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“Sharing Is Over!” a Case Study on Sharing Norms in the Namibian Resettlement Projects of Skoonheid and Drimiopsis

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8 Jonathan H. M. Kempen “Sharing is over!” A Case Study on Sharing Norms in the Namibian Resettlement Projects of Skoonheid and Drimiopsis Edited by the Cologne African Studies Centre Cologne 2016 Jonathan H. M. Kempen “Sharing is over!” A Case Study on Sharing Norms in the Namibian Resettlement Projects of Skoonheid and Drimiopsis CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA SERIES Edited by the Cologne African Studies Centre Issue 8 2016 Preface Jonathan Kempen behandelt in seiner MA Arbeit ein klassisches Thema der Sozialethno- logie: wie sind Normen des Teilens, Moralität und Alltagshandeln miteinander verknüpft. In der Ethnologie ist „Teilen“ ein prominentes Thema insbesondere in der Ethnographie egalitärer, vor allem wildbeuterischer Gesellschaften. Ethnographien arbeiten sich dabei meist an zwei Positionen ab: während die einen das Teilen als einen Akt reziproken Aus- tauschs verstehen, als Gabe auf die stets eine Gegengabe folgt, betonen die anderen, dass Teilen vor allem als moralischer Akt verstanden wird und in einem ökonomischen Sinne keine Gegengaben verlangt. Kempen gelingt es sehr gut diese unterschiedlichen Positionen herauszuarbeiten und für seine eigene Arbeit in angemessene Fragestellun- gen zu überführen. Er stellt dabei heraus, dass „sharing“ sich in der Ethnographie meist auf das Teilen von Nahrungsmitteln bezieht, während reziproker Tausch deutlich eher mit dem Austausch von Nicht-Lebensmitteln verbunden ist. Seine dreimonatige Feldarbeit führte Kempen auf zwei namibischen Resettlement Farmen in der Omaheke Region durch. Beide Resettlement Farmen werden hauptsächlich von San bewohnt, aber auch Mitglieder anderer ethnischer Gruppen siedeln dort. Auf vorbildli- che Art und Weise generiert Kempen Daten aus teilnehmender Beobachtung, offenen Interviews, einer Netzwerkanalyse (egozentrierte Netzwerke), einfachen Verfahren der kognitiven Ethnologie und Extended Case Studies. Kurz stellt er auch seine Versuche mit experimentellen Situationen dar. Es gelingt Kempen sehr gut, aus den empirischen Daten neue Erkenntnisse abzuleiten. Dabei ist seine Ausgangshypothese in dem Ausruf „Sha- ring is over!“ – Teilen spielt in der heutigen Gemeinschaft der Resettlement Schemes kei- ne Rolle mehr – klar formuliert. Kempen untersucht in seiner Arbeit, auf welchen Ebenen Teilen in einer post-jägerischen Gesellschaft weiterhin von Bedeutung ist; denn schon erste Interviews zeigten ihm, dass über Teilen auch weiterhin sehr viel gesprochen und diskutiert wird – und Teilen zumindest als Norm- und Wertidee weiterhin sehr präsent ist. ii Abstract One very popular field of investigation in hunter-gatherer research is normative sharing as a means to sustain egalitarian structures within hunting and gathering societies. It has been hypothesized that such sharing practices may inhibit economic development in these societies as they are based on immediate-return strategies. In a world that is in- creasingly based on delayed-return subsistence and long-term planning the sharing norms that are widely associated with the San groups of Southern Africa may be an ob- stacle to their economic performance. However, it remains to be evaluated to what extent such norms are still a part of their daily life and whether their sedentarization together with other groups has caused a change in their sharing behavior. Looking at two Namibian resettlements with a considerably large number of San, this case study evaluates the role of sharing among former hunter-gathers in relation to neighboring ‘Non-San’ groups. It finds that there is no substantial difference in the performance and likeliness of sharing between San and ‘Non-San’ in Skoonheid and Drimiopsis, but it continues to play a strong discursive role in both fractions. This dissonance between the absence of normative shar- ing practices and the continuity of sharing as a discursive tool reveals the actual dilemma. iii - Dedicated to my mother - Acknowledgements This thesis was conducted in the context of a research forum at the University of Cologne named “Advancing common-pool resource management in heterogeneous groups”, which aims at establishing fields of joint research between social anthropologists and behavioral economists. Its participants and contributors provided me with academic, logistical and financial support in the course of my studies. Professor Dr. Michael Bollig and Dr. Arne Weiß were the forum’s main supervisors of my field research. Ute Dieckmann from the Legal Assistance Centre (LAC) in Windhoek provided me with academic input and knowledge on the San of Namibia and she established contact to the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN). Erik Dirkx from DRFN introduced me to the resettlement projects in Omaheke Region and provided my field research with official support as hosting organization and by introducing it to the Ministry of Lands and Reset- tlement (MLR), known as the Ministry of Land Reform since 2015. Marvin Sisamu from the MLR gave me permission to conduct my research in Skoonheid and Drimiopsis while Gabs Siyaya and Lenin Uaendere, as the ministry’s local representatives, provided me with all the information that they had available. Special thanks go to Siyaya who opened his doors to me, provided me with food and ac- commodation and became a close friend during my stay in Skoonheid. I admire his knowledge about the people of Skoonheid and his devotion to their everyday needs, which essentially enhanced the quality and quantity of the gathered data and made my stay even more enjoyable. The people of Skoonheid welcomed me in their community and made me feel comfortable among them. Together with the people of Drimiopsis they gladly gave me information about their lives and the community. My main translators Maria Tjoei (Skoonheid) and Amanda Araes (Drimiopsis) provided me with more than just their language skills as they also introduced me to their world and the people that play an important role in their lives. Further translation and research assistance was provided by Nikki Gamgawases, Jan Tjoei, Frederik Gariseb, Jacob Karstens (all Skoonheid), David Araeb and Chrisjan Naub (both Drimiopsis). I thank the development committee members of Skoonheid and Drimi- opsis and also Chief Frederik Langman for their hospitality. I thank all those who offered their proofreading skills. I thank my Afrikaans teachers Bar- bara Scharfbillig and Peppe Polera. Furthermore, I want to thank Muremi John and Christi Mutota from DRFN’s office in Gobabis for their constant support. Sebastian Schneiders gave me valuable lessons in statistics. Further financial support was provided through the iv PROMOS stipend, which the University of Cologne allocates in cooperation with the Ger- man Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). Finally, and most importantly, I thank my family and close friends for their constant sup- port and loyalty. v Table of Contents List of Graphs and Illustrations ....................................................................................vii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................... viii 1. Introduction – An Explanation of the Title ................................................................ 1 1.1 The Role of Sharing in Hunter-Gatherer Societies ................................................... 3 1.2 Post-Independence Resettlement in Namibia’s Omaheke Region ........................... 6 1.3 Research Question .................................................................................................10 2. The Research Setting and the Applied Methods .....................................................12 2.1 Participant Observation ..........................................................................................13 2.2 Wealth Ranking ......................................................................................................14 2.3 Open/Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................16 2.4 Free-listing .............................................................................................................17 2.5 Ego-centered Network Analysis ..............................................................................17 2.6 Statement-Agreement Survey ................................................................................18 3. Results and Discussion .............................................................................................20 3.1 The Emic Discourse: What is Sharing and Where Does It Come From? ................22 3.2 Data on Actual Behavior: What is the Role of Reciprocity and Moral Economy? ....32 3.3 Rights and Obligations: Demand Sharing, Personal Property and Tolerated Theft .44 3.4 A Conflict of Systems: Sharing Avoidance ..............................................................49 3.5 Searching for Norms: Are There Sanctioning Mechanisms? ...................................52 3.6 Economic Consequences: The Same Destiny as the Ik? ........................................54 3.7 Apartheid’s Legacy: Ethnic Divides Block Sharing and Progress ............................58 4. Two Experiments and a Conclusion .........................................................................62 5. Cited Literature ..........................................................................................................68 vi List of Graphs and Illustrations 1.2.1 Map: Research area 9 2.2.1 Graph: Wealth ranking results for Skoonheid 14 2.2.2 Graph: Wealth ranking results for the Kanyembas
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