the civil wars against emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of the Roman Empire by As emperor, Constantine enacted administrative, financial, social and military reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To Constantine the Emperor inflation he introduced the solidusa new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was Constantine the Emperor to consist of mobile units comitatensesand garrison troops limitanei capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued Constantine the Emperor campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —the Franksthe Alamannithe Goths and the Sarmatians —even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He Constantine the Emperor an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan inwhich declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea inwhich produced the statement of Christian belief known as the Nicene Creed. The papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the fabricated Donation of Constantine. He has historically been referred Constantine the Emperor as the "First Christian Emperor" and he did favour the Christian Church. While some modern scholars Constantine the Emperor his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity, [notes 3] he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. It subsequently became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years, the later Eastern Roman Empire being referred to as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians. His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the de facto principle of dynastic successionby leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty. His reputation flourished during the lifetime Constantine the Emperor his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Trends in Constantine the Emperor and recent scholarship have attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship. Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and he has always been a controversial figure. These are abundant and detailed, [13] but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period [14] and are often one-sided; [15] no contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived. Lactantius ' De Mortibus Persecutoruma political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchyprovides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. The epitomes of Aurelius Victor De CaesaribusConstantine the Emperor BreviariumFestus Breviariumand the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the Constantine the Emperor. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. AD Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [39] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricumin or Each emperor would have his own court, his own military Constantine the Emperor administrative Constantine the Emperor, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, Constantine the Emperor and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in or Diocletian divided the Empire again Constantine the Emperor ADappointing two caesars junior emperors to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to their respective augustus senior emperor but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Constantine the Emperor first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galeriusa native of Felix Romuliana. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, Constantine the Emperor semi-barbarian. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his Constantine the Emperor heir presumptive. Constantine's parents and siblings, the dates in square brackets indicate the possession of minor titles. Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in AD and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria ADas well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia AD — Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of ADin time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. On 1 May ADDiocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of AD —, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in MilanMaximian did the same. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, that Diocletian Constantine the Emperor choose Constantine and Maxentius Maximian's son as his successors. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining Constantine the Emperor Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. From Bononia, they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum Yorkcapital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against Constantine the Emperor Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocusa barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [74] Hispaniawhich had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an augustus. Constantine's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex Constantine the Emperor the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure Constantine the Emperor emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum Autun and Arelate Arles. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [91] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy Constantine the Emperor him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". Following Galerius' recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. Galerius refused to recognize him but failed to unseat him. Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of AD, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Constantine the Emperor turmoil; [] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In AD, Constantine the Emperor marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate Constantine the Emperor the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. On 11 November AD, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum Petronell-CarnuntumAustria to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Constantine the Emperor. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Liciniusone of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus Constantine the Emperor the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus Daia was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and Constantine the Emperor that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [] but neither accepted the new title. In AD, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who Constantine the Emperor support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine. Constantine I - Christianity, Life & Death - Biography

All rights reserved. Emperor Constantine ca A. His acceptance of Christianity and his establishment of an eastern capital city, which would later Constantine the Emperor his name, mark his rule as a significant pivot point between ancient history and the Middle Ages. The Roman Empire that Constantine was born into was one of chaos and anarchy. Civil wars, invasions, and disease were rending the empire so badly that the era is regarded as the Crisis of the Third Century. Emperor Diocletian tried to bring order by distributing power to a four-ruler tetrarchy that would govern the four quarters of the empire. After the death of his father in A. He spent the next 18 years battling the three other Roman rulers—his rivals—to Constantine the Emperor the sole emperor. He defeated one rival, his brother-in-law Maxentiusand gained the mantle of western Roman emperor. But of far greater import was a revelation he experienced before the battle. When he triumphed at Milvian Bridge, he attributed the victory to the god of the Christians. Regardless, in A. Constantine assumed sole control over the empire in A. Rome, however, was losing its luster for him. Moreover, from Constantine the Emperor military standpoint, Constantine realized it would be easier to fend off threats from the east and to protect Constantine the Emperor territory—and granaries—in Constantine the Emperor if he moved his capital to a more defensible eastern location. He left Rome for good to build an imperial city that would glorify both his power and his faith. Constantinople modern-day Istanbulhis capitalwas dedicated in A. Previously known as Byzantium, it had been under Roman control for well over a century, but Constantine rebuilt and expanded it on a monumental scale. He tripled the size of the existing city and offered full citizenship and free bread to encourage men of rank to move there with their families. Churches began to punctuate the skyline; Christians were welcomed, and other faiths were generally tolerated. Constantine the Emperor ascendant Constantinople soon eclipsed Rome. Who was Constantine? Constantine made Christianity the main religion of Rome, and created Constantinople, which became the most powerful city in the world. By Kristin Baird Constantine the Emperor. Ancient Rome Spanning over a thousand years, ancient Rome was a civilization of constant evolution. This great empire flourished through innovation and incorporation of the diverse cultures they conquered, such as the adoption of Latin and gladiatorial combat. Learn about the rise and fall of this ancient civilization and how its Constantine the Emperor still endures today. Continue Reading. Constantine I | Biography, Accomplishments, Death, & Facts | Britannica

Constantine's death marked the end of the Byzantine Empirean institution tracing its origin to Constantine the Great 's foundation of Constantinople as the Roman Empire 's new capital in Since the Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire's Constantine the Emperor continuation, with its citizens continually referring to themselves as RomansConstantine XI's death and Constantinople's fall also marked the definitive end of the Roman Empire, founded by Augustus almost 1, years earlier. Little is known of his early life, but from the s onward, he is repeatedly demonstrated to have been a skilled general. Based on his career and surviving contemporary sources, Constantine appears to primarily have been a soldier. This Constantine the Emperor not mean that Constantine was not Constantine the Emperor a skilled administrator: he was trusted and favored to such an extent by his older brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologosthat he was designated as regent twice during John VIII's journeys away from Constantinople in — and — In —, Constantine and John fended off an attack on the Morea the Peloponnese by Carlo I ToccoConstantine the Emperor of Epirusand in Constantine was proclaimed Despot of the Morea and ruled the province together with his older brother Theodore and his younger brother Thomas. Together, they extended Byzantine rule to cover Constantine the Emperor the entire Constantine the Emperor for the first time since the Fourth Crusade more than two hundred years before and rebuilt the ancient Hexamilion wallwhich defended the peninsula from outside attacks. Although ultimately unsuccessful, Constantine personally led a campaign into Central Greece and Thessaly in —, attempting to extend Byzantine rule into Greece once more. Constantine's brief reign would see the emperor grapple with three primary concerns. First, there was the issue of an heir, as Constantine was also childless. Despite attempts by Constantine's friend and confidant George Sphrantzes to find him a wife, Constantine ultimately died unmarried. The second concern was the religious disunity within what little remained of his empire. Constantine and his predecessor John VIII both believed a union between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches was needed to secure military aid from Catholic Europe, but much of the Byzantine populace opposed the idea. Finally, the most important concern was the growing Ottoman Constantine the Emperorwhich by completely surrounded Constantinople. Even though the city's defenders Constantine the Emperor have numbered less than a tenth of the sultan's army, Constantine considered the idea of abandoning Constantinople unthinkable. The emperor stayed to defend the city and on 29 May, Constantinople fell. Constantine died the same day. Although no reliable eyewitness accounts of his death survived, most historical accounts agree that the Constantine the Emperor led a last charge against Constantine the Emperor Ottomans and died fighting. Constantine was Constantine the Emperor last Christian ruler of Constantinople, which alongside his bravery at the city's fall cemented him as a near-legendary figure in later histories and Greek folklore. Some saw the foundation of Constantinople Constantine the Emperor New Rome under Constantine the Great and its loss under another Constantine as fulfillment of the city's destiny, just as Old Rome had been founded by a Romulus and lost under another. Manuel ruled a disintegrating and dwindling Byzantine Empire. Though some emperors, such as Alexios I and Manuel Ihad successfully recovered portions of Anatolia through help from western crusaders, their gains were only temporary. Anatolia was the empire's most fertile, populated, and wealthy region, and after its loss, Byzantium more or less experienced constant Constantine the Emperor. Although most of it was eventually reconquered, the Byzantine Empire was crippled by the Fourth Crusade and the loss of Constantinople to the Latin EmpireConstantine the Emperor by the crusaders. The Byzantine Empire, under the founder of the Palaiologos dynasty, Michael VIIIretook Constantinople inthough the damage to the empire was irreversible and the empire continued to decline over the course of the 14th century as the result of frequent civil wars. The Byzantine Empire, once extending throughout the eastern Mediterraneanwas reduced to the imperial capital of Constantinoplethe Peloponneseand a handful of islands in the Aegean Seaand was also forced to Constantine the Emperor tribute to the Ottomans. As the empire dwindled, the emperors concluded that the only Constantine the Emperor to ensure that their remaining territory was kept intact was to grant some of their holdings to their sons, who received the title of despotas appanages to defend and govern. Manuel's oldest son, Johnwas raised to co-emperor and designated to succeed his father. The second son, Theodorewas designated as the Despot of the Morea the prosperous province constituting the Peloponnese and the third son, Andronikoswas proclaimed as Despot of Thessaloniki in The younger sons; Constantine, Demetrios and Thomaswere kept in Constantinople as there was not sufficient land left to grant them. Little is known of Constantine's early life. From an early age, he was admired by George Sphrantzes later a famed Byzantine historianwho would later enter his service, and later encomiasts often wrote that Constantine had always been courageous, adventurous, and skilled in martial arts, horsemanship, and hunting. In the latter he is shown with a rounded beard, in noted contrast to his forked-bearded relatives, but it is unclear whether that reflects his actual appearance. After an unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Constantinople inManuel II suffered a stroke and was left paralyzed in one side of his body. He lived Constantine the Emperor another three years, but the empire's government was effectively in the Constantine the Emperor of Constantine's brother John. Thessaloniki was also under siege by the Ottomans; to prevent Constantine the Emperor from falling into their hands, John gave the city to the Republic of Venice. Manuel believed that an eventual church union, which Constantine the Emperor become John's goal, would only antagonize the Turks and the empire's populace, which could have started a civil war. John was impressed by his brother's actions during the Ottoman siege, [3] and trusted him more than his other brothers. Constantine was given the title of despot and was Constantine the Emperor to rule Constantinople as regent. With the aid of his bedridden father Manuel, Constantine drew up a new peace treaty with the Ottoman sultan Murad IIwho momentarily spared Constantinople from further Turkish attacks. John returned from his journey in November after failing to procure help. Constantine was granted a strip of land to the north of Constantinople that extended from the town of Mesembria in the north to Derkos in the south. It also included the port of Selymbria as his appanage Constantine the Emperor After Constantine's successful tenure as regent, John deemed his brother loyal and capable. Because their brother Theodore expressed his discontent over his position as Despot of the Morea to John during the latter's visit inJohn soon recalled Constantine from Mesembria and designated him as Theodore's successor. Theodore eventually changed his mind, but John would eventually assign Constantine to the Morea as a despot in after a campaign there. Though Theodore was content to rule in the Morea, historian Donald Nicol believes that the support was helpful, as the peninsula was repeatedly threatened by external forces throughout the s. Inthe Ottomans broke through the ancient Hexamilion wall —which guarded the Peloponnese—and devastated the Morea. The Morea was also constantly threatened by Carlo I Toccothe Italian ruler of Epiruswho campaigned against Theodore shortly before Constantine the Emperor Ottoman invasion and again in Constantine the Emperor, occupying territory in the northwestern parts of the Morea. On 26 Decemberthe two brothers reached Mystrasthe capital of the Morea, and made their way to the town of Glarentzawhich was captured by the Epirotes. In the Battle of the Echinadesa naval skirmish off the coast of Glarentza, Tocco was defeated and he agreed to relinquish his conquests in the Morea. In Constantine the Emperor to seal the peace, Tocco offered his niece, Maddalena Tocco whose name was later Constantine the Emperor to the Greek Theodorain marriage to Constantine, her dowry being Glarentza and the other Moreot territories. The transfer of Tocco's conquered Moreot territories to Constantine complicated the Morea's government structure. Since his brother Theodore refused to step down as despot, the despotate became governed by two members of the imperial family for the first time since its creation Constantine the Emperor Soon thereafter, the younger Thomas aged 19 was also appointed as a third Despot of the Morea, which meant that the nominally undivided despotate had effectively disintegrated into three smaller principalities. Theodore did not share control over Mystras with Constantine or Thomas; instead, Theodore granted Constantine lands throughout the Morea, including the northern harbor town of Aigiofortresses and towns in Laconia in the southand Kalamata and Messenia in the west. Constantine made Glarentza, which he was entitled to by marriage, his capital. Meanwhile, Thomas was given lands in the north and based himself in the castle of Kalavryta. The campaign ended in failure, possibly due to Theodore's reluctant participation and Thomas' inexperience. Constantine confided with Sphrantzes and John at a secret meeting in Mystras that he Constantine the Emperor make a second attempt to retake Patras by himself; if he failed, he would return to his old appanage by the Black Sea. Constantine and Sphrantzes, confident that the city's many Greek inhabitants would support their takeover, marched towards Patras on 1 Marchand they besieged the city on 20 March. The siege developed into a long and drawn-out engagement, with occasional skirmishes. At one Constantine the Emperor, Constantine's horse was shot and killed under him and the despot nearly died, being saved by Sphrantzes at the cost of Sphrantzes being captured by the defenders of Patras though he would be released, albeit in a state of near-death, on 23 April. After almost two months, the defenders opened up to the possibility of negotiation in May. Malatesta journeyed to Italy in an attempt to recruit reinforcements and the defenders agreed that if he did not return to them by the Constantine the Emperor of the month, Patras would surrender. Constantine agreed to this and withdrew his army. On 1 June, Constantine returned to the city and, since the Archbishop had not returned, met with the city's leaders in the city's Cathedral of St. Andrew on 4 June and they accepted him as their new lord. The Archbishop's castle, located on a nearby hill, fought against Constantine for another 12 months before surrendering. Constantine's capture Constantine the Emperor Patras was seen as an affront by the Pope, the Constantine the Emperor, and the Ottomans. In order to pacify any threats, Constantine sent ambassadors to all three, with Sphrantzes being sent to talk with Turahanthe Ottoman governor of Thessaly. Although Sphrantzes was successful in removing the threat of Turkish reprisal, the threat Constantine the Emperor the west was realized as the dispossessed Archbishop arrived at the head of a mercenary army of Catalans. Unfortunately for Malatesta, the Catalans had little interest in helping him recover Patras, and they attacked and seized Glarentza instead, which Constantine had to Constantine the Emperor back from them for 6, Venetian ducatsand began plundering the Moreot coastline. To prevent Glarentza from being Constantine the Emperor by pirates, Constantine eventually ordered it to be destroyed. The grief-stricken Constantine first had her buried at Glarentza, but then moved to Mystras. In November, Sphrantzes was rewarded by being proclaimed as the city's governor. By the early s, the efforts of Constantine Constantine the Emperor his younger brother Thomas had ensured that nearly all of the Peloponnese was under Byzantine rule again since the Fourth Crusade. When Centurione died inThomas took control of all his remaining territories by right of marriage. The only lands in the Peloponnese remaining under foreign rule were the few port towns and cities still held by the Republic of Venice. InTurahan sent his troops south on Murad's orders to demolish the Hexamilion wall in an effort Constantine the Emperor remind the despots that they were the Sultan's vassals. Thomas agreed to Constantine the Emperor his fortress Kalavryta to Constantine, who made it his new Constantine the Emperor, in exchange for Eliswhich Thomas made his new capital. John VIII had no sons to succeed him Constantine the Emperor it was thus assumed that his successor would be one of his four surviving brothers Andronikos having died some time before. John VIII's preferred successor was known to be Constantine and though this choice was accepted by Thomas, who had a good relationship with his older brother, it was resented by Constantine the Emperor older brother Theodore. When Constantine was summoned to the capital inTheodore falsely believed it was to appoint Constantine as co-emperor and designated heir, and he travelled to Constantinople to raise his objections. The quarrel between Constantine and Theodore was not resolved until the end ofwhen the future Patriarch Gregory Mammas was sent to reconcile them and prevent civil war. Constantine the Emperor brothers agreed that Constantine was to return to Constantinople, while Theodore and Thomas would remain in the Morea. John needed Constantine in Constantinople as he was Constantine the Emperor for Italy soon. On 24 SeptemberConstantine reached Constantinople. Although he was not proclaimed Constantine the Emperor co-emperor, [20] his appointment as regent for a second time, suggested to John by their mother Helena, [16] indicated that he was Constantine the Emperor be regarded as John's intended heir, [20] much to the dismay of his other brothers. John left for Italy in November to attend the Council of Ferrara in an effort to unite the Eastern and Western churches. Although many in the Byzantine Empire opposed a union of the Churches, as it would mean religious submission under the PapacyJohn viewed a union as necessary. The papacy did not view the situation of the Christians in the East as something positive, but it would not call for any aid to the disintegrating empire if it did not acknowledge obedience to the Catholic Church and renounce what Catholics perceived as errors. John brought a large delegation to Italy, including Joseph II, the Patriarch of Constantinople; representatives of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem; large numbers of bishops, monks, and priests; and his younger brother Demetrios. Demetrios showed opposition against a church union, but John decided not to leave him in the East since Demetrios had shown rebellious tendencies and was thought to try to take the throne with Ottoman support. Constantine was not left without supporting courtiers in Constantinople: Constantine's and John's cousin Demetrios Palaiologos Kantakouzenos and the experienced statesman Loukas Notaras were left Constantine the Emperor the city. Helena and Sphrantzes were also there to advise Constantine. During John's absence from Constantinople, the Ottomans abided by the previously established peace. Trouble appeared to have brewed only once: in earlyConstantine wrote to his brother in Italy to remind the Constantine the Emperor that the Byzantines had Constantine the Emperor promised two warships by the end of spring. Constantine hoped that the ships would leave Italy within fifteen days, as he believed that Murad II was planning a strong offensive against Constantinople.