U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2014–5082, 54 P

Home , Fort Cobb, Fort Cobb Reservoir, Southwestern Oklahoma

Prepared in cooperation with the Caddo Nation, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the Bureau of Reclamation

Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Caddo County, Oklahoma, 2010–13

Scientific Investigations Report 2014–5082

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Cover: Background, Rush Springs aquifer outcrop near Binger, Oklahoma, 2010. Photograph taken by Shana Mashburn. Top right, Real-time well near Hinton, Oklahoma, 2010. Photograph taken by Shana Mashburn. Top left, Rush Springs aquifer outcrop near Binger, Oklahoma, 2010. Photograph taken by Shana Mashburn. Bottom left, Spring near Colony, Oklahoma, 2011. Photograph taken by S. Jerrod Smith. Bottom right, Rush Springs aquifer outcrop near Binger, Oklahoma, 2010. Photograph taken by Shana Mashburn. Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface- Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Caddo County, Oklahoma, 2010–13

By Shana L. Mashburn and S. Jerrod Smith

Prepared in cooperation with the Caddo Nation, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the Bureau of Reclamation

Scientific Investigations Report 2014–5082

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior SALLY JEWELL, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2014

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Suggested citation: Mashburn, S.L., and Smith, S.J., 2014, Evaluation of groundwater and surface-water interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Caddo County, Oklahoma, 2010–13: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2014–5082, 54 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20145082.

ISSN 2328-031X (print) ISSN 2328-0328 (online) ISBN 978-1-4113-3791-6 iii

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to Polly Edwards, Environmental Director of the Caddo Nation, who had the vision for this study and realized the benefits that would be provided to the Caddo Nation for long-term water planning. The U.S. Geological Survey Oklahoma Water Science Center and Caddo Nation appreciate the funds provided for this study by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Bureau of Reclamation Native American Affairs Technical Assistance Program. The authors also thank the private landowners who provided access to their lands for data collection. Progress on the study could not have been made without the landowners’ cooperation.

Contents

Acknowledgments ...... iii Abstract ...... 1 Introduction ...... 2 Purpose and Scope ...... 2 Study Area Characteristics ...... 2 Hydrogeology of the Study Area ...... 5 Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer ...... 6 Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer ...... 23 Streambed Hydraulic Conductivity ...... 23 Hydraulic Head in Streams and Alluvium ...... 26 Volumetric Flow Rates from Seepage Meters ...... 28 Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water at Cobb Creek near the Eakly, Oklahoma, Streamflow-Gaging Station ...... 30 Springs Inventory and Location of Wetlands ...... 34 Potentiometric Surface and Regional Groundwater Flow, 2010 ...... 38 Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 ...... 41 Summary ...... 52 References ...... 53

Figures

1. Map showing study area, surficial geologic units, and locations of water-level monitoring wells and Mesonet stations, southwestern Oklahoma ...... 3 2. Graph showing precipitation for Oklahoma Climatological Survey Climate Division 7 Southwest, 1935–2011 ...... 4 3. Pie diagram showing water use from the Rush Springs aquifer, 2005 ...... 5 4. Graph showing groundwater withdrawals in Caddo County, Oklahoma, 1985–2005 ...... 5 5. Graph showing example of base flow determined by using the PART method and streamflow at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), March–July 2007 ...... 6 6. Map showing location of U.S. Geological Survey streamflow-gaging stations in the vicinity of the Rush Springs aquifer ...... 8 7. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07325840 (Lake Creek near Sickles, Oklahoma), 2006–12 ...... 9 8. Graphs showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325840 (Lake Creek near Sickles, Oklahoma), 2006–12 ...... 10 9. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 1970–77 ...... 11 vi

10. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 1970–77 ...... 12 11. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 2005–12 ...... 13 12. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 2005–12 ...... 14 13. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 1971–77 ...... 15 14. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 1971–77 ...... 16 15. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 2005–12 ...... 17 16. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 2005–12 ...... 18 17. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Oklahoma), 1940–58 ...... 19 18. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Oklahoma), 1940–58 ...... 20 19. Graph showing daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method for streamflow-gaging station 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS [Soil Conservation Service] Pond No. 26 near Cyril, Oklahoma), 1996–2012 ...... 21 20. Graph showing (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS [Soil Conservation Service] Pond No. 26 near Cyril, Oklahoma), 1996–2012 ...... 22 21. Map showing sites where slug tests and potentiomanometer readings were performed in July 2012 to determine hydraulic conductivity of streambed sediments in Caddo and Washita Counties, Oklahoma ...... 24 22. Photograph showing temporary small-diameter well with pneumatic slug-test equipment installed ...... 25 23. Photographs showing potentiomanometer and temporary small-diameter well, with the manometer mounted on a wooden board ...... 27 24. Diagram showing groundwater and surface-water data-collection stations at Cobb Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma, on Oklahoma State Highway 152 ...... 31 vii

25. Schematic diagram showing cross sections of a piezometer transect in the Cobb Creek alluvium showing altitudes of Cobb Creek and the alluvial aquifer water table during (A) flooding-stream conditions on November 8, 2011, 2:30 a.m.; (B) normal, gaining-stream conditions on March 1, 2012, 8:30 a.m.; and (C) losing-stream conditions on July 29, 2012, 8:30 a.m...... 32 26. Graph showing water-table altitudes measured at U.S. Geological Survey streamflow-gaging station 07325800 (Cobb Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma) and in three piezometers in the Cobb Creek alluvium showing altitudes of Cobb Creek and the alluvial groundwater table and precipitation measured at Weatherford, Okla., Mesonet station, September 2011–August 2012 ...... 33 27. Map showing locations of springs and stream observations in and near the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Oklahoma, September 2011 ...... 35 28. Map showing locations of wetlands and frequently flooded soils in and around the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Oklahoma ...... 37 29. Map showing the potentiometric surface of the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County, Oklahoma, July 2010...... 39 30. Map showing the potentiometric surface of the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County, Oklahoma, January 2011 ...... 40 31. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 350748098231101 near Gracemont, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 42 32. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 43 33. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Oklahoma, August 1948–June 2013 ...... 44 34. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351727098290401 Core 2, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 45 35. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351727098290401 Core 2, December 1989–June 2013 ...... 46 36. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352423098341701 near Eakly, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 47 37. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352423098341701 near Eakly, Oklahoma, April 1965–June 2013 ...... 48 38. Graph showing groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352802098191601 near Hinton, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 49 39. Graphs showing monthly precipitation for Hinton and Fort Cobb Mesonet Stations, Oklahoma, October 2010–May 2013 ...... 50 40. Graph showing groundwater levels monitored with a vented pressure transducer and barometric pressure at U.S. Geological Survey well 352702098191601 near Hinton, Oklahoma, showing barometric efficiency typical of the unconfined part of the Rush Springs aquifer ...... 51 viii

Tables

1. List of streamflow-gaging stations located near the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, with periods analyzed using the PART method ...... 9 2. Completion information for temporary wells installed in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, 2012 ...... 25 3. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity determined from slug tests conducted in the streambed sediments of streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, August 2012 ...... 26 4. Hydraulic head differences and gradients between streams and alluvium determined from potentiomanometer readings, in areas underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, August 2012 ...... 28 5. Seepage locations and flux velocities for sites measured in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, July–August 2012 ...... 29 6. Real-time continuous groundwater-level monitoring wells in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013 ...... 41 ix

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain Length inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm) inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km) Area acre 4,047 square meter (m2) acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2) square foot (ft2) 929.0 square centimeter (cm2) square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2) square inch (in2) 6.452 square centimeter (cm2) section (640 acres or 1 square 259.0 square hectometer (hm2) mile) square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare (ha) square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) Volume gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3) acre-foot (acre-ft) 1,233 cubic meter (m3) Flow rate foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day (m/d) foot per year (ft/yr) 0.3048 meter per year (m/yr) cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s) cubic foot per day (ft3/d) 0.02832 cubic meter per day (m3/d) gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s) million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second (m3/s) inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year (mm/yr) Hydraulic conductivity foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day (m/d)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) and the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29). The NAVD 88 replaced the NGVD 29, previously known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929. Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum. Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows: °C=(°F-32)/1.8

Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Caddo County, Oklahoma, 2010–13

By Shana L. Mashburn and S. Jerrod Smith

Abstract streamflows throughout each year, but periods of zero flow were documented in daily hydrographs at each measured site, Streamflows, springs, and wetlands are important natural typically in the summer months. and cultural resources to the Caddo Nation. Consequently, A pneumatic slug-test technique was used at 15 sites to the Caddo Nation is concerned about the vulnerability of the determine the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of streambed Rush Springs aquifer to overdrafting and whether the aquifer sediments in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer. will continue to be a viable source of water to tribal members Converting horizontal hydraulic conductivities (Kh) from the and other local residents in the future. Interest in the long- slug-test analyses to vertical hydraulic conductivities (Kv) by term viability of local water resources has resulted in ongoing using a ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1 resulted in estimates of vertical development of a comprehensive water plan by the Caddo streambed hydraulic conductivity ranging from 0.1 to 8.6 feet Nation. As part of a multiyear project with the Caddo Nation per day. Data obtained from a hydraulic potentiomanometer in to provide information and tools to better manage and protect streambed sediments and streams in August 2012 indicate that water resources, the U.S. Geological Survey studied the water flow was from the streambed sediments to the stream hydraulic connection between the Rush Springs aquifer and (gaining) at 6 of 15 sites, and that water flow was from the springs and streams overlying the aquifer. stream to the streambed sediments (losing) at 9 of 15 sites. The Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area is located The groundwater and surface-water interaction data in southwestern Oklahoma, primarily in Caddo County. collected at the Cobb Creek near Eakly, Okla., streamflow Underlying the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area is gaging station (07325800), indicate that the bedrock the Permian-age Rush Springs aquifer. Water from the Rush groundwater, alluvial groundwater, and surface-water Springs aquifer is used for irrigation, public, livestock and resources are closely connected. Because of this hydrologic aquaculture, and other supply purposes. Groundwater from the connection, large perennial streams in the study area may Rush Springs aquifer also is withdrawn by domestic (self- change from gaining to losing streams in the summer. The supplied) wells, although domestic use was not included in timing and severity of this change from a gaining to a losing the water-use summary in this report. Perennial streamflow condition probably is affected by the local or regional in many streams and creeks overlying the Rush Springs withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation in the summer aquifer, such as Cobb Creek, Lake Creek, and Willow Creek, growing season. Wells placed closer to streams have a greater originates from springs and seeps discharging from the aquifer. and more immediate effect on alluvial groundwater levels and This report provides information on the evaluation stream stages than wells placed farther from streams. Large- of groundwater and surface-water resources in the Caddo capacity irrigation wells, even those completed hundreds of Nation Jurisdictional Area, and in particular, information that feet below land surface in the bedrock aquifer, can induce describes the hydraulic connection between the Rush Springs surface-water flow from nearby streams by lowering alluvial aquifer and springs and streams overlying the aquifer. This groundwater levels below the stream altitude. report also includes data and analyses of base flow, evidence Twenty-five new springs visible from public roads and for groundwater and surface-water interactions, locations of paths were documented during a survey of springs in 2011. springs and wetland areas, groundwater flows interpreted from Most of the springs are in upland draws on the flanks of potentiometric-surface maps, and hydrographs of water levels topographic ridges. Wetlands primarily were identified by monitored in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area from using a combination of data sources including the National 2010 to 2013. Wetlands Inventory, Soil Survey Geographic database Flow in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, frequently flooded soils maps, and aerial photographs. on average, were composed of 50 percent base flow in Regional flow directions were determined by analysis most years. Monthly mean base flow appeared to maintain of water levels measured in 29 wells completed in the Rush 2 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Springs aquifer in Caddo County and the Caddo Nation Purpose and Scope Tribal Jurisdictional Area. Water levels were monitored every 30 minutes in five wells by using a vented pressure transducer The purpose of this report is to provide information on and a data-collection platform with real-time transmitting the evaluation of groundwater and surface-water resources equipment in each well. Those five wells ranged in depth from in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, and in 210 to 350 feet. Water levels in these five wells indicate that particular, information that describes the hydraulic connection there was a decrease in water storage in the Rush Springs between the Rush Springs aquifer and springs and streams aquifer from October 2010 to June 2013. overlying the aquifer. The study area is the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area (fig. 1). The scope of this report includes data and analyses of base flow in streams, evidence Introduction for groundwater and surface-water interactions, locations of springs and wetland areas, groundwater flows interpreted from The Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area is located potentiometric-surface maps, and hydrographs of water levels in southwestern Oklahoma, primarily in Caddo County, Okla. monitored in the area and near to the Caddo Nation Tribal (fig. 1). Underlying the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Jurisdictional Area. Area is the Permian-age Rush Springs aquifer. Water from the Rush Springs aquifer is used for irrigation, public, livestock and aquaculture, and domestic supply purposes (Tortorelli, 2009). A Permian-age sandstone bedrock aquifer, Study Area Characteristics the Rush Springs aquifer is unconfined in most locations where groundwater is pumped, has a maximum thickness of The Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area (hereafter approximately 300 feet (ft), and can produce well yields in referred to as “the study area”) encompasses primarily Caddo excess of 1,000 gallons per minute (gal/min) (Becker and County, Okla. (fig. 1). The topography in the study area is Runkle, 1998). Perennial streamflow in many streams and characterized by moderately rolling hills with incised deep creeks overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, such as Cobb drainage channels. The major drainage channels are associated Creek, Lake Creek, and Willow Creek, originates from springs with the Washita River and Cobb and Sugar Creeks. Sugar and seeps discharging from the aquifer. Three surface-water Creek and its tributaries have deeply cut channels and canyons reservoirs, constructed in and near the Rush Springs aquifer, of dendritic patterns formed by headward erosion (Tanaka that depend on perennial streamflows are: (1) Fort Cobb and Davis, 1963). The western part of the study area is Reservoir and (2) Foss Reservoir (fig. 1), both managed by characterized by cuestas and buttes capped with dolomite or Bureau of Reclamation; and (3) Lake Chickasha, managed by gypsum (Tanaka and Davis, 1963). the City of Chickasha (fig. 1). Land use in the study area consists mostly of cultivated The Caddo Nation is concerned about the vulnerability crops and grasslands. Some evergreen and deciduous forests of the Rush Springs aquifer to overdrafting and whether the are located in the upland draws of creeks. Cultivated crops aquifer will continue to be a viable source of water to tribal in this area consist of wheat, alfalfa, cotton, and other minor members and other local residents in the future. Wells have crops (National Agriculture Statistics Service, 2013). Animal been completed in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional production in this area includes beef cattle, hogs, sheep, and Area that transfer groundwater outside of that jurisdictional poultry (National Agriculture Statistics Service, 2013). area (Christopher Neel, Oklahoma Water Resources Board, Climate data for the study area were summarized written commun., 2012). These groundwater transfers have from 1935 through 2011 from the Oklahoma Climate increased the awareness of the Caddo Nation to the potential Division 7 Southwest (National Oceanic and Atmospheric for overdrafting of groundwater in the Rush Springs aquifer. Administration, 2012). The average annual air temperature Streamflows, springs, and wetlands are important natural from 1935 through 2011 in the study area was 61.1 degrees and cultural resources to the Caddo Nation. Interest in the Fahrenheit, with the coldest temperatures typically being long-term viability of water resources in this area has led to measured in January and the hottest temperatures typically the ongoing development of a comprehensive water plan by being measured in July. Average annual precipitation from the Caddo Nation. A comprehensive water plan will provide 1935 through 2011 was 28.3 inches per year (in/yr), with the guidelines for sustainable development and preservation of the 5-year weighted moving average shown on figure 2. A wetter water resources in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area period is indicated on figure 2 when the 5-year weighted (fig. 1). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation average is greater than the 1935 through 2011 average. A drier with the Caddo Nation, initiated a multiyear study in 2008 to period is indicated when the 5-year weighted average is less provide information and tools that can be used to manage and than the 1935 through 2011 average. A persistent drier period protect water resources as part of development of a Caddo occurred from 1951 through 1959. A persistent wetter period Nation comprehensive water plan. occurred from 1985 through 2001 (fig. 2). Study Area Characteristics 3 15 MILES 10 15 KILOMETERS CADDO COUNTY Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area STEPHENS COUNTY GRADY COUNTY GRADY CANADIAN COUNTY CANADIAN COUNTY BLAINE COUNTY 10 EXPLANATION CUSTER COUNTY 5 DEWEY COUNTY DEWEY (includes Verden Sandstone Member of (includes Verden Marlow Formation) Gypsum Bed); contains Rush Springs aquifer Hennessey Group) Chickasha Formation, Duncan Sandstone, Shale Dog Creek Shale, and Flower-pot of El Reno Group) well and name (table 6) 5 Marlow Formation of Whitehorse Group Rush Springs Formation (includes Weatherford Rush Springs Formation (includes Weatherford Whitehorse Group Alluvium deposits Terrace Cloud Chief Formation Hennessey Group (includes Bison Formation of El Reno Group (includes Blaine Formation, Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary Caddo Nation Tribal monitoring groundwater Real-time water-level Mesonet monitoring station and identifier Quaternary-age g eologic unit Permian-age g eologic unit Foss

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EXPLANATION 1935–2011 5-year moving average 15 1935–2011 average

Annual average

10 3 5 3 7 3 9 4 1 4 3 4 5 4 7 4 9 5 1 5 3 5 5 7 5 9 6 1 6 3 6 5 6 7 6 9 7 1 7 3 7 5 7 7 9 8 1 8 3 8 5 8 7 8 9 9 1 9 3 9 5 9 7 9 0 1 0 3 0 5 0 7 0 9 1 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0

Year

Figure 2. Precipitation for Oklahoma Climatological Survey Climate Division 7 Southwest, 1935–2011.

Water from the Rush Springs aquifer is used for more than 700 wells completed in Caddo County (Oklahoma irrigation, public, livestock and aquaculture, and other Water Resources Board, 2013), although domestic use supply purposes (Tortorelli, 2009; U.S. Geological Survey, was not included in the water-use summary in this report. 2013). Most of the water use in 2005 was for irrigation Water-use data are summarized every 5 years by the USGS (66 percent of total water use); total water use in 2005 was (Tortorelli, 2009). Groundwater-use data for Caddo County approximately 10,500 million gallons per year (Mgal/yr) were summarized for 1985–2005. Groundwater use during the (fig. 3). Groundwater from the Rush Springs aquifer also is 1985–2005 period averaged 13,300 Mgal/yr (40,800 acre-feet withdrawn by domestic (self-supplied) wells, as indicated by per year) (fig. 4). Hydrogeology of the Study Area 5

Total water use in 2005: 10,500 million gallons (Mgal) (Tortorelli, 2009) 18,000

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0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Year

Figure 3. Water use from the Rush Springs aquifer, 2005. Figure 4. Groundwater withdrawals in Caddo County, Oklahoma, 1985–2005.

Hydrogeology of the Study Area (Becker and Runkle, 1998; fig. 1). On the basis of lithology, the Marlow Formation most likely is a confining unit The extent of the Rush Springs aquifer (fig. 1), as underlying the Rush Springs aquifer. To the west of the study defined by Becker and Runkle (1998) and the extent used area, the Rush Springs Formation is overlain by the Cloud in this report, is approximately 2,400 square miles (mi2). Chief Formation and Quaternary alluvium and terrace deposits The Rush Springs aquifer is comprised of the Permian-age (which form alluvial aquifers). The Cloud Chief Formation is Rush Springs Formation of the Whitehorse Group (Tanaka composed of massive gypsum interbedded with reddish-brown and Davis, 1963). Becker and Runkle (1998) limited the mudstone and siltstone (Becker and Runkle, 1998) and most extent of the Rush Springs aquifer to areas with the largest likely acts as a confining unit to the Rush Springs aquifer groundwater withdrawals. Observations of cores and outcrops (Tanaka and Davis, 1963). The Rush Springs Formation in Caddo County indicate that the Rush Springs aquifer is a extends to the north and west of the study area. The Rush homogeneous sandstone, with some interbedded dolomite Springs Formation in Caddo, Custer, Dewey, Grady, and and gypsum. The sandstone is composed of grains of mostly Washita Counties has aquifer properties typically providing very fine- to fine-grained quartz that are well to moderately good well yields and good water quality (Tanaka and Davis, sorted. High-angle, cross-bedded sandstone is common in 1963). Beyond these counties, transmissivities of the aquifer the Rush Springs Formation, indicating eolian deposition decrease and groundwater contains larger concentrations (Boggs, 2001). The degree of cementation varies throughout of dissolved solids and sulfates (Tanaka and Davis, 1963), the aquifer, but observations of cores and outcrops indicate the so that water from the formation is not used extensively in presence of friable, poorly consolidated sandstone. Parts of those areas. the Rush Springs Formation have been eroded by runoff from Alluvium and terrace deposits overlie the Rush Springs upstream roads, culverts, dams, and rock outcrops to form aquifer in the study area and are composed mostly of cavities and plunge pools in surface exposures. These cavities unconsolidated sands, silts, and clays with some gravel. On look like canyons with nearly vertical walls and probably the basis of lithologies, groundwater is assumed to move were formed from the force of rushing water during flashy readily through the alluvium and terrace deposits. Where precipitation events on friable sandstone. the alluvium and terrace deposits overlie the Rush Springs The Rush Springs aquifer is bound by the erosional Formation, those deposits are assumed to be in hydraulic extent of the Rush Springs Formation to the east and south. connection with the Rush Springs Formation. Where the Underlying the Rush Springs Formation and in contact to the alluvium and terrace deposits overlie the Cloud Chief east and south is the Marlow Formation of the Whitehorse Formation, the alluvium and terrace deposits are assumed Group, which is composed of interbedded sandstones, to not be in hydraulic connection with the Rush Springs siltstones, mudstones, gypsum-anhydrite, and dolomite Formation. 6 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Base Flow from the Rush Springs Historical streamflow data were compiled and analyzed by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) to determine Aquifer the base-flow component of streamflow from the Rush Springs aquifer in selected streams overlying the Rush Several perennial streams originate in the Rush Springs Springs aquifer. The PART method uses streamflow aquifer. Perennial streams are defined as streams that have partitioning to estimate daily base flow from the streamflow continuous flow in parts of the streambed all year during years record and is based on the antecedent streamflow recession of normal rainfall (Meinzer, 1923). Streams that are perennial (Rutledge, 1998; fig. 5). The PART method is used for the indicate that groundwater contributes to streamflows and analysis of the groundwater-flow system of a basin for maintains streamflows during periods of no precipitation and which a streamflow-gaging station at the downstream end no surface runoff. The part of streamflow sustained primarily can be considered the only point of outflow. One assumption by groundwater discharge that is not from runoff or snowmelt of the PART method is that the area of the contributing is referred to as “base flow.” groundwater-flow system is equal to the drainage area of the Historical streamflow data from USGS streamflow- streamflow-gaging station for the purpose of expressing flow gaging stations were retrieved from the National Water in units of specific discharge (length per time). To use the Information System (NWIS) and analyzed to determine the PART method, regulation and diversion of flow should be base-flow component of streamflow for streams overlying negligible and the drainage-basin area should be less than the Rush Springs aquifer. Base flow maintains streamflows 500 mi2 (Rutledge, 1998). For this report, negligible throughout the year and, in some cases, provides water for regulation for a streamflow-gaging station is defined as reservoir storage. The amount of base flow that aquifers having less than 20 percent of the drainage area upstream contribute to streams can change over time and by location from a streamflow-gaging station controlled by dams, in response to varying climatic conditions, such as changes floodwater-retarding structures, or other human modifications in precipitation and temperature; and in response to increased of streamflow. surface-water use or groundwater use from aquifers in hydraulic connection to streams.

1,000

EXPLANATION Streamflow Base flow

100

10 verage daily flow, in cubic feet per second A

1 March 2007 April 2007 May 2007 June 2007 July 2007 Month and year

Figure 5. Example of base flow determined by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) and streamflow at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), March–July 2007. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 7

Five USGS streamflow-gaging stations located on the flow to total streamflow. Monthly mean base flow, runoff, Rush Springs aquifer and analyzed by using the PART method and streamflow were calculated for the 2006–12 period to determine base flow (fig. 6 and table 1) included: 07325840 by using results of the PART method and subtracting base (Lake Creek near Sickles, Okla.), 07325850 (Lake Creek flow from streamflow to determine runoff. Monthly mean near Eakly, Okla.), 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, streamflows for the 2006–12 period indicate that streamflows Okla.), 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Okla.), and were composed mostly of base flow during the months of 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS Pond No. 26 near January, February, April, July, September, November, and Cyril, Okla.). Unregulated streamflow data for streamflow- December (fig. 8). Monthly mean streamflows during the gaging station 07325840 (Lake Creek near Sickles, Okla.) months of March, May, and October indicate that base flow were available from 2006 through 2012, with daily mean was about equal to runoff. Streamflows were composed mostly streamflow for that period being 4.2 cubic feet per second of runoff during the months of June and August. Streamflows (ft3/s) (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013; fig. 7). Daily mean at this site decreased to zero during July 2006, July through streamflow is the calculated mean of the streamflow readings September 2011, and July through September 2012 (fig. 7). for the given day; most streamflow-gaging stations record These periods of zero flow most likely are related to relatively every 15 or 30 minutes. Results from the PART method for long periods of no precipitation (fig. 2). Other potential causes the 2006–12 period indicate that the annual base-flow index in the decline of streamflow during the summer are water use for this streamflow-gaging station ranged from 0.3 in 2007 to and evaporation from streams and withdrawals from the Rush 0.86 in 2010 (fig. 8). The base-flow index is the ratio of base Springs aquifer or from the overlying alluvial aquifer. 8 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

98°30’ 98°15’ 98°

i Fivemile Creek A n r g a

C C p Lake Creek

a r

r h e

e C e

e ana o

k k di an R C

iv r e

er e

e e

k 07325840 k CANADIAN COUNTY

eek Cr et r ll C Buggy Creek Bu k r

e e Kickapoo Creek e h r k s e i C e F r WASHITA COUNTY WASHITA e

n C i c y

i k Wildcat Creek Buck Creek d s e 07325800 o 07325850 M o C n h o o b k b K e e C r r C e

k d k

e a e

e 35°15’ e e

r r

e e

B C

r r

k Spring Creek

e e

C e C

C w

r t k

a C 07325860 i

o o

m e e

p h e

l l

l l n

Cedar Creek n

ee r i

ar Cr k W i o ed o

n C C

Fort Cobb Reservoir e I

n t c Sugar Creek i s k a e n e Creek J e o r W I t s W R C t u a e n Yellow s o s

n j a E

t t

i n

F n F g u

o P Salt Creek C I r Stinking Creek o r k

e n

S e e i

k k n l e t

07326000 C C k Camp re e Lake Chickasha e r e k e r Creek ek Deep Creek C Wa t shit os a R L k iv e e e r r C ek y e e r Cedar Creek k C Cre o ow ek G g ll n o i H r k p c k S o e R e r C ek w e Tonkawa Creek o r l C Buzzard Creek Delaware Creek l Hog Creek o e Two Hatchet Creek H n Tony i 35° L

H og C

KIOWA COUNTY KIOWA

CADDO COUNTY r East Cache Creek e e k k e re R C o c

r CADDO COUNTY GRADY COUNTY k

e k

C d C ek l re e 073274406 C r e x o e h o Ta e B k

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection 0 5 10 15 MILES Geology from Heran and others (2003) North American Datum of 1983 0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

OKLAHOMA Rush Springs aquifer surface exposure

Rush Springs aquifer Caddo Nation Tribal Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary Jurisdictional Area 073274406 Map area U.S. Geological Survey streamgaging station and number (table 1)

Figure 6. Location of U.S. Geological Survey streamflow-gaging stations in the vicinity of the Rush Springs aquifer. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 9

Table 1. List of streamflow-gaging stations located near the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, with periods analyzed using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998).

[The PART method uses streamflow partitioning to estimate daily base flow from the streamflow record and is based on antecedent streamflow recessions; SCS, Soil Conservation Service]

Station Contributing Unregulated period number Site name drainage area analyzed by PART method (see fig. 6) (square miles)1 07325840 Lake Creek near Sickles, Okla. 19.1 2006–12 07325850 Lake Creek near Eakly, Okla. 52.5 1970–77 and 2005–12 07325860 Willow Creek near Albert, Okla. 28.2 1971–77 and 2005–12 07326000 Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Okla. 311 1940–58 073274406 Little Washita River above SCS Pond No 26 near Cyril, Okla. 3.65 1996–2012 1U.S. Geological Survey, 2013.

1,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

100

10 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year

Figure 7. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07325840 (Lake Creek near Sickles, Oklahoma), 2006–12. 10 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 12 1

EXPLANATION 0.9 EXPLANATION 10 Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index Streamflow 0.7 8 0.6

6 0.5

0.4 4 0.3

0.2 2

Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow) 0.1 Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 0 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Year C D 8,000 9

8 7,000 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Base flow 7 Base flow 6,000 Streamflow Streamflow 6 Runoff 5,000 5

4,000 4 per second 3 3,000 2

2,000 1 Annual flow volume, in acre-feet Monthly mean flow (2006–12), in cubic feet 1,000 0 July May April June March 0 August October January 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 February November December September Year Month

Figure 8. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325840 (Lake Creek near Sickles, Oklahoma), 2006–12. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 11

Unregulated streamflow data for streamflow-gaging November (fig. 10). Monthly mean streamflows indicate station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Okla.) were that streamflows were composed mostly of base flow for the available for the periods 1970–77 and 2005–12. For the 1970– months of January, February, and April. Monthly mean flows 77 period, daily mean streamflow was 7.4 ft3/s (fig. 9). Results during December indicate that base flow was about equal to from the PART method for the 1970–77 period indicate that runoff. Streamflows declined to zero from May to September the annual base-flow index for this streamflow-gaging station during the years 1970–74 (fig. 9). The precipitation graph ranged from 0.16 in 1977 to 0.55 in 1976 (fig. 10). Monthly (fig. 2) indicates that 1973 and 1975 were years of above- mean streamflows for the 1970–77 period indicate that average precipitation. Streamflows during 1973 declined to streamflows were composed mostly of runoff for the months zero in late July through August; streamflows during 1975 of March, May, June, July, August, September, October, and never reached zero at this station.

10,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow Base flow

1,000

100 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second

1 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Year

Figure 9. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 1970–77. 12 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 16 1

0.9 14 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index 12 Streamflow 0.7 10 0.6

8 0.5

0.4 6 0.3 4 0.2 2 0.1 Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow)

Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 0 0 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Year Year

C D 12,000 25

EXPLANATION EXPLANATION 10,000 Base flow 20 Base flow Streamflow Streamflow 8,000 Runoff 15 6,000

4,000 per second 10

2,000

Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 5

0 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Monthly mean flow (1970–77), in cubic feet Year 0 July May April June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 10. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 1970–77. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 13

For the 2005–12 period, daily mean streamflow was base flow from January to May, from September to December, 9.3 ft3/s (fig. 11). Results from the PART method for the and during July (fig. 12). Streamflows were composed mostly 2005–12 period indicate that the annual base-flow index for of runoff during the months of June and August for the 2005– this streamflow-gaging station ranged from 0.3 in 2007 to 0.85 12 period. Streamflows never declined to zero during the in 2010 (fig. 12). Monthly mean streamflows for the 2005–12 2005–12 period but were close to zero at 0.08 ft3/s in August period indicate that streamflows were composed mostly of 2011 and August 2012 at this station (fig. 11).

10,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

1,000

100 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year

Figure 11. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 2005–12. 14 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 25 1

EXPLANATION 0.9 EXPLANATION 20 Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index Streamflow 0.7

15 0.6

0.5

10 0.4

0.3

5 0.2

0.1 Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow)

Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 0 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Year

C D 18,000 25

16,000 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Base flow 14,000 Base flow 20 Streamflow Streamflow 12,000 Runoff

10,000 15

8,000

6,000 per second 10

4,000 Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 2,000 5

0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Monthly mean flow (2005–12), in cubic feet Year 0 July May April June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 12. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325850 (Lake Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma), 2005–12. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 15

Unregulated streamflow data for streamflow-gaging the months of May, June, July, and August (fig. 14). Monthly station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Okla.) were mean streamflows indicate that streamflows were composed available for the periods 1971–77 and 2005–12. For the mostly of base flow for the months of January, February, April, 1971–77 period, daily mean streamflow was 4.1 ft3/s (fig. 13). October, and December. Monthly mean streamflows indicate Results from the PART method for the 1971–77 period that base flow was about equal to runoff for the months of indicate that the annual base-flow index for this streamflow March, September, and November. Streamflows declined to gaging station ranged from 0.14 in 1977 to 0.80 in 1976 zero for periods of 3–10 days during the months of August (fig. 14). Monthly mean streamflows for the 1971–77 period through October 1972, July 1974, and August 1976 at this indicate that streamflows were composed mostly of runoff for station (fig. 13).

10,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

1,000

100 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Year

Figure 13. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 1971–77. 16 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 12 1

EXPLANATION 0.9 EXPLANATION 10 Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index Streamflow 0.7 8 0.6

6 0.5

0.4 4 0.3

0.2 2 0.1 Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow)

Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 0 0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Year Year

C D 8,000 25

7,000 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Base flow Base flow 6,000 20 Streamflow Streamflow Runoff 5,000 15 4,000

3,000

per second 10 2,000

Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 1,000 5 0

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Monthly mean flow (1971–77), in cubic feet

Year 0 July May April June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 14. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 1971–77. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 17

For the 2005–12 period, daily mean streamflow for February, March, April, May, July, September, October, streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near November, and December (fig. 16). The month of August Albert, Okla.) was 4.0 ft3/s (fig. 15). Results from the PART was the only month that streamflows were composed mostly method for the 2005–12 period indicate that the annual of runoff. Monthly mean streamflows indicate that base flow base-flow index for this streamflow-gaging station ranged was about equal to runoff for the month of June. Streamflows from 0.42 in 2007 to 0.90 in 2006 (fig. 16). Monthly mean never declined to zero during the 2005–12 period but were streamflows for the 2005–12 period indicate that streamflows close to zero at 0.1 ft3/s in September 2012 (fig. 15). were composed mostly of base flow for the months of January,

1,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

100

10 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year

Figure 15. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 2005–12. 18 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 9 1

8 EXPLANATION 0.9 EXPLANATION 7 Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index Streamflow 6 0.7 0.6 5 0.5 4 0.4 3 0.3 2 0.2 1 0.1 0 Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow) Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Year

C D 7,000 7

EXPLANATION 6,000 EXPLANATION 6 Base flow Base flow 5,000 Streamflow Streamflow 5 Runoff 4,000 4 3,000 3 2,000 per second 2

Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 1,000

1 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Monthly mean flow (2005–12), in cubic feet Year 0 July May April June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 16. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07325860 (Willow Creek near Albert, Oklahoma), 2005–12. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 19

Unregulated streamflow data for streamflow-gaging the months of January, February, March, November, and station 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Okla.) were December (fig. 18). Monthly mean streamflows indicate that available for the period 1940–58. For the 1940–58 period, streamflows were composed mostly of runoff for the months daily mean streamflow was 50 ft3/s (fig. 17). Results from of April, May, June, and July. Monthly mean streamflows the PART method for the 1940–58 period indicate that indicate that base flow was relatively equal to runoff for the the annual base-flow index for this streamflow-gaging months of August, September, and October. Streamflows station ranged from 0.27 in 1949 to 0.78 in 1956 (fig. 18). never declined to zero during the 1940–58 period but were Monthly mean streamflows for the 1940–58 period indicate close to zero at 0.2 ft3/s in September 1956 at this station that streamflows were composed mostly of base flow for (fig. 17).

10,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

1,000

100 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 Year

Figure 17. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Oklahoma), 1940–58. 20 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 120 1

EXPLANATION 0.9 EXPLANATION 100 Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index Streamflow 0.7 80 0.6

60 0.5

0.4 40 0.3

0.2 20

Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow) 0.1 Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 0 0 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 Year Year C D 80,000 140

70,000 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION 120 Base flow Base flow 60,000 Streamflow Streamflow 100 Runoff 50,000 80 40,000

30,000 60 per second

20,000 40 Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 10,000 20 Monthly mean flow (1940–58), in cubic feet 0

4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 0 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 July May April Year June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 18. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 07326000 (Cobb Creek near Fort Cobb, Oklahoma), 1940–58. Base Flow from the Rush Springs Aquifer 21

Unregulated streamflow data for streamflow gaging- (table 1), streamflows decrease to zero more frequently than at station 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS [Soil the other stations. Zero flow was documented for several days Conservation Service] Pond No. 26 near Cyril, Okla.) were in the months of October 2003, May through September 2004, available for the period 1996–2012. For the 1996–2012 June through August 2006, July through September 2011, and period, daily mean streamflow was 1.4 ft3/s (fig. 19). Results August 2012 at this station (fig. 19). from the PART method for the 1996–2012 period indicate Flows in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, on that the annual base-flow index for this streamflow-gaging average, are composed of 50 percent base flow for most years. station ranged from 0.19 in 2006 to 0.89 in 2001 (fig. 20). Base flow appears to maintain streamflows throughout each Monthly mean streamflows for the 1996–2012 period year, but periods of zero flow were documented in the daily indicate that streamflows were composed mostly of base hydrographs for most of the sites and typically occurred in the flow for the months of January, February, March, April, summer months. These streams are not always perennial and May, July, November, and December (fig. 20). Monthly periods of zero flow coincided with relatively long periods mean streamflows indicate that streamflows were composed of no precipitation. Other potential causes in the decrease mostly of runoff for the months of June, August, and October. of streamflow during the summer are surface-water use and Monthly mean streamflows indicate that base flow was about evaporation from streams and groundwater use from the Rush equal to runoff for the month of September. Because the Springs aquifer or the overlying alluvial aquifer. drainage area for this basin is smaller than the other stations

1,000

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Base flow

100

10 Average daily flow, in cubic feet per second daily flow, Average

1 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year

Figure 19. Daily streamflow and base flow derived by using the PART method (Rutledge, 1998) for streamflow-gaging station 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS [Soil Conservation Service] Pond No. 26 near Cyril, Oklahoma), 1996–2012. 22 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

A B 6 1 0.9 EXPLANATION 5 EXPLANATION Base flow 0.8 Base-flow index 0.7 4 Streamflow 0.6 3 0.5 0.4 2 0.3

1 0.2 0.1 0 Base-flow index (base flow/streamflow) 0 Average annual flow, in cubic feet per second annual flow, Average 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 2 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Year Year C D 4,000 2.5

3,500 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Base flow Base flow 3,000 2 Streamflow Streamflow 2,500 Runoff

2,000 1.5

1,500

1,000 per second 1

Annual flow volume, in acre-feet 500

0 0.5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 9 Monthly mean flow (1996–2012), in cubic feet Year 0 July May April June March August October January February November December September Month

Figure 20. (A) average annual streamflow and base flow, (B) base-flow index, (C) average annual streamflow and base-flow volume, and (D) monthly mean streamflow, base flow, and runoff at streamflow-gaging station 073274406 (Little Washita River above SCS [Soil Conservation Service] Pond No. 26 near Cyril, Oklahoma), 1996–2012. Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 23

Interaction between Groundwater and sediments. Temporary, small-diameter wells (with an inside diameter of 0.0521 ft) were pushed into the streambed Surface Water of the Rush Springs sediments by using a mallet until refusal point or until water entered the well. A series of slug tests were performed at Aquifer each depth to ensure that at least one of the tests contained observable water-level responses from the induced pressure The flow of water between groundwater and surface changes. The wells were initially pumped by using tubing water can be described by using qualitative and quantitative and a peristaltic pump to remove fine particle well skins from methods. Direct and indirect methods can be used for around the screen, and afterward, the water level was allowed quantifying flow between groundwater and surface water. For to return to static level. The recovery rates in each well were this report, direct and indirect methods were used, including relatively quick (30–60 seconds), so air pressure (pneumatic the following: (1) hydraulic conductivity of streambed method) was used to displace the water in each well for the sediments was quantified to determine the potential and slug test (fig. 22). Water levels were monitored every second magnitude of flow between the stream and the Rush Springs throughout the slug test by a submersible pressure transducer aquifer, (2) hydraulic-head gradients were measured during attached to a data logger. The slug test responses were the summer of 2012 between selected streams and alluvium analyzed by using the AQuifer TEst SOLVer (AQTESOLV) to determine direction and magnitude of flow, (3) volumetric software package (Hydrosolve, Inc., 2011) and were matched flow rates were quantified by using seepage meters installed in to an analytical solution. streambed sediments, and (4) water levels in the alluvium and Analytical solutions have been developed for various stream were monitored at a streamflow-gaging station to show aquifer types under a variety of hydraulic conditions, and these changes in flow between surface water and groundwater over analytical solutions have been published in previous reports time throughout a year. and articles. Water-level data from slug tests can be entered into AQTESOLV software, and AQTESOLV can be used to Streambed Hydraulic Conductivity match water-level data to previously published analytical solutions. Each of these analytical solutions has several Streambed hydraulic conductivity is defined in this report assumptions that must be considered when determining a as the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the streambed good fit between the water-level data and the analytical sediments underlying the stream and overlying the Rush solution. Springs aquifer. A pneumatic slug-test technique was used to Slug-test data were input into AQTESOLV software to determine the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of streambed match an analytical solution provided in the software. Twelve sediments in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer. The of the slug tests were matched to the Springer-Gelhar solution slug-test method measures horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Springer and Gelhar, 1991). Two of the slug tests were as a function of the response of the water level in a well to matched to the Bouwer-Rice solution (Bouwer, 1989; Bouwer a displacement following the methods of Hinsby and others and Rice, 1976), and one of the slug tests was matched to the (1992), Zlotnik (1994), Zlotnik and others (1998), and Rus Kansas Geological Survey (KGS) Model with Skin solution and others (2001). By estimating anisotropic conditions (Hyder and others, 1994). typical of streambed sediments, horizontal hydraulic The Bouwer-Rice solution (Bouwer and Rice, 1976) was conductivity can be used to estimate vertical hydraulic developed for an overdamped slug test in a fully or partially conductivity. Vertical streambed hydraulic conductivity is penetrating well in an unconfined aquifer. The assumptions one of the properties that controls groundwater/surface- for the Bouwer-Rice solution are as follows: (1) the aquifer water interactions between a stream and aquifer. In addition, has infinite areal extent, (2) the aquifer is homogeneous and of streambed hydraulic conductivity is an important parameter in uniform thickness, (3) the aquifer is unconfined, (4) flow to the numerical groundwater-flow models needed to model the flux well is quasi-steady state, and (5) volume of water is injected of groundwater across a stream/aquifer interface. into or discharged from the well instantaneously. Streambed hydraulic conductivity was measured by a The Springer-Gelhar solution (Springer and Gelhar, slug-test technique at 15 sites along Cobb Creek, Fivemile 1991) extended the Bouwer-Rice solution for a slug test in Creek, Lake Creek, Willow Creek, Keechi Creek, and Sugar a homogeneous, anisotropic, unconfined aquifer to include Creek during July and August 2012 (fig. 21 and table 2). inertial effects in the test well. This solution accounts for Initially, streambed hydraulic conductivity was to be measured oscillatory water-level response that is sometimes observed at 30 sites overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, including in aquifers of high hydraulic conductivity. In addition, on reaches along Wildcat Creek, White Bread Creek, Medicine the basis of the work of Butler (2002), frictional well loss in Creek, and Kickapoo Creek (see fig. 1 for locations of creeks), small-diameter wells is incorporated in the Springer-Gelhar but most of these stream reaches were dry during July and solution. The assumptions for the Springer-Gelhar solution are August 2012, and could not be slug tested without saturated similar to the assumptions of the Bouwer-Rice solution. 24 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

98°40’ 98°30’ 98°20’

WASHITA COUNTY KIOWA COUNTY k e S e u r g C a

g g

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CADDO COUNTY

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S k i v e 352516098424601 m i

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Bull Creek

352055098400901

35°20’ B 352002098310301 u c k C r e e 351911098362101 k

351824098372501 Lake Creek

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k k e re e C ek r ed 351543098315301 C ok Willow Creek Cro yp G

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Albers Equal-Area Conic projection 0 2 4 6 8 MILES Geology from Heran and others (2003) North American Datum of 1983 0 2 4 6 8 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

OKLAHOMA Rush Springs aquifer surface exposure

Rush Springs aquifer Caddo Nation Tribal Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary Jurisdictional Area Map area Slug-test and potentiomanometer site and identifier (table 3)— Gaining/losing from potentiomanometer (August 2012)

Gaining

Losing

Figure 21. Sites where slug tests and potentiomanometer readings were performed in July 2012 to determine hydraulic conductivity of streambed sediments in Caddo and Washita Counties, Oklahoma. Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 25

Table 2. Completion information for temporary wells installed in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, 2012.

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; depths are in feet from land-surface/surface-water interface; WMA, wildlife management area]

Well identifier Hole Top screen Bottom screen Agency Site name Test date (see fig. 21) depth depth depth USGS 352516098424601 Cobb Creek at 1100 Road 8/27/2012 2.08 0.83 1.83 USGS 352239098411401 Cobb Creek at 1130 Road 8/8/2012 1.67 0.42 1.42 USGS 352055098400901 Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla. 8/27/2012 6.50 5.25 6.25 USGS 351824098372501 Cobb Creek at 2450 Road 8/28/2012 6.17 4.92 5.92 USGS 351727098353802 Cobb Creek at Highway 152 7/31/2012 15.00 13.75 14.75 USGS 351404098331101 Cobb Creek at WMA near Lake, Okla. 8/28/2012 5.00 3.75 4.75 USGS 352422098354101 Fivemile Creek at 1110 Road 8/15/2012 5.08 3.83 4.83 USGS 351911098362101 Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road 8/2/2012 8.67 7.42 8.42 USGS 351427098223601 Keechi Creek at 2590 Road 8/7/2012 7.08 5.83 6.83 USGS 351330098203001 Keechi Creek at 2610 Road 8/15/2012 5.92 4.67 5.67 USGS 352002098310301 Lake Creek at 1160 Road 8/29/2012 2.33 1.08 2.08 USGS 351543098315301 Lake Creek at 1210 Road 8/29/2012 4.04 2.79 3.79 USGS 351727098314701 Lake Creek at Highway 152 8/2/2012 4.33 3.08 4.08 USGS 352531098244301 Sugar Creek at 2570 Road 8/14/2012 5.92 4.67 5.67 USGS 351359098280001 Willow Creek at 1230 Road 8/14/2012 1.67 0.42 1.42

Figure 22. Temporary small-diameter well with pneumatic slug-test equipment installed. 26 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

The KGS Model with Skin solution (Hyder and using Kv/Kh = 1 resulted in streambed horizontal hydraulic others, 1994) was developed for an overdamped slug test conductivity values that ranged from 2 to 53 ft/d (table 3). in an unconfined aquifer for fully and partially penetrating The hydraulic conductivities derived from these slug tests wells. The solution includes a skin zone of finite thickness are typical for fine to coarse sand (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). enveloping the test well. The assumptions for the KGS Converting horizontal hydraulic conductivities from the Model with Skin solution are similar to the assumptions of slug-test analyses to vertical hydraulic conductivities by the Bouwer-Rice solution, but the KGS Model with Skin using a ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1 indicates that vertical hydraulic solution also includes the following assumptions: (1) the conductivity in the streambed sediments overlying the Rush aquifer potentiometric surface is initially horizontal, (2) flow Springs aquifer ranges from 0.1 ft/d to 8.6 ft/d. is unsteady, and (3) water is released instantaneously from storage with a decline in hydraulic head. Hydraulic Head in Streams and Alluvium The Bouwer-Rice, Springer-Gelhar, and KGS Model with Skin solutions assume isotropic conditions. For each A hydraulic potentiomanometer was temporarily well site, the presence of anisotropy was anticipated, but the installed at the 15 slug-test sites (fig. 21) to determine the magnitude of the anisotropy was unknown, so the anisotropy hydraulic-head gradient between the stream and alluvium. in AQTESOLV (Kv/Kh; Kv being vertical hydraulic Comparison of hydraulic head between the stream and conductivity; Kh being horizontal hydraulic conductivity) alluvium indicates the direction of flow and the magnitude of was set to 1 and 0.1 to account for the anisotropy typically hydraulic gradients between surface water and groundwater. determined from large-scale pumping tests in the alluvium Hydraulic-head conditions in a stream and alluvium change (Rus and others, 2001). Using Kv/Kh = 0.1 resulted in over time and by location; therefore, the hydraulic data streambed horizontal hydraulic conductivity values for the provided are the net directions and magnitude at given places well sites that ranged from 1 to 86 feet per day (ft/d), and and points in time.

Table 3. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity determined from slug tests conducted in the streambed sediments of streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, August 2012.

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; Kv, vertical hydraulic conductivity; Kh, horizontal hydraulic conductivity; WMA, wildlife management area]

Horizontal hydraulic conductivity Well identifier Agency Site name Test date (feet per day) (see fig. 21) Kv/Kh = 0.1 Kv/Kh = 1 USGS 352516098424601 Cobb Creek at 1100 Road 8/27/2012 14 8 USGS 352239098411401 Cobb Creek at 1130 Road 8/8/2012 36 22 USGS 352055098400901 Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla. 8/27/2012 30 18 USGS 351824098372501 Cobb Creek at 2450 Road 8/28/2012 25 15 USGS 351727098353802 Cobb Creek at Highway 152 7/31/2012 22 13 USGS 351404098331101 Cobb Creek at WMA near Lake, Okla. 8/28/2012 25 15 USGS 352422098354101 Fivemile Creek at 1110 Road 8/15/2012 40 24 USGS 351911098362101 Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road 8/2/2012 15 9 USGS 351427098223601 Keechi Creek at 2590 Road 8/7/2012 16 10 USGS 351330098203001 Keechi Creek at 2610 Road 8/15/2012 13 8 USGS 352002098310301 Lake Creek at 1160 Road 8/29/2012 86 53 USGS 351543098315301 Lake Creek at 1210 Road 8/29/2012 26 16 USGS 351727098314701 Lake Creek at Highway 152 8/2/2012 33 20 USGS 352531098244301 Sugar Creek at 2570 Road 8/14/2012 40 25 USGS 351359098280001 Willow Creek at 1230 Road 8/14/2012 1 2 Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 27

A hydraulic potentiomanometer, or minipiezometer, is a and the alluvium. Differences in hydraulic head between a portable drive probe connected to a manometer (fig. 23). The stream and alluvium can indicate gaining and losing stream temporary wells used for the slug tests (“Streambed Hydraulic reaches. Gaining-stream reaches gain water from inflow of Conductivity” section of this report) were also used for the groundwater through the streambed. Losing-stream reaches potentiomanometer readings in July and August 2012. The lose water to groundwater by outflow from the stream through slotted drive probe was pushed down inside the casing of the the streambed. temporary well after the slug test was performed, while the At 6 of the 15 sites, direction of flow was from the outer tube was placed at the bottom of the stream next to the alluvium to the stream (gaining) and the magnitude of the well. Water was pumped with a peristaltic pump up through hydraulic-head gradient ranged from 0.003 to 0.323. For the well screen and tubing. Once the tubing was full of water the nine sites with direction of flow from the stream to the and free of bubbles, air was bled into the top of the manometer alluvium (losing), hydraulic head gradients ranged from 0.004 until the menisci were visible in the tubing on both sides of to 0.076 (table 4). the manometer. Hydraulic head was recorded for the stream

Figure 23. Potentiomanometer and temporary small-diameter well, with the manometer mounted on a wooden board. 28 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Table 4. Hydraulic head differences and gradients between streams and alluvium determined from potentiomanometer readings, in areas underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, August 2012.

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; WMA, wildlife management area; Negative values indicate flow from stream to alluvium sediments while positive values indicate flow from alluvium sediments to stream]

Difference in head Vertical hydraulic Gaining/ Agency Well identifier Site name (inches) head gradient losing1 USGS 352516098424601 Cobb Creek at 1100 Road 2.480 0.155 Gaining USGS 352239098411401 Cobb Creek at 1130 Road 3.563 0.323 Gaining USGS 352055098400901 Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla. 0.184 0.003 Gaining USGS 351824098372501 Cobb Creek at 2450 Road -0.246 -0.004 Losing USGS 351727098353802 Cobb Creek at Highway 152 -3.150 -0.018 Losing USGS 351404098331101 Cobb Creek at WMA near Lake, Okla. -3.858 -0.076 Losing USGS 352422098354101 Fivemile Creek at 1110 Road -1.594 -0.031 Losing USGS 351911098362101 Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road 15.183 0.160 Gaining USGS 351427098223601 Keechi Creek at 2590 Road -5.285 -0.070 Losing USGS 351330098203001 Keechi Creek at 2610 Road -1.339 -0.022 Losing USGS 352002098310301 Lake Creek at 1160 Road -0.079 -0.004 Losing USGS 351543098315301 Lake Creek at 1210 Road -1.247 -0.032 Losing USGS 351727098314701 Lake Creek at Highway 152 -0.394 -0.009 Losing USGS 352531098244301 Sugar Creek at 2570 Road 2.943 0.047 Gaining USGS 351359098280001 Willow Creek at 1230 Road 1.417 0.128 Gaining 1Gaining stream reaches gain water from inflow of groundwater through the streambed. Losing stream reaches lose water to groundwater by outflow through the streambed.

Hydraulic-head differences in three of the six sites on use that causes the aquifer head to decline lower than the head Cobb Creek indicate that flow direction was from groundwater in the stream will cause the stream to be losing. Most of the to surface water (gaining-stream section) (fig. 21 and table 4). measured streams were losing, as they were measured in July These three sites are in the western part of the aquifer in and August, during times of the year that declines in water Kiowa County. Hydraulic-head differences in the other levels are observed across the Rush Springs aquifer (see the three sites on Cobb Creek in western Caddo County indicate “Groundwater Level Fluctuations, 2010–13” section of this that flow direction was from surface water to groundwater report). (losing-stream section). Hydraulic-head differences at Fivemile Creek at 1110 Road indicate that flow direction was Volumetric Flow Rates from Seepage Meters from surface water to groundwater (losing-stream section), whereas hydraulic-head differences at Fivemile Creek at Flux of water across the stream/alluvium interface was 1170 Road indicate flow was from groundwater to surface measured at five locations by using seepage meters during July water (gaining-stream section) with a relatively high vertical through August 2012. Seepage-meter methods are described hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic-head differences at the two in Rosenberry and LaBaugh (2008). Locations where seepage sites on Keechi Creek indicate that flow was from surface meters were installed were: (1) Cobb Creek at 1150 Road, water to groundwater (losing-stream section). Hydraulic- (2) Cobb Creek at Highway 152 (Oklahoma State Highway head differences at the three sites on Lake Creek indicate that 152), (3) Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road, (4) Lake Creek at flow was from surface water to groundwater (losing-stream 1160 Road, and (5) Willow Creek at 1230 Road (fig. 21 and section). Hydraulic-head differences on the Sugar Creek and table 5). Seepage meters typically are constructed from a cut- Willow Creek sites indicate that flow was from groundwater off storage drum that is installed into streambed sediments. to surface water (gaining-stream section). Gaining and losing A collector bag is attached to the drum, and the change in conditions along streams can change in time and by location. the volume of the water in the bag over time is measured. A There are several factors that could cause a stream to be decrease in volume of water in the bag over time indicates flux gaining or losing or cause changes in flow direction. A stream from surface water to groundwater. An increase in the volume will be gaining if the head in the aquifer is higher than the of water in the bag over time indicates flux from groundwater head in the stream and a stream will be losing if the head in to surface water. Volumetric flow rates and flux velocities vary the aquifer is lower than the head in the stream. Groundwater by location and with time. Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 29

Table 5. Seepage locations and flux velocities for sites measured in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, July–August 2012.

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; Negative values indicate flow from stream to alluvium sediments while positive values indicate flow from alluvium sediments to stream]

Flux velocity Well Date Agency Site name (feet per day) identifier measured Site A Site B Site C Site D USGS 352055098400901 Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla. 7/8/2012 0.039 0.019 0.013 -0.002 USGS 351727098353802 Cobb Creek at Highway 152 7/21/2012 -0.140 -0.016 -0.003 -0.113 USGS 351911098362101 Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road 8/2/2012 -0.131 -0.045 0.017 0.039 USGS 352002098310301 Lake Creek at 1160 Road 7/31/2012 0.023 0.005 0.014 0.018 USGS 351359098280001 Willow Creek at 1230 Road 8/7/2012 -0.066 -0.077 -0.127 -0.107

The seepage meters used for this study were constructed 0.131 ft/d, whereas measurements at sites C and D indicated of a 55-gallon storage drum from which the end was cut off. flow from the alluvium to the stream with flux velocity from The storage drum had a diameter of 22 inches and an area 0.017 to 0.039 ft/d. Measurements at all four sites at the of 2.64 square feet. A collector bag and tubing with a 3/4- Lake Creek at 1160 Road location indicated that flow from inch inside diameter was attached to the top of the storage the alluvium to the stream ranged from 0.005 to 0.023 ft/d. drum by a 1/2-inch inside-diameter connector. Fellows and Measurements at all four sites at the Willow Creek at 1230 Brezonik (1980) suggested that a tubing diameter larger than Road location indicated that flow from the stream to the a 5-millimeter (0.20-inch) opening would not cause loss of alluvium ranged from 0.066 to 0.127 ft/d. efficiency for most fluxes commonly measured with seepage Flows determined from seepage meters, combined with meters. The seepage meters were pushed into the streambed hydraulic gradients determined from potentiomanometers, sediments with the collector bag filled with an initial volume were used to determine the vertical hydraulic conductivity of of 2,000 milliliters of water. The seepage meters were left the streambed sediments using Darcy’s law (Darcy, 1856). installed in the sediments for 1 to 3 hours. The end volume Darcy’s law is expressed as: of water was measured from the collector bag and the time logged for each measurement interval. Q = KIA (1) At each of the five locations where seepage meters were installed, four different seepage meters were placed at various where sites in the streambed sediments within about 100 ft of the Q is flow, in cubic feet per day; wells (fig. 21). Measurements at four different sites were K is hydraulic conductivity, in feet per day; made to account for the spatial variability of fluxes across the I is the hydraulic head gradient; and stream/alluvium interface. Water-volume measurements were A is the cross-sectional area, in square feet. logged over two time intervals to ensure that measurements For sites where seepage meters were deployed, the flux were repeatable and similar at each site. velocity from table 5 (equivalent to Q/A from equation 1) was Change in volume of water in the collector bag was divided by the vertical hydraulic head gradient from table 4 to divided by the area of the storage drum to normalize and determine the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the streambed determine a flux velocity (table 5). This flux velocity sediments. The vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) using represents the measured flow rate across the stream/alluvium Darcy’s law ranged from 0.1 to 13 ft/d for all sites. The Kv interface. Measurements at sites A, B, and C at Cobb Creek at Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla., site ranged at 1150 Road near Colony, Okla., indicate that flow from from 0.7 to 13 ft/d. The Kv at Cobb Creek at Highway 152 the alluvium to the stream ranged from 0.013 to 0.039 ft/d, site ranged from 0.2 to 7.8 ft/d. The Kv at Fivemile Creek at whereas measurements at site D indicated flow from the 1170 Road ranged from 0.1 to 0.8 ft/d. The Kv at Lake Creek stream to alluvium (table 5). Measurements at all four sites at at 1160 Road ranged from 1.3 to 5.8 ft/d. The Kv at Willow Cobb Creek at Highway 152 (Oklahoma State Highway 152) Creek at 1230 Road ranged from 0.5 to 1 ft/d. The vertical indicated that flow from the stream to the alluvium ranged hydraulic conductivities determined using Darcy’s law were from 0.003 to 0.140 ft/d (table 5). Measurements at sites A and similar to the streambed hydraulic conductivities estimated B at the Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road location indicated flow from the slug tests, using a ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1, that ranged from the stream to alluvium, with flux velocity of 0.045 and from 0.1 ft/d to 8.6 ft/d. 30 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Interaction between Groundwater and Surface pressure (Freeman and others, 2004). On November 8, 2011, Water at Cobb Creek near the Eakly, Oklahoma, the well nearest Cobb Creek (well 0 [351726098353801]) was damaged by a flood with a crest stage of 1,386.16 Streamflow-Gaging Station ft National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD 29) and a maximum instantaneous discharge of 2,140 ft3/s (station In April 2011, USGS staff conducted site reconnaissance number 07325800; U.S. Geological Survey, 2013; fig. 26). and installed water-table piezometers in the Cobb Creek Because well 0 was damaged from the flood, well 0 data are alluvium adjacent to the Cobb Creek near Eakly, Okla. (USGS not included in this report. All other piezometer water levels station number 07325800) streamflow-gaging station, by using were corrected for atmospheric pressure and referenced to the mechanical direct-push methods. The purpose of piezometer datum of the streamflow-gaging station number 07325800, installation was to monitor and record interactions between which is NGVD 29. alluvial groundwater levels and stream stage from September The piezometer transect is parallel to the Oklahoma State 2011 through August 2012. Hydraulic connection between the Highway 152 bridge, just south of the eastern bridge abutment alluvial aquifer and the Rush Springs aquifer was assumed (fig. 24). Along the piezometer transect, the land slopes toward because the Rush Springs aquifer consists of well-sorted, the river at about 1 ft per 30 ft between wells 5 and 2 and at poorly cemented sandstone in the study area, and the alluvial about 1 ft per 7 ft between wells 2 and 0. A drainage ditch also aquifer consists of unconsolidated sands, silts, and clays with runs parallel to Oklahoma State Highway 152 on the south some gravel. side of the piezometer transect. Near well 3, the drainage Piezometers were installed at various distances from ditch opened to a deep (5–10 ft) gulley and turned southwest the stream channel near the streamflow-gaging station orifice to Cobb Creek. This gulley may have acted as a drain on the (fig. 24). The piezometers were constructed with 1-inch alluvial aquifer. The land surrounding the Cobb Creek site was diameter polyvinyl chloride casing and 5-ft-long prepack used mostly for nonirrigated and irrigated agriculture. Several screens set just above the contact with the Rush Springs irrigation wells were located in the area, including one on the aquifer, which was at about 20–45 ft below the land surface west side of Cobb Creek about 270 ft southwest of well 2 in (fig. 25). Water levels were initially recorded with an electric the piezometer transect. tape at about 10–20 ft below the land surface at the time of Because of the relatively high slope of the land surface, piezometer-well installation (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013; most streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer convey fig. 25A). Each piezometer was then developed for about flashy discharges after intense rainfall. Cobb Creek, for half an hour with a peristaltic pump until the produced water example, often returns to prestorm stage within a few days of appeared to be clear of sediment. On September 22, 2011, an intense rainfall. Following the June 7–11, 2012, rainfall, four of the piezometers (well 0 [351726098353801], well 2 stream stage was higher than water levels in wells 2 and 3 [351726098353701], well 3 [351726098353601], and well 5 (fig. 26). In mid-July 2012, following a few more rain events, [351726098353501]) were equipped with Level TROLL stream stage was higher than at all three wells. The stream 500 unvented pressure transducers with internal data loggers was losing for a few weeks in June and July because of a recording hydraulic pressure measurements every 15 minutes. combination of runoff, which raised the stream stage, and The four transducer-equipped piezometers were spaced about possibly well pumping, which likely lowered groundwater 10, 115, 170, and 260 ft, respectively, from the center of levels. Recharge from surface-water runoff and flood flows, Cobb Creek and formed a transect through the alluvium. A therefore, were not likely to have a large effect on alluvial and recording barometer (Baro TROLL 500) also was deployed at bedrock groundwater levels at this Cobb Creek near Eakly, the site to correct the pressure-transducer data to atmospheric Okla., location over the course of a year. Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 31

Center-pivot

Cobb Creek 2 2 Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area 5 5 OKLAHOMA 1 1 Y Y ′ A A A Streamflow gaging station 07325800 Agriculture W W H H 98°35’35” ′ G G I I A H H

E E T T A A

Well 5 (351726098353501) Well OKLAHOMA S T OKLAHOMA S T Irrigated agriculture A Rush Springs aquifer

e (atmospheric barometer located inside gage house)

s Irrigation well for center-pivot (probable location)

o 98°35’36”

a Agriculture

Well 3 (351726098353601) Well

07325800 g Trees 150 FEET Trees Agriculture 40 METERS 98°35’37”

Well 4 (351727098353701) Well 100 30 20 Trees

Well 1 (351727098353801) Well Trees

Well 2 (351726098353701) Well 50 98°35’38”

i 10

Cobb Creek

Well 0 (351726098353801) Well

07325800 0 0 A Trees

Bridge span 98°35’39” Trees 98°35’40” Agriculture Diagram showing groundwater and surface-water data-collection stations at Cobb Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma, on Oklahoma State Highway 152. Diagram showing groundwater and surface-water data-collection stations at Cobb Creek near Eakly,

Web Mercator projection Web Geodetic System 1984 World Figure 24. 35°17’28” 35°17’27” 35°17’26” 32 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

WEST EAST A A′ A FEET ABOVE NGVD 29 1,395 Well 3 Well 5 1,930 ft3/s (351726098353501) Well 2 (351726098353601) Land surface 1,390 (351726098353701) Cobb (approximate) Creek 1,385.48 1,385

1,380 1,378.72 1,377.73 1,376.03 Water table 1,375

1,370 Cobb Creek alluvium 1,365

1,360 Rush Springs Formation (Rush Springs aquifer) 1,355 of Whitehorse Group

1,350

1,345 Well 5 1,395 3 Well 3 B 16 ft /s (351726098353501) Well 2 (351726098353601) Land surface 1,390 (351726098353701) (approximate)

1,385

1,380 Cobb Creek 1,375.74 1,375.93 1,376.30 Water table 1,375 1,373.52 1,370 Cobb Creek alluvium 1,365

1,360 Rush Springs Formation (Rush Springs aquifer) 1,355 of Whitehorse Group

1,350

1,345

1,395 Well 3 Well 5 C 2.7 ft3/s (351726098353501) Well 2 (351726098353601) Land surface 1,390 (351726098353701) (approximate)

1,385

1,380 Cobb Creek 1,375 1,372.82 1,372.21 1,372.01 1,372.64 Water table 1,370 Cobb Creek alluvium 1,365

1,360 Rush Springs Formation (Rush Springs aquifer) 1,355 of Whitehorse Group

1,350

1,345 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 VERTICAL EXAGGERATION ×2.5 Distance from left bank, in feet EXPLANATION

1,372.82 Observed water-table altitude, in feet

2.7 ft3/s Instantaneous discharge at Cobb Creek near Eakly (07325800) in cubic feet per second (ft3/s)

Screened interval

Direction of groundwater flow

Figure 25. Schematic diagram showing cross sections of a piezometer transect in the Cobb Creek alluvium showing altitudes of Cobb Creek and the alluvial aquifer water table during (A) flooding-stream conditions on November 8, 2011, 2:30 a.m.; (B) normal, gaining- stream conditions on March 1, 2012, 8:30 a.m.; and (C) losing-stream conditions on July 29, 2012, 8:30 a.m.

Interaction between Groundwater and Surface Water of the Rush Springs Aquifer 33 Precipitation, in inches in Precipitation, 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 stage 0 ) (see fig. 1 for August n (see fig. 1) 3 2 5 8 i o t a i t i p c r e p ) A T July E EXPLANATION 2 (351726098353701) water-table altitude 2 (351726098353701) water-table altitude 3 (351726098353601) water-table altitude 5 (351726098353501) water-table (Oklahoma Mesonet, 2013) l l l e e e Weatherford ( W Weatherford Okla. ( 0 7 Cobb Creek near Eakly, W W W June May Approximate time when nearby pumping begins 2012 April March February January : e a g s t December

feet m

u 6 1 data no . m i 6 8 , 3 M a x November 8, 2011 1 November 2011 A 0.88-foot data correction for orifice movement was prorated over the November 7–8 event and carried until the gage was reset on November 15 U.S. Geological Survey, (Martin L. Schneider, written commun., 2012). October September ater-table altitudes measured at U.S. Geological Survey streamflow-gaging station 07325800 (Cobb Creek near Eakly, Oklahoma) and in three piezometers altitudes measured at U.S. Geological Survey streamflow-gaging station 07325800 (Cobb Creek near Eakly, ater-table W

1,3 7 . 5 1,3 7 6 . 5 1,3 7 5 . 1,3 7 4 . 5 1,3 7 3 . 5 1,3 7 2 . 5 1,3 7 1 . 5 , September 2011–August 2012. Altitude above National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, in feet in 1929, of Datum Vertical Geodetic National above Altitude Figure 26. Okla., Mesonet station the Cobb Creek alluvium showing altitudes of and alluvial groundwater table precipitation measured at Weatherford, location) 34 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

The stream-stage and groundwater-level data collected near Eakly, Okla.) indicate that the bedrock groundwater, at the Cobb Creek site indicate how surface water and alluvial groundwater, and streams were in hydrologic groundwater interact at the site during a drought year. From connection in the study area. Because of this hydrologic September 2011 to mid-June 2012 and in the month of August connection, large perennial streams in the study area can 2012, groundwater levels at wells 2, 3, and 5 were higher than change from gaining to losing streams in the summer. The the stream stage, indicating that this reach of Cobb Creek timing and severity of this change probably were affected was a gaining stream for most of the study period (fig. 26). by regional withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation during The 6-month upward trend in stream stage and groundwater the summer growing season. Pumping wells placed closer to levels reversed in mid-March. Evapotranspiration signatures streams are likely to have a greater and more immediate effect (serrated pattern with 1-day frequency; see inset of fig. 26) on alluvial groundwater levels and stream stages than wells also began appearing in mid-March and increased in amplitude placed farther from streams. Large-capacity irrigation wells, as solar radiation and native vegetation activity increased into even those completed hundreds of feet below land surface the summer. The altitude difference between groundwater in the bedrock aquifer, can induce surface-water flow from levels and stream stage increased over the fall and spring nearby streams by lowering alluvial groundwater levels below months and reached a maximum of about 2.5–3.0 ft in March the stream altitude. and April (fig. 26). The altitude of groundwater levels and stream stage began to decrease in late March. In May and early June, groundwater pumping and recovery signatures from a nearby irrigation-supply well about 270 ft southwest Springs Inventory and Location of of the piezometer transect were evident in the aquifer water- Wetlands level and stream-stage data (fig. 26). Well-completion reports indicated that the irrigation well was completed in the Documentation of springs and wetlands is important Rush Springs aquifer at a depth of about 260 ft below land because these features mark the intersection of the surface in 2009 and produced an estimated yield of 200– groundwater table with the surface water and are therefore 400 gal/min (Oklahoma Water Resources Board, 2013). In the indicators of change in a hydrologic system. When remainder of June and July, groundwater levels and stream groundwater levels fall as a result of less than normal stage decreased, and the direction of the groundwater gradient precipitation, such as during 2011 (fig. 2), springs may between wells 2 and 3 changed. With the combined effects of stop discharging water, and wetland areas may become dry. evapotranspiration and pumping that decreased groundwater Spring and wetland inventories were the focus of a 2011–12 levels and periodic rainfall runoff that raised the stream stage, field survey of the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, this reach of Cobb Creek became a losing stream in mid-June and precipitation had been less than normal in 2011 (fig. 2). and July, with stream-stage altitudes greater than aquifer Funding and time constraints precluded a comprehensive water-level altitudes in wells 2 and 3 (figs. 25C and 26). The search of the area, so the goals of the spring and wetland lack of pumping recovery curves between mid-June and July inventories were (1) to compile historical documentation indicates that groundwater-level and stream-stage declines on spring and wetland locations, and (2) to identify new, were most likely the result of regional-scale withdrawals of undocumented spring and wetland locations accessible from multiple wells instead of the result of a single nearby pumping public roads. The results from this inventory could provide well. In August 2012, groundwater levels and stream stage data for a more comprehensive search for these features in the began to increase, presumably when irrigation ceased at the future. end of the winter wheat and corn growing seasons. Winter Prior to 2012, only two springs were documented in the wheat is harvested during June to early July and corn is NWIS database (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013) in the study harvested during August to October (Oklahoma Department of area, but neither location was sufficiently accurate to locate the Agriculture, Food and Forestry, 2012). Also, the stream reach springs in the field during the summer of 2012. Because there returned to a gaining stream and the groundwater gradient were no useful historical spring locations in the study area, the reversed, with aquifer water-level altitudes greater than the primary objective of this study was to locate and document stream-stage altitude (fig. 26). springs. Twenty-five springs visible from public roads and The groundwater and surface-water interaction data paths were documented during the survey (fig. 27). Two of collected at streamflow-gaging station 07325800 (Cobb Creek these springs were in Red Rock Canyon State Park. Springs Inventory and Location of Wetlands 35

98°48’ 98°42’ 98°36’ 98°30’ 98°24’ 98°18’ 98°12’ 98°06’ 98°

W ea k 35°48’ ve k ee 33 rs C ee Cr r p am k r C e te re in nC W ke 47 ic k Ch Cree Relay KINGFISHER COUNTY L it t l 81 e CUSTER No rth Ca D B n e COUNTY ea ad e r BLAINE COUNTY ian r C R 35°42’ C re i

r e k k v 3 e e k e H e e e r re r D k C orse C 270 e L e aw a r C 54 u r re q i ek S a t C

5 L ump m 58 o 270 35°36’ u t h 4 C r S e ixm e ile C k re ek

k CANADIAN COUNTY e

Little Deep Weatherford e r

e k C e D e

e t r r e 40 e C C a g 40 r k d 2 e a e c T W e a r 35°30’ o F C m 6 r e e l a i n 281 d C C w m r o r o e u

b P

e o b 3 k F

C 22 ek r 12 Sixmile Cre e 25 e k 23 A k 13 r e Suga a e r Creek p r C a F RED ROCK 11 h C i an v 10 o g CANYON 54 e a C n m d i i r

C i STATE PARK a r n R e l iv o e e 35°24’ b p e r S 37 k b C C 58 r r e e B e 54A e 18 k 17 u k ll eek k Cr e k re e 152 9 re k C C e t e o lle r 54B k Bu k o e C e p k k e e a e r e r r k e e e r WASHITA C c C h 16 i 7 r s C e y i K C COUNTY k k t F 37 s k a e a e n o c 152 e L i Cr o d k 14 c l ck e i n i 35°18’ u re 1 Bug d h gy B e W k o C C M e re K e r 152 e k 21 o r l y C C W o e

a d b s W T CADDO k

ed b a t k C S

o r e e e

k o e e r I t

r C o k e C e COUNTY r s i

B n e k e r t W r C n

C e i e p 15 e J k n y e t r e a i i G 19 e k w s n

h c C C o t l g C k C k l F e e i W w a C e r d m r H

k p C e o o W l a r o e e

146 l e e r Keechi Creek r 8 k l

k o e k r C e l S e o

r k a H C r C w e r l g k tC e 35°12’ a C k c n k i d ee r r a

r e r e k C e p e C w e J e e k

S Y S

r e llo e r k C C p v r

o k i o i e t j n R t e

o n r g GRADY

n 58 u a C t C hi w P r s r e I

a o COUNTY

k e e W S o

o k e k p p n d e e C ek i a a e

r m Cr n

e p r e C e r k

C C e i 24 L r 115 r C n e e y p e g r r S e e 20 D e u k 81 k e C ga C 9 D t s r re k k Lo C ek e 35°06’ e re e e r

re k C

k k

e C e t Anadarko l KIOWA e r e

r a r a C k S

d e C g e COUNTY e H

n e k k r c o i C o e k n ll k i R o e C e 62 n r L w i g e 8 r C k

t n 62 y re 115 C i S t C Go ke y r w n p nka a u e S o o T C Albers Equal-Area Conic projection 0 3 6 9 12 15 MILES Watershed boundaries from U.S. Department of Agrictulture, 2006 North American Datum of 1983 Streams from Horizon Systems Corporation, 2008 0 3 6 9 12 15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Area not studied Caddo Nation Tribal Stream observation, Jurisdictional Area September 2011 Lake or reservoir boundary Dry Rush Springs aquifer Watershed boundary Wet 24 Unconfined Spring and number, September 2011 Ponded Confined Flowing

Figure 27. Locations of springs and stream observations in and near the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Oklahoma, September 2011. 36 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

All of the documented springs were discharging water Creek, Fivemile Creek, and Buggy Creek were observed to at very low rates during the time they were identified. Spring be flowing in the study area in September 2011 and were thus discharge in the study area seems to be primarily in the form considered to be perennial. Many of the smaller tributaries of distributed seep areas rather than discrete openings in rocks. to these streams also were flowing in September 2011. The Many of the springs documented in this report, such as the two Washita River was observed to be flowing in the study area springs in Red Rock Canyon State Park (fig. 27), were found in September 2011, but the Canadian River was dry. The year in plunge pools where the sandstone has been eroded by runoff 2011 was particularly dry (fig. 2), and stream reaches that from upstream roads, culverts, dams, and rock outcrops in the were flowing in September 2011 when there had been little study area. Most of the springs documented in this report are rainfall were probably perennial. located in upland draws on the flanks of a topographic ridge The distribution of flowing-stream observations was that trends southeast from Weatherford to Anadarko (fig. 27). compared with National Hydrography Dataset (NHDPlusV1) This ridge is believed to coincide with a groundwater divide (Horizon Systems Corporation, 2008) perennial stream separating groundwater flow between the Sugar Creek and designations. This comparison was used as an independent Cobb Creek surface-water drainage systems. Of the 25 springs check of perennial streams for quality assurance. The stream recorded in the study area, 6 were on tributaries of Sugar observations generally corresponded to the NHDPlusV1 Creek, 11 were on tributaries of Cobb Creek, and 8 were on perennial streams, but there were some notable differences. tributaries of the Canadian and Washita Rivers. All springs Buggy Creek, Spring Creek, and Stinking Creek, which were flowing at the time of the field survey, but none of the drained the aquifer near the Marlow Formation contact on the springs were discharging enough water to obtain accurate eastern side of the study area, were not listed as perennial for discharge measurements. All of the documented springs were most of their length in NHDPlusV1 but were observed to be estimated to be discharging less than 1 ft3/s. flowing along most of their length in September 2011. Also, One of the challenges with spring identification in the the Canadian River is listed as perennial for most of its length study area is that much of the study area is occupied by deep in NHDPlusV1 but was dry in September 2011. In the western draws and canyons that were not accessible during the field part of the study area, a few small streams were listed as survey. Privately owned areas with rugged terrain and no perennial in NHDPlusV1 but were not flowing in September improved vehicular access were not surveyed but may contain 2011. springs and seeps. Also, many of the spring-discharge areas Wetlands primarily were identified by using a have been inundated by small ponds impounded by dams on combination of data sources including the National Wetlands private land. Many small headwater ponds were at design Inventory (NWI) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013), Soil capacity and were discharging water during the field survey, Survey Geographic database (SSURGO) frequently flooded indicating that the ponds were supplied by spring flow. soils maps (U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources More generalized spring-discharge areas were identified Conservation Service, 2013), and aerial photographs (U.S. by documenting stream conditions in the study area. As a Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency, 2013) result of less than normal precipitation in western Oklahoma (fig. 28). Two wetland classes are common in the study area (fig. 2), many of the streams in the study area were dry in (1,153.73 mi2): (1) freshwater emergent wetlands, which the summer and fall of 2011. All streamflow was considered comprise 3.34 mi2 (0.29 percent) and (2) freshwater forested/ to be groundwater-supplied base flow (supplied by springs shrub wetlands, which comprise 13.37 mi2 (1.16 percent) and seeps) at the time of the spring inventory. For 2 weeks in (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013). The emergent wetland September, a field crew visited 1,665 county and State road class is characterized by erect, rooted, herbaceous hydrophyte bridges over streams in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional plants, which are present for most of the growing season Area, qualitatively documenting streamflow conditions. For in most years. The freshwater forested/shrub wetland class each bridge location, the stream was classified into one of includes areas dominated by woody vegetation including four categories: (1) dry (the streambed was dry), (2) wet (the shrubs and trees taller than 20 ft. According to the SSURGO streambed was wet, but there was no standing or flowing data, the Gracemont soil group of Caddo and Blaine Counties water), (3) ponded (the stream contained standing water is the primary frequently flooded soil in the study area (U.S. that was not observed as flowing; dammed streams with Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation no observable outflow were included in this category), and Service, 2013). These soil groups are located along major (4) flowing (the stream contained moving water; dammed streams, including the Canadian River, Fivemile Creek, Lake streams with observable outflow were included in this Creek, Spring Creek tributaries, and Sugar Creek tributaries category). Each of the stream observations was input into (see fig. 27 for stream locations). During the field survey, a a geographic information system (GIS) database (fig. 27). few wetland areas were observed that were not documented in Though this sample of stream observations is biased the NWI or SSURGO. Most of these sites were just upstream toward smaller streams, which are more easily crossed and and downstream from ponds in narrow canyons and draws. thus have more bridges, these data could be used to map Site access and detailed vegetation surveys would be needed, perennial streams or to delineate areas for more focused however, for confirmation and documentation of these possible spring inventories. Nearly the entire lengths of Cobb Creek, additional wetlands. Sugar Creek, Cedar Creek, Deer Creek, Lake Creek, Willow Springs Inventory and Location of Wetlands 37

98°48’ 98°42’ 98°36’ 98°30’ 98°24’ 98°18’ 98°12’ 98°06’ 98°

Cody Fay 35°48’ 33 Altona

47 KINGFISHER COUNTY Thomas Greenfield 81 CUSTER BLAINE COUNTY Okarche 35°42’ COUNTY 3

54 270

Geary Karns Concho 35°36’ 58 270 Calumet Cheyenne and Dead Women Arapaho Agency Crossing (historical) Hydro CANADIAN COUNTY Weatherford 40 Bridgeport El Reno 40 35°30’ 281

Hinton

Powers

Niles C an a 54 d ian R 35°24’ iver 37 Corn 58 54A Scott

k 152 Colony e Sickles Lookeba e r 54B k C e e e r

l WASHITA i C Cogar

m e COUNTY e 37 k

v i Eakly a 152 Cowden L F Binger 35°18’ Junction Three-Way Corner 152

Spring Creek Cowden Swan 146 CADDO COUNTY

Lake S u Albert g

a S r p r Alfalfa C i n r 35°12’ e g e k C Dutton Gracemont r Pocasset e

e k GRADY 115 58 Nowhere COUNTY

81 Mountain 9 Fort 35°06’ View Cobb Washita Carnegie KIOWA Squaretop 62 Anadarko COUNTY Verden 115 62 Apache 8 Wye

Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection 0 3 6 9 12 15 MILES Frequently flooded soils from U.S. Department of Agrictulture North American Datum 1983 Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2013 0 3 6 9 12 15 KILOMETERS Wetland areas from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013 Streams from Horizon Systems Corporation, 2008

EXPLANATION

Frequently flooded soil Area not studied Freshwater emergent wetland Lake or reservoir Freshwater forested/shrub wetland Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary

Figure 28. Locations of wetlands and frequently flooded soils in and around the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Oklahoma. 38 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Potentiometric Surface and Regional System. The potentiometric altitudes were then assigned to the well locations and interpolated by using contours of equal Groundwater Flow, 2010 altitude. These contours represent the potentiometric surface for the date measured. The shallowest groundwater table Water levels measured from wells completed in the Rush in this aquifer is assumed to be connected to the streams; Springs aquifer can be used to construct a potentiometric- therefore, point altitudes along streams were obtained from surface map in the Rush Springs aquifer and to infer a USGS 10-meter (3.3-ft) digital elevation model and were directions of groundwater flow. A potentiometric surface is used to interpolate the potentiometric surface. Groundwater the level at which water rises in a tightly cased well. Multiple flows from areas of high potentiometric altitudes to areas of potentiometric surfaces can be present in an aquifer. The low potentiometric altitudes perpendicular to contour lines. potentiometric surface measured in wells for this report was Thus, potentiometric contours can be used to infer regional intended to represent the shallowest water table in connection groundwater-flow directions in the aquifer. with the atmosphere through pore spaces in the rocks that The potentiometric-surface map for July 2010 indicates make up the Rush Springs aquifer. that groundwater in the northern part of Caddo County flows Water levels were measured synoptically in 29 wells regionally from north to south and discharges to streams that completed in the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County flow into Fort Cobb Reservoir (fig. 29). Regional groundwater and the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area (fig. 29). flow in the southern part of Caddo County is mostly towards Most of the wells were used for domestic purposes and were the Washita River, but some flow is to the southeast where completed at depths less than 200 ft below land surface. groundwater discharges to other streams leaving the aquifer Water levels were also measured in a few irrigation wells boundaries. Regional groundwater in the northeastern part of with completion depths of approximately 300–400 ft. Water Caddo County flows toward the south, where groundwater levels were measured monthly starting in July 2010 and discharges to tributaries of Sugar Creek. Similar regional flow ending in January 2011. Water levels measured in wells were patterns are seen in the January 2011 potentiometric-surface converted to the potentiometric surface by subtracting the map (fig. 30), but potentiometric altitudes are lower than those water level from a land-surface altitude measured to the North in the July 2010 map (fig. 29). American Vertical Datum of 1988 using a Global Positioning Springs Inventory and Location of Wetlands 39

98°40’ 98°20’ 98°

BLAINE COUNTY

1,450 eek Cr CUSTER COUNTY e 1,500 il 1,531.1 m 1,550 r k 1,580.73 u e ek 1,566.13 o e e 1,600 F r r C C CANADIAN COUNTY

r p y a

e G

k e 1,520.5 C e 1,500 an r adi C an 1,533.35 R e i e v f 1,50 e f 1,450 0 r o 1,450.24 C 1,414.02 1,519.18 35°20’ Fisher 1,400 Creek k 1,512.22 1,491.77 e C 1,408.99 re ob C b

ry C l 1,500 r 1,350 va e a e 1,470.01 C k

WASHITA COUNTY 1,450 1,300.05 1,400 Fort Cobb 1,260.77 Reservoir 1,373.54

1,400 Sugar Creek

1,395.42 I o k n e i n e 1,350 1,407.04 r e

1,351.73 C t

r l

e a

Oak Cr 1,300 ek S ee Lake k Chickasha 1,2501,298.47 ver Ri 1,300 a it h 1,394.97 s a

S Line Creek 1,350 W t 1,331.85 i

i n 1,354.21 g 1,200 GRADY COUNTY C 1,296.03

35° r e 1,400 e 1,250 KIOWA COUNTY k CADDO COUNTY 1,350 1,300 1,400 1,350.56 50 ,4 1 1,438.1 1,430.1 Mission Creek 1,304.97

Boggy

Creek 1,350 1,250 1,400 1,200 K eek e Cr tc ny COMANCHE COUNTY h To C r e 1,150 e k

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection 0 5 10 15 20 MILES Geology from Heran and others (2003) North American Datum of 1983 0 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

OKLAHOMA Rush Springs aquifer surface exposure

Rush Springs aquifer Caddo Nation Tribal Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary Jurisdictional Area Map area 1,150 Potentiometric contour—Shows altitude at which water level would have stood in tightly cased wells, July 2010. Contour interval 50 feet. Dashed where approximately located. Datum is North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)

Groundwater-flow direction 1,304.97 Well and July 2010 water-level altitude, in feet above NAVD 88

Figure 29. The potentiometric surface of the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County, Oklahoma, July 2010. 40 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

98°40’ 98°20’ 98°

1,450 BLAINE COUNTY

eek Cr CUSTER COUNTY e il m 1,500 r k u e ek 1,582.34 1,550 o e e F r r C C CANADIAN COUNTY

r p y a 1,566.33 e G

k 1,519.89 1,421.88 e C e an r adi C an 1,533.38 R e 1,500 iv e e f 1,500 1,500 f 1,518.8 r o C 1,450.01 1,414.04

35°20’ 1,450 Fisher Creek 1,491.37 k 1,408.75 e C re ob C b C ry 1,450 l 1,500 r va e a e C k 1,400 WASHITA COUNTY 1,470.11 1,350 1,298.86 Fort Cobb 1,260.86 Reservoir 1,372.94

1,395.32 Sugar Creek I o 1,405.85 k n e i n e 1,351.69 r e

C t

r l

e a

Oak Cr 1,300 ek S ee 1,297.61 1,331.81 Lake k Chickasha

ver Ri a 1,300 it h s 1,350 1,394.56 a

S Line Creek W t 1,330.79

i n 1,285.33 k

i n 1,200 g 1,352.55 GRADY COUNTY C

35° r 1,250

e k 1,300 KIOWA COUNTY CADDO COUNTY 1,395.43 1,350

1,347.91 1,400 1,436.27 n Creek Missio 1,418.64 1,400 1,304.16

Boggy 1,350 1,250 Creek

1,300 1,200 K eek e Cr tc ny COMANCHE COUNTY h To C r e e k

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection 0 5 10 15 20 MILES Geology from Heran and others (2003) North American Datum of 1983 0 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

OKLAHOMA Rush Springs aquifer surface exposure

Rush Springs aquifer Caddo Nation Tribal Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area boundary Jurisdictional Area Map area 1,300 Potentiometric contour—Shows altitude at which water level would have stood in tightly cased wells, January 2011. Contour interval 50 feet. Dashed where approximately located. Datum is North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)

Groundwater-flow direction 1,418.64 Well and January 2011 water-level altitude, in feet above NAVD 88

Figure 30. The potentiometric surface of the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County, Oklahoma, January 2011. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 41

Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, well 350748098231101 near Gracemont, Okla., decreased approximately 3 ft from October 2010 to June 2013 (fig. 31). 2010–13 The groundwater level in USGS well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Okla., decreased approximately 10 ft from October Groundwater-level monitors recorded fluctuations in 2010 to June 2013 (fig. 32). USGS well 351308098341601 the water table that can be caused by nearby pumping and near Alfalfa, Okla., was monitored prior to October 2010, changes from evapotranspiration and increasing or decreasing and historical water levels indicated that the groundwater barometric pressure. Multiple wells with groundwater-level level in that well decreased approximately 34 ft from August monitors can be used to determine aquifer-wide effects to 1948 to June 2013 (fig. 33). The groundwater level in USGS water-table altitudes from causes such as variations in climate well 351727098290401 Core 2 decreased approximately and water use. 13 ft from October 2010 to June 2013 (fig. 34). USGS well Groundwater levels were recorded every 30 minutes 351727098290401 Core 2 was monitored prior to October in five wells by use of Level TROLL 500 vented pressure 2010, and the groundwater level was 77 ft below land surface transducers and data collection platforms with real-time in December 1989 and rose and declined several times to transmitting equipment in each well (fig. 1). These five wells 86 ft below land surface in June 2013 in that well (fig. 35). were completed in the Rush Springs aquifer and ranged The groundwater level in USGS well 352423098341701 near in depth from 210–350 ft below land surface (table 6). Eakly, Okla., decreased approximately 7 ft from October Groundwater-level measurements were transmitted in real 2010 to June 2013 (fig. 36). USGS well 352423098341701 time to the USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) near Eakly, Okla., was monitored prior to October 2010, and database (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013). Groundwater levels historical water levels show that the groundwater level in that measured by the vented pressure transducers were checked well decreased from about 58 ft below land surface to 75 ft and corrected with groundwater levels measured with an below land surface from 1965 to 1986 and then rose to 56 ft electric tape at least every other month or when errors were below land surface in October 2010 (fig. 37). The groundwater noticed in the real-time data online. level in USGS well 352802098191601 near Hinton, Okla., Groundwater levels in the five wells in the Rush Springs declined approximately 2 ft from October 2010 to June 2013 aquifer generally decreased during the period October 2010 (fig. 38). to June 2013 (figs. 31–38). The groundwater level in USGS

Table 6. Real-time continuous groundwater-level monitoring wells in the area underlain by the Rush Springs aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013.

Well Well Station depth identifier name (feet) 350748098231101 08N-11W-32 BBA 1 Gracemont 350 351308098341601 09N-13W-28 DDD 1 Alfalfa GW Well 335 351727098290401 10N-12W-32 DDD 1, Core 2 GW Well 257 352423098341701 11N-13W-21 DDD 1 Eakly GW Well 210 352802098191601 12N-11W-36 CCA 1 Hinton 225 42 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

46 e a c

f 47 r u s

d a n l

w o l e b

e 48 e f

n i

, r e a t w

o t

h t

p 49 e D

51 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 31. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 350748098231101 near Gracemont, Oklahoma, October 2010– June 2013. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 43

60 No data

62 e a c f r u s

d 64 a n l

w o l e b

t e e f

n 66 i

, r e a t w

o t

h t 68 p e D

2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 32. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013. 44 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

20 e a c f r u s

d 30 a n l

w o l e b

t e e f

40 n i

, r e a t w

o t

h 50 t p

e No data No data D

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year

Figure 33. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Oklahoma, August 1948–June 2013. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 45

70 e a c f r u s

d a n

l 75

w o l e b

t e e f

n i

, r e

a t 80 w

o t

h t p e D

90 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 34. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351727098290401 Core 2, October 2010–June 2013. 46 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

70 e a c f r u s 75 d a n l

w o l e b

e 80 e f

n i

, r e a t w

o 85 t

h t p e D

100 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Year

Figure 35. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 351727098290401 Core 2, December 1989–June 2013. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 47

e 58 a c f r u s

a n 59 l

w o l e b

e 60 e f

n i

, r e

a t 61 w

o t

h t p e

D 62

65 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 36. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352423098341701 near Eakly, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013. 48 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

No data e a c f

r 60 u s

d a n l

w o l e b

e 65 e f

n i

, r e a t w

o t

h t

p 70 e D

No data

80 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 9 5 0 0 5 1 0 1 5 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0

Year

Figure 37. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352423098341701 near Eakly, Oklahoma, April 1965–June 2013. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 49

76.5

77 e a c f r u s 77.5 d a n l

w o l e b

e 78 e f

n i

, r e a t w

o 78.5 t

h t p e D

79.5

80 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 38. Groundwater levels measured in U.S. Geological Survey well 352802098191601 near Hinton, Oklahoma, October 2010–June 2013. 50 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

During the summer months of 2011 and 2012, declining in October 2011. Groundwater levels measured in USGS water levels were measured in USGS well 351308098341601 well 352423098341701 near Eakly, Okla. (fig. 36), started near Alfalfa, Okla. (fig. 32), USGS well 351727098290401 to decline in May 2011 and began to recover in November Core 2 (fig. 34), and USGS well 352423098341701 near 2011. Similar decline and recovery patterns were observed Eakly, Okla. (fig. 36), which probably were caused by lack in 2012 for groundwater levels measured in USGS well of precipitation (fig. 39) and increased withdrawals from 352423098341701 near Eakly, Okla. Decreasing groundwater the aquifer. There were periods of increased precipitation levels in these three wells during the summer months, along from October to December 2011, March to June 2012, and with the steady decline in groundwater levels in USGS well August to September 2012 (fig. 39). Water levels in USGS 350748098231101 near Gracemont, Okla. (fig. 31), and well 351308098341601 near Alfalfa, Okla., started to decline USGS well 352802098191601 near Hinton, Okla. (fig. 38), in May 2011. The timing of water-level recovery of this indicate that more water was flowing out of the groundwater well is difficult to determine because water levels continued system than into the groundwater system from October to decline into the next year (2012), but the rate of decline 2010 to June 2013. Groundwater levels measured in these decreased from November 2011 to April 2012. Groundwater five wells indicate that there was a negative change in levels measured in USGS well 351727098290401 Core 2 storage in the Rush Springs aquifer from October 2010 to (fig. 34) began to decline in May 2011 and began to recover June 2013.

EXPLANATION Fort Cobb

6 Hinton October 2010–May 2013 year moving average (Fort Cobb) October 2010–May 2013 year moving average (Hinton)

5 h t n o m

r e p

4 s e h c n i

n i

, n o i 3 a t t i p i c e r P

0 2011 2012 2013 y y y July 2011 July 2012 M a M a M a April 2013 June 2011 June 2012 April 2011 April 2012 March 2011 March 2012 March 2013 August 2011 August 2012 October 2010 October 2011 October 2012 January 2011 January 2012 January 2013 February 2011 February 2012 February 2013 November 2010 December 2010 November 2011 December 2011 November 2012 December 2012 September 2011 September 2012 Month and year

Figure 39. Monthly precipitation for Hinton and Fort Cobb Mesonet Stations (see fig. 1 for locations), Oklahoma, October 2010–May 2013. Groundwater-Level Fluctuations, 2010–13 51

A recording barometer was put in the gage house of the the unconfined part of the Rush Springs aquifer has a high USGS well 352802098191601 near Hinton, Okla., to monitor barometric efficiency (fig. 40). This change in groundwater barometric pressure for comparison to groundwater levels levels because of changes in barometric pressure also was measured in that well during February and March 2013, described by Tanaka and Davis (1963). Groundwater levels when evapotranspiration would be minimal to none (fig. 40). in unconfined parts of the Rush Springs aquifer rise quickly Hourly fluctuations in groundwater levels throughout each with a decrease in barometric pressure and fall quickly with day, as shown in figures 31–38, were primarily caused by an increase in barometric pressure. The confined part of the increasing or decreasing barometric pressure. Groundwater Rush Springs aquifer probably would respond differently to levels were monitored by using a vented pressure transducer changes in barometric pressure and would have a relatively to account for changes in groundwater levels in each well low barometric efficiency. Response caused by barometric with increasing or decreasing barometric pressure. The pressure needs to be considered when evaluating hourly to fact that these groundwater levels were measured with daily changes in groundwater levels, which also can be caused vented pressure transducers and that the groundwater levels by evapotranspiration, nearby pumping, or local recharge responded to changes in barometric pressure indicates that (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).

78.9 32.8

EXPLANATION 79 Water Level 32.6 Barometric pressure

79.1

32.4 e r e a c f

79.2 a t r w u

f s

d t e a n l e

32.2 f

w 79.3 n i o

l , e e r b

u t s e s e f e

n 79.4 p r i

32 , c l i r e t v e e l

m r o e 79.5 a r a t B W 31.8

79.6

31.6 79.7

79.8 31.4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / / / / / / / / 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 / 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Date

Figure 40. Groundwater levels monitored with a vented pressure transducer and barometric pressure at U.S. Geological Survey well 352702098191601 near Hinton, Oklahoma, showing barometric efficiency typical of the unconfined part of the Rush Springs aquifer. 52 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Summary determine a flux velocity. This flux velocity represented the measured flow rate across the stream/alluvium interface. Streamflows, springs, and wetlands are important natural Volumetric flow rates and flux velocities varied with location and cultural resources to the Caddo Nation. Consequently, the and time. At the Cobb Creek at Highway 152 (Oklahoma State Caddo Nation is concerned about the vulnerability of the Rush Highway 152) and Willow Creek at 1230 Road sites, negative Springs aquifer to overdrafting and whether the aquifer will flux velocities were measured, indicating flow of water from continue to be a viable source of water to tribal members and the stream to the alluvium (losing) ranging from 0.003 to other local residents in the future. The U.S. Geological Survey 0.140 ft/d. At the Cobb Creek at 1150 Road near Colony (USGS), in cooperation with the Caddo Nation, the Bureau and Lake Creek at 1160 Road sites, positive flux velocities of Indian Affairs, and the Bureau of Reclamation, initiated a were measured, indicating water flow from the alluvium to multiyear study to provide information and tools to assist with the stream (gaining) ranging from 0.005 to 0.039 ft/d. At management and protection of water resources in the Caddo the Fivemile Creek at 1170 Road site, positive and negative Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area and to help develop a Caddo flux velocities were measured in the streambed. The vertical Nation comprehensive water plan. hydraulic conductivity (Kv) using Darcy’s law ranged from This report provides information on the evaluation of 0.1 to 13 ft/d for all sites. The vertical hydraulic conductivities groundwater and surface-water resources in the Caddo Nation determined using Darcy’s law were similar to the streambed Tribal Jurisdictional Area, and in particular, information that hydraulic conductivities estimated from the slug tests, using a describes the hydraulic connection between the Rush Springs ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1, that ranged from 0.1 ft/d to 8.6 ft/d. aquifer and springs and streams overlying the aquifer. This The groundwater and surface-water interaction data report also includes data and analyses of base flow, evidence collected at streamflow-gaging station 07325800 (Cobb Creek for groundwater and surface-water interactions, locations of near Eakly, Okla.) showed that the bedrock groundwater, springs and wetland areas, groundwater flows interpreted from alluvial groundwater, and surface-water resources were potentiometric-surface maps, and hydrographs of water levels in hydraulic connection in the study area. Because of this monitored in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area. hydrologic connection, large perennial streams in the Flow in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, study area may change from gaining to losing streams in on average, were composed of 50 percent base flow for the summer. The timing and extent of this change may most years. Monthly mean base flow appeared to maintain be influenced by regional withdrawal of groundwater for streamflows throughout each year, but periods of zero flow irrigation in the summer growing season. Irrigation wells were documented in the daily hydrographs for most sites, placed closer to streams were likely to cause a greater and typically in the summer months, indicating that these streams more immediate effect on alluvial groundwater levels and were not always perennial and were affected by longer periods stream stages than wells placed farther from streams. Large- of no precipitation. Other potential causes in the decline of capacity irrigation wells, even those completed hundreds of streamflow during the summer are water use and evaporation feet below land surface in the bedrock aquifer, can induce from streams and withdrawals from the Rush Springs aquifer surface-water flow from nearby streams by lowering alluvial or from the overlying alluvial aquifer. groundwater levels below the stream altitude. A pneumatic slug-test technique was used at 15 sites to Documentation of springs and wetlands is important determine the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of streambed because these areas mark the intersection of groundwater with sediments in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer. surface water and are therefore good indicators of change Converting horizontal hydraulic conductivities (Kh) from the in the hydrologic system. When groundwater levels fall as a slug-test analyses to vertical hydraulic conductivities (Kv) by result of less than normal precipitation, such as during 2011, using a ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1 indicates that vertical hydraulic springs may stop discharging water, and wetland areas may conductivity in the streambed sediments overlying the Rush dry up. Spring and wetland inventories were conducted in a Springs aquifer ranged from 0.1 to 8.6 feet per day (ft/d). 2011–12 field survey of the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional A hydraulic potentiomanometer was used in the Area, and precipitation had been below normal in 2011. streambed sediments and the stream at the same 15 sites Twenty-five springs visible from public roads and paths were at which slug tests were done to determine the direction of documented during that survey. Two of these springs were water flow and the magnitude of hydraulic gradients between in Red Rock Canyon State Park. Most of the springs were surface water and groundwater. At 6 of the 15 sites, direction in upland draws on the flanks of a topographic ridge that of water flow was from the streambed sediments to the stream trends southeast from Weatherford to Anadarko. This ridge (gaining), and the magnitude of the hydraulic-head gradient is believed to coincide with a groundwater divide separating ranged from 0.003 to 0.323. At the nine sites with direction groundwater flow between the Sugar Creek and Cobb Creek of water flow from the stream to the streambed sediments surface-water drainage systems. All of the 25 springs were (losing), hydraulic-head gradients ranged from 0.004 to 0.076. flowing at the time of the field survey, but none of the springs The flux of water across the stream/alluvium interface were discharging enough water to obtain accurate discharge was measured directly at five locations by using seepage measurements. All documented springs were estimated to meters. The change in water volume in a collector bag was be discharging less than 1 cubic foot per second. Wetlands divided by the area of the storage drum to normalize and were identified primarily by using a combination of data References 53 sources. Two wetland classes are common in the study area Butler, J.J., Jr., 2002, A simple correction for slug tests (1,153.73 square miles [mi2]): freshwater emergent wetlands, in small-diameter wells: Ground Water, v. 40, no. 3, which comprise 3.34 mi2 (0.29 percent of the study area), and p. 303–307. freshwater forested/shrub wetlands, which comprise 13.37 mi2 (1.16 percent of the study area). Darcy, Henry, 1856, Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Groundwater levels were measured in 29 wells Dijon: Dalmont, Paris, 647 p., and atlas. completed in the Rush Springs aquifer in Caddo County and Fellows, C.R., and Brezonik, P.L., 1980, Seepage flow into the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area. Groundwater Florida lakes: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 16, no. 4, levels were measured monthly starting in July 2010 and p. 635–641. ending in January 2011. The potentiometric-surface map for July 2010 indicates that regional groundwater flow in the Freeman, L.A., Carpenter, M.C., Rosenberry, D.O., Rousseau, northern part of Caddo County was from north to south and J.P., Unger, Randy, and McLean, J.S., 2004, Use of that groundwater discharged to streams that flow into Fort submersible pressure transducers in water-resources Cobb Reservoir. Regional groundwater flow in the southern investigations: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of part of Caddo County was mostly toward the Washita River, Water-Resources Investigations, book 8, chap. A3, 65 p. but some groundwater flow was to the southeast, where some groundwater discharged to other streams flowing past the Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: aquifer boundaries. In the northeastern part of Caddo County, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 604 p. groundwater flowed to the south, where it discharged to tributaries of Sugar Creek. Similar regional flow patterns were Heran, W.D., Green, G.N., and Stoeser, D.B., 2003, A digital measured in January 2011, but potentiometric altitudes were geologic map database for the State of Oklahoma: U.S. lower in January 2011 than in July 2010. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2003–247, 12 digital Groundwater levels were measured every 30 minutes in geologic maps. five wells by using a vented pressure transducer and a data- collection platform with real-time transmitting equipment Hinsby, Klaus, Bjerg, P.L., Andersen, L.J., Skov, Bent, in each well. These five wells ranged in depth from 210 and Clausen, E.V., 1992, A mini-slug test method for to 350 feet below land surface. Groundwater levels in the determination of a local hydraulic conductivity of an five wells completed in the Rush Springs aquifer generally unconfined sandy aquifer: Journal of Hydrology, v. 136, decreased from October 2010 to June 2013. Three wells with p. 87–106. decreasing groundwater levels during the summer months Horizon Systems Corporation, 2008, National Hydrography and the steady decline in water levels indicated that more Dataset Plus Version 1 (NHDPlusV1): Horizon Systems water flowed from the groundwater system than flowed into Corporation, accessed November 13, 2008, at http://www. the groundwater system from October 2010 to June 2013. horizon-systems.com/nhdplus/. Groundwater levels in these five wells indicated a negative change in storage in the Rush Springs aquifer from October Hyder, Zafar, Butler, J.J., Jr., McElwee, C.D., and Liu, 2010 to June 2013 because of a lack of precipitation and Wenzhi, 1994, Slug tests in partially penetrating wells: withdrawals from the aquifer. Water Resources Research, v. 30, no. 11, p. 2945–2957.

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Becker, M.F., and Runkle, D.L., 1998, Hydrogeology, water Meinzer, O.E., 1923, Outline of ground-water hydrology, with quality, and geochemistry of the Rush Springs aquifer, definitions: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper western Oklahoma: U.S. Geological Survey Water- 494, 71 p. Resources Investigations Report 98–4081, 37 p. National Agriculture Statistics Service, 2013, County Boggs, Sam, Jr., 2001, Principles of sedimentology and estimates: U.S. Department of Agriculture, accessed stratigraphy (3d ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, December 4, 2013, at http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_ Prentice Hall, 726 p. by_State/Oklahoma/Publications/County_Estimates/index. Bouwer, Herman, 1989, The Bouwer and Rice slug test—An asp. update: Ground Water, v. 27, no. 3, p. 304–309. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2012, Bouwer, Herman, and Rice, R.C., 1976, A slug test method for Precipitation data from Oklahoma Climate Division 7 determining hydraulic conductivity of unconfined aquifers Southwest: National Climatic Data Center, accessed with completely or partially penetrating wells: Water June 19, 2012, at http://www7.ncdc.noaa.gov/CDO/ Resources Research, v. 12, no. 3, p. 423–428. CDODivisionalSelect.jsp. 54 Evaluation of Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area

Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry, Tortorelli, R.L., 2009, Water use in Oklahoma 1950–2005: 2012, Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics 2012, 80 p. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5212, 49 p. Oklahoma Mesonet, 2013, Oklahoma Climatological Survey, Daily data retrieval, accessed June 18, 2013, at http://www. U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency, 2013, mesonet.org/index.php/weather/daily_data_retrieval. National Agriculture Imagery Program: Aerial Photography Field Office, accessed January 30, 2013, athttp://www.fsa. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, 2013, Water well record usda.gov/FSA/apfoapp?area=home&subject=prog&topic= search: accessed November 26, 2013, at http://www.owrb. nai. ok.gov/wd/search/search.php?type=wl. U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Rosenberry, D.O., and LaBaugh, J.W., 2008, Field techniques Conservation Service, 2006, Watershed Boundary Dataset for estimating water fluxes between surface water and (WBD): Natural Resources Conservation Service, accessed ground water: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and January 30, 2006, at http://www.ncgc.nrcs.usda.gov/ Methods 4–D2, 128 p. products/datasets/Watershed/. Rus, D.L., McGuire, V.L., Zurbuchen, B.R., and Zlotnik, V.A., U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources 2001, Vertical profiles of streambed hydraulic conductivity Conservation Service, 2013, Digital soil map of U.S.: determined using slug tests in central and western Nebraska: accessed January 30, 2013, at http://datagateway.nrcs.usda. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations gov/. Report 2001–4212, 32 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013, National Wetlands Rutledge, A.T., 1998, Computer programs for describing the Inventory: Ecological Services, accessed January 31, 2013, recession of ground-water discharge and for estimating at http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/data/. mean ground-water recharge and discharge from streamflow records—Update: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources U.S. Geological Survey, 2013, USGS water use data for Investigations Report 98–4148, 43 p. Oklahoma, National Water Information System: U.S. Geological Survey, accessed January 31, 2013, at Springer, R.K., and Gelhar, L.W., 1991, Characterization of http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ok/nwis/wu. large-scale aquifer heterogeneity in glacial outwash by analysis of slug tests with oscillatory response, Cape Cod, Zlotnik, V.A., 1994, Interpretation of slug and packer tests Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources in anisotropic aquifers: Ground Water, v. 32, no. 5, Investigations Report 91–4034, p. 36–40. p. 761–766. Tanaka, H.H., and Davis, L.V., 1963, Ground-water resources Zlotnik, V.A., and McGuire, V.L., 1998, Multi-level slug tests of the Rush Springs Sandstone in the Caddo County area, in highly permeable formations—1. Modification of the Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular 61, Springer-Gelhar (SG) model: Journal of Hydrology, v. 204, 33 p. no. 1, p. 271–282.

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