NOTES ON FIRE-PRODUCING MACHINES. BY J. BOMILLY ALLEN, F.S.A. SCOT. It is intended in the following paper to describe and classify the machines used by man, at various periods of his history, for producing fire. Classification f Fire-machines.—o The method f kindlino s g fire afresh, as at present known, may be divided into four classes, namely, (1) Mechanical; (2) Optical; (3) Chemical; (4) Electrical. mechanicae Th l method agaiy subdividee sma n b d int) Frictions](a o , (6) Percussive, (c) Compressive. Process of Fire-kindling.—Whatever be the means employed, the pro- cess of fire-kindling is always a triple one, consisting of the following operations:—(1) Creating a spark of fire artificially; (2) Catching the spark thus obtaine tindern di ) Bettin(3 ; g fir somo t e e easily inflammable substance wit smoulderine hth g tinder. In the case of the lucifer match these three actions are combined into one; and hence its superiority over the older and moro lengthy methods. Tinder.—As the use of tinder is involved in nearly all of the fire- kindling processe wordw fe n o sa s y whics welsa a o e t lb h y folloma t wi subjece th t before proceeding further. Tindesubstancy an s ri e whicn ho applicatioe th spara f nf o firk o e smoulders t doet burs bu ,t int no s ou to fliune. 230 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

Burnt linen rags were formerly used for the purpose in this country. followine Th g substances, however equallo d , y well, viz., Amadou r Gero - man tinder. Touchpaper or porous paper which has been dipped in a solutio f saltpetreno afterwardd an , s dried. Touchwoo r woodo d y tissue in a certain stage of decay,—shreds of frayed wood,—fragments of pith, fibres of cotton, dry moss, &c, Amongst the flora of the Swiss Lake-dwellings found at Eobenhausen e commoth s wa n tinder fungus (Polyporus igniarius).1 The Iroquois Indians of North America use a species of fungus which grows on the maple, or when this cannot be obtained a fungus of inferior quality birch.e founth n do 2 " The Australians obtain fire by rubbing two bits of wood. In damp weather great car takes ei preveno nt e firth et going out thir fo ;s reason they often carr a ycon f Barikeia,o e which burns slowly like Amadou,"3 • Mechanical Methods f producingo Fire.—The mechanical methodr sfo producing fire are based upon the fact that whenever motion is apparently destroyed by friction or otherwise, it is in reality simply transformed into hea r energo t n anotheyi r shape. This transformatio worf o n k into heat takes place when two substances are either rubbed or struck against each other, or when an elastic body such as air is suddenly compressed. Hence the division of the mechanical methods of producing fire into the three classes before mentioned, namely, (1) Frictional, (2) Percussive, (3) Compressive. Frictional Methods.—The frictional method of producing fire consists rubbinn i o substancegtw s together until sufficient hea generates i t o dt cause a spark. The substance universally used for the purpose is dry soft wood suc deas ha r cedaro l . e operatioTh f rubbinno pieceo gtw f wooso d togethe r fire-makinfo r s gi performed in several different ways, either by a reciprocating up and down

1 Flint Chips . 162p , . 2 Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," vol. i. p. 132. 3 Lubbock's " Prehistoric Man," vol. i. p. 194. NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO 1 G23 MACHINES.

movement or by a rotary motion. The various forms of apparatus used amongst savage describede b s wilw no l . Sticlt d Groovean Machine.— e simplesth One f o t fire machines involv- d dowan np u movemen inn ga whas i tr TyloD t r term "e stick-aridth s - groove. t "consist I parts 1o tw lonf a , so g flat piec bluna f woo eo d dan t pointed sticke formeTh .s placee groun i r th kepd n do d an t firm whilst the latter is held with both hands in a slanting position and rubbed violently backwards and forwards in a groove which it soon forms for itself in the lower piece, a downward pressure being kept up the whole time. The actio s likni e workmaa tha f o t n sharpenin a gchisea n o l stone. The heat thus developed soon chars the lower wood and creates sparks, whic e caughhar e usuatinden i tth n li rwayr DarwiD . n says that the very light wood of the Hibiscus iiliaceus was alone used for this purpos n Tahitii e . A. native would produce fire w witfe a h .in i t seconds e himselh ; f foun t i verd y hard t lengtworka t bu h, succeeded. This stic groovd kan e proces bees sha n repeatedly describe Soute th n hdi Sea Islands, namely in Tahiti, New Zealand, the Sandwich, Tonga, Samoa, Eadacd an neved k ha groups re h foun t bu t ;di distinctl y mentionet dou of this region of the world.2 Looked on from a purely mechanical point of view, the " stick and groove " is simply, a reciprocating or up and down motion in a straight line, like that of a jack-plane or hand saw, and it does not appear that any improved form was introduced subsequently as in the case of the fire- machines involvin grotara y movement. It is said that fire can be produced by sawing one piece of wood across another. The Eev. Dr M'Lauchlansays that his father saw "tin-egin" or need-fire produced in this way in the Highlands of Scotland. A Low- German boo f 1593-speakko e "nodfiire'th f o s " that theyf saweo t ou d wood.3 : Fire Drills.—Fire-machines worked by a rotary motion are called " fire-

1 Tylor's " Early Histor Mankind,f yo . 237"p . - Ibid., p. 237 ; Darwin in Narr., vol. iii. p. 438. . " Tylor's " Early Histor Mankind,f yo . 258"p . 2 23 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , APRIL 12, 1880.

drills," because corresponding to each variety is an identical apparatus used for boring holes. Whether the drill was first invented for making fire and afterwards applied to boring processes, or vice versa, can never be deter- mined. However e firth ,e drilearliese th probabls i l f o t e machineyon s n whici h rotary motio s employednwa , an s graduadit l improvemend le t up to the simpler forms of turning lathes, from which the modern lathe was finally developed. Hand Twirling.—The simplest kin firf do e dril thas i l t whic s rotatehi d by means of simple hand twirling. The machine consists of two parts—a round blunt pointed twirling stick eigh r nino t e inches a flalong d t an , piec f woodeo . lattee Th places groune ri th held n do d an d firm wit feee r kneeshth o t . twirline Th g stic s theki n held upright betwee handse palme th nth f so , wit s blunit h t lowe d restin en rsligha n gi t hollow ine fla.th t piecf o e wood beneath. A rapid rotary motion backwards and forwards is then imparted to the twirling stick with the palms, often shifting the hands d theupan n moving them down upoo increast t ,ss i n a o verticae th e l pressure, as much as possible. If the wood is dry sparks can be n workinma produce e gon alona y couplb dn i ef minutes o ef i t bu ; e wooth s eithei d r dam r otherwiso p ee difficular n o kindlt me t o tw e required to work together, one beginning to twirl at the upper end e stickoth f , whe s companionhi n s have nearly reache bottome dth d an , so on until fire comes. The process of hand twirling for producing fire s thi e most widel e knowth y l spreaal n f methodso ds founi d dan , in every quarter of the globe. Captain Cook thus describes the use e firoth ef drill amongs e nativeth t n Australiai s : " They produce fire with great facility and spread it in a wonderful manner. To pro- duce it they take two pieces of dry soft wood : one is a stick about • inche9 r o s8 long e otheth , r piec s flati e stic th :k they shape into an obtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the other, turn it nimbl y holdinb y t gi betwee n both theia chocolat o rd handse w e s a , mill, often shifting their hands up, and then moving them down upon it, to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this method NOTES ON FIRE-PBODUCTNG MACHINES. 233

the t fir lesyn ge i e s thaminuteso tw n d fro e smallesan ,m th t spark they increas t witei h great spee dexterity."d dan 1 r PauM l Kane thus describe procese sth s employe Chinooke th y db n so the Columbia River : "The fire is obtained by means of a flat piece of dry cedar, in which a hollow is cut with, a channel for the ignited charcoal to run over. This piece the Indian sits on to hold it steady, while he rapidly twirls roun same sticda th f ek o woo d betwee s handsnhi , wite hth point pressed int e holloe flath oth t verf a piecewo n yI shor. t time sparks begi falo t n l throug e channeth h l upon finely-frayed cedar bark, placed underneath, which they soon ignite. There is a great deal of knack in doing this, but those who are used to it will light a fire in a very short usuallmen timey carrThe . y these sticks about with them afteas , r they have been once used they produce the fire more quickly." 2 The method of procuring fire among the Dacotahs or Sioux is thus described by Philander Prescott, an Indian interpreter:—"A piece of woo s squarewa d o r e makt flattenesteadilyo dli s t a i e o s a dsmal, l holcommences ewa d wit e poinstonea h th f o t , then another small stick was made round and tapering at one end.' This end being placed in the hole, the Indian put one hand on each side of the round stick and commenced turnin s fasa s possiblea t gi , bacd forwardan k . Another held the wood with one hand, and a piece of punk with the other, so that whe leasne th ther reads s t sige wa wa touc f fireo yt no e h punke , hth d an , put it when ignited into a bunch of dry grass that had been rubbed fine in the hands."3 The following is an extract from " Nature," vol. xxi. p. 423, Mar. 4, 1880:— "The savage proces f producino s e frictiogth fir y f woodb eo n o oftes , n described in books of travel, but seldom seen in this country, was performed by Farmi's ZulusWestminstee th t a , r Aquariu Mondayn mo e presencth n i , f o e Cook's "First Voyage H.," vol. iii. p. 234, quoted in Tylor's "Early History o 1 Mankind," p. 238. " Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America," p. 188, quoted 2 in Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," vol. i. p. 131. 3 Quoted in Wilson's " Prehistoric Man," vol. i. p. 132. 234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

r TylorD , Gen. Lane-Fox Francir M , s Galton, Col. Goodwin Austen othed an , r members of the Anthropological Institute. Some straw being laid on the ground a bedssticka o tw , s wer inchew efe a places t apari n do foro t msuppora r fo t the third stick, whic lais dwa h across them, havin o ga deet t i p n notci t cu h receiv blune eth tdrillin e pointh f o t g stic twirleks ; thi wa s d lik ea chocolat e nmller between the palms of the hands, and when the twirler's hands reached bottoe th m they were either dextrousl againp yto r shifteanothee o , th o t f d o r the Africans squatting round took on and relieved the first. A spark was got charree th n i d dus aboun i t t five receiveminutess wa d d ,an wit h shout leapd san s of delight by the fire-makers, one of whom, carefully shielding it in a handful of straw, soon fanne t intdi oflamea . These native physicalle ar s y fine speci- mens of the Kafir type."

Fig . Mexica1 . n representatio hanf no d Fire Drill. Several quaint illustration e hanth f do fire f thso e eus dril Mexicn i l o will be found in Lord Kingsborough's magnificent reproductions of ancient Mexican picture-writing thef o e mshows annexee i on : th n no t (fig dcu . I).1

1 The Sanskrit name for the spindle of fire drill is "pramantha," and Prometheus, whose nam s derivewa e d probabls i fro , mit y nothing more tha s personificationnit . The tube (vdp9ri^, ferula) with which fire was stolen from heaven, also suggests the shape firth e f stickeo . NOTE FIBE-PEODUCINN SO 5 G23 MACHINES.

Although the plan of hand twirling is such a clumsy one, it has been found in use both in South America and Madagascar for boring holes, as well as for fire making.1 chiee Th f disadvantag hand-twirlee th f eo d dril s tha i le mean th t f o s creating a downward pressure is very inefficient. This is got rid of in improvee th d for f fire-machinmo e know e corth ds na drill . Cord Drill.— core Inth d dril rotare th l y motio gives ni meany nb a f o s cor r thondo g twisted onc r twiceo e roun e twirlindth g sticd pullean k d rapidly backward e handth y b ss holding both e necessarendsTh . y downward pressure is obtained by sharpening the upper end of the twirling stick and placing over it another piece of wood, like the bottom one, held down by a second worker. The cord drill thus consists of four parts—the upper wood lowee th , r wood spindlee e cordth th , d , an , Dr Tylor quotes the following description of the use of the cord drill in India for kindling the sacrificial fire, from Stevenson's "Sama Veda,"p. 7:2— procese "Th whicy b s h fir s obtainei e d from woo calles di d churning, as it resembles that by which butter in India is separated from milk. . . . It consists in drilling one piece of arani-wood into another by pulling a string tied to it with a jerk with the one hand, while the other is slackened, and so on alternately till the wood takes fire. The fire is received on cotton or flax held in the hand of an assistant Brahman." The lower woo calles di Sanscrin di "aranie e spindlth tth d "pramanthae "ean th " or "sacree catra,th d d "an fir e " Agni" (Lat. ignis). Both s Kiihhi n ni " Herabkunft des Feuers," and Emile Burnouf in his " Science des Eeligions . 256)(p " , maintain thae well-knowth t n Swastika symbol represent pieceo tw woof so e sth d composin "e arani,gth ende "th s being curve ordeheln e di b do t r fir fouy mb r nails. The Indian churn referred to above consists of an upright bamboo spindle, worked wit hcorda eacn o , h sido forke f whiceo tw e dhar pieces of wood tied fast to a tree so as to form bearings (see fig. 2). The bottom of the bamboo is split into four, and inserted in a jar containing the milk, thus forming a kind of whisk. 1 Tylor's "Early History of Mankind," p. 241. 2 lUd., p. 255. 236 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , APRI , 1880L12 .

The Esquimaux of Greenland were found by Davis in 1586 using a cord drill for producing fire. The upper wood of, this apparatus was furnished with a handle at each end, so that the spindle could thus be kept steady e necessarth d an y downward pressure exerte e loweth n dro woo ony db e

Fig . Metho2 . Churninf do Indian gi .

worker whils secona t d pulled violentl core th df o t untiyeac a d hlen fire e spindlth s lubricatef o wa e d en dcamee witTh . h train oil.1 (The Indian buttee s us thir fo rs purpose Kiihne Se . .78. p , ) e corth df o dril The eus l for producing firs survive eha e superstith n di - ; 1quote 2 Tylor24 . d p ,fro m Hakluyt, vol. iii . ]04.p . NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO 7 G23 MACHINES.

tious rites of "needfire" in Germany certainly as late as the 17th century.1 An unsuccessful attemp s madwa t e whe e presennth t pape reas o dwa t r illustrate practicall e procesyth firf so e making wit e corhth d e drillTh . experiment was, however, again repeate Andersor r M Steven y M d b d nan - son at the Museum in the presence of Dr Mitchell and myself, and succeeded perfectly. The following particulars may he interesting :—A piece of flat open-graine dealy ddr inche,9 4-y sb | inche inch 1 clampe s y sb ,wa d down, to a table so as to be perfectly steady. A very shallow depression was then formed wite drillin th h a penkniff o gd a stick en holo d et e an d,th piec f touchpapereo , frayeedgee fastenes th t wa ,da d down wit hdrawina g catco t clossparke n t drilline i h th pi o eTh t . g inche9 stics kwa s long, roun sectionn di ,inc n -|tha hf so diamete e loweth t ra r end taperind an , g slightly towards the top. The point of the lower end of drilling stick was very Uunt, resembling in outline a flat Tudor arch, and the upper point sharp. The drilling stick was placed upright, with its lower end resting depressioe th flae n i th t piecf no s uppef wood it erotatino d d en ran , n gi a conical hole made i nrouna d stone just large enoug hane holho th t dn di conveniently. One person kept the drill in this position while a second worke core dth d backward forwardd san befors sa e described core s dTh wa . 6 feet lon -j^-thd gan s thick, twiste threr o o e dtimetw s roun spindlee dth , o mak t d wette s t a an i bite e sparA o s d. k which lighte e touchdth - pape thus wa rs produce quartea n dminuti a f o r e (time watch)y db e Th . sparks were generated roun e hol fred edge th d ha eeth f r eo wher ai e eth access. Both stick and hole presented a charred appearance as if touched t pokerdrilline poine th ho Th f witd o t. gre ha stic k mus blune b td an t wear a hole for itself. The depth of the hole when fire came was barely • t seeminchi n a -|td f h,o san to.be muc hshallo a t fir easien i ge e o wt r hole than a deep one. The cord drill has been known in Europe since a very remote period. Homer describes Odysseus as boring out the eye of the Cyclops with a machine of this kind.2 ; 1Grimm'sD 7 Tylor25 . p , ; Jamieson' 0 . M.57 . ,p s "Scottish Dictionary," articles " Neidfire" and " Black Spaul." 2 Homer's "Odyssey," ix. 382. '238 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , APRI , 1880L12 .

Ill India and Central Asia the principle of the cord drill is applied to the turning-lathe. It consists simply of two pieces of wood driven into the ground so as to act as bearings for the wood to he turned, which is

Fig . Esquimau3 . x Cord Dril Mouthpieced an l .

worked alternately backward d forwardsan meansy b sa cor f o d twisted round it. i The Indian name for the cord lathe is "kharad." Sailors in England dry their mops by a similar device.

1 Rouleaux, ''Kinematics of Macllinery" (Kennedy), p. 211; Holtzapflel's "Turning," . . . 6 . p vol . iv . NOTES ON FIRE-PRODUCING MACHINES. 239

Although the cord drill is a great improvement on mere hand twirling, woro t , n whereat krequireit i me o sstw when e lattethth e y woor dr s di only takes one. nexe Th developmene t steth n pi fire th e f machino t gettine th s ei d gri secone oth f d operator, whilst retainin e advantagegth e corth df so drill . Ther e threar e e different way f doino s g this- whicde e b h w wilno l scribed.

Fig. 4. Esquimaux Cord Drill Apparatus and Egyptian Bow Drill.

Cord Drill and Mouthpiece.—The cord drill and mouthpiece is the same as the simple cord drill (fig. 3), except that the upper wood is made of smaller dimensions and held between the teeth, thus leaving the two hands free to work the cord. This machine has been found in use in the Aleutian Islands bot r borinhfo g hole d makinan s e gth firef o .t se Ther a s i e Esquimaux apparatu thif o s se Edinburg kinth n di h Industrial Museum, an illustratio f whico n s heri h e give . BelchenE r (seSi er fig. thu4) . s 240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

describes the use of the cord drill and mouthpiece for boring by means of a poin greef to n jade :—thon e . bein ". Th g. g passed twice roun drille dth , the upper end is steadied by a mouthpiece of wood, having a piece of the same stone imbedded, with a countersunk cavity. This held firmly betwee teete nth h direct workma y e toolsth An . n woul e astonishedb d performance th t a thif eo s too ivoryn o l t havinbu ; g once trie t myselfdi , I have found the jar or vibration on the jaws, head, and brain quite enoug preveno ht repeatiny m t g it."1 The Bow Drill.—The next way of dispensing with the second worker well-knowe th y b drill s t i w wilI observee nbo . b l d tha workinn i t e gth cord drill with outstretched arms2 bot h core movin e th endar d f o sn i g the same direction at the same time. If, therefore, the near end is con- meany b rigia necte d f dso en workee barr b d core fa n wit ,th e ca dd th h backwards and forwards by one hand instead of two. The bow fulfils this purpose, and at the same time by its spring keeps the cord " taut." The bow drill consists of four parts—the upper and lower wood, the spindle and the bow. The method of working is as follows :—The cord of the bow is given a twist once or twice round the spindle, which is then placed vertically betwee e uppe th nd lowe an r r woode uppeTh .r woo s dheli d with one hand, pressing the spindle hard against the lower wood, whilst e requireth d rotary motio workew s givebo i n meane y db nth back f so - wards and forwards with the other hand. The bow drill is used for fire making by the Sioux Indians, and Dr Tylor give engravinn sa g copied from " Schoolcraft" (par pi, 3 t. xxviii.) of the apparatus employed by them for the purpose.3 Dr Daniel Wilson says thaNaskapee th t e Indian f Canadso a are acquaintew dbo wit e th h drill for fire making.4 Ther some ear e quaintly-carved Esquimaux bow f walruo s se tusth n ki

1; quote 3 Tylor24 . . dBelcher p ,E fro r mSi "Transn i , . Eth. Soc.," 1861 . 140,p . 2 The cord drill can be worked in two ways, either by "pulling the cord towards bode h thed yan n awa yrighr froo lefd , mtan t it with outstretched arms." 3 Tylor, p. 244. 4 D. Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," vol. ii. p. 375. NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO G MACHINES. 241 British Museum (see Photos, Nowhic) 88 .labellee har firs da e drillsr M . G. Goudie, F.S.A. Scot., has in his possession one of these curious bows. It is a foot long and half an inch square in section in the middle, tapering to the ends. It is perfectly rigid, and the tightening of the thong is effecteingenioue th whicn i y s passedb i y t hi swa d through double holes t eaca h l fouendAl r . side carvede sar represend an , t hunting scenes. &c ,

Fig . Esquimau5 . Drillw xBo . The extraordinary resemblance between this type of Esquimaux art and that of the Palaeolithic man who inhabited the caves of France has been pointed out by Sir J. Lubbock and Prof. Boyd Dawkins, in whose works engraving f somso f theso e s elaborately ornamented bows wile b l found.1 There is a specimen of an Esquimaux bow drill from Fort Ander- 1 Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain,"'p. 239. VOL. XIV. Q 242 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

so the'Edinburgn ui h Industria f bono t s i e bu l w Museubo e Th m (fig . 5) . spindle th woodf d hao es an sprinsa i , witit n g i hstee a l drill pointe Th . upper wood f veriso ' y peculiar shape, consistin squara f go e bloce b o kt grasped between the finger and thumb, and having two projecting wings curving upwards on each side, like a crescent. A small stone socket is let into this piece of wood to receive the top of the drill. The bow drill has been known in Egypt from the earliest times for boring. Representations of its use occur on the walls of tombs at Thebes, and specimens found e Britisth n i h w Museuno ther e ar em (date 1450 B.C.).e holloTh 1 w drile th lf o (correspondin p to e socke th e uppe r th fo t o t gr e wooth n i d Thebae th f o nt palnu fir e me th drillf (Cruet/era mads o t )wa eou thebaica), " and being found peculiarly adapted for the purpose, from its great dura- bility t i stil, l continue e use b carpentery b do s t d cabinetmakeran s n i s Egypt." The bow is of wood, and rigid: it has a rectangular hole at each enfasteninr fo d e strape tighteninth gTh . s effectegi y pullinb d e gth strap through the hole nearest the hand and twisting it round the crooked part of the bow which acts as a handle. The modern Egyptian bow, whic s halsi o a "rigid hinges ha , d piece neae handleth r , employeo t d regulate the tension of the string; the string is wrapped once or twice round the spindle, after which it is twisted round the jointed piece, which is then folded back and held in the hand with the handle." 2 The bow thia s ni flaw Englann i t bo drile piece us stils stee f i lth en o di ; l l fixed in a handle, and the tightening is managed by a pin and ratchet wheel, as in some stringed musical instruments. The drill spindle is of steel with a wooden reel upo t rounni d whic catgue hth t cor twisteds di drille s Th i . worked horizontally agains breastplatea t ,e cheste turnfixeth Th n -.do ing lathe foun l ove Ease dal th rs worke i t stile d us lwit s it ha bow d an , survive watchmakerse th n si ' "turn bench Englandn "i . The Pump Drill.—The New Zealanders use a cord drill for boring holes through hard greenstone, &c., in which the spindle itself is weighted. It

1 Sir G. Wilkinson's "Egypt," vol. i. p. 400 ; Rosscllini's "Egypt," vol. ii. pis. 44 and 52giycu iu Holtzapffel's "Turning," vol. iv.'p ; Brit 3 . . Mus. Photos. . 305No ,. 2 Holtzapffel's "Turning," vol. iv. p. 9. NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO G MACHINES. 243 is describe "s a d sharp wooden stick inche0 1 , scentr e longth f o o et , which two stones are attached, so as to exert pressure and perform the offic fly-wheelf o e requisite Th . e rotary motio gives no i stice tw nth y kb strings pulled alternately."1 Perhaps the idea of weighting the spindle,

Fig . Pum6 . p Drill. together inventioe wit knowledge th ho th t p bowe u havny th d f ,ema le o "e o pumth f p drill," whic describede hb wilw no l . This instrument derives its name from the fact of its being worked up and down lik epumpa . It consists of an upright wooden spindle, near the bottom of which a 1; quote 3 Tylor24 . d p ,fro m Thomson's "New Zealand," vol .. 203 ip . . 244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

heavy fly-wheel is mounted, and a horizontal cross piece, whose two ends connectee ar thf o e dp spindl witto cora e hth y deb passing throug holha e or notch in it (see fig. 6). The method of working the drill is as follows : —The spindle is placed vertical and twisted with one hand, thus winding the cord round it and raising the cross piece which is held with the other hand. The cross piece is then brought down suddenly, unwinding the corthud dan s drivin spindle gth e round. Whils cross-piece th t beins ei g lifted the fly-wheel runs on and rewinds the cord in the opposite direction, so tha operatioe th tagaie b n n nca repeate kepd indefinitelyp dan u t . The pump drill is described by L. H. Morgan as being used by the Iroquois Indians of North America for producing fire,1 and is stated to be Indian a n inventio greaf o n t antiquity engravinn A machin.e th f go s ei give Tylorn spindlne i Th .describes ei beins da feeg4 inct1 lond h gan diameter, and the cross piece a bow 3 feet long. The pump drill is used n Europei e ,Sout Chinath a Island d Se h r borinan , fo s g holes. There is a specimen of a pump drill from Bowditch Island in the Hunterian Museu t mGlasgoa w presente Turner.y d b e poine stonef th o Th d s i t 2an , fly-whee rouna l d dis woodf co cross-piecee th ; hang se sid loosth f eo y eb the spindle. Tylor gives an engraving of a Swiss drill differing from the former onl havinn yi gsteea spindle th l n pointi ed passinan , g througha centre cross-piecee holth th f n e ei o pum e Th p. drill use Englann di s di the same as the last, except that it has a metal bulb for a fly-wheel. It is used chiefly by china and glass menders on account of " the lightness and evennes s pressurit f o s e lessenin e dangegth f crackino r g these brittle materials." A sketch of a Chinaman using the pump drill is given in Eoltzapffel's Turning.'" 3 The fly-wheel is placed on the top of the spindle instea f nea d o bottome cross-piec e th rth d an , e hangs loose. • Centre-bit Drill.—The centre-bit drill is so well known amongst joiners of the present day that it hardly needs to be described more than to point out simpls thai t i principlte yth e cranth f eo k applie drillingo dt . This instrument has been found in its most primitiveform by Dr Darwin in use 1 Tylor, p. 246 ; quoted from the "League of the Iroquois," p. 381. . 2 .Tylor, p. 245. . 3 Vol. iv. p. 4. • NOTES ON FIRE-PBODUCING MACHINES. 245

amongst the Gauchos of the Pampas of South America; but, as Dr Tylor remarks Gauchoe t savagesth , no t e half-breedsar sbu , d thian ,s machine may have been suggeste Europeae th y db n closelo toos t i l y resembles. r DarwiD 1 n followsdescribes a e us s :-—sit " Takin elastin ga c stick, about 18 inches long, he presses one end on his breast, and the other (which pointeds i holpieca a n n wood)f ei i e o thed ,an n rapidly turn curvee sth d part like a carpenter's centre-bit." J t wilI • noticee b l d tha e tonl thith ys s i for f firmo e dril whicn i l e th h motio e other s th continuous ni e movemenl th sal n i s s backwarda i ,t s and forwards t alsI o. involve standinsa g attitud usef ei describes da y db Darwin, which is rather against its being employed except by Europeans. Development e Fire-drill.—Jlavmgth f o conclude e descriptioth d f o n most of the known ways of producing fire by means of friction, it may be worth whil consideo et r briefly what parfire th et drilplayes e th ha l n di general development of machinery. It should be noticed that the com- pleteness of a machine depends on the relative parts played by human e machinth y actiob d e itselfnan thad an ,t machin moss ei t perfect' which involves least skill on the part of the operator. As an instance of this core th d drill require lesr sfa s skil woro t l t ki tha n hand twirling does, formee th d r an is, therefore more th , e highly developed machin twoe th .f eo n studyinI e differength t kind f firo se drills s possibli t i , o tract e e eth gradual improvemen meane th f n obtainini so t g rotary motion beginning with simple hand twirling, then the cord drill, and lastly the bow drill It has been shown that all these methods have been applied to boring hole wels sa firs a l e turnine useraisinge th ar n d i thad laso e gth an tw ,t lathe found all over the East. The Chinese employ a form of cord lathe core attacheende o th dwhicar n f i tw so e treadleho dth t s worked an p du down alternately by the feet.2 The earliest known European machine for turnin pole th e s glathei . Thi furthea s si r developmen core th df o print - ciple, adapted probably (as Holtzapifel points out) to the erect attitude uni- versally choseEuropeae th y nb n mechani n preferencci sittina o e et gon

; 1Darwi 1 Tylor24 Narr.. n ni p , , vol. . iii488p . . 3 Holtzapffel's "Turning,. 16 . "p . voliv . 246. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

whil pole t th workea n lathI rotare . eth y motio obtaines ni meany db s of a vertical cord attached to a treadle at the bottom, then passing once or twice roun e piece th d th f woo o turnede t eo b p o dfastened t to an ,e th t da en af d"o springy lath r poleeo , stuc t horizontallkou t yrigha t anglee th o st wall. When the treadle is depressed it pulls the cord down, causes the wood to revolve, and bends the polo down at the same time; on removing pressure th fooe th t f efro o e treadlemth e sprine polth , th ef g o pull t i s againp u thao s , a frest e applieh b e s meanswoo turit n th y no ca dt db . pole Th e lath stils ei l use Englann di turninr dfo g wooden bowl fluted san s with projections for keys. It is also found in Japan, Italy and elsewhere. During the 18th century the pole lathe was gradually superseded by improved machines in which the rotary motion was continuous, and in one direction instead of backwards and forwards. This was effected by dis- cardin e pold substitutinth g ean a fly-whee t i r d drivingfo an l g band. fly-wheee Th detaches wa l placed dan d either side abov belor on eo t ea w the lathe, and worked in some cases by hand and in others by a crank and treadle. The driving band was crossed and required a tightening apparatus. In the modern lathe the fly-wheel and crank form part of the - machine instea f beino d g detached e for th f ;treadl mo d cranan es kha been improved tightenine th d an , g apparatu e drivinth r fo sg band dis- pensed cranwithe treadld Th k. an separat e ear e invention themselvesy sb , werd an espinnine useth n di g wheel long before they were appliee th o dt origidrivine e latheth th f t no gbu , banfairly tracede ma y b d back through s successivit e phase developmenf so core th d o drillt t . Mechanical Methods—Percussion.—In the frictional methods of produc- ing fire, the material used is generally soft wood, and the operation is more or less lengthy, wherea percussive th n si e method substancee sth s employed are usually of a hard flinty nature, and the process almost instantaneous. percussive th l al n I e method piecesubstance o th s tw f so requirede ear d an , these are held one in each hand and struck together violently so as to cause sparks to fly, which are caught in tinder. Split Bamboo.—In Easter Malae th nn i y Asi d Islandaan f Sumatrso a and Borneo y strikinb t ,go firg s i etogethe pieceo tw r f spliso t bamboo; NOTE PIKE-PRODUCINN SO G MACHINES7 24 . ' '

This is rendered possible by tbe hard silicious coating of the cane. It would seem, however, that there is some disadvantage in the process (per- haps the liability to cut the fingers), as it has not superseded the fire drill in the localities where it is known. Sometimes the process is varied by rubbin piece gon bambof eo o wit hshara p edge against another.1 Fire Stoiies.—The metho f strikindo g firstoneo meany eb f tw o f s si so great antiquity substancee Th . s possessing this propert callee yar d fire- stones d silic an ,thn a(i e for f mflinto , quartz r agate o , d iroan n) pyrites are the most universally used. The Greek word Trupinjs means fire stone, and the term was applied to flint as well as to the mineral now known by that namenativee Th Terr.f s o l Fuegade o (Lan f Firedo ) procure firy eb striking together d iroflinan nt pyrites. e samTh e2 'metho s i alsod employed by the Slave and Dog Eib Indians of North America, by the Esquimaux, and by the Algonquin Indians. " The Alashkans are reported to obtain fire by striking together two pieces of quartz rubbed with sulphur over som grasy edr mossr so , strewed with feathers, wher sulphue eth r falls." 3 Palaeolithie Th c cavwern eme e probably acquainte f firo ee d us wit e hth stones. Iron pyrites and htematite strike-a-lights were found in the cave s EyziesoLe f , e Vezerevalleth f o y , P&'igord (see Larte Christy'd an t s "Reliquiae Aquitanicas," p. 248). M. Dupont also found iron pyrites in the Trou de Chaleux in Belgium.4 Mr Worthington G. Smith tells me he has found traces of fire in the shape of masses of burnt wood and burnt stones in the Palaeolithic sands and gravels near London, but no iron pyrites. s alsha o e founH d strike-a-light flinf irod so an nt pyrite t Maidesa n Bower Camp, Bedfordshire, and of quartzite at "Warren Hill, Norfolk. Professor Boyd Dawkins illustrate flinsiroa d an nt pyrites strike-a-ligh Bronze th f to e Age found togethe t Sevea r n Barrows, Lambourne, Berks. r Evanl) 5 s

1 Tylor . 238p , ; quoting Bowling, . 20volt John p Marsden; S . 67 i ; . ,13 . volp ,. i . p. 60 ; Tennent, "Ceylon," vol. i. p. 105. 2 Tylor, p. 247 ; Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," vol. i. p. 134; quoting Weddell's "Voyage towards the.South ; WallisPol 7 n 1822,i e16 . , p "1767 , Sarmiente d o Gamhoa, 1580. 3 Tylor, p. 248. 4 Boyd Dawkins' "Britain,• n i Eavln 5 Ibid.,yMa . 210 ". p 358 p . . 248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 12, 1880.

observes that the statement of Pliny that fire was struck out of flint by Pyrodes, the son of Cilix, is a myth which points to the use of silex and pyrites rather tha steel.f no 1 Flintd Steel.—an In most countries, \vhere iro knowns ni fline d th ,an t steel proces superseded sha l othersdal , befor e introductioth e f lucifeno r matches. The flint and steel apparatus as used in this country at the beginning of the present century consisted of a. piece of steel about J of an inch thick and \ an inch wide and 3 inches long, bent round into the forhooa f mr sometimeo ko to.bs ringsa a o es , held conveniently between the fingerfirso thumbd tw t an s flinf smala ,o t t lbi calle d"a strike-a-light" an dtinder-boxa . Strike-a-lights.—The chie e fstrike-a-ligh th sea f o t t manufacturt a s ei Brandon in Suffolk, where they still Continue to be made in small quantities for exportation. Brandon was in prehistoric times one of the principal places where flint implements were made, and was, in fact, the Sheffield e Stonoth f e Age. Afte e introductioth r f bronzno irond trade an eth , e dwindled down int e makinoth f strike-a-lightgo s only, until gunpowder was invented, and the trade again revived owing to the demand for gun- e flintsearliesTh . t gun-flints were merely small strike-a-lightse th d an , -form of the strike-a-light was in its turn derived from that of the scraper of the Stone Age. The strike-a-lights used before the introduction of metal are identical with those mad t Brandoea npresene eveth t na t day.2 Tinder-box,—The tinder-box commonly use thin di s country fifty years eved agoan n, survivin remotn gi e presen e districtth o t tp sdayu , consists of a round tin box, 4 inches in diameter and 1J inch deep, with a mov- able lid. In the inside is a close-fitting cover, convex in the middle, and with a handle for lifting it, the use of which is to put out the tinder when done with by excluding the air. In some cases the lid of the box forms a candlestick. The operation of producing fire with the flint and steel consist strikinn si e stee ) brisklgth 8 ld (figsan y 7 agains. flinte th t , thus causing spark flyo st , whic e caughe tinderhar th n i t. Whee th n

1 Evan's "Stone Implements," p. 14. 2 Dr lire's "Dictionary," ed. 1878, Supp]. . 375p , . NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO G MACHINES. 249

spark falls on the tinder it begins to smoulder, and a flame is obtained from it by means of a brimstone-tipped deal match, sometimes called a "spunk." n EsquimauThera s i e x stee e Edinburgth l (fign i ) .9 h Industrial Museum bona n i e t handlese , , perhap o avoit s d e steecoldTh l . itself flad ol t filen a appear f . o t bebi o st -a A form of flint and steel apparatus is in use amongst smokers at the present day. The tinder is made into a small rope about \ of an inch diameter, and passes through a metal tube 3 inches long, out of which it is draw meany b nsmala f so l hook attachef chaino a e othe o d t Th en r. the chain is fastened to a little plug fitting into the end of the tube, and

Figs. 7, 8, 9.

servin samthe g e purpos innethe re as tinder-boxcovethe the of r On . top of the tube is fixed a flat bit of steel, and a bit of agate, 1 inch square -d J incan f anotheo h f agat d o thick t en er bi e huns i chain,e th t gTh a . is struck agains steele ignited th t an , tindee sth r rope immediately beneath it. This apparatus is used by smokers because the wind does not blow out tindere th . . Mechanical Methods—Compression.—The mechanicae lasth f to l methods of producin e describegb firo t e s thai d whicn i t e requirehth d heas i t generated by compressing air! The apparatus consists of a brass tube, 3^ inches long and |ths of an inch diameter, closed atone end,, and fitted with 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 32, 1880.

a piston packed in the usual way. On the top of the piston rod, and on the bottom of the .tube, are two flat boxwood knobs, 1 inch in diameter. A f Germasmalo t pistone bi l th n f tindeo , d places i ren hollo a e n dth i t wa and it is then forced down sharply to the bottom of the tube by aid of the 'flat knobs. The sudden compression of the air creates sufficient heat to set the tinder on fire. Dr Tylor says that ah instrument on this prin- ciple, mad harn ei d wood, ivory, &c. use s practicai a , s da l mean makinf so g fire'in Burma alsd hoan amon Malays.e gth 1 Optical Methods—The Burning Mirror.—There are two optical methods of producing fire by means of the heat of the sun's rays, which are concen- trate r broughdo a focu o t ts eithe reflectioy b r r refractiono n . Firstly, there is the burning mirror. The surface of the burning mirror must be concave and of a highly polished material which will reflect ray e f besheato s Th t . fora s mi paraboloid, but a flat spherical one which gives a good caustic will answer almos wells a torden I .obtai o rt n fire wit burnine hth g mirror t mus,i e b t tindefocuse e th th place d n r.i an dTylon facinsu e r gsayth s s thaha e th lighted brown paper in England with a parabolic mirror only 2 inches diameter.n i 2 This instrumen certainls wa t y know Pliny'n ni s time (A.D. 23-79), as he mentions its power of burning (Pliny, ii. Ill), and probably even earlier. Tylor mentions the discovery of concave mirrors of iron pyrite anciene th n si t Peruvian tombs t discredit,bu s Garcilas Vega'a l e od s story of their being used for kindling the sacred fire. The Chinese are acquainted with'the burning mirror, their namt beini r efo g "Kin-suy." Optical Methods—The Burning Lens.—The principle of the burning lens is .the sam burnine thas th ea f to g mirror, except that the ray heaf so t are refracted instead of being reflected. It must be made of a substance through which ray f hea passo n tca s readily surfacs it d e,an mus convee tb x or spherical. The use of the burning lens for producing fire is described in the "clouds" of Aristophanes (Aristopb., " Nubes," 757), and it must,

1 Tylor, p. 247; quoting Bastian, "Oestl. Asien.," vol. ii. p. 418; Cameron's "Malayan India, . 136"p . . . . 2 Tylor . 252p , . NOTE FIKE-PRODUCINN SO G MACHINES. 251

therefore, have been know anciene th o nt t Greeks Chinese e Th th e . eus burning len lightinr sfo Siamese g th fires d obtaininr an ,e fo sacree gth d fire.1 Pliny also mentions the burning lens (xxxvi. 67, xxxvii. 10). Chemical Methods—The Brimstone Match.—The chemical methods of producing fire have during the present century superseded all others. The various kind f lucifeso r matches belon thio gt s e earliesclassTh . t forf mo matc uses connectiohn wa di nknows wit wa fline steeld s hnd th a an t an , e "brimstonth e match." These matches consiste f thido n strip highlf so y resinou r ver o spiny ydr e wood, abou inche6 t s long, with pointed ends which had been dipped in melted sulphur. Thus prepared, the sulphur points coul instantle db y ignite spara y db k struck into tinder wit hflina t and steel. The brimstone match was almost in universal use during the first quartepresenthe of r t century mark and ,transitiona the s l stagebe- twee e mechanicanth chemicad an l l mode f obtaininso g fire.2 Chemical Methods—The Instantaneous Light Box.—The first purely chemical means of producing fire was introduced about the year 1830, and was called the " Instantaneous Light Box." It consisted of a small tin box containin a bottlg e filled with sulphuric acin whic(i d a hsufficien t quantit fibrouf yo s asbesto soakes swa preveno dt t spilling)ti suppla d an ,y of properly-prepared matches. These, matches were small splints, abou. 2 t inches long, coated with a chemical mixture of the following ingredients: —chlorat potasheof part6 , s ; powdered loaf sugar parts2 , arabicgum ; , 1 part—the whole coloured with a little vermillion, and made into a thin paste with water. The splints were first dipped into melted sulphur, and afterwards into the prepared paste. The light was obtained by dipping the prepare de matche endth f so s int e sulphurioth c acid. There wero tw e strong objection instantaneoue th o t s s light box—firstly, tha sulphurie tth c s dangerousaciwa d d secondlyan , , thae matcheth t s rapidly absorbed moisture. This apparatus was, consequently, soon superseded by the lueifer match, which, though not the same as the form of match now in use, has handed down its name to it. 1 Tylor 249. ,p ; quotingDavis, vol. iii 51. .p ; Bastian, "Oestl. Asien.,".vol.,iii 516. .p . 2 Chambers's "Encyclopedia," vol. vi..p . . 363. -,,. 2 25 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , APKI , 1880L12 .

Chemical Methods—The Lucifer Match.—The lucifer match consisted of small strips of wood or pasteboard, tipped with sulphur, chlorate of potash, sulphuret .of antimony d gume procesan ,Th . gettinf o s gligha t was by drawing one of the matches through a piece of bent sandpaper. e frictioTh n cause e explosivth d e material o takt s e d lighfiree an ,th t sulphur-coated match beneath. Thu explosivee sth s tak e place th eth f eo fire drill or flint and steel in the .older methods, and the sulphur helps to ignite the match instead of tinder. The gum in. the composition is for making the chemical composition adhere to the end of the match during the operation of striking. Chemical Methods—The Congreve Mutcli.—The lucifer match was again superseded by the Congreve match still in use. • It was tipped with phos- phorus, nitrate or chlorate of potash, sulphur, gum, and colouring material. e lightinTh s effectegwa strikin y pieca b d n f glaso eo t gi s e papeth n o r boxe greaA th sid . f teo drawbac Congreve th o kt e match s whewa t ni first introduced was the use of phosphorus, the fumes of which produce a most loathsome disease, causing the bones to decay. This difficulty was, however, got over by the introduction of an amorphous phosphorus, dis- covere . SchrotterM y b d , which answers its purpose e jus s welth a ts a l t injuriouno s otheri healtho d t s an , . ; Chemical Methods—The Swedish Safety Match.—The last improve- e Swedismenth s i t h safety match, invente a Swed y db e named Lund- strom, a large manufacturer of matches at Jonkoping, in the year 1855 or 1856. This matc bees hha n subsequently patente thidn i s countr Messry yb s Bryan Maye d peculiaan tTh . r advantag safete th f yeo matc thas hi t i t will light only on the box. This is effected by dividing the combustible materials between the match, and the friction paper. In the ordinary lucifer match, the phosphorus, sulphur, and chlorate of potash are altogether on the match, which ignites when rubbed against any rough surface; but e safetth n i y matc chlorate hth f potaseo d sulphuhan e s placei rth n o d phosphorue matcth d frictioe han th n so n paper thao s , t neither matcr hno friction paper can take fire singly under ordinary circumstances. Chemical Methods—The D'obereiner.-—Before lucifer matches came fully NOTE FIRE-PRODUCINN SO 3 G25 MACHINES.

into use, a chemical apparatus known in Germany as "db'bereiner" was used toconsiderabla e exten obtaininr fo t lightga t consistI . cylindricaa f so l glass jar, 4 inches in diameter and 6 inches high, with a flat trap cover, fro centre mth e of which hangs dow glasna s bell inche,2 diameten si 4d |ran inches long, reaching down almos bottoe e jarth th .o t f tm o Inside this belsuspendee ar l d hal dozea f n square piece f zino s c with hole themn si , so that they can be threaded on an iron wire. On .the top of the cover is d stop-cocan a smal t t n froni i je f e klbella d o tth openinan ,f o t gou chamber containin spongf gsmala o t filles i bi ly r d ja platina wite Th h . dilute sulphuric acid, which, acting on the zinc, generates hydrogen gas. allowes i s Whega plao de t nth y upo platine nth t renderai t incandescentsi , and a light can be obtained by applying a spill. Electric Methods—The Electric Spark.—Fire can be obtained anew by meane electrith f so c spark, whic e increasecauses hi th y b d d resistance offerepassage th curreno a dt f eo electricitf o t y passing betwee opposite nth e poles of a battery, when there is a small gap in the wire conveying the current. Several attempts have been mad utiliso et e electricit lightingr yfo , t doei t appeat sno bu r likel t presenya tak o t e tplac th e f matcheeo r sfo producing fire anew tha o e electris , th t c match must remain amongse th t possibilitie e futureth f so .

conclusionn I t onli , y remain authoe th r acknowledgo srt fo largelw eho y he is indebted to the works of E. B. Tylor, Sir J. Lubbock, D. "Wilson, to Chambers's "Encyclopedia," Dr lire's "Dictionary," &c., for the greater informatioe parth f to n containe thin di s paper.