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MARINE GEOLOGY INTERNATIONAL Journal MARINE GEOLOGY INTERNATIONAL JOURNAl. OF MARINE GEOLOGE GEOCHEMISTRY AND GEOPHYSICS ELSEVIER Marine Geology 119 (1994) 269 285 Organic carbon, carbonate, and clay mineral distributions in eastern central Arctic Ocean surface sediments Ruediger Stein, Hannes Grobe, Monika Wahsner Alfred- Wegener-Institutefor Polar and Marine Research, Columbusstrafle, D-27515 Bremerhaven, Germany (Received January 27, 1993; revision accepted October 20, 1993) Abstract Results from a detailed sedimentological investigation of surface sediments from the eastern Arctic Ocean indicate that the distribution of different types of sediment facies is controlled by different environmental processes such as sea-ice distribution, terrigenous sediment supply, oceanic currents, and surface-water productivity. In comparison to other open-ocean environments, total organic carbon contents are high, with maximum values in some deep-basin areas as well as west and north of Svalbard. In general, the organic carbon fraction is dominated by terrigenous material as indicated by low hydrogen index values and high C/N ratios, probably transported by currents and/or sea ice from the Eurasian Shelf areas. The amount of marine organic carbon is of secondary importance reflecting the low-productivity environment described for the modern ice-covered Arctic Ocean. In the area north of Svalbard, some higher amounts of marine organic matter may indicate increased surface-water productivity controlled by the inflow of the warm Westspitsbergen Current (WSC) into the Arctic Ocean and reduced sea-ice cover. This influence of the WSC is also supported by the high content of biogenic carbonate recorded in the Yermak Plateau area. The clay mineral distribution gives information about different source areas and transport mechanisms. Illite, the dominant clay mineral in the eastern central Arctic Ocean sediments, reaches maximum values in the Morris-Jesup- Rise area and around Svalbard, indicating North Greenland and Svalbard to be most probable source areas. Kaolinite reaches maximum values in the Nansen Basin, east of Svalbard, and in the Barents Sea. Possible source areas are Mesozoic sediments in the Barents Sea (and Franz-Josef-Land). In contrast to the high smectite values determined in sea-ice samples, smectite contents are generally very low in the underlying surface sediments suggesting that the supply by sea ice is not the dominant mechanism for clay accumulation in the studied area of the modern central Arctic Ocean. 1. Introduction Ocean system and its relationship to global change has been slow in comparison to studies in other Although it is generally accepted that the Arctic ocean regions. This lack of knowledge is mainly Ocean (Fig. 1) is a very sensitive and important caused by the major technological/logistic prob- region for changes in the global climate, this region lems in reaching this permanently ice-covered is the last major physiographic province of the region with normal research vessels and in retriev- earth whose short- and long-term geological his- ing long and undisturbed sediment cores. The tory is not very well known. Since the first recovery available samples and data from the central Arctic and description of deep-sea sediments during the Basins are derived mainly from drifting ice islands famous 1893-1896 Fram-Expedition of Fridtjof such as T-3 (e.g., Clark et al., 1980) and CESAR Nansen (Nansen, 1897; B6ggild, 1906), the pro- (Jackson et al., 1985). In the eastern Arctic Basins, gress in getting a better understanding of the Arctic ship expeditions such as Ymer 80 (Fig. 2; Bostr6m 0025-3227/94/$7.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved SSDI 0025-3227 (94)00040-R 270 R. Stein et al./Marine Geology 119 (1994) 269-285 Fig. 1. Surface-watercirculation systems in the Arctic Ocean and occurrences of major coal deposits in the surrounding continents (from Bischofet al., 1990, based on Anon, 1978; Hale, 1990), supplemented by probable source areas of clay minerals in the Arctic Ocean. Letters/, K and S indicate the major clay mineral in a chlorite-illite-kaolinite-smectiteassociation (based on Darby, 1975; Naidu and Mowatt, 1983; Dalrymple and Maass, 1987; Elverhoi et al., 1989). and Thiede, 1984) and Polarstern ARK-IV/3 Lomonosov Ridges, and the Morris-Jesup Rise (Fig. 2; Thiede, 1988) have greatly advanced our and the Yermak Plateau (Fig. 2; F~tterer, 1992). knowledge on Arctic Ocean paleoenvironments. The major objective of the Arctic 91 marine Comprehensive summaries about the present geology program is to study the paleoclimatic knowledge on Arctic Ocean geology are given by and paleoceanographic evolution of the Arctic Herman (1989), Bleil and Thiede (1990) and Ocean and its influence on the global Grantz et al. (1990). (paleo-)environment, including topics such as In 1991, an international and multidisciplinary changes in lithogenic, biogenic, and organogenic three-ship expedition (Arctic 91) has been carried sediment supply during glacial/interglacial cycles, out by the swedish Oden, the american Polar Star, glacial/interglacial variations in sea-ice cover, and and the German Polarstern. During this very suc- water-mass exchange between the Arctic and cessful expedition into the extreme central Arctic Atlantic Oceans, its global relevance and change Ocean area it was possible to recover onboard through time. In this paper, we present results Polarstern unique undisturbed surface sediments from a study of surface sediments taken during and long sediment cores from the Nansen, the 1991 Polarstern Expedition (FOtterer, 1992; Amundsen, and Makarov Basins, the Gakkel and Rachor, 1992) to point out the relationship R. Stein et al./Marine Geology 119 (1994) 269-285 271 160 ° 140 ° 120 ° 75 ~ 75 ° 0° Fig. 2. Positions of surface sediment samples considered in the distribution maps of Figs. 3, 6 and 7. Sample positions are marked by triangles: Ymer-80 Expedition (Bostr6m and Thiede, 1984); open squares=Polarstern Expedition ARK-IV/3 (Thiede, 1988); circles=Polarstern Expedition ARK-VIII/2 (Rachor, 1992); and dots=Polarstern Expedition ARK-VIII/3 (ARCTIC '91) (FOtterer, 1992). between modern environmental processes and sedi- Ocean: the anticyclonic Beaufort Gyre in the ment accumulation in the eastern central Arctic Amerasian Basin and the Transpolar Drift in the Ocean. Eurasian Basin (Fig. 1). The latter, crossing our study area, is transporting sea ice from the Siberian shelf areas through the central Arctic to the Fram 2. Modern oceanography and environment Strait. Through Fram Strait, two major currents Today, two major current systems are domina- exchange water between the Arctic and the world ting the surface-water circulation in the Arctic ocean (Fig. 1). The cold, ice-transporting East 272 R. Stein et al./Marine Geology 119 (1994) 269~85 Greenland Current is the main current out of Ocean via the Transpolar Drift (Wollenburg, the Arctic Ocean. On the other hand, the 1991). In areas of extensive melting, sediment Westspitsbergen Current, an extension of the particles are released and deposited at the sea North Atlantic-Norwegian Current, carries warm, floor. In these areas, this process may dominate relatively saline water into the Arctic Ocean where the supply and accumulation of terrigenous mate- it cools down and extends in intermediate water rial in the polar environment. Icebergs are another depths into the eastern Arctic Basins (Aagard possibility for transportation of terrigenous mate- et al., 1985; Carmack, 1990). Of importance for rial into the central Arctic, but are very rare today the thermohaline circulation in the Arctic Ocean due to the absence of large ice shelves. Source is the formation of brines on polar shelves, i.e., areas for icebergs today are Ellesmere Island, cold, saline, and well-oxygenated water masses North Greenland, Svalbard, Franz-Josef Land, which sink over the continental margin into the and Severnaya Zemlya (Sudgen, 1982; Darby et al., deep basins (Aagard et al., 1985). The export of 1989). A detailed study of the composition and sea ice through Fram Strait and its melt in the grain size of the siliciclastic sediment fractions Greenland Norwegian Sea as well as the deep- might give an important key to distinguish between water exchange between Arctic and Atlantic seem different source areas and transport mechnisms to play an important role in controlling the deep- (see below). water formation in the northern North Atlantic and, thus, is of global significance (Untersteiner and Carmack, 1992). 3. Methods Another important phenomenon of the Arctic Ocean is the permanent sea-ice cover with its During Polarstern cruises ARK-VIII/2 and strong seasonal variation in the marginal (shelf) ARK-VIII/3 (Arctic 91), surface and near-surface areas. This sea-ice cover has a distinct influence samples were taken by means of giant box corer on marine biota, oceanic circulation, and surface (GKG) and multicorer (MUC), and long sediment albedo, which all are major controls on climatic cores were taken by a kastenlot corer, a giant change. Although mean primary productivity of piston corer, and a gravity corer (Ft~tterer, 1992; the central Arctic Ocean is very low because of Rachor, 1992). Cores were collected from about the sea-ice cover, productivity might be very high 60 geological stations in the eastern Arctic Ocean at the ice edge because of supply of nutrients (Fig. 2). On these sediments, a detailed sedimento- during melting phases and ice edge upwelling, logical and geochemical investigation program has resulting in phytoplankton blooms (Subba Rao been started. Data produced on the surface sedi- and Platt, 1984; Sakshaug and Skjoldal, 1989). ments (0-1 cm) are presented and discussed in Since surface-water productivity may affect the this paper. concentration of atmospheric CO2 (i.e., in areas Total carbon, total nitrogen, and total organic of high production rate of organic matter, the carbon contents were determined on ground bulk ocean may act as a sink for CO2) which is an samples and HCl-treated carbonate-free samples, important factor controlling the global climate, respectively, using a HERAEUS CHN analyser the quantification of the organic carbon budget in and a LECO-CS analyser.
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