'j'^iAn^-A^ s-^*ru<<<,.<Lfi.<u'fct,.*—. \A<\,^Ji^...,.. l\:.-^.t^.^-)..-^. 3.l.,...I.La... 3 1924 055 723 203 The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924055723203 Columbia IHniversit^ (Tontributione to lEbucation tCeacbers College Seriea no. 23 A History of the Teaching of Elementary Geometry Alva Walker Stamper, A. M. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University. NEW YORK 1909 PREFACE While much has been written on the history of mathematics, comparatively little attention has been given to the history of its teaching. Gunther's " Geschichte des mathematischen Unter- richts im Deutschen Mittelalter bis zum Jahre 1525" and Suter's "Die Mathematik auf den Universitaten des Mittelalters " are the only prominent works that emphasize the teaching side. Among the works that treat the general history of mathematics, those of Cantor, Hankel, Gow, and Allman have been of great assistance. Much information has also been gained from miscellaneous articles, standard works on the history of educa- tion, and early texts, the latter constituting, for the most part, the original sources for this study. The material that has been utilized in the first three chapters is to be found chiefly in the standard histories of mathematics, but wherever possible the original sources have been consulted. Originality is claimed only for the selection and arrangement of this portion of the subject-matter and for the conclusions drawn. The material for the next three chapters has been gleaned very largely from the original sources. The author is under great obligation to Professor David Eugene Smith of Teachers College, Columbia University, under whose direction this dissertation has been prepared, for helpful counsel and criticism, and for rendering much of this work possible through his valuable collection of early printed books. Alva Wai.ke;r Stamper. New York, June, 1906. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGS THE TEACHING OF GEOMETRY BEFORE EUCLID Thb Beginning of Gbombtry Among Primitive People . 1-4 Intuitive stage 2-3 Stage in which principles are recognized. Ability to classify. Formation of rules. Practical use .... 3-4 Logical stage 4 Application with logic as a basis 4 The Egyptians 4-10 Influences that helped to develop their geometry .... 4-7 The pyramids. Rope Stretchers. Astronomy .^thetic influence. Mural decorations Utilitarian influence. The overflow of the Nile Records. —The manuscript of Ahmes; inscriptions on the Temple at Edfu 7-9 Summary 9—10 The Greeks before Euclid 10-26 The development oj the subject-matter of elementary geometry . 10-16 Thales and his school 10-11 The first propositions given to geometry. The practical not neglected. First problems of construction. Development of a deductive geometry of lines Pythagoras and his school 11-13 Development of the geometry of areas. Further contributions. Nothing known of methods of proof. Geometry becomes an abstract science The development of geometry at Athens .... 13-16 Interest in geometry. The Sophists. The schools of Plato and Aristotle. The Three Problems of Antiquity and their relation to the development of the subject-matter of geometry .... 13 Books written on geometry. Euclid not the first. Nature of the contributions. The "Eudemian Summary." The founding of solid geometry by Eudoxus 13-16 Lack of harmony between the historic sequence and that given later by Euclid 16 Educational features of the Greek geometry 16-26 In the Ionian and Pythagorean schools .... 16-17 At Athens 17-25 The Socratic method. The old Greek education. Plato's disposition of geometry in the curriculum 17-18 Four-fold division of the mathematical sciences . 18-19 Restriction as to the use of instruments . 19-20 V vi Contents Neglect of the study of solid geometry 20 Lettering of figures 21 Drawing of figures 21 Tendency to hold to the special 21-22 Conciseness of proofs . 22-23 Methods of attack 23-25 The notion of locus. The method of exhaus- tion. Reductio ad absurdum. Reduction. Analysis. The diorismus, or discussion Summary of the general characteristics of the Greek geometry 25—26 CHAPTER II THE WORK OF EUCLID AND HIS INFLUENCE ON THE SUBSEQUENT TEACHING OF GEOMETRY The Ei<Emknts of Euclid 27-31 The contributions by the earlier Greeks .... 27-28 Euclid's sequence of subject-matter. Points of de- parture from the Euclidean system 28 EucUd's sequence not the historic 28-29 The practical eliminated 29 Hypothetical constructions debarred 29 Euclid established a systematic method of proving propositions 29-30 Some adverse criticisms of Euclid 30 Summary of the three chief characteristics of the "Elements" 30—31 The Later Influence of Euclid 31-33 At Alexandria 31 With the Arabs. Translations 31—32 In Europe 32—33 Some translations of the "Elements" The use of Euclid in the medieval universities Later editions of Euclid CHAPTER III THE TEACHING OF GEOMETRY FROM EUCLID TO THE RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS At Alexandria 34-39 Archimedes 34—36 His writings. Contributions to solid geometry. Value of TT. Use of methods already laid down. Founda- tions of the integral calculus. Geometric and me- chanical proofs. A recognition of the unity of the mathematical subjects Apollonius of Perga 36 His study of the conic sections. Relation to later teaching of elementary geometry At Alexandria after Apollonius 36—39 Applications of geometry to astronomy and surveying. Those who carried on this work. The beginnings of trigonometry . 36 Extension of spherical geometry by Menelaus. Also earlier by Theodosius . 36-37 Interest in EucHd . 37-38 The commentators, Heron, Pappus, Theon, Proclus Contents vii The writings of Hypsicles, Geminus, Demascius of Demascus Ptolemy and his interest in geometry Some phases of treatment of subject-matter in the practical writings mentioned that have an educa- tional significance 38 The geometric nomenclature and symbolism of Heron. His treatment of the mensuration of heights and distances The ORIENTAI.S 39-40 The Hindus 39 Brahmagupta. His differentiation of "gross" answers from exact answers. Aryabhatta's brevity of proof. The use of verse The Arabs 39-40 Translators and preservers of Euclid and of Greek learning in general The Romans 40-42 Land surveying. The Codex Arcerianus Influence of the Alexandrian school Little influence of Euclid. Quintilian's estimate of logical g;eometry Summary showing the later influence on teaching ... 42 CHAPTER IV THE TEACHING OF GEOMETRY FROM THE RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS TO THE YEAR 1525 The Christian Schools of the Middle Ages 43-47 The works of Capella, Boethius, Isidore of Seville, Cassi- odorus, and their use in the schools 43-44 The teaching of geometry in the medieval schools before Gerbert 45 The influence of Gerbert. His geometry 45-47 Summary 4? Books on Practical Geometry before the Rise of the Universities. Books that Influenced the University Teaching 47-50 Leonardo of Pisa. Savasorda. Jordanus Nemorarius. Robertus Anglicus. Sacrobosco. Bradwardine. Regiomontanus. Educational significance of their writings The Universities of the Middle Ages 51-53 Geometry taught before the introduction of Euclid ... 51 The teaching of Euclid 51-53 At Paris, Oxford, Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, Leipzig, Bologna, and Pisa. Character of the teaching CHAPTER V THE TEACHING OF GEOMETRY FROM THE YEAR 1525 TO THE PRESENT TIME Some Early Printed Books on Geometry 55-59 Paciuolo. Fineus. Instruments employed in field work. Bartoli. Cataneo. Belli. GargioUi. Gloriosus. The viii Contents influence of Albrecht Diirer. Geometry of a single opening of the compasses Tendencies in the above works that have a bearing on teaching 59-60 Germany 60-73 The early universities 60—61 Place of geometry in the curriculum. Interest in Euclid 61-63 Geometry in the secondary schools of the sixteenth century . Geometry in the secondary schools of the seventeenth century 63-65 The influence of Comenius. The geometries of Schroter and Gruvius Geometry in the secondary schools of the eighteenth century 65-71 Importance of mathematics and science. The texts of Wolf, Kastner, and Sturm, and their influence. The Realschulen Geometry in the secondary schools of the nineteenth century 71—72 Reorganization of the Gymnasia of Prussia. Admis- sion to universities. General nature of the teaching of geometry and mathematics in general General resumi from the sixteenth century, showing the development of the teaching of geometry from the standpoint of the curriculum and of method. Tendencies most prominent 72—73 France 73-87 General survey from the sixteenth century to the middle of the eighteenth 73-74 Early books that influenced teaching 74—78 Bouvelles. Ramus. Errard. Mercator. Arnauld. Le Clerc. The interest in the teaching of geometry up to the time of the expulsion of the Jesuits The eighteenth century 78-81 General survey. Use of texts in class work. Books of Rivard, Clairaut, and La Caille. Features with educational significance. The military schools and texts used in them Legendre and his influence 81—82 The teaching of geometry in France since Legendre . 83—86 Founding of the government schools. The lyc^es. Suggestions on teaching by Lacroix. By Busset Summary 86—87 England 87-90 In the universities 87—88 The thirteenth century. The fifteenth century. First English translation of Euclid. Professorships of mathematics at Oxford and Cambridge. Euclid's "Elements" edited by Barrow, Wliiston, Simson, Gregory. In later times by Playfair and Todhunter. The traditions Euclidean Transition of geometry into the secondary schools . 88-89 Summary 89—90 Russia 90-93 Before the creation of the Gymnasia 90 The beginning practical. Influence of Peter the Great in establishing special schools where mathematics was taught. Methods employed in these Founding of the Gymnasia 91-92 Aim to develop pure science.