Overview of Water and Related Resources Part 2

Natural Resource & Socioeconomic Characteristics n almost endless array of environmental and socioeconomic characteristics -- including climate, geography, geology, minerals, soils, agriculture, wildlife, recreation, archeology, commerce population and employment -- which affect the current and future availability and use of Oklahoma’s surface and groundwater supplies. A CLIMATE Climate, along with geography, has a profound influence on water resources and hydrologic characteristics in Oklahoma, which lies across two divergent climatic regions. The state’s relatively long distance from the moderating effect of the oceans and an absence of mountains to the north often allows cold arctic winds to reach Oklahoma during the winter, which is normally short and mild. In the spring, large thunderstorms develop when warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico converges with colder northern, humid eastern and dry western air masses, often producing tornadoes and large hail. Summers in Oklahoma are usually long and hot, punctuated by droughts of varying degree and duration. Fall, though often wet, normally features mild days and cool nights. May ranks as the wettest month while January is the driest. Annual rainfall (Figure 7) varies from more than 50 inches in the relatively warm and humid pine forests of the Ouachita Mountains in southeast Oklahoma to approximately 16 inches in the high plains of the western Panhandle where warm days and cool nights predomi- nate. The state-averaged precipitation is 33.5 inches. The temperatures in Oklahoma (Figure 8) vary from approximately 54 to 62 degrees Fahrenheit from west to east with a state average of 60.5 degrees. Average snowfall accumulations range from less than five inches in the southeast to 25 inches in the northwest and Panhandle. The growing season, defined as the period between the average date of the latest freeze in the spring and the first freeze in the fall, ranges from 170 days in the Panhandle to 240 days in south central Oklahoma. Official records show an all-time low annual rainfall total of 6.53 inches at Regnier in Cimarron County (1956) while, one year later, the record high of 84.47 inches was recorded at Kiamichi Tower in LeFlore County. High temperature readings of 120 degrees mark the official record at several reporting stations (Altus, Alva and Poteau, 1936; Tishomingo, 1943; and Tipton, 1994) while minus 27 degrees occupies the record low at Watts (1930) and Vinita (1905). Only Texas, Kansas and Iowa report more tornado sightings than does Oklahoma. Although they can occur at any time, tornados most often appear during the spring months of April and May moving along cold fronts from the southwest to northeast. From 1950 to 1992, Oklahoma County has had the most tornado occurrences (72), followed by Kay (70) and Caddo (69). Flooding has plagued Oklahomans throughout history, with the most frequent and damaging events occurring in the east. Some of the early catastrophic flooding events which affected Oklahoma, such as those in 1912 and 1913, occurred when the Mississippi River overran its banks. During the 1923 flood, the North Canadian River breached Lake Overholser Dam, inundating much of Oklahoma City. Perhaps the most widespread flood in modern Oklahoma history occurred in 1957. Virtually all railroad and highway bridges in the Cimarron River Basin were damaged or destroyed and hundreds of thousands of acres of agricultural land was inundated throughout the state.

37 As Oklahoma developed, flood losses $180 million were incurred as a result of curred at the end of the century and again grew. The years between 1955 and 1975, the 1984 Memorial Day flood. in 1910 and 1919. However, utilizing data during which the state suffered some $167 Like other southern Great Plains states, gathered from long-term streamflow mea- billion in flood losses, were punctuated by Oklahoma has scorched under extended surement stations established in the 1920’s the Enid flood of 1973 that caused $78 periods of drought. While determination and 30’s, the U.S. Geological Survey has million in damages and took nine lives. The of the onset and conclusion of drought is identified four major droughts in Oklaho- City of Tulsa, a community ravaged by reg- a rather subjective undertaking, the most ma history. The initial episode, which last- ular flooding, experienced one of the worst serious episodes seem to impact the state ed from 1929 to 1941, is probably the most natural disasters in state history when 14 in approximate 20-year cycles. Notable notable due to the major soil damage and lives were lost and damages in excess of among them were the dry years that oc- wind erosion which resulted during the

Figure 7 AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION 1961-1990 (In Inches) 16 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42

16 44 16 18 20 22 46

46 44 44 46 48 50 52

24 26 28 52 30 Source: Oklahoma Climatological Survey 32 46 48 50 34 38 40 44 36 42

Figure 8 MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE 1951-1980 (In Degrees Fahrenheit) 54 55 56 57 58 58

54 55 58 56 57

58 59

59 60

60

61

62 61 63 Source: Oklahoma Climatological Survey 63 62

38 Figure 9 AVERAGE ANNUAL RUNOFF 1951-1980 (In Inches) 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.1

0.1 0.2 0.3 12

14 15

15 14 0.5 14 16 18 20

1 20 2 18 14 3 5 6 91012 15 Source: U.S. Geological Survey 4 7 8

Figure 10 AVERAGE ANNUAL LAKE EVAPORATION 1961-1990 (In Inches) 68 64 60 56 52

68 64

48

60 Source: Oklahoma Climatological Survey 56 48 52

“Dust Bowl” period. The 1951-57 drought A study of drought conditions in Okla- weather in eastern Oklahoma and the was less severe but more widespread, homa from 1931 to 1971 indicate that normal shortage of rainfall in the west. prompting many Oklahoma communities drought occurred somewhere in the The state’s abnormal rainfall pattern, to improve and enlarge their water sup- state 51 percent of the time, more fre- coupled with evaporation enhanced by plies. The entire state was again affected quently in the Panhandle and less fre- strong winds and percolation of water by the 1961-72 drought, although it was quently in northeast and south central into the ground, results in an average temporarily interrupted by a brief period areas. Eastern Oklahoma experienced annual runoff of .20 to 20 inches from of above average streamflow. The latest, short periods of drought, while the Pan- west to east, respectively (Figure 9). Run- and relatively least severe, drought oc- handle averaged longer dry periods, off, a measure of the amount of precipi- curred from about 1975 to 1982. again emphasizing the variability of tation that flows over the surface, is the 39 Figure 11 PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS

High Plains Gypsum Hills Wichita Mountain Redbed Plains Arbuckle Mountains Sandstone Hills Prairie Plains Ozark Plateau Ouachita Mountains Red River Plains

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

most telling factor regarding water avail- southeastward slope of 12 feet per mile lands; savannahs and woodlands; and for- ability. Evaporation (Figure 10) and per- in some areas. The altitude drops almost ests. A mixed-grass prairie covers most of colation preclude immediate use of ap- 3,000 feet from the summit of Black Mesa western Oklahoma, which has been culti- proximately 80 percent of Oklahoma’s to western Woodward County, where it vated into one of the most productive water. Average annual lake evaporation begins to level off somewhat to the south- wheat-producing regions in the world. ranges from 48 inches in the extreme east east corner of McCurtain County. Resis- While most of the Panhandle is shortgrass to 65 inches in the southwest, numbers tant rock masses have been folded, fault- prairie, areas in the extreme west feature that far exceed the average yearly rainfall ed and thrust upward to form the state’s vegetation more commonly found in rug- in those areas. Despite an often crucial three principal mountain systems -- the ged plateau areas characteristic of the need for water in the semi-arid west and Wichita Mountains in the southwest, the American west. Tall grasses are common significant development of surface sourc- Arbuckle Mountains in south central Okla- in the north and east. Savannahs and es in the humid east, an estimated 34 mil- homa, and the Ouachita Mountains in the woodlands, which include the Cross Tim- lion acre-feet of unused water flows out southeast. Sugar Loaf Mountain, eight bers, are found throughout Oklahoma, of the state each year through Oklaho- miles west of Poteau, represents the high- except in the Ouachita Mountains and ma’s two major river basins. est relief in Oklahoma as it rises some Ozark Plateau. 2,000 feet above the surrounding plains. Approximately one-fifth of Oklahoma’s GEOGRAPHY Southeast Oklahoma is marked by total land area is forested, especially in the From northwest to southeast, the Okla- pine and mixed forests, but other large east where rainfall is abundant and the homa topography slopes gently (about five portions of the east are covered with rugged topography is not conducive to feet per mile) while vegetation thickens as hardwoods. A broad area of primarily most agricultural uses. State forests con- the country-side changes from semi-arid oak forest, known as the “Cross Timbers,” tain 144 species of native trees with varied plains to woodlands and mountains. Ele- dominates a substantial section of cen- species reflecting the state’s considerable vations range from 4,973 feet on Black tral Oklahoma. Between these wooded geographic range. Varieties include short Mesa, the three-mile-long remnant of a ba- areas and west of the Cross Timbers lie leafed and loblolly pine, sweet gum, pe- saltic lava flow in the northwest corner of regions of tall-grass prairie, most of can, cypress, mesquite, pinyon-juniper, the Panhandle, to 287 feet above sea level which have been converted to fertile several types of oak, cottonwood and wal- where the Little River enters Arkansas in farmland. As the land continues its up- nut. The Ouachita Mountains are home to the southeast. The state’s varied physiog- ward slope west of the Cross Timbers, the largest forested area in the state. raphy is presented in Figure 11. trees are less common and plains become In the early 1900’s, Oklahoma’s for- The High Plains of western Oklahoma the dominant feature. ests covered some 19 million acres, or 40 is actually a plateau region with a rela- The natural vegetation of Oklahoma percent of the state’s total land area. Since tively dramatic, though gentle, eastward/ can be divided into three major catego- that time, many forested areas have been ries. In order of abundance, they are grass- cleared for crop production and pasture- 40 land or have been inundated by large res- Eras. The Paleozoic strata, consisting prin- surface sloped down to the east and ervoirs. Although the amount of the state’s cipally of sandstone and shale, cover about southeast, extensive deposits of Tertiary land area covered by forests has dwin- 75 percent of the state and they are as sand and gravel were washed in by large dled considerably today, forests contin- much as 40,000 feet thick in some areas. rivers flowing eastward from the newly ue to provide substantial erosion control Most of the Panhandle region and some formed Rocky Mountains. and protect the quality of Oklahoma’s of western Oklahoma is covered by rocks The Quaternary Period through the water resources. They also supply vital of Tertiary age, represented in the Ogal- present is characterized by erosion. Rocks habitat for wildlife and enhance opportu- lala Formation. The oldest rocks in Okla- and loose sediment at the land surface nities for tourism and recreation. In addi- homa are the Precambrian granites and are being weathered to soil, then the soil tion, the forest industry contributes enor- rhyolites formed more than one billion particles are carried away to streams and mously to the state’s economy. years ago. Precambrian and Cambrian ig- rivers. In this way, hills and mountains According to data compiled for the neous and metamorphic rocks underlie are worn down and the sediment is either National Resources Inventory (1982-87), all of the state and provide the “floor” carried to the sea or at least temporarily Oklahoma has a total area of 44,771,700 upon which all younger rocks rest. deposited on the banks and in the bot- acres, with 43,964,600 land acres. This The three principal mountain belts - toms of rivers and lakes. land area includes 14,546,100 acres clas- - southern Oklahoma’s Ouachita, Ar- Oklahoma’s subsurface contains 10 sified as rangeland; 11,557,300 acres of buckle and Wichita Mountains -- were major geological provinces (Figure 12). cropland; 7,590,100 acres of pasture- formed by folding, faulting, and uplift The Northern Shelf Area, the state’s larg- land; 6,504,900 acres of forest land; and during the Pennsylvanian Period. North est province extending over most of north 926,300 acres of urban and built-up land. of these mountain uplifts lie the deep Oklahoma and the entire Panhandle, is Osage is the state’s largest county, cov- Anadarko and Arkoma basins, and still comprised of outcrops of sand, sandstone ering 2,251 square miles; Marshall Coun- farther north, the relatively undisturbed and shale, with a scattering of gypsum. ty, 371 square miles, is the smallest. Cima- shelf areas of Oklahoma. The Anadarko Basin, in the west central rron County, in the Panhandle, is the only Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of Okla- region, contains large deposits of gyp- county in the nation whose border is ad- homa were deposited in a mixture of ma- sum, shale and sandstone. jacent to four other states (Kansas, Colo- rine and non-marine environments. Shal- The Wichita Mountain Uplift is char- rado, New Mexico and Texas). low seas covered southern and western acterized by peaks of Cambrian gran- Oklahoma during some of the era’s Cre- ite and related igneous rocks that GEOLOGY taceous Period, resulting in the deposi- tower up to 1,100 feet above the sur- Most of the rocks that outcrop in Okla- tion of limestone and shale. rounding terrain. This province also homa are of sedimentary origin, consoli- Since the beginning of the Tertiary Pe- contains extensive outcrops of lime- dated from sediments deposited during riod, none of the state has been covered stone, sand and shale. The adjoining the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic by sea water. Because Oklahoma’s land Hollis Basin, in extreme southwest Okla-

Figure 12 MAJOR GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES

Northern Shelf Areas Anadarko Basin Wichita Mountain Uplift Hollis Basin Ardmore Basin Arbuckle Uplift Arkoma Basin Ouachita Mountain Uplift Ozark Uplift Gulf Costal Plain

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

41 homa, contains outcrops of gypsum, marily of limestone, sandstone and shale prised of shale, limestone, sandstone and shale and sandstone. while tightly folded sedimentary rock large deposits of sand. The state’s final The Ozark Uplift, which occupies types, Ordovician to Pennsylvanian in two geological provinces are located en- much of northeast Oklahoma, consists age, make up the adjacent Ouachita tirely within state boundaries in south- of deeply dissected Mississippian lime- Mountain Uplift. ern Oklahoma. The Arbuckle Uplift con- stone and cherts. The Arkoma Basin, in Along the Red River in southeastern tains primarily limestone and dolomite, the east central region, is comprised pri- Oklahoma, the Gulf Coastal Plain is com- Cambrian to Mississippian in age, along

Figure 13 MINERAL RESOURCES

Coal Glass Sand Granite Gypsum Lead and Zinc Limestone and Dolomite Salt

Asphalt Deposit Manganese Deposit

Bentonite Deposit Sand and Gravel Pit

Brick, Clay or Pottery Uranium Deposit Plant Volcanic Ash Cement Plant Dimension - Stone Quarry Chemical Plant Iron and/or Titanium Deposit Copper Deposit

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

Figure 14 PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS

Areas of Gas Production Giant Gas Field Giant Oil Field

Gas Processing Oil Refinery Petrochemical Plant

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

42 with sandstone, granite and gneiss. The and Delaware Counties. nation’s iodine needs. nearby Ardmore Basin consists of out- Coal is one of the primary resources crops of Mississippian, Pennsylvanian in an 8,000 square-mile area of eastern SOILS and Permian shales with sandstones and Oklahoma. Coal beds in this region Oklahoma soils are diverse, ranging thin limestones. range in thickness from one to eight feet from the rich limestone soils of the prai- while overall coal resources total ap- rie to alluvial soils of river valleys to thin proximately 7.2 billion tons. Thick se- MINERALS sandy and red clay soils. Seven of the elev- quences of salt underlie most of west- Oklahoma’s primary mineral resourc- en soil orders recognized in soil taxono- ern Oklahoma at depths of 30 feet to es are oil and gas, with a number of other my -- Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Incepti- more than 30,000 feet. An estimated 20 minerals produced on a smaller scale. sols, Mollisols, Ultisols and Vertisols -- are trillion tons of salt reserves remain vir- Reflecting the worldwide escalation of found inside the state’s borders (Figure tually untapped in the region. Current oil prices, the total value of mineral pro- salt production occurs at a single solar 15). Within orders, soils are subdivided duction in Oklahoma reached a record evaporation plant in Woods County. into groups, subgroups, families and, fi- $11 billion in 1983, compared to ap- Other resources produced in the state nally, into a soil series. In turn, soil series proximately $5.5 billion in 1993. About are dolomite, limestone, granite, sand are grouped into associations which oc- 95 percent of the 1993 value was de- and gravel, glass sand, gypsum, clays and cur in a defined proportional pattern or rived from the production of fossil fuels iodine. Dolomite and limestone deposits on a unique landscape whose character- while a wide variety of nonmetallic min- are located primarily in northeastern istics, such as climate, parent material and erals (such as granite, gypsum, iodine, Oklahoma and in the Arbuckle and Wich- natural vegetation, are similar. Oklahoma stone, sand and gravel) accounted for ita Mountains. Granite is quarried near soil surveys are made according to this the remaining five percent. Figure 13 Snyder and Granite in southwestern Okla- type of soil classification system. shows the general locations of mineral homa and near Mill Creek and Davis in Alfisols are found throughout much resources in Oklahoma. the Arbuckles. Sand and gravel pits are of the state but are most prevalent in Crude oil and natural gas (Figure located throughout the state. Glass sand, areas where surface organic matter is 14) are the leading mineral commod- used in the manufacture of high-purity low and precipitation is high enough to ities in the state. In the 17-year peri- glass, is produced in the south central re- develop subsoils with translocated od from 1977-94, Oklahoma pro- gion. Gypsum outcrops in the west yield clays. Aridisols are found only in the duced approximately 2.3 billion about 2.7 million tons of the mineral each western parts of the Panhandle region. barrels of oil valued at $51 billion and year. Oklahoma is the only domestic pro- These soils are usually shallow or very 33.5 trillion cubic feet of gas valued ducer of iodine; in 1993, the state’s three sandy and hold only small amounts of at $59 billion. Oil and/or natural gas iodine companies (located in northwest available plant water. have been produced in every county Oklahoma) produced about 2 million ki- Entisols are found throughout the in the state except Adair, Choctaw, lograms, approximately one-third of the state and are normally considered as

Figure 15 GENERALIZED SOILS

Alfisols Mollisols Utilols Inceptisols Vertisols Entisols Stony Rockland

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

43 Figure 16 AGRICULTURAL REGIONS

Wheat, Livestock, Grain Sorghum Cotton, Wheat, Livestock Cotton, Mixed Farming Mixed Farming, Livestock Range Grazing Lands

Source:Atlas of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University

“young” soils due to their position or stage ed cotton and wheat in the southwest yearly production, is centered primari- of development. They occur either as re- region, to the dairy and diversified farm- ly in the grassland area of northwest. cent depositional soils along floodplains ing of central Oklahoma and the timber The climate and long growing season or as shallow, slightly weathered soils on and small farm operations in the south- of the southwest (in excess of 210 days) slide slopes and summits of landscapes. east. The state’s generalized agricultur- promotes dominance of cotton and Inceptisols are soils where profiles have al regions are delineated in Figure 16. grain in that region. Mixed farming -- especially corn, peanuts and assorted shown only weak horizon development. A recent study by Oklahoma State vegetables, in addition to primary cot- While found statewide, the largest con- University measured the total econom- ton crops -- and livestock raising is a centrations occur in western Oklahoma. ic impact of agriculture -- the state’s second leading industry, next to petro- common source of supplemental in- Mollisols, Oklahoma’s most abundant come in the east. Rich soils and suffi- soil order, normally have thick, dark sur- leum and natural gas -- to be $6.1 bil- lion annually. Chief agricultural prod- cient water supplies support grasses in face horizons rich in organic matter. They range-grazing lands located through- ucts include beef cattle, sheep, hogs, are generally considered as grassland prai- out the state. poultry, milk, wheat, hay, sorghum and rie soils found in northern, central and other grains, peanuts and cotton. Okla- western Oklahoma. Ultisols, which occur homa is second in the nation in total WILDLIFE only in the warm, humid climate of east- wheat production, fourth in cattle/calf, Oklahoma’s diverse climate and ge- ern Oklahoma, are highly leached and fourth in pecans, seventh in peanuts ography is again reflected in the state’s generally have low natural fertility with and tenth in peaches. In 1994, the state wide variety of fish and wildlife species, relatively high acid content. Vertisols con- boasted more than 70,000 farms and as well as in their habitats. The abun- tain high shrink/swell clays that form deep ranches (only a very minor decrease dance of lakes, rivers, ponds, plains and cracks upon drying. They are found pri- from 1981) averaging 486 acres in size forestland provide excellent fishing and marily in prairie soil formed from lime- and covering some 34 million acres. As- hunting opportunities, as well as con- stones or in playa lakebeds in the Pan- sociated earnings for these operations siderable aesthetic benefits, which con- handle region. were approximately $1.2 billion while tribute significantly to the state’s repu- the average realized net income per tation as an outdoor haven for both AGRICULTURE farm was $18,540 in 1993. The aver- residents and visitors. In addition, out- Oklahoma agriculture is both rich and age age of farm workers is 55, accord- door activities enabled through the com- diverse, contributing significantly to the ing to the 1992 Agricultural Census, and prehensive management and preserva- state's economy. Agricultural products many supplement their primary incomes tion of the state’s fish and wildlife and activities range from cattle feed- with off-farm work. resources by the Oklahoma Department lots, ranches and large farms in the High The state’s wheat crop, which vies of Wildlife Conservation and U.S. Fish and Plains and Panhandle to heavily irrigat- with Kansas and North Dakota in total 44 Wildlife Service, in partnership with oth- gered Species Act, passed in 1973, trou- National Recreation Area at Sulphur, one er agencies and the public, add millions bled species in Oklahoma receive special of the nation’s first national parks (for- of dollars each year to local and state protection until they can be restored to a merly Platt National Park), is still a popu- economies in the form of licensing fees, secure status in the wild. The U.S. Fish lar attraction while Grand Lake, in the purchases of fishing and hunting equip- and Wildlife Service maintains a list of both northeast, has been extensively developed ment, lodging expenses and retail sales. endangered and threatened species in the by private interests. Grand Lake’s wood- Sportfish native to Oklahoma include nation while the State Department of Wild- ed hills, scenic lake waters and luxurious largemouth, smallmouth, white and life Conservation oversees a separate list vacation and retirement homes are spotted bass; crappie; channel, flathead of those species who reproduce, migrate unique in the southwest U.S. and blue catfish; sunfish; sauger; and or overwinter in Oklahoma. The state boasts a panorama of scen- paddlefish. Introduced species are also Ten wildlife species in the state are ery such as the Talimena Skyline Drive in popular with fishing enthusiasts. The officially listed by the federal govern- striped bass, a salt water native, has been ment as endangered while nine are con- the southeast. Southwestern Oklahoma’s stocked in Texoma (where it comprises sidered threatened. Currently listed en- Wichita Mountain Wildlife Refuge, estab- the major sportfish species), Kaw, Key- dangered species -- those who face the lished in 1905, is one of only a handful of stone, Foss and Canton Reservoirs. Wall- immediate threat of extinction -- include national refuges supporting wild buffalo eye were established in the 1960’s while, the Ouachita rock-pocketbook mussel, herds. Mount Scott, in the Wichitas, is the more recently, the saugeye -- a cross be- American burying beetle, American per- state’s best known peak. The recently es- tween the walleye and sauger -- and a egrine falcon, whooping crane, interi- tablished National Tallgrass Prairie Pre- striped/white bass hybrid have flourished or least tern, red-cockaded woodpeck- serve, in Osage County, supports numer- upon introduction to Oklahoma waters. er, black-capped vireo, Ozark big-eared ous plant and animal species unique to The state also maintains seven put-and- bat, Indiana bat and gray bat. In addi- take rainbow trout fishing areas: in the the rapidly diminishing prairie plains en- tion, the Arkansas River shiner has been Illinois River below Tenkiller dam, in the low- vironment of the western U.S. Oklahoma er Mountain Fork River below Broken Bow proposed for addition to the list as en- is also home to much of the original U.S. dam (where brown trout have also been dangered. The bald eagle was recently Route 66, the nation’s first continuous introduced), in Lake Etling at Black Mesa reclassified from endangered to threat- stretch of paved highway. State Park, below Carlton Lake at Robber’s ened status while the American pere- Cave State Park, at the Quartz Mountain grine falcon is being considered for ARCHEOLOGICAL AND Trout Area, the Blue River Public Fishing and complete removal from the federally- Hunting Area, and in Lake Watonga. threatened and endangered species list. HISTORIC RESOURCES Oklahoma is home to five big game Oklahoma has 844 archeological and species, including white-tail deer and RECREATION historic properties currently listed in the wild turkey in all 77 counties. Mule deer Oklahoma has 58 state-owned parks, National Register of Historic Places. These resources -- i.e., the buildings, sites, struc- and pronghorn antelope occupy much including 24 recreation areas and five tures and objects which represent human of the dry, open northwest and Panhan- resort lodges, that offer excellent oppor- activity throughout what is now the State dle regions while elk, recently introduced tunities for camping, fishing, hunting, hik- of Oklahoma -- illustrate the rich and di- in the east, are found in the Wichita ing, bicycling, water skiing, site-seeing verse heritage inherent to the state’s past. Mountains National Wildlife Refuge of and countless other outdoor activities. There are approximately 14,000 re- southwest Oklahoma. Smaller upland These facilities and the abundant activi- corded archaeological resources located game, especially bobwhite quail, are also ties they support make tourism one of throughout Oklahoma’s, but it is estimat- prevalent and abundant pheasant popu- Oklahoma’s top industries. ed that this figure represents only about lations thrive in the Panhandle. Prairie The state’s five lodges are located at 10 percent of the number of such resourc- chickens, scaled quail, squirrels, rabbits, Lake Murray State Park, Quartz Mountain doves, ducks and geese are also favor- es that exist. The locations of these sites State Park and Resort on Lugert-Altus Res- ites of hunters in Oklahoma who spend indicate that prehistoric and early histor- ervoir, Lake Texoma State Park, Sequoyah some 3.5 million hunter-days each year ic civilizations and groups occupied many State Park on Fort Gibson, and Roman tracking and harvesting game species. areas of the state. Woods County is home Nose State Park and Resort on Lakes Wa- The state’s location on the Central Fly- to possibly one of the oldest dated sites tonga and Boecher. In addition, cabins way, a migratory path extending from known in North America, the Burnham are available at many state parks. Other Canada to Mexico, is a boon to hunters site. Also in northwest Oklahoma are the and waterfowl enthusiasts alike. In addi- popular recreation spots include Alabas- Cooper and Waugh sites in Harper Coun- tion, there are numerous public hunting ter Caverns, one of the largest natural ty, the only bison kills directly associated areas and wildlife refuges where unique gypsum caves in the world; Little Sahara with the 10,000-year-old Folsom culture. species of animals are preserved and en- State Park, the state’s only naturally oc- At Caddo County’s Domebo site exists one joyed by campers and naturalists. curring sand dunes; Black Mesa State Park, of the best documented Southern Plains Habitat destruction is the single most which contains numerous dinosaur fos- mammoth kills associated with the serious threat to wildlife and plants al- sils; Robber’s Cave State Park, a former 11,000-year-old Clovis culture. Spiro though over-exploitation, disease, pollu- refuge for outlaws; and Spiro Mound Ar- Mounds, located south of Sallisaw, is a na- tion and introduction of non-native spe- chaeological State Park, where earthen tionally renowned ceremonial center cies can also contribute to population Indian mounds date to the year 1200. which was used by one of the most ad- declines. Through the federal Endan- South central Oklahoma’s Chickasaw vanced known societies in the eastern U.S. 45 between A.D. 800 and 1400. It is Oklaho- ucts; glass, rubber and plastic products; ployment rate -- than the national aver- ma’s only prehistoric archaeological site and transportation equipment. age. This is an indication of the generally open for public visitation. From 1987 to 1993, manufacturing healthy condition of the state’s economy Approximately 20,000 historic re- employment in Oklahoma grew by 7.1 and its relative immunity to short-term sources have been recorded in both ru- percent while the national rate decreased fluctuations in the national economy. Ex- ral and urban Oklahoma, including early by 5.2 percent. Oklahoma’s two industri- cept for the late 1980’s, when the aver- nineteenth century log buildings, territo- al centers, Oklahoma City and Tulsa, ac- age state unemployment rate was slightly rial commercial buildings, bridges, oil well count for more than one-half of the state’s higher than the national average, Okla- sites, parks designed by the Civilian Con- manufacturing employment of 167,900, homa has enjoyed a very stable employ- servation Corps and World War II land- according to 1993 figures. In 1994, the ment base. In 1993, Oklahoma’s average marks. Well-known properties listed on state boasted 3,858 industrial firms. unemployment rate was six percent the state’s National Register are the Creek Oklahoma’s top manufacturing sectors, (1,432,000) of the total labor force Council House in Okmulgee, Maple Ridge in order of production, are: transportation (1,524,000) employed. This is below the Historic District in Tulsa, the Nancy Tay- equipment; petroleum and coal products; national unemployment rate of 6.8 per- lor #1 Oil Well near Haskell, the Pioneer non-electrical machinery; food processing; cent for the same year. Woman in Ponca City, the Skirvin Hotel in and electronic and electrical equipment. In Although Oklahoma boasts a favorable Oklahoma City, the Fort Sill Historic Dis- the service sector, telecommunications rep- overall employment ratio (averaging trict at Fort Sill, and the Washita Battle- resents the area of fastest growth. about 4.5 in mid-1995, compared to a field near Cheyenne. national average of about 6.0), certain Coordination of historic and archeo- regions and counties sustain much high- logical resource identification, evaluation POPULATION, er unemployment rates than others. and preservation is accomplished at the EMPLOYMENT, LABOR Southeastern Oklahoma historically suf- fers high unemployment rates while rates state level through efforts of the Oklaho- AND INCOME ma Historical Society, Oklahoma Archeo- in the northwest are nominal -- a varia- Throughout Oklahoma history, the logical Society and Oklahoma Anthropo- tion explained, in part, by the nature of state’s population has experienced sud- industry in each region. While the south- logical Society. However, these den upward and downward fluctuations, east’s manufacturing and mining indus- organizations receive valuable assistance primarily due to variations in the social tries are sensitive to drop-offs in demand from numerous state and federal agen- and economic climate. Following slight and register subsequent layoffs, farmers cies, local governments, nonprofit orga- growth in the 1960’s that continued in the northwest are forced to remain in nizations and individuals. through the early 1980’s, the state expe- agricultural pursuits due to their large rienced a small decrease in population, personal capital investments, even despite COMMERCE primarily due to a decline in the oil indus- downward trends in the market. Popula- Lower establishment costs, plentiful try. In recent years, that trend has leveled tion densities also influence the unem- natural resources (including available land off with most urban areas experiencing ployment rate because they determine the and water), an abundance of labor and population growth at the expense of ru- size of the labor force. For example, south- lower living costs have attracted busi- ral Oklahoma, which has shown a slight east Oklahoma’s higher concentration of ness and industry to Oklahoma in recent decrease. While only 19.2 percent of the people causes available labor to exceed years, spurring rapid and highly diversi- population lived in urban areas in 1910, demand, resulting in a higher unemploy- fied social and economic growth. As part 67.7 percent lived in urban areas during ment rate than in the sparsely populated of the nation’s “Sunbelt” region, Okla- the 1990 census. northwest, where there is more of a bal- homa can expect further development The Oklahoma population has in- ance between labor and demand. and growth if it can continue to offer creased from 258,657 in 1890 to In 1993, the highest employment (cov- the water, land, energy and capital need- 3,258,100 in 1994, ranking it below ered) was recorded in wholesale and re- ed by new residents and industries with- Connecticut but above Oregon in total tail trade, which employed 289,145; ser- out compromising its social and environ- population by state. Currently, the Tulsa vice industries, which employed 278,679; mental standing. and Oklahoma City metropolitan areas and public administration, which em- The Oklahoma economy, once large- account for more than one-half of the ployed 217,273. These three industries ly dependent upon agriculture and the state’s population while Norman recent- accounted for two-thirds of the average monthly employment for 1993. oil and gas industry, has recently ex- ly surpassed Lawton as the state’s third In terms of income, Oklahoma ranks panded its base to include manufactur- largest city. According to 1994 estimates, somewhat below the national average of ing and business services. Making up the state’s five largest counties, by pop- $20,131, with a 1993 per capita person- the gross state product are manufac- ulation, are Oklahoma, Tulsa, Cleveland, al income of $17,035. Coinciding with turing; wholesale and retail trade and Comanche and Canadian; the five small- the pattern of employment across the services; finance, insurance and real est are Cimarron, Harmon, Harper, Rog- state, personal income is lower in the estate; state, local and federal govern- er Mills and Ellis. Based on projections southeast and higher in metropolitan ment and education; transportation and from the Oklahoma Department of Com- areas and the west. Due to its small pop- communications; mining (including oil merce, the state’s population is expect- ulation base and high farm incomes, Ci- and gas); research, printing and pub- ed to reach 3,426,000 in 2000 and marron County had the highest 1992 per lishing; agriculture; and tourism. Major 3,717,500 by 2020. capita income ($22,801) while Washing- commodities include non-electrical ma- Oklahoma has traditionally experi- ton County, with extensive employment chinery; petroleum and coal products; enced a higher percentage of employed in the oil and gas industry, had the sec- food products; fabricated metal prod- persons -- or conversely, a lower unem- ond highest income ($21,107). 46