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The Government of Texas and Her Indian Allies, 1836 - 1867

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The Government of Texas and Her Indian Allies, 1836 - 1867 IN JUSTICE TO OUR INDIAN ALLIES: THE GOVERNMENT OF TEXAS AND HER INDIAN ALLIES, 1836-1867 William C. Yancey, B.A., M.S. Thesis Prepared for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS August 2008 APPROVED: Richard B. McCaslin, Major Professor Richard G. Lowe, Committee Member F. Todd Smith, Committee Member Adrian R. Lewis, Chair of the Department of History Sandra L. Terrell, Dean of the Robert B. Toulouse School of Graduate Studies Yancey, William C., In justice to our Indian allies: The government of Texas and her Indian allies, 1836 - 1867. Master of Arts (History), August 2008, 151 pp., 1 map, references, 65 titles. Traditional histories of the Texas frontier overlook a crucial component: efforts to defend Texas against Indians would have been far less successful without the contributions of Indian allies. The government of Texas tended to use smaller, nomadic bands such as the Lipan Apaches and Tonkawas as military allies. Immigrant Indian tribes such as the Shawnee and Delaware were employed primarily as scouts and interpreters. Texas, as a result of the terms of her annexation, retained a more control over Indian policy than other states. Texas also had a larger unsettled frontier region than other states. This necessitated the use of Indian allies in fighting and negotiating with hostile Indians, as well as scouting for Ranger and Army expeditions. Copyright 2008 by William C. Yancey ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PROLOGUE.................................................................................................................... 1 Chapters 1. THE LIPAN APACHE AND TONKAWA INDIAN ALLIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS, 1836-1845.............................................................................. 8 2. THE IMMIGRANT INDIAN ALLIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS, 1836- 1845......................................................................................................... 42 3. THE INDIAN ALLIES OF THE STATE OF TEXAS, 1846-1852...................... 69 4. THE RESERVATION EXPERIMENT, 1854-1859 .......................................... 95 5. THE TONKAWAS IN THE POST-RESERVATION ERA, 1860-1867 ........... 121 EPILOGUE.................................................................................................................. 141 APPENDIX: MAP OF FRONTIER TEXAS, 1849-1852 ............................................... 145 WORKS CITED........................................................................................................... 147 iii PROLOGUE Texas has a history of frontier warfare as long and as storied as that of any other state in the union. Many Texans are taught about their historical icons from the time they are able to sit still and listen. The Texas Rangers of the nineteenth century are still revered by many as heroes whose vigilance and bravery protected frontier farmers and ranchers from vicious attacks by Indians and Mexican bandits, although in recent years, this interpretation of Texas history has come under attack. Unfortunately, only part of the story has been told. Conspicuously absent from the historiography of the Texas frontier is a scholarly analysis of the contributions made by Indian tribes who allied themselves with Anglo-Texans. The motivations of Indians who allied themselves with Anglo Texas have not yet been fully explored. Indeed, it might come as a surprise to some students of Texas history to learn that any Indians would ally themselves with Anglo-Texans; yet these Indian allies were absolutely crucial in helping Anglos to settle the frontier. Not only did Indians such as the Lipan Apaches, Tonkawas, Delawares and Shawnees give valuable service as scouts, they proved to be fierce fighters and influenced the evolution of Ranger tactics in the same way that the Colt revolver did.1 Without these Indian allies, settlement of the Texas frontier would have been more costly in both material and human lives, and would have taken a much longer time. 1 The use of the Colt revolver is generally regarded by historians as the reason for the most significant evolution in Ranger tactics and ability. This paper’s contention is that the tactics learned from friendly Indians are equally as important. For more information on the Colt revolver see Frederick Wilkins, The Legend Begins: The Texas Rangers, 1823-1845 (Austin, Texas: State House Press, 1996), 175-199. See also Robert M. Utley, Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 10-12. 1 Histories of the Texas Indian Wars began to appear shortly after the expulsion of the Comanches from the state at the close of the Red River War in 1875. In 1889, John Wesley Wilbarger, a Methodist minister, published Indian Depredations in Texas. This book was the first of what is referred to as the triumphalist genre of frontier history. It presents Texas settlers as invariably virtuous and Indians as either lazy, childlike people or wicked savages. Perhaps Wilbarger’s perspective was colored by the fact that his brother had been scalped by Comanches and lived eleven painful years before succumbing to his wounds. Wilbarger briefly discusses some of Texas’s Indian allies. He describes Placido and his Tonkawas as “the ever faithful friend of the whites.” While praising Flacco and Castro of the Lipan Apaches for their service to Texas, he describes the Lipan Apaches as being “unreliable deceitful and treacherous.” Similar in their approach were John Henry Brown and James T. DeShields. The works of these three men represented the dominant historical view of the Indian wars until well into the twentieth century.2 The common theme among all of the works mentioned to this point is that they portrayed Indians as little more than stereotyped villains or marginal figures. These works seem to give the impression that Indians lived somewhere in the hinterland, occasionally rode over the horizon to plunder and pillage or occasionally trade, and then 2 J. W. Wilbarger, Indian Depredations in Texas: Reliable Accounts of Battles, Wars, Adventures, Forays, Murders, Massacres, etc., etc., Together with Biographical Sketches of Many of the Most Noted Indian Fighters and Frontiersmen of Texas (Austin: Hutchings Printing House, 1889), 31, 79; John Henry Brown, Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas (Austin: L.E. Daniell, 1896); James T. DeShields, Border Wars of Texas (Tioga, Texas: Herald, 1912, reprint, Austin: State House Press, 1993). 2 returned from whence they came, seemingly to lie dormant until the next contact with Anglos. In the twentieth century, professional historians began to write more documented accounts of the Texas Indian Wars. The first serious scholarly work on the nineteenth- century Texas Rangers was Walter Prescott Webb’s The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense. Webb’s work, while definitely biased towards the Texans, was at least well-documented and researched. Although Webb’s accounts of Indian allies did not contain the patronizing tone that characterized earlier works, they were little more than narrative, containing little analysis of the motives and contributions that impelled these friendly Indians to cooperate with the Anglos.3 During the latter part of the twentieth century, Indian history began to transform from these Anglocentric accounts into works that focused on the culture, politics, and societies of the Indian nations themselves. Books such as W. W. Newcomb’s The Indians of Texas and Elizabeth John’s Storms Brewed in Other Men’s Worlds influenced a generation of scholars in Indian history. Although not specifically dealing with frontier Indian wars (the former is a largely anthropological work while the latter deals with Indians during the period of Spanish and French colonization), the approach that these authors took, that of making the Indians the central figures and divorcing their actions from strictly Anglo concerns, was taken up by historians who did write Anglo-Texas frontier history. 4 3 Walter Prescott Webb, The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1935). 4 W.W. Newcomb, The Indians of Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1961); Elizabeth A. H. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men’s Worlds: The Confrontation 3 By the 1990’s Texas frontier history was dichotomized into two distinct approaches: more traditional Anglocentric history which focused on the Texas military and their attempts to subdue hostile Indians, and an Indian-centered approach which focused on the motives and actions of the Indians viewed as distinct from Anglo motives. Of the first category, Fred Wilkins’s three-volume history of the Texas Rangers and Robert M. Utley’s Lone Star Justice have been the most prominent examples. Both of these works, while focusing on The Texas Rangers, are more sympathetic to Indians than previous works focusing on the Texas frontier from an Anglo perspective have been. Both provide narrative accounts of the contributions of Indian allies, although with little or no analysis. 5 Historians of Indians during this time period approached the subject from a variety of perspectives. The book representing a complete break with the traditional approach to the history of Texas Indian wars is Gary Clayton Anderson’s The Conquest of Texas. Anderson views the Texas military forces as a group of bloodthirsty, Indian- hating reprobates and portrays the government of Texas (both as a Republic and a State) as actively involved in ethnic cleansing. He asserts that a desire for plunder was a chief motivation for men to enlist
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