SEARCH A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management
Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013
D.D.C.E. Education For All
DDCE, UTKAL UNIVERSITY , BHUBANESWAR, INDIA Editorial Board Prof. S. P. Pani, Director,DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
Dr. M. R. Behera Lecturer in Odia, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
Dr. Sujit K. Acharya Lecturer in Business Administration DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
Dr. P. P. Panigrahi Executive Editor Lecturer in English, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
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ii Alberuni’s Principles of Research
My reading of ‘Alberuni’s An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030 (translated by Dr. Edward C. Sachau first published in 1888 and subsequently published in 2002 by Rupa and Co.,New Delhi) prompts me to take up ‘principles of research’ that Alberuni aspired to use as the theme for the editorial of this issue of SEARCH.
Alberuni was born in AD 973. He was taken as a prisoner of war by Mahmud to Ghazana and he had to involuntary migrate to Afghanistan. He possibly served Mahamud from A.D. 1007 – 25 and his son Masud from 1030 – 1033. It is his stay at Afghanistan and various parts of India between A.D 1017 to 1030 made him write this classic account of India. In his writings Alberuni exhibits a rare trait of a great researcher. He was not placing an Islamic point of view, far less he was not like a court poet ever eulogizing his king Mahmud. He could dare to write “He (Mahmud) utterly ruined the prosperity of the country (of India), and performed those wonderful exploits by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people”. Alberuni was not in the habit of glorification. He did not glorifying India. In fact he was quite critical, yet did not miss all opportunity to appreciate India.
From The Editor's Desk... Editor's The From Speaking of the construction of the ponds at holy bathing places, he says : “ In this they have attained a very high degree of art, so that our
iii people (the Muslims), when they see them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them, much less construct anything like them.” He had the courage to suggest that Hindu scholars and philosophers possibly enjoyed the help of God. Muslim scholars felt that Alberuni possibly lacked faith and in contrast Alberuni asserted that he remained a devout Muslim. He was not taking sides in his study, he aspired to be faithful to truth without being judgmental all the time. He was not afraid of ‘I don’t know’. He was not blind to the faults of the Arabs. He was not tricked by the priests of any religion. He never lost sight of the object of his writing. He wanted to provide necessary information and training to “any one (in Islam) who wants to converse with the Hindus, and to discuss with them questions of religion, science, or literature, on the very basis of their own civilizations”. He hastens to add “I found it very hard to work into the subject, although I have a great liking for it, in which respect I stand quite alone in my time”. Clarity of object, recognition of difficulty and refusal to seek popularity practiced by Alberuni are indeed the most desirable characters of a researcher. Like Herodotus, Alberuni understood the subtle nature of eye witness account, hearsay and historical writings (reporting). He questions “How could we know the history of nations but for the everlasting monuments of the pen?” He recognizes that value of the writing or reporting is dependent on the character of the reporters, their divergent interests, animosities and antipathies amongst nations. A reporter (researcher) must not write to further an interest of his own, his family or nation, from the motives of cupidity and animosity. One must not write under obligation or because something disagreeable has happened. Personal motives of predilection and enmity can never be the source of writing. One must not be afraid of telling truth. Compulsive liars and person with base nature have no place as scholars. A scholar while consulting earlier works must be capable of nailing lie, connect the lie with motive for the lie and even identify the originator of a story divorced from fact, iv “ That man only is praiseworthy who shrinks from a lie and always adheres to the truth, enjoying credit even among liars, not to mention other”. He quotes both the Koran and the Gospel. “Speak the truth, even if it were against yourself”. “Do not mind the fury of kings in speaking the truth before them. They only possess your body, but they have no power over your soul”. He was not writing a polemical book, “my book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts.” He aspired to compare them with Greek theories. He neither aspired to defend Hinduism nor criticize them, he wanted to present them as they are. A thousand years back Alberuni had set certain standards for research which are still valid and worth emulating. I hope contributors and readers of ‘SEARCH’ set standards for themselves.
Susmita Prasad Pani
(All quotes are from the book referred to in the text)
v Contents
Sl Title Author Page No. No
1. Drama in Performance : A Euphonic Appreciation Pratap Kumark Dash 1 of Shakespeare's King Lear (BBC) 2. The Representation of Childhood in Sandigdha Abhisek Upadhyay 10 Saisaba 3. The Dynamics of Transgressive Vampirism : A Queer Kriti K Kalia 17 Reading of Anne Rice's Interview With The Vampire 4. Odia Identity in Sarala Das's Mahabharat Biraj Mohan Das 26 5. The Upanishadic Mind : A Need of Reappraisal Bibhuti Bhusan Mohapatra 32 Prafulla Kumar Mishra 6. Spatial Distribution of Different Types of Degraded Mohammad Afsar Alam 44 and Wastelands in India : A Case Study of Bihar Zubairul Islam 7. Resistance and Obstacles Against Eradicating Saidur Rahman 57 the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Eritrea : An Empirical Analysis 8. Impact of Climate Change on Tribal Livelihood Himani Mishra 77 and Lifestyle : "A Study of a Tribal Village in the District of Koraput, Odisha". 9. Ensuring Health of the Tribal People : The Need Atashi Rath 89 for an Integrated Approach 10. Internet Use Among College Students : An Analysis Nikunja Ranjan Dash 95 11. Triple Bottom Line Concept : A Key to Sustainability Giridhari Sahoo 111 Reporting Practice 12. Our Contributors 126 13. Our Reviewers 128
vi Papers are invited for SEARCH A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management
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viii DRAMA IN PERFORMANCE: A EUPHONIC APPRECIATION OF SHAKESPEARE’S KING LEAR (BBC) Pratap Kumar Dash ABSTRACT Drama in performance is better appreciated in terms of sound-meaning, emotive and pragmatic basis as realized by the careful and critical viewership. In this context, viewing BBC Shakespeare's KingLear is a unique experience and analyzing the prominent phonemic units in the dialogs and the consonant clusters that altogether yield a good understanding of the purpose of the text. In this light, this paper is an outcome of the critical viewership of drama that leads to a phonoaesthetic study which helps us trace basically three foregrounded words like 'disposition', 'endurance' and 'foul-fiend' bearing deeper meaning. Besides, the languages of Lear, Edgar and Fool in different contexts and forms of madness excel in establishing a feature of register as well as moral philosophy in its texture. While discussing, references from both western and oriental traditions of euphony and dhvani for text analysis have been cited to make the approach impartial. Key words: Euphony, Phonoaesthetics, Foregrounding, Dhvani
INTRODUCTION which no doubt enhance the aesthetic value No doubt, there are billions of global of the text in performance. Worth saying that readership, viewership and appreciation of the play has been analyzed textually, Shakespeare’s King Lear across the thematically and philosophically and it is centuries both in English and its translated proven to be a classic on the basis of the texts. Thousands of dimensions, comparisons, celebrated themes of nothingness, madness, contrasts and intertextual interpretations have family tragedy, metaphysical elements and the already been done. But, still then the primary like. But, a multisensory and cognitive access text of it bears focalization of some pragmatic of the dialogues in terms of sound-meaning aspects added with linguistic testimony that relationship with a euphonic approach needs to be highlighted. It is pertinent enough transcends its pragmatic gravity. to say that King Lear has been audio-visually Euphonics as David Rush ( 2005) says and digitally produced differently in different the sounds that words and sentences make times and places but, watching BBC when you speak them. It is an important Shakespeare’s King Lear (2000) starring consideration in play analysis because plays Michael Hordern, John Bird, Anton Lessor, are meant to be performed, and so words Frank Middlemass, Brenda Blethyn and usually reach the audience through their ears Michael Kitchen which is produced by Shaun rather than through their eyes. Words are Sutton and directed by Jonathan Miller gives meant to provide an aural experience rather us some preliminary euphonic perceptions than a visual one, and how they sound often SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013
1 carries as much meaning as what they The performance of King Lear can be symbolize. judged well adopting this as ‘Linguistic sounds, In this sense, language of a play is very much considered as external, physical phenomenon’ like music or spoken poetry, in that it helps having ‘two aspects which have subjective, create mood by: social significance….’ (Jacobson 1987, 5-6) and amounts to the understanding of ‘linguistic • The sounds of the vowels and intuition’ of the text that is born out of consonants; nirveeda (disinterested serenity) that yields • The use of assonance, dissonance, and universal philosophical knowledge. The aim alliteration; of considering this scale of appreciation is to • The emotional quality of rhythm. (Rush express the realization of emotive 2005, 83) phonaesthetics, which is to initiate the reader The sound-meaning relationship in to read the book based on emotion, not the drama or euphonic or synonymously called story. The dialogues are meant to hold an the phonaesthetic study in this regard values underlining emotion which is then the plot or it as the inherent pleasantness or beauty movement of the play. In fact, when we are (euphony) of words and sentences yield a stuck in life, we feel a stagnant hold that better dramatic effect semantically. The captures us. So thus, we are certain of these natural chain of sound-meaning effect leads dialogues force the viewers to push through to cognitve and metacognitive stages of them and thus activate those same catalysts understanding. Finally, the texts in the (actions) within self what in the words of communicative encoding process result in the Coleridge takes us to the stage of ‘willing decoding of the multi-folded contextual, socio- suspension of disbelief’. cultural-temporal and pragmatic meanings. REVIEW OF LITERATURE The process of the clusters of phonemes shared by a group of words in the dialogues There are scores of critics evaluating which have deviational, repetitive and King Lear from different angles. The most universality of opinion like feature make it famous among them are chosen here for more meaningfully attractive. This happens review on the basis of relevance for the to be the key to oriental approach to analysis present study. A.C. Bradley (1919) one of poetry too. The psycho-phono-lexico- unchallengeable pioneers on Shakespeare syntax relationship and its effect as formulated criticism says, ‘King Lear is admittedly one in Dhvanyaloka by Anandavardhana of the world’s greatest poems, and yet there substantiates the rasa of emotive language is surely no other of these poems which through vacyartha (explicit meaning) or produces on the whole this effect….’(Bradley, mukhyartha (primary meaning) is worth 142). On language of Lear, he adds, ‘In the applicable for stylistic analysis of King Lear simplicity of its language, which consists in performance too. almost wholly of monosyllables of native origin,
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 2 composed in very brief sentences of the in better phrase, and matter then thou did’st plainest structure….The fact that Lear speaks (blind Gloucester to disguised Edgar: Lear. in passion is one cause of the difference, but 4.6.7)…….The trick of that voice I do well not the sole cause. The language is more than remember (Lear to blind Gloucester: Lear. simple, it is familiar.’ (Bradley, 147). 4.6.106). (King Lear quoted in Crystal, 103- 4). He means to say that the language of King In his Wheels of Fire, G.Wilson Knight Lear in speech acts in poetic form is more (1964) says, ‘King Lear is great in the effective and provides aesthetic relish. abundance and richness of human delineation, in the level focus of creation that builds a In the review, it is noticed that except massive oneness, in fact, a universe, of single Bradley and Crystal, others have discussed quality from a multiplicity of difference of a the play from socio-cultural, philosophical and purgatorial philosophy. But it is still greater in psychological logics accepted in literary the perfect fusion of psychological realism criticism traditionally. But, the fact remains behind that a play within its spatio-temporal- with the daring flights of a fantastic textual set up can go beyond the natural imagination. The heart of a Shakespearian reason and logic in our sense to foreground tragedy is centred in the imaginative, in the the dramatic elements in the Aristotelian unknown ……The peculiar dualism at the division of mythos, ethos, lexis, dianoia, opsis root of this play which wrenches and splits and melos. the mind by a sight of incongruities displays in turn realities absurd, hideous, pitiful.’ CRITICAL FOCUS ON (Knight, 160). He however praises it saying, FOREGROUNDED EUPHONY IN ‘The play is a microcosm of the human KING LEAR race….’ (Knight, 177-78) and ‘…. a work of A viewer response draws feedback philosophic vision. We watch not ancient from its effective staging. Thus, here the Britons, but humanity; not England, but the evaluation takes double line of the dramatic mankind.’(Knight, 180). effect as displayed by the actors and Focusing on a philosophical view, actresses as well as the text it self. Thus, it is McGinn says, ‘King Lear is more concerned realized that in King Lear, the sound effect as poetry and the dramatic presentation of with metaphysics than epistemology: it deals the play adds to the value of it. A sincere principally with questions of existence and viewer response thus corresponds to the causality rather than our ability to know repetition of the lexis ‘disposition’, ‘endure’ reality.’ (McGinn, 138). and ‘foul fiend’ spoken in different contexts. David Crystal (2008), the famous These words seem to be the tonal nucleus in linguistic critic of our time however examines the dialogues holding the theme. Mutually the play stylistically and puts emphasis on exclusive factors of these words constitute sounds and voice quoting the King: ‘Me the strength of the protagonist in the play. An thinkes thy voyce is alter’d, and thou speak’st analysis of the three words are done below.
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 3 I. THE TRAIT OF DISPOSITION the manifestation of all the evil thoughts as reflected in his actions. Many terms have been used lexically to describe what we mean by dispositions i.e. Then, Goneril in response to Lear’s svabha:vam : ‘ability’, ‘potency’, ‘capability’, question: ‘Are you our daughter?’, replies: ‘tendency’, ‘potentiality’, ‘proclivity’, ‘….make use of that good wisdom and put ‘capacity’, and so forth. Analyses of away these dispositions that of late dispositions usually proceed on the assumption transform you from what rightly are.’ that, for any disposition, we can identify its (1.4.225). With this, Goneril makes it clear stimulus conditions and manifestations. It is that the disposition of wisdom in reality is better typically said that dispositions would exhibit than ego and emotion. Her use of ‘disposition’ implies a pragmatic and practical use of their ‘characteristic manifestations’ under knowledge. On the third occasion, Goneril some ‘stimulus conditions’, the va:sanas . responds to Albany saying, ‘Now, gods that Philosophers find it useful to distinguish two we adore, where of comes this?’ Goneril sorts of disposition, or alternatively, two ways replies, ‘Never afflict yourself to know the of referring to dispositions. Conventional cause; But let his (the King) disposition have dispositions are typically expressed by such that scope that dotage gives it.’ (1.4.295). simple predicates as ‘fragile’, ‘soluble’, Here, the disposition takes the means of self- ‘flammable’, and so on, which include no experiential reality. explicit reference to their stimulus conditions and manifestations. It is the reflection on On the fourth incident, Albany says to Goneril, ‘O Goneril! You are not worth the values, maximizing internal self, the natural dust which the rude wind blows in your face. qualities of a person’s character, I fear your disposition.’ (4.2.31). Albany temperament, a tendency to behave in a utterly rejects the activities of Goneril who particular way. exterminates herself from any rational thought Reflection on ‘disposition’ of human that inflames the tragic intensity of Lear. self seems to be one of the key ideas in King In the word ‘disposition’, the consonant Lear. It has been emphatically used in the prominence phonemes /d/, /s/, /p/, /z/ and /?/ play four times. Edmund, first of all says that represent sharp and colder moods altogether. the position, thought and action of human being This leads to a semantic interpretation of the are dispositioned ‘by an enforced planetary natural tendencies of each individual to take influence’ which seems to be ‘a divine thrust’ on a certain position in any field. There is no as he says: ‘An admirable evasion of strict determinism through one’s dispositions whoremaster man, to lay his goatish or the choice of positions. On the four disposition on the charge of a star.’ (1.2.130- occasions, the two opposing conceptual 31). Owing to his bastard background, he meanings of ‘disposition’ have been clashed. claims, ‘I am rough and lecherous.’(1.2.135). The self reflective disposition in Edgar and In his dialogues, the meaning of disposition is Goneril are the antagonistic manifestations
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 4 whereas the referential meanings of spiritual crisis added to storm both internal disposition for Lear are expressive of the right and external proves the two characters to be use of knowledge in pragmatic and heroic. experiential context. This logically makes us III. THE EXCEPTIONS OF THE feel the presence of the two conflicted forces DRAMA OF MADNESS of good and evil in the play. Madness is the most impressive II. THE STOIC LEAR AND EDGAR dramatic performance in the play justifying Another striking feature is noticed in the the implicit and metaphorical mode of actions of both Lear and Edgar that they are disposition of the characters of Lear, Edgar stoics. They suffer pain or trouble in and Fool. Really they discovered the ‘foul- accordance with the highest perfection to fiend’ among humans in madness. Thus, it which man could attain. It is clear that both projects three major personalities of the Lear out of his misjudgment and Edgar due King, Edgar and Fool in three different ways. to his simplicity suffer. However, dramatically The performance of fool in pretension of it is a way to display their heroism too. This is being mad is wittiest whereas the utterances evident from their expressions. In an of both the King and Edgar as a bedlam occasion, Lear intends to talk to Gloucester beggar are astoundingly philosophical. It to call Cornwall to know the cause of seems as if Shakespeare has fitted the texts punishment to Kent as he says, ‘…… we of maxims of quality deliberately within the are not ourselves when nature, being absurd texts of madness to make the oppress’d, commands the mind to suffer with discourse strategically meaningful and the body: I’ll forbear…’. (2.4.104-6). Also ideologically loaded. Edgar says, ‘O, matter Lear says, ‘…the tempest in mind doth from of impertinency mixed; Reason in madness.’ my senses take all feeling else save what (4.6.175-6). In fact, there is no reason or beats there.’ (3.4.12) ‘…. No, I will weep no coherence in both verbal and non verbal more … pour on, I will endure. (3.4.18). entities in madness. But, this happens to be one of the impressive dramatic performances Edgar says to Gloucester suffering blind in King Lear. Shakespeare has excelled in injury, ‘What, in ill thoughts again? Men must writing the language of madness. ‘For much endure their going hence, even as their of the play, we watch as Lear loses his sanity coming hither; Ripeness is all: come on.’ because the injustice of his treatment and the (5.2.9-11). This stoic nature of Lear is resulting emotional stress prove too much for complemented by Kent at the death of Lear him. In his madness, however, we see the as he says, ‘The wonder is, he hath endured beginnings of a new and wiser identity.’ so long. He but usurped his life.’ (5.3.318-9). (Mulder 2000, 127). Edgar complements the In the utterance of this word, the vowel insanity of the King but the dramatic prominence of /I/, /j/, /u/, / ? / carry subtle importance of it remains intact as emotional values. Forbearance or endurance ‘Shakespeare plays with the idea of real of adversities at the cost of encountering insanity and mock madness throughout the SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 5 play.’ (Mulder,128) and this makes the Rive your concealing continents, and cry euphonic effect stronger. These dreadful summoners grace. I am The language of madness in King Lear a man is systematically an outcome of a purgatorial More sinn’d against than sinning. infection of gigantic souls of Lear and Edgar. (3.2.48-59) After getting humiliated by the two daughters, the King admits that he is ‘cut to the brains’ The /k/, /t/, /d/, /m/ and /n/ prominence (4.6.194). When he loses patience, he cries, makes the dialogue aggressive, warmer and ‘Vengeance, plague, death, confusion!’ clipped. The consonantal effect of ‘concealing (2.4.93). This is followed by another dialogue continents, and cry’ and ‘sinn’d…sinning’; the displaying his sense of humiliation and broken phonic clusters of consonants /gr/, /dr/, /tr/, / heart: ‘Prithee, daughter, do not make me mad. cr/, /pr/ express the graveness. The I will not trouble thee, my child; statement, ‘I am a man…’ is the prominent farewell.’(2.4.215-16). The next moment, he in the entire dialogue distinguishing Lear from lapses into suffocation as he says, ‘I have a his kingship and he henceforward turns to full cause of weeping; but heart shall break become a common man. The comparativity into a hundred thousand flaws…. I shall go in the statement is tonally prominent as it is mad.’ (2.4.281-3). He continues his reckless the self-confession of Lear. Then, in the next outburst of the preliminary symptoms of dialogue, he seems to get confused and thus madness with a series of words with declares, ‘My wits begin to turn.’(2. 2. 85). consonantal effects: This happens to be the turning point in his role. There is /t/ prominence there expressing Let the great gods, the change of his mind. In the same dialogue That keep this dreadful pother o’er our he is transformed to be a philosopher by heads, saying ‘The art of our necessities are strange Find out their enemies now. Tremble, and can make vile things precious.’(3. 2.71). thou wretch, From a king to a man and then a mad man, the stages mark the development of his That hast within thee undivulged crimes, personality as his mind leads him from the Unwhipp’d of justice: hide thee, thou state of ego to superego. bloody hand; The staging of the storm scenes on the Thou perjured, and thou simular man of heath has high dramatic effect. The most virtue profound storm exists in Lear’s mind. The That art incestuous: caitiff, to pieces overall success of the scene, however, shake, depends entirely upon Lear himself. That under covert and convenient To quote Mulder, thematically ‘Lear seeming shouts at the storm, addressing the winds and Hast practised on man’s life: close pent- rains almost as if they were human, both we up guilts, and Lear recognize that a new view of reality SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 6 is appearing here.’ (Mulder, 135). When in state of the King. The words ‘senses’, and power and glory, Lear was accustomed to ‘feeling’ are linked to imagination which is in viewing life, nature and the consequences of ‘tempest’ now which is the right metaphor cause-effect were as predictable, reasonable, for the state of madness. and controllable. But, now things go beyond his royal egoism by overthrowing him to a Violence in nature internal matches with new reality quite ironically. Self-confession nature external and results in ‘greater followed by experiencing irony makes him an malady’. As a result, Lear declares that one ultimate stoic philosopher. What’s more, looses the feelings through senses if mind is dramatically, in the dialogues in Scene 4, his in tempest. The euphonics of madness expressions reveal dichotomy of body and enhances the pragmatic gravity of the play mind and the speeches give prominence to / as it echoes his commitment to endurance p/, /b/, /t/, /m/, /n/ as he says: rhetorically. It is evidential from the binary opposition of comparative degrees ‘greater’ Thou think’st ’tis much that this conten- and ‘lesser’ and the emphasis obtained in the tious storm use of ‘scarce’ before the verb ‘felt’ and ‘doth Invades us to the skin: so ’tis to thee; + take’. But where the greater malady is fix’d, Reflecting on eating dirty foods The lesser is scarce felt. Thou’ldst continuously reinforce the listeners’ mind shun a bear; convey a subtle sense of the things that are connected together. Edgar, disguised as a But if thy flight lay toward the raging sea, bedlam beggar excels in speech as he says with /d/ prominence and repeats ‘foul fiend’ Thou’ldst meet the bear i’ the mouth. echoing ‘fair is foul’ in Macbeth implying the When the mind’s free, gloomy atmosphere: The body’s delicate: the tempest in my mind Edgar: Poor Tom, that eats the Doth from my senses take all feeling swimming frog, the else toad, the todpole, the wall-newt and the Save what beats there…….O, that way water; that madness lies; in the fury of his heart, when the foul let me shun that; No more of that. (3.4.6- fiend rages, 22). eats cow-dung for sallets, swallows the The dialogue seems to be partly old rat and incoherent semantically but, the two lines: ‘But the ditch-dog, drinks the green mantle where the greater malady…..’ and ‘….the of the standing tempest in my mind doth from my…’ are pool; who is whipped from tithing to logically strengthening the stoic and cognitive tithing, and SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 7 stock-punished and imprisoned; who When that which makes me bend hath had three makes the King bow. suits to his back, six shirts to his body. He childed as I fathered. Tom, away. Horse to ride, and weapon to wear, Mark the high noises, and thyself bewray But mice and rats, and such small deer, When false opinion, whose wrong thoughts defile thee, Have been Tom’s food for seven long year. In thy just proof repeals and reconciles thee. Beware my follower! Peace, Smulkin, peace, thou fiend! (3.4.127-38) What will hap more to-night, safe ‘scape the King! The consonant sound of /th/ is still dominating in the next dialogue with dog Lurk, lurk. [Exit] (3.6.100-13) imagery as he says: The line ‘He childed as I fathered’ is Edgar: Tom will throw his head at them. lexical deviation but it has deeper meaning befitting to the dramatic background. It Avaunt, you curs. focuses on both Lear and Edgar as implicit Be thy mouth or black or white, characters. Factually, Lear was betrayed by Tooth that poisons if it bite…..(3.4. 50- his children and now, in madness, he behaves 61) like a child; and at the same time, Edgar was ironically disbelieved by his father, but now, In the expressions of madness, there is he is the support for him after he is blinded. compactness and illocutionary force. It can The viewers succumb to the illusion of the be marked from the following dialogue in play as reality only because of the texture of couplet: the play has a number of maxims bearing Edgar: When we our betters see bearing autonomy with independent sense relations our woes, with the viewers. We scarcely think our miseries our foes. To quote Aristotle, ‘No excellent soul is Who alone suffers suffers most i’ th’ exempt from a mixture of madness’, which mind, entails the idea that insanity is not a distinct Leaving free things and happy and separate entity. There is a ring of truth, shows behind; then, in the Fool’s description of the world as But then the mind much sufferance doth a place where the ‘upside-down’ is normal. o’erskip But the mystery remains regarding how everything that seems wrong can ultimately When grief hath mates, and bearing be right. It is noticed that in madness, both fellowship. Lear and Edgar use denotative statements How light and portable my pain seems consisting of conceptual metaphors related now, to life in general. So, those statements are
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 8 rather semantic metalanguage and can be REFERENCES taken as models of dialects or discourse of Bradley, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy: madness. A close examination of the discourse Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King feature of the dialogs in madness does not Lear and Macbeth, London: Macmillan have single non-fluency features. So, it is and Co., 1919. Print. evident that madness is the most important dramatic event and textually very vital in the Crystal, David. Think on My Words: play. Exploring Shakespeare’s Language, New York: CUP, 2008. Print. CONCLUSION Jacobson, Roman. Language in Literature, Earlier, King Lear has been discussed Ed. Krystyna Pomorska and Stephen in many thematic and literary ways. In Rudy, London: Harvard University addition, some have given importance on the Press,1987. Print. flaw or the tragic aspect of it. Some others focus on the theme of nothingness too. But, Knight, G.W. The Wheel of Fire: in our estimation, the seed of the dramatic Interpretation of Shakespeare’s thought as evidenced in viewership Tragedy, New York: Meredian Books, appreciation construes on a logical The World Publishing Company, 1964. relationship among ‘disposition’, ‘endurance’ Print. and ‘foul-fiend’ which can be presented in McGinn, Collin. Discovering the Meaning an equation that personal bias (i.e. Lear’s behind the Plays: Shakespeare’s daughters) plus evil (the role of Edmund) Philosophy, Harper Collins e-books, effects in madness (Lear, Edgar and Fool) n.d. 20 February 2013. which constitutes the resultant epistemic (metaphysical morality), existentialist
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 9 THE REPRESENTATION OF CHILDHOOD IN SANDIGDHA ÇAIÇABA Abhisek Upadhyay ABSTRACT Ontologically speaking, childhood is the opposite of adulthood and vice versa. Without the idea of adulthood there would be no meaning to childhood. Similarly, without the idea of childhood the idea of adulthood would be incomplete. Often this interdependence results in a conflict of values. In This paper I will analyse this relationship of interdependence and opposition in Diptiranjan Pattanaik's composite novel in Odia Sandigdha Çaiçaba. Although the composite novel prima facie appears to be simple tale of transition from childhood to adolescence, a critical examination reveals that the central theme is the conflict of childhood and adulthood values and Banka's struggle to escape childhood and its concomitant adult impositions. Banka's defiance at the end demonstrates that emancipation of childhood is possible in a world meant for its containment. Key words: Children’s literature, Child psychology, Odia literature, Composite novel, Bhasa literature It is commonly believed that childhood as imperfection accounts for three proclivities is a transitory phase of life leading to relevant in the context of the intricate adulthood .This simplistic and widely held relationship of childhood and adulthood—(1) view is rendered problematic when the The tendency on the part of the child to ontological interdependence of childhood and escape its childhood in the least possible adulthood is foregrounded. Ontologically, the period and to grow into an adult, (2) the term childhood is defined in opposition to proclivity on the part of the adult to deny the adulthood, and adulthood is defined in entry of the growing child into the adult world opposition to childhood; without the idea of and (3) the tendency on the part of adults to adulthood there would be no meaning to ignore and consider inconsequential the set childhood; and similarly, without the idea of of values that characterise childhood. This childhood the idea of adulthood would be binary privileging is also the basis of the incomplete. In other words, a child is one who “adultist” fear of being perceived as childish is not an adult, and an adult, who is not a or childlike, which to the adult is a kind of child. Further, childhood and adulthood ontological regression into childhood. This constitute a binary system or opposition, in eventuates in the suppression of the “child which adulthood is always privileged or within” and also the “child without,” that is, favoured. Similarly, adulthood is taken to suppression of “childist” values and imposition represent perfection, and childhood as of “adultist” values on the child. The child, imperfection. This privileging of adulthood consequentially, has to suffer the dual over childhood and perception of childhood oppression of the adult world—the SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 10 suppression of “childist” values and the denial closure; take off in a different direction. of an autonomous identity. Sandigdha Çaiçaba follows this The interplay of these proclivities is seen characteristic of the composite novel and it in the representation of childhood and doesn’t have a unified story or linear adulthood in Diptiranjan Pattanaik’s narration. There are gaps between the stories Sandigdha Çaiçaba. The work, as the author and the story instead of ending with a closure, describes in the preface, is a composite novel. takes off in a different direction. This literary The composite novel today is an obscure form form has proliferated in the twentieth century. and hasn’t been acknowledged universally as J. Gerald Kennedy attributes for the appeal a separate genre. The label was first of the form the desire “to renounce the advanced by critics in the 1990s to denote a organizing authority of an omniscient narrator, book consisting of independent stories which asserting instead a variety of voices or interconnect and join together to form a larger perspectives reflective of the radical whole; Sandigdha Çaiçaba fits this definition subjectivity of modern experience. Kennedy finds this proliferation in keeping with of the composite novel as it is a collection modernism and its use of fragmentation, of eight stores which are interdependent juxtaposition and simultaneism to reflect what and join to form a larger whole. Other labels the “multiplicity” that characterizes the used interchangeably for such works are century (x-xi) . short story collection, short story sequence, and short story cycle. Rolf Lundén in his Writers often use several devices to The united stories of America: studies in weave the stories together in a composite the short story composite introduces the novel: common geographical area, central term “short story composite” to denote such protagonist, collective protagonist, recurring works arguing that the term composite patterns, frame story, story-telling or journey. novel invites unnecessary comparison of In the case of Sandigdha Çaiçaba the such works with novels and expectations device which weaves the stories together of a “unified story, coherent narration and is the common central protagonist Banka. closure neither of which is necessarily a Rolf Lundén has suggested four types of characteristic of the short story composite.” cycles, in order of decreasing unity: the Similarly, he finds the term short story cycle, in which the ending resolves the collection suggesting separateness of the conflicts brought up at the beginning; the stories rather than interrelation, whereas the sequence, in which each story is linked to term short story sequence and short story the ones before it but without a cumulative cycle has connotations of temporal linearity story that ties everything together; the and cyclicity respectively. Very often cluster, in which the links between stories composite novels lack causality and linear are not always made obvious and in which unfolding of action. Sequential development the discontinuity between them is more of action is not exclusive to such works and significant than their unity ; and the novella, very often the story instead of ending with a in the classical sense of a collection of SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 11 unrelated stories brought together by a whereas the technique of multiple narrative frame story and a narrator(s) (37-38). perspectives differentiates Banka’s “childist” sensibility from his adult family members. The Sandigdha Çaiçaba is influenced by J. text presents an insight into childhood and D. Salinger’s composite novel written around society’s ideological position and attitude the “Glass Children.” But whereas Salinger towards it. It presents childhood as a separate used collective protagonists for his stories, ontological state and a vulnerable phase of Pattanaik uses a single central protagonist. life. Children, who are the most The central protagonist of the composite novel disempowered class of society, are expected is Bankanidhi Harichandan, frequently by the society to conform to adult norms and referred in the stories as Banka. The central values. Children are seen as objects and not concern of the work is Banka’s conflicted, subjects and are deprived of a social space. fear and guilt-ridden childhood. Banka’s As a result, the child, like Banka, experiences desire and struggle to escape childhood and psychological conflict and trauma. its denial by the adult world and the concomitant adult impositions is deftly In the early part of the composite novel, embedded in what appears prima facie to be Banka is presented as a studious boy, who is a simple tale of transition from childhood into liked by his teachers. He embodies the general adolescence. The stories are set, for the most desires and infatuations of childhood. He is part of the composite novel, in the suburban awestruck when he meets Debashish and town of Chowdwar in Odisha. The setting envies his life of freedom and flair. He pines temporarily changes to Puri when Banka goes to be like him, though only to be disillusioned on a trip for the first time out of his hometown later. He longs for a life of freedom and with a friend, to his maternal uncle’s village adventure which is not allowed by the adults for summer vacation, and eventually to of his family. However, the distinguishing Cuttack when Banka leaves his school and characteristic of Banka that sets him apart is takes admission in the prestigious Ravenshaw his refined sensibility, his extreme sensitivity College. However, the real setting of these to things happening around him, and his love stories, where the most significant action takes for freedom of thought, which is denied to place, is Banka’s mind. The fact that there is him by the adults of his family. One example no mention of the physical growth of Banka which shows his extreme sensitivity to his underscores the central theme of the stories— surroundings is the differential effects of a the conflict of “childist” values and “adultist” storm on a tree and a tennis court. The fact values that takes place in Banka’s mind. The that the storm can stir the trees, but has no stories make use of the narrative technique effect on the tennis court, inspires him to of interior monologue to give a close-up view “harden his mind like the tennis court” to face of the processes of Banka’s mindscape, his the storm of adult life (100). A straightforward prolonged self-questioning and narcissistic question asked to him about his aim in life by disappointments as he grows up under the a passenger while travelling on a boat spurs stifling gaze and impositions of the adult world; him to ponder over the uniform parental
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 12 expectation that their child should grow up do things which he doesn’t like and coerced into a doctor or an engineer only and concludes to toe the line of the adults. Restriction is not that “all letters need not be written in the same only put on his thinking but also his movement. format” (25). He reads about the adventurous lives of Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer in books He realizes the double standards of the but realizes how his life is diametrically adult world, when his uncle who neglects his opposite to them. Banka ponders about the own studies, often takes Banka to task for use of reading these children adventure books not studying. He is sexually abused by the when one is not allowed the freedom to maid-servant in the backyard after which he experience these adventures. Ironically, had to constantly live in constant fear and though children are encouraged to read these guilt for sometime because the maid-servant books, they are discouraged to follow a similar taking advantage of Banka’s childhood life of freedom and adventure. innocence threatened to reveal the incident to his parents. The episode demonstrates Several types of characters surround powerfully the traumatic effects of sexual Banka in the stories. Whereas, some are abuse and the trauma which innocent children sympathetic, others are apathetic. Characters undergo for no fault of their own. like his father, uncle and his class mates in the last chapter try to determine his identity Throughout the eight stories Banka gets and restrict his personality. Banka fears his lost in prolonged self-questioning, reflection uncle who represents the forces of adult and meditations about things which are taken impositions in the novel. Banka has been badly for granted by his friends and adults in his thrashed several times by his uncle in the past. society. During these meditations, he presents He fears that his uncle will hammer him again his critical views on various aspects of adult when he loses his toothbrush or if he finds life such as social institutions, love, marriage, him on a train to Puri. When he forgets to and education which constitute a critique of buy a paan for him from the market, his uncle the adult world view from the point of view slaps him tightly. His grandma also lacks of a child. sympathy towards him. She doesn’t take good In contrast to Banka’s sensitivity to the care of him when Banka’s mother is away. “adultist” values, the adults surrounding She cooks delicacies and savouries for his Banka are utterly insensitive to the differential uncle, but doesn’t allow Banka to have them. ethic of childhood. The adults of his family She gives him less to eat, in order to avoid take him solely as an object to satisfy their taking care of Banka, if he falls ill due to egotistical impulses or to displace their anger overeating. Also, very often the adults in the onto and fail to understand his emotional and stories take their anger out on Banka. For intellectual needs. Banka is not given his due instance, in the first story his mother beats importance in the family by the adults, of him up ruthlessly for no fault of his. Banka which he is very much a part. Many finds this type of adult behaviour irrational restrictions are put on him and he is asked to although adult are supposed to be more rational
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 13 than children. This ironical difference in the situation, his uncle fails to understand the psychology is best described by Otto Rank situation. On the contrary, his uncle suspects and Robert Kramer in their book A Banka of mischief and making friends with Psychology of Difference in the following bad boys. Many a times the adults have failed words: to understand Banka’s perspective. Banka wanted to live a life of independence in a We [Adults] badly misunderstand the hostel but was put up with his uncle. Banka, child whenever we want to interpret its purely impulsive and emotional who was not allowed to think for himself as a manifestations intellectually. This is child, who had to toe the line of the adults till impossible—and leads not just to the now, for the first time stands up to the adult misunderstanding the child, but worse, world and confronts his uncle face to face. to a complete misunderstanding of his Many a times before he wanted to confront expressions. the adult world but couldn’t. After a long … scuffle he decides to leave his uncle’s house to live a life of freedom in the hostel. The In contrast, to the adult’s composite novel ends with Banka going into misunderstanding of the child’s his room to pack his belongings to and live a emotional life is the child’s incredibly life of independence and form his own subtle and psychologically correct identity. Thus, eventually Banka has been able reaction to all emotional manifestations of the adult. (208) to take a decision on his own and tries to exist independently in society, in line with his thinking The subtle conflict of “childist” and that “all letters need not follow the same “adultist values” takes a concrete format” (16). Banka’s personality manifestation toward the end of the novel development follows the process of child when Banka leaves his school and takes personality development suggested by Arthur admission in Ravenshaw College. He has Coleman Danto, Gregg Horowitz and Tom trouble adjusting in this big educational Huhn as follows: institution and very soon becomes the odd man out. His Odia medium schooling and rural The child develops a personality — a upbringing make him feel inferior to his peers self-definition, so to speak — in response to schooled in English medium institutions in the adult impositions that pass themselves off as city and he easily becomes the object of rooted in the child’s own needs; the child is pranks of the city-bred bullies. In one such encouraged and expected to identify with the incident, Banka stands up to the bullies and impositions … in adolescence the child throws protests against them for their comments on off the impositions as arbitrary demands for the Physics teacher. As a result of his inauthenticity and begins to pursue genuine uprightness he was thrown into the mud in self-definition. (27). rain by the bullies of his class. When he In all the stories Banka fights out adult returns home with soiled clothes and explains impositions and restrictions. In the beginning SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 14 the fight takes place psychologically, leaving old worn out house of adult occurring in his mind. In the earlier stories, impositions and restrictions which we see that he feels the urge to fight the suppresses a child from thinking adult impositions, but doesn’t let it out. independently, and to recognise and Many a times in the early part of the perceive things on his own. This is where composite novel, he wanted to resist these Banka is able to take his first step to achieve forces but could not. After leaving his increasing autonomy from parental figures school, Banka wanted to live a life free of that surround him. Banka announces in the adult impositions and restrictions and last story that, “I would not stay here [his pursue genuine self-definition rather than uncle’s home] even for a minute. I would stay being defined by the adult world. His wish in hostel or a mess.” The novel ends with to stay in the hostel was not heeded by his Banka preparing to leave his uncle’s home parents and he was put up in his uncle’s and packing his belongings. It is reminiscent home. His resistance remains inarticulate of Nora’s slamming of the door in Ibsen’s and invisible until the final part of the story. The Doll’s House, which symbolically stands It is only in the last story that he escapes for Nora’s revolt against her husband and childhood and enters adolescence by patriarchy. taking a decision on his own, which is the After deciding to leave his uncle’s home, culminating decision to leave his Uncle’s Banka’s dilemmas and ideological conflicts house to stay in the hostel. It is also the are resolved. He gets all the answers to the first time that he confronts the adult world questions which had been bothering him. face to face. In the last chapter, we hear Thus, the stories relate Banka’s journey from his resolute voice, instead of vague childhood to adolescence, from the thoughts; he leaves the old world and confinement of the home to the broadness of enters a new one. Banka’s step is a step college life, from a rural background to an forward to a world of independence where urban setting. The stories reflect the he confirms his identity. The whole work difficulties of growing up and the discrepancy is a continuous movement from his obscure he finds between his expectations and reality. identity to a clear identity. Banka always The stories also show how a child is used had an urge to protest against the double and misused by various agents of the society standards of the adult world. But he has which prevents him from forming his own never been able to express it out of fear identity and opinion. The adult worldview and of physical punishment. It is only in the attitude doesn’t allow the child a favourable last story that he is able to express his atmosphere to develop his individuality. The protest against the arbitrary adult text shows how a child struggles with the impositions and restrictions. Thus, the adult world for self-definition. Banka’s silent revolution culminates, as Banka struggle begins with helplessness and speaks up, leaving his Uncle’s house, also dilemmas, but ends with a promise for SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 15 something better. This is possible because of WORKS CITED his innate sensibility, and love for freedom of Çaiçaba thought. Banka shows that there is all Pattanaik, Diptiranjan. Sandigdha . possibility to form your identity. Whether one Cuttack: Friends' Publishers, 2010. gets it or not, one should fight against these Danto, Arthur Coleman, Gregg Horowitz forces. The composite novel while contributing to the preservation of childhood and Tom Huhn. The wake of art: criticism, values, tries to undermine the adult ideology philosophy, and the ends of taste. which tries to deny the childhood values. The Amsterdam: Routledge, 1998. composite novel “preaches the ‘emancipation’ Dunn, Maggie and Ann R. Morris. The of childhood as against its ‘containment’” composite novel: the short story cycle in (Pattanaik 3). It has all the potential to act as transition. Twayne Publishers, 1995. an instrument of adult sensitization to the issues of the child. Our society treats children Kennedy, J. Gerald. Modern American as passive, unthinking, naïve, helpless objects Short Story Sequences: Composite Fictions that will become active, thinking, intelligent and Fictive Communities. New York: and helping when they become adult without Cambridge University Press, 1995. allowing freedom of thought, freedom of movement, and freedom of choice to the Lundén, Rolf. The united stories of America: children. Most often than not the child in such studies in the short story composite. a stifling social setup fails to grow into a Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999. healthy adult unless it revolts against the Pattanaik, Diptiranjan. Subversive structures set up by the adult. Banka’s defiance at the end demonstrates that Innocence. Cuttack: Friends' Publishers, emancipation of childhood is possible in a 2002. world meant for its containment. Rank, Otto and Kramer, Robert. A psychology of difference: the American lectures. Sussex: Princeton University Press, 1996.
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 16 THE DYNAMICS OF TRANSGRESSIVE VAMPIRISM: A QUEER READING OF ANNE RICE’S INTERVIEW WITH THE VAMPIRE Kriti K Kalia There is probably no area of social life veiled discourses about sex. (Foucault 8) today that is more volatile than sexuality and Queer literary studies, have followed sexual identity. Every day seems to churn out Foucault’s lead to engage in observations of debates centering on questions about sexual concealed manifestations of repressed behavior which is not normative, sexualities and have sought to reveal projectedperversion and choices, about the allegorical parables of gender and sexuality meaning and place of sexuality in shaping within popular as well as canonical texts. human lives. Being socially, historically and culturally constructed, ‘sexuality’ and ‘gender’ Initially a source of both erotic anxiety are conventions that relate not only to the and immoral desire, the ambiguous figure of physical body but also to beliefs, ideologies, the literary vampire is one of the most and imaginations, which makes it almost powerful archetypes bequeathed upon us from impossible for them to have singular the imagination of the nineteenth century. It definitions. Any challenge to the established is the rich metaphorical usefulness of the boundaries of gender and sexuality that vampire, which I believe, helps to explain its presume and preempt the permutations of continuing ‘undeath’ in contemporary popular conceivable and feasible gender culture, its powerful grip on our imaginations. configurations within culture, is a trangressive The figure of the vampire as a metaphor can expression which debunks the parameters relate to the sexuality, to power; it can also positioned within a hegemonic cultural etch out more specific contemporary concerns discourse grounded in polarities and binaries, such as relations of power and alienation, and appears in the language of universal attitude towards illness, representing the queer prudence. or the outsider and the definition of evil at the end of an unprecedentedly secular century. In an article entitled “On becoming a Lesbian Reader,” Alison Hennegan suggests Gay and lesbian readers have been fast that the process of queer reading comprises to ascertain a connection with the a search for the occulted manifestation of representation of the vampire, suggesting that lesbian and gay sensibilities, even when those its experience parallels that of the sexual expressions must be contrived through the outsider. In “Children of the Night”, Richard most arduous “textual exegesis.” (Sweet Dyer summarizes many of the recurring Dreams165- 190) Arguing against the idea homoerotic motifs of vampire fiction, the chief that western culture has been sexually ones being the persistence of a prohibited repressed, Michel Foucault observes that passion, necessity of secrecy (staying ‘in the since the enlightenment, the history of closet’), the creatures’ guilt and alienation and sexuality has involved the proliferation of the fear of discovery. (Sweet Dreams 47– SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 17 72, emphasis in the original) Anne Rice is one The debut novel of Anne Rice, Interview of the very first authors to have molded the with the Vampire(1976) appealed to a large vampire myth to create the type of vampires popular audience and established her as a who “take the color of their times so well foremost contemporary author of horror that they make their stagy originator Dracula fiction. In Interview with the Vampire, a appear quaintly obsolete.” (Auerbach 109) vampire named Louis shares his life story and Her novels introduced the world to post- adventures with a young reporter who tape- modern vampire lore together with the notion records their session. Recalling his conversion that this vampire has a history and believes to a vampire in 1790 at the age of twenty- in the construct of community. When Rice five, Louis describes his first kill and his eventually published her novels in the 1970s evolving relationships with Lestat, his maker, and 80s, she helped to resurrect the entire and Claudia, a child-vampire whom they have Vampire genre, which is probably why a vast created together. Unlike Claudia and Lestat majority of all vampires in Neo-Gothic fiction who celebrate brutal bloodshed, Louis is are similar to Rice’s Lestat or Louis in plagued by a moral dilemma—he believes it behaviour and looks. is wrong to kill, but he must kill to eat. A The publication of Rice’s The Vampire subsequent power struggle between Louis and Chronicles significantly strengthened the Lestat results in Lestat’s second death. After widely acknowledged parallel between the a lot of unprecedented events transpire, Louis queer and the vampire. In virtually each of returns to New Orleans where he is an her novels, Rice has endeavored to contest outcast. the culturally imposed silence upon the issue The paper aims at exploring portrayals of homosexuality, a move that is both of transgressive sexuality and gender in Anne noteworthy and daring in popular fiction Rice’s Interview with the Vampire through because it is obligatory silence that queer theory and seeks to find out how do perpetuates repression and falsity. John these shifts eventually serve to make the Preston describes the appeal of the author’s vampire transgress his own ‘normative fiction to the gay community: vampirism’. Since the genre is known for its The passage about initiation…and the connections to sexuality and in this particular concepts of being separate from the novel, two of the three major relationships society- perhaps even above it, but always are between men, queer theory becomes a estranged by it- fit most gay men’s self- viable premise to assess it on.The purpose of images. (qtd in Keller 13) One the other the paper is not to sound the presence of each hand, the author is also often accused of and every manifestation of same-sex desire having internalized heterosexist motions, in the text (although some of it will be which later are unconsciously integrated in necessary), but to expose the various the fabric of her novels. ramifications of the queer reading of the text – positive as well as destructive, subversive
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 18 as well as conformist. This comparative to move, he pressed his right fingers to analysis will be grounded broadly in themes my lips…and as soon as I stopped my of homoeroticism, homosexual expressions, abortive attempt at rebellion, he sank his identity and family. teeth into my neck…I remember that Dennis Harper states that “queer is by the movement of his lips raised the hair definition whatever is at odds with the normal, all over my body. (Rice 18) the legitimate, the dominant. There is nothing Calling this premiere encounter with in particular to which it necessarily refers. It Lestat as a “the pleasure of passion” (Rice is an identity without essence.” (Harper 62) 18), Louis admits that the actual turning could Gregory W. Bredbeckcalls queer theory “a be very likely compared to the act of sex for plural and diffuse set of practices, not a a virgin, something as immortal as the vampire unified field of theory” which is “being itself: “I can’t tell you exactly, any more than continuously rewritten and redefined.” I could tell you exactly what the experience (Bredbeck 3) Terri. R. Liberman identifies of sex is if you have never had it” (Rice 15). the violation of moral taboos, particularly the The metaphorical allusion of this sexual erotic ones, as one of the most engaging encounter is apparently rendered complete features of Anne rice’s works and Interview with Louis and Lestat sharing a coffin on with the Vampire is no exception. To begin Louis’ “first night as a vampire” when Lestat, with, Interview with the Vampireabounds in while getting into his coffin remarks to Louis, instances representative of homoeroticism. “…I’m getting into the coffin…and you will While the act of biting and sucking blood to get in on top of me if you know what’s good ‘turn’ someone (into a vampire) is a very for you” and Louis responds by “…lay[ing] potent sexual image in itself, the relationships face-down on him.” (Rice 25) Even though that the vampires share amongst themselves Louis professedly hates Lestat, he feels eerily can easily be described in vivid homoerotic bound to him and “vividly aware of him” (Rice terms; out of these, the various nuances of 154) no matter where he goes; he is a relationship between Louis, Lestat and presence in Louis’ mind more than any other. Armand – the three vampire protagonists of On the reverse side, this union might be seen the novel, who are noticeably queer- will form as a sexual assault comprising of an erotic the central premise of this paper. At the very experience that is never again shared by the start of the novel, Louis’ description of how two parties in question; it is more of a rape Lestat ‘turned’ him etches a scene of intense than anything a pleasurable union.. passion, and initial coercion from Lestat’s side: While Louis’ feelings regarding Lestat […] his movement so graceful and so are uncertain and unconfined to definite personal that at once it made me think categories of hatred or love, his feelings for of a lover…[He] put his arm around me Armand are quite clear from the beginning – and pulled me close to him…As I tried he loves him. Rice apparently creates Armand SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 19 as the ideal companion for Louis; in him, all apparently its most ‘disposable’ features” of Lestat’s flaws are compensated. Louis (Gelder 113, emphasis in the original) The confesses that during the act of watching triangle takes a very interesting turn in Louis several female vampires cling to Armand: choosing Armand over Lestat, and then Armand making Louis realize that it is infact […] what appalled me was my own Lestat who corresponds the best with Louis’ fierce jealousy. I was afraid when I saw existence, and that “something might quicken them so close to him, afraid when he and come alive in [Louis] on seeing Lestat.” turned and kissed them each. And, as (Rice 335) Yet another shade of this amorous he brought them near to me now, I was triangle might be seen in Louis’ and Lestat’s unsure and confused” (Rice 243). familial structure, with both the men He goes on later to say: competing for their vampire daughter, Claudia who later decides to purge herself of the [Armand] alone can give me the strength Oedipal obsession by asking for a mother to be what I am. I can’t continue to live figure in form of Madeleine. divided and consumed with misery…it’s something else, which is irrational and All three vampire protagonists in unexplainable and which satisfies only Interview with the Vampire are highly and me…that I love him. (Rice292) conspicuously androgynous – they are cultured, beautiful with dainty and delicate Armand reciprocates the attraction and features as and are unabashedly passionate the attachment. He proves how special Louis and open. They even indulge in close is to him by taking him to a place so close to associations with art like Theater and Opera Armand’s heart that he has not shared it with (Lestat has a passion for Shakespeareand anyone before and professes his love for music) and paintings at the Louvre. While this Louis there, “I want you. I want you more affiliation of the undead to art and drama than anything in the world” (Rice282). dispels the essentialism regarding However, their love is unable to survive masculinities and femininities, it has also been Claudia’s death, which infact can be often accused of perpetuating heterosexist construed as Armand’s effort to alienate stereotypes where transgressive identities Louis from Claudia and subsequently, have (especially homosexuals) are showcased as him to his own self. emotionally vulnerable, decadent and indolent After both Claudia and Madeleine are (disassociated from the middle class values burnt to death, both Lestat and Armand vie of hard work).However, such claims lack for Louis. According to Ken Gelder, this result ground since there is nothing offensive about is a variation on Eve Sedgwick’s ‘erotic indulging in luxury when one is a part of society triangle’ – instead of the locus of struggle as materialistic as the contemporary. between two men being a woman, it is infact Ginette Castro explains that the concept a man, Louis. “Claudia and Madeleine…are of androgyny contests the notion that the
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 20 male and the female sexes are necessarily manifestations of the sexuality spectrum, with opposite and that one is privileged over the the protagonists displaying tendencies that not other (Castro 125). Thus, in challenging the only flout the normative definitions of social divisions of gender roles and the sexuality, but also come across as very limitations they impose on the individual’s postmodern in character owing to the identity personality, the androgynous vampire (like of vampire being in a constant state of flux, Louis or Lestat) becomes what Judith Butler literally and metaphorically and conforming calls “culturally unintelligible gender identity” to no fixed essence or core. (Gender Trouble24)- it puts into question the By virtue of being a vampire, Louis has necessity of a binary division of gender, an insatiable thirst for blood but coming to becoming a metaphor for a certain freedom terms with this ‘fixity’ or inevitable constant from choosing between only one of the two of his new existence is difficult for him; he possibilities of gender identification offered by cultural hegemonic discourses that are might have become a ‘monster’ but he can’t based on a culture’s idea of coherence among forsake his humanity either and this annoys sex, gender, and sexuality as if these Lestat who comments; “[…] in romance with categories were fixed in themselves. The your mortal life, you’re dead to your vampire androgynous perspective aims to break down nature.” (Rice 81) This act of living a duality barriers, merge categories and elicit might indeed be interpreted to be the previously unthinkable transformations; everyday struggle that anyone who has to itargues in favor of a total realization of the adapt to a forced identity, goes through.Rice self, of reconciliation between the sexes and creates Louis as a reluctant vampire, who in this process, the novel’s vampire experiences both the delight and the protagonists become a significant site of repugnance of the kill. resistance. Louis’ biggest question is where he The same logic might be applied to came from and what his purpose in life (or categorizations of sexuality as well. Gelder death, rather undeath) is. He cannot and does writes that a vampire is a “citizen of the world, not want to believe that he just is. He and a figure to whom boundaries…meant very Claudia search throughout Europe for other little” (Gelder 111), a claim that is quite valid. of their kind who might hold the answers but Vampires know no boundaries; they can travel what they find is not what they were hoping through the social classes, all over the world for; “there is no reality of meaning behind and even beyond death. Why would sexuality vampirism,” as Louis realizes – and “this is be an issue then? Nina Auerbach argues that the most fantastical truth of all.” (Rice 187) “as unnatural actors, vampires represent This search for the cause of their ‘condition’ freedom from activity – even, it seems, from could be compared to the different searches sexuality” (Auerbach 181). Interview with in medicine and psychology for the cause to the Vampire presents and acknowledges the why some people exhibit a transgressive possibility of existence of varied and plural sexuality. James R. Keller remarks:
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 21 The vampire’s search for meaning and aggressive-male and passive-female binaries origin can be construed as a religious in in this family, in form of Lestat and Louis quest, buttressing the homophobic respectively. Louis drains her and Lestat presumption that all queers are guilt replenishes her blood- the ‘birth’ happens by ridden…incapacitated by their desire to means of ‘penetration’ on part of one parent make life suitable. (Keller 30) and ‘nurturing’ on part of the other. Louis’ But the revelation doesn’t come “since compassion and resentment constantly there is no reality behind it – acting and being amuses a seemingly insensitive Lestat. collapse into each other.” (Gelder 112) Thus, Further, the vampire family starts to mirror transgression becomes more about the ‘why’ an abusive hetrosexual household were the of a being that the ‘what’ or ‘how’. mother and the kids live in perpetual terror of Ken Gelder claims that The Vampire the father, who refuses to let them leave, Chronicles can be read as a kind of family “sharing [with each other] some quiet saga, which is represented in Interview with understanding which could not include the Vampirethrough the queer family that is Lestat.” (Rice 78) This gender hierarchy made up by Louis, Lestat and their vampire sprawls into a pattern of dominance and daughter Claudia. He sees Louis and Lestat submission, domestic abuse (physical, as a “demonic (but not demonized) gay emotional and mental) and abandonment couple, queer male parents competing with issues which results in an eventual, justified each other for their daughter Claudia (Gelder patricide in form of Claudia’s attempt to kill 113) - “You’re our daughter, Louis’s daughter the father figure Lestat and rope in the mother- and my daughter, do you see?” (Rice 94) figure Louis as an accomplice. Claudia obviously represents the repudiation Claudia is never to grow up; “she was of the claim that a homosexual union results to be the demon child forever.” (Rice 78) in non-productiveness and sterility, and hence Keller comments that “the creation of Claudia is ‘abnormal’. She is created by an active is a gay adoption. She is the child of two men, participation of both the vampires and and her growth is stunted…perpetuating the succeeds in delaying, if not preventing, the myth that child-within a same sex relationship break up of the familial unit. Louis and Lestat can not mature in a normative fashion.” transmute into a domestic parental pair, (Keller 19). “Mute and beautiful, she played making sure that Claudia is brought up as any with dolls, dressing, undressing them by the hour. Mute and beautiful, she killed.” (Rice normal girl of her age. 79) Also, it is disturbing to imagine that However, the portrayal of this vampire Claudia is the “object of desire in the erotic family seems to carry some serious act that constitutes her birth” (Keller 17) and heteronormative and homophobic baggage. that Louis was overcome with an Firstly, Rice unwittingly induces the uncontrollable desire to feed on her. The
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 22 arrest of her emotional, physical and mental obvious and blatant erotic association between development is exhibited in her attributes of Louis, Lestat and Claudia. If one tries to vindictiveness, unrestrained anger and sadism- dissociate the sexual component from the act, the features that traditionally characterize the drive to feed on young children might stem from the need to replenish the youth that the children belonging to broken households. It vampire represents. also reinforces the absolute necessity of a ‘woman’ in the family, more than that of a The vampire family thus seems to have ‘mother figure.’ This woman is introduced been projected as a quintessentially dysfunctional and grotesque parody of the later on in the form Madeleine, but by then traditional heteronormative family, with the this unit of vampire family has disbanded and gender roles and erotic associations in utter Claudia and Madeleine seem to have another confusion. The shades of oedipal drama that homosocial bond between them. They are go on in the vampire household are eventually burnt to ashes, in a tight embrace noteworthy. Claudia’s expected electra of one another. Hence, the novel apparently complex towards Lestat gets translated into promotes the notion that two people of the an oedipal attraction towards Louis; this same gender can not foster a healthy and Freudian twist not only provides the ground productive relationship. for Claudia to resent Lestat but also inverses the traditional roles that the two vampire Perhaps the most destructive of all protagonists are supposed to essay in this heterosexist delusions involves the Freudian saga. associations of gays and lesbians with pedophilic desire… [and] in such a This is important because this qualifies volatile political environment…the to justify Rice’s strategy to saturate the structure of undead relations in The household with conflicted gender and Vampire Chronicles is by nature sexuality portrayals. It is possible that the pedophilic. (Keller 23) author keeps raking over these mixed, indistinct oedipal urges in order to reveal that The conversion process into a vampire infact, no strict gender categories exist- always involves the meeting of an ancient neither in immortality, nor in a trangressive vampire and by comparison, a much younger (non-normative) familial unit. Also, Claudia’s human. The instances of eroticism between restricted growth might be a metaphor for adults and children are numerous in the her undying childlike beauty, innocence, awe Interview with the Vampire. Lestat displays and wonder. The fact that she displays a consistent appetite for young flesh; “fresh extreme negative emotions might just have young girls were his favourite food…but his to do with the way she responds to have been greatest triumph was a young man.” (Rice rendered immortal, just the way Louis and 56) Besides many random citations of young Lestat differ in their attitudes towards their victims here and there, there is the very vampiric tendencies. By overriding the rule
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 23 of creating a vampire child in the first place, sexually ambivalent. The important point to Louis and Lestat take a stand against the be noted here is that the sequel to this novel, conventional paradigms. The element of The Vampire Lestat has Lestat as its voyeurism that is brought in to how these protagonist, where he repudiates Louis’ vampires watch each other kill, might also be claims, declaring them false. Hence, the interpreted as a responsible group of parents question of who should be believed as the teaching their child the necessary strategies reliable narrator is very pertinent. On one of survival in world that she is not ready for, hand, the novel has been accused of and that is not welcoming towards her. Also, perpetrating homophobia and heterosexist James. R. Keller aptly remarks: labels in form of alleged depictions of pedophilia, queer as dysfunctional monsters Such portrayals could be intended to act and the parallelism with AIDS. On some as comic parodies of the bourgeoisie levels, nevertheless, the novel seems to family by projecting the commonplace successfully subvert the established features of a hetronormative home onto prototypes regarding sexuality and gender, a family of monsters. (Keller 22) while necessitating a need to acknowledge Thus, the hostile structure of the the plurality and transgressive dynamic of the vampire family might also be an effort to same. Lestat and Louis both keep reveal that dysfunction of familial dynamics transcending gender and sexuality isn’t a patent of the transgressive household; continuously. it happens or might happen in a The vampire is still a monster, but it heternormative family as well. has grown humane; it now seems to be Interview with the Vampire seems to more representative of life, love, provide a lot of food for thought regarding friendship, hope, survival and notions of transgressive depitction of gender and freedom (like homosexuality) instead of the sexuality in the novel as well as otherwise, usual ideas of curbed eroticism, death, their implications being plural, multiple and illness, soulless-ness degradation and subjective. On one hand, the novel seeks to damnation. With the boundaries between eulogize the margins and lend them visibility. ‘human’ and ‘monstrous’ becoming The novel’s strategy to make the vampire a increasingly problematized in first-person narrator who engages in an contemporary vampire narratives, one of ‘interview’ where he wishes to “tell his story” the important functions of the vampire (Rice 1) is an approach of disclosure that qualifies to be constructing the guidelines significantly represents ‘coming out of the on which we can define ourselves and our closet’ (not only for homosexuals but for any own humanity. In this transformation, thus, alterities whatsoever.) the vampire as a metaphor has This is the most prominent in the transgressed the established mythical portrayal of androgynous vampires who are norms of its own existence. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 24 REFERENCES: Case, Sue-Ellen. “Tracking the Vampire.” The Horror Reader. Ed. Ken Gelder. Primary: London: Routledge, 2000. 198-229. Auerbach, Nina. Our Vampires, Ourselves. Castro, Ginette. American Feminism: A Chicago: The University of Chicago Contemporary History. New York: Press, 1995. NYP, 1990. Gelder, Ken. Reading the Vampire. NY: Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality: Taylor and Francis, 2001. An Introduction. 2 vols. Tans. Robert Keller, James. R. Anne Rice and Sexual Hurley. New York: Vintage, 1986. Politics: The Early Novels. London: Gordon, Joan, and Veronica Hollinger. ed. McFarland, 2000. Blood Read: The Vampire as a Rice, Anne. Interview with a Vampire. 1985. Metaphor in Contemporary Culture. Reprint, New York: Ballantine, 1989. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Secondary: Press, 1997. Barry, Peter. “Lesbian/Gay Criticism.” Harper, Dennis. Saint Foucault: Towards a Beginning Theory – An Introduction Gay Hagiography. New York: Oxford to Literary and UP, 1995. Cultural Theory. 2nd Ed. Manchester & Liberman, Terri. R. ‘Eroticism as Moral New York: Manchester UP, 2002. 139- Fulcrum in Rice’s Vampire 156. Chronicles.” The Gothic World of Anne Rice. Ed. Gary Hoppenstand and Bredbeck, Gregory W. Literary Theory: Ray B. Browne. OH: Bowling Green Gay, Lesbian and Queer.New University Press, 1996. 109- 121. England Publishing Associates, 2002. Web. Radstone, Susannah. Sweet Dreams: Sexuality, Gender and Popular Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism Fiction. Ed. Susannah Radstone. and the Subversion of Identity. London: Wishart, 1988. NewYork: Routledge, 1999. Rice, Anne. The Vampire Lestat. 1985. Reprint, New York: Ballantine, 1989.
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 25 ODIA IDENTITY IN SARALA DAS’S MAHABHARATA Biraj Mohan Das Identity which is accepted as pivotal to the first of Indian states formed on a linguistic modern writing and is discussed widely can basis. 2,3 also be traced in the ancient poems known Sarala Das’s Mahabharata reflects as scriptures. It is reflected in the fine art the nature, attitude, life style and religious of characterization which these poets have practice of Odisha. At the same time this perfected as also in the portrayal of also establishes the speciality of different geopolitical entities such as rivers, rivulets, places of pilgrimage, rivers, hills and mountains and hills. By so doing the ancient mountains of this land. Subsequently the writers suggested the manner and style of epics and poems of Radhanath Ray, the a way of life, its principles and ideas in their ballads of Satyabadi era and the poems of full flow. Now the question arises as to Sabuja era contributed to the formation of the whether the poets-cum-translators of identity of the land. The main objective of Odisha could establish the speciality and this essay is to show how the uniqueness of the independence of this land, could build the land is evoked in Sarala Das’s their identity as a whole. The answer is in Mahabharata. the affirmative. The modern Odia-Identity of which we are proud is based on the Odia The genius who without traditional language. Our English rulers had problems support of written language could build the about recognizing Odia as a separate literary Konark of Odia language is none other language. When Hindi was declared as the than Sarala Das. His literary talent has been official language in Sambalpur and its described thus, “Odia literature was as it were adjacent areas, the conscious people of the illumined at once by the strong radiance of land raised their voices against Hindi. the mid-day sun, skipping the baby stage of Subsequently these isolated voices came nourishment from the soft rays of the morning together to mobilize a language agitation. sun. It sprang into existence, fully-fledged, Finally Odia was recognized as an official instead of undergoing the inevitable process language1. For this recognition the oral and of unfolding. The ideals which founded the the written language came to play a language, theme and subject matter were significant role. The creators of this written not meant for that age only ; they also provided literature were the ancient and medieval the best possible infrastructure for the castles 4 poets of Odisha including Sarala Das. They of Odia literature.” By that time the subject established a separate identity for Odisha. matter of Mahabharata by Vyasa was well Much later a political movement began in known, widely read and circulated in not only the form of a language movement which this land but also in every nook and corner of culminated in 1936 in the formation of Odisha, Bharata. So just to translate from Sanskrit
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 26 into Odia would have been sufficient to Kuntabhoja had met while they tripped down establish the separate identity of the language. to Ganga for a bath on the occasion of the But the talented Poet Sarala Das odianised fullmoon of Kartika. They became friends the Mahabharata in such a manner that it as the zodiacal sign of the two kings were surpassed the phase of translation, the same. Pandu and Kunti were present transcreation and attained the status of a new with them. Satyabati, became interested in creation. Perhaps for this reason only this is Kunti and she expressed through Pareswar known as the 15th century edition of Sanskrit her desire to make Kunti her daughter-in-law. Mahabharata. 5 The marriage was solemnized because the betrothal had taken place at this holy place. What is note worthy is Sarala Das’s Because of this addition the marriage of regal manner of narrating the stories of splendor was turned into a common Odia Mahabharata. Of the many, tales of the marriage. Also the glory of ‘A KA MA BAI’ origins of the Soma dynasty, Sambhurana festival which was observed during the episode, the marriage of Ganga and Santanu, fullmoon of Kartika, the social tradition of the tales of Chitrabirjya and Bichitrabirjya, making of friendship and solemnization of the promise of Bhishma and his attaining marriages in places of pilgrimage were immortality, the birth of Dhrutarashtra, Pandu highlighted.7 and Bidura, the marriage of Dhrutarashtra and Gandhari, Pandu and Kunti are a few. Sarala Das had brought about certain In these stories he had added some materials changes in the subject matter to render it which differed from the original Sanskrit contemporaneous. The story of Satyabati and Mahabharata and which were expressive Parashara is an example of such change. In of the then Odia manners, rituals and religious the Sanskrit original, Parashara had made consciousness. In the Sanskrit love to Satyabati, the daughter of a fisherman Mahabharata Jajati had two wives, but first and then Satyabati had married Santanu. Sarala Das had increased the number to nine But in the Odia Mahabharata of Sarala Das wives representing nine castes. The story of Parashara cohabited with Satyabati and after Mahabharata and the history of Odisha that the two became husband and wife. were made identical as a result of Puru being Because of this simple change Parashara was born of the Odia wife of Jajati.6 rendered free from guilt. The social system had controlled the union of amorous instinct.8 Likewise the story of Dhrutarashtra and Satyabati was not the mother-in-law of Gandhari, as of Pandu and Kunti deviated Ambika and Ambalika. Her advice as regards from the one given in the Sanskrit the survival of dynasty to them as an well- Mahabharata. In the latter Kunti had wisher was not irrelevant from the social offered her garland to Pandu in a Swayambar angle. 9 ceremony (the marriage ceremony in which a maiden chooses her husband). But in the Not only the customs and ideals of Odias Odia version by Sarala Das Bhishma and but also their folk tales have been inducted
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 27 into Mahabharata. Mention may be made Although the number of episodes of the story of “Bhima losing in the first remained unchanged the nomenclature battle”, of “No bride for Dhrustrashtra and differed in the Sarala Mahabharata . In also no groom for Gandhari” and of “If you Banaparva and Swargarohanparva, Sarala call me Ganga I will stay, if you call me had depicted the glory of different holy places, Gangee I leave” etc. “Bhima loses the first- rivers, mountains and hills, social customs and battle,” is an adage which did not originate religious rituals. In Banaparva Sarala Das from the Mahabharata of Vyasa, but this has narrated the different incidents that adage became meaningful in Sarala Das. In occurred at the time of Pandavas living the Sanskrit Mahabharata the panic caused incognito. He had brought them to various by a tiger’s roar at the time of Bhima’s birth holy places of Odisha and had narrated their greatness. An example being Markanda the made Kunti fall down on the ground along ascetic, who advised Yudhisthir to take a dip with the newly born Bhima. But in Sarala’s in Gokarnika, the holy place where Rudra had Mahabharata Kunti was so afraid of a tiger’s once upon a time atoned for killing a cow. roar that she had climbed the tree leaving Bathing in this holy place one could get rid of Bhima on the hill of Satasingha. The the sins of killing cows, brahmins and the Satasingha hill was pushed into the abyss mother. This was narrated by the poet through because of Bhima’s weight. The child Bhima Markanda. As a result Draupadi and the five cried throwing around his feet and the child’s Pandavas took their bath in the Gokarnika.11 right foot struck against the tiger’s head and In this Parva Sarala has also narrated the the tiger’s head broken into a hundred pieces. glory of Kapilas Kshetra and of Hatakeshwar Again the peak of Satasingha was broken into Mahadeva who is worshipped there. 12 pieces when Bhima’s left toe struck it. At Then they moved on to the Ekarma this Satasingha was angry and uttered a curse Kshetra, bathed in Vindusagar and saw Lord to the effect that “Bhima will lose the first Lingaraj and other deities. Together with the battle.” Kunti also cursed Satasingha by glory of Ekamra Kshetra, the purity of saying that people would cut the hill into Chitrotpala river has been amply depicted. 13 pieces. As Kunti was about to add to her Bindhyagiri mountain, the Sun temple of curse, Satasingha made amends by saying, Konark, the holy place of Chandrabhaga and “Bhima may lose in the first battle, but he the sanctum of Ramchandi have also been will win definitely in the second one.” As a narrated in this Parva. Till today people go result Kunti was also pleased to make to Chandrabhaga on the seventh day of amendment as well and said that, “People will Magha to take a holy dip. Sarala narrated worship the rock pieces as deities and the the story of Shamba, the son of Srikrishna, place where the hill existed would be treated getting cured of leprosy as a result of as the place of the gods.”10 Thus many folk worshipping the Sun god in Arka Kshetra. tales had been woven into the fabric of Sarala Yudhistir also had the benefit of hearing the Das’s Mahabharata. story of Chandrabhaga by his act of holy dip
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 28 into it alongwith others. From Arka Kshetra would be taxed a pauti of paddy. This should of Konark the Pandavas proceeded to Puri, be the ideal system of taxation, according to the abode of the Lord Jagannath. The half Yudhisthir. 17 burnt dead body of Srikrishna of Dwapara In this Parva the scene between era subsequently came to be known as Sureswar, the Brahmin land owner and Nilamadhaba and then was recreated as Tantipa, the farmer and tiller of land is Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra. This depicted. The farmer’s wage and land has been vividly narrated in this Parva by owner’s right has been mentioned there.18 Sarala Das alongwith the greatness of sea, The unsettled right of ownership of the riches different ponds and Kshetras (different places and hidden wealth vested with the king is also having importance) of Puri. 14 The sattwika indicated here.19 This is how Sarala Das had (pious) food; the habishanna etc. are very portrayed the then political, social and popular in both urban and rural Odisha during economic traditions of Odisha. the holy months of Kartika and Magha. The At the time of this piligrimage Sarala ingredients, cooking method, timing of eating Das had led Pandavas to Dharmapura near and the religious merit of taking such pious Jajpur by the river Vaitarani. In this village food in detail has been narrated by the poet.15 lived one Hari Sahu, the baisya. Though Similarly along with Puri, Konark and his daughter Suhani attained marriageable Jajpur, the sanctity of Chitrotpala, the age, Hari Sahu had not solemnized the marriage, because she was born under importance of celebration of Shiva Satabhisha star on Wednesday, the third Chaturddashi in Kapilash, the greatness of lunar day of the light fortnight of Magha, Amarabati and Madhaba ; the deity known which meant certain death after marriage for being worshipped by the shore of Prachi as was told by Uddalaka, the astrologer. river, found place in Swargarohana Parva. Hari Sahu together with Suhani had been Yudhisthir’s itinerary as a pilgrim after he had to see the Pandavas. When Yudhisthir saw handed over the throne to Parikshit also the girl he asked Hari Sahu why the girl included these places. 16 was still unmarried. Yudhisthir further While handing over the charge of the added that unmarried girls were detrimental kingdom to Parikshit, Yudhisthir had advised to the well being of the family and also harmed the souls of the fore fathers. Hari him on administrative matters like the Sahu told him the story he had heard from measurement of land, taxation rules etc. This Uddalaka. Yudhisthir sought the help of was an age old system in Odisha. A stick his astrologer younger brother Sahadeba to measuring eighteen cubits was a nalakathi check the verocity of Hari Sahu’s (measuring scale). The land measuring twenty statement. Sahadeba confirmed the fact five nalakathi both in length and breadth that death was predestined at the time of would amount to a bati. And a bati of land marriage. For the up keep of religion Hari
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 29 Sahu requested Yudhisthir to marry his It is to the credit of Sarala Das to have daughter. But Yudhisthir was unwilling at built up the Odia identity as an indispensable first. He explained that he had set out on a part of the Bharatiya tradition which has been pilgrimage after renouncing his kingdom. followed as an ideal by each and every writer Besides, he had reached ripe old age. So of Odisha. this proposal was not acceptable to him. E-19, Utkal University Campus Sahadeba reminded him that the offer of a bride and a meal was not to be thrown aside. Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar-4 That can be detrimental for the clan. After NOTES this Yudhisthir agreed to marry Suhani and 1. Utkala Dipika, 18 October 1873. simultaneously consulted all and sundry on the safety of Suhani. Arjuna agreed to save 2. Jena, P.K.,Orissa A new Province, Suhani from Yama and the marriage was Punthi Pustak,p.23. accomplished. 20 3. Patra, K.M, Orissa State Legislature and Freedom Struggle, I.C.H.R, New The rites and rituals of this marriage Delhi, 1979, p.93. reflect the Odia tradition. After the marriage was settled Hari Sahu invited his kith and kin 4. Sahoo, K.C., Sarala Mahabharata: first. Then the time and place were settled Sampadana O Alochana, (Odia) Friends publishers, Cuttack-2, 1st Edition, 1978, in the presence of Brahmins of both sides. p.1. The marriage was solemnized at the moment called amrutabela ( the time of nectar) on 5. Ibid,p.p. 5 & 6. Thursday, the seventh lunar day of the light 6. Sarala Das, Jajati Upakhyana, 1-16, fortnight of Kumbha month under Rohini star Adiparba, Prathama Khanda, in the name of Karana as Banijya and Yoga Mahabharta(Odia) Edited by: Dr. as Priti as per the programme scheduled Artaballav Mohanty, Directorate of earlier. The place of marriage and its Cultural Affairs Orissa, Bhubaneswar,1st decoration have been narrated here. Detailed Edition,1965 pp. 9 & 10. description of everything right from the dress 7. Sarala Das,Kuntinka Saha Pandunka of the bride to the musical instruments, conch Bibaha,5-21, Ibid, pp.131 & 132 shell, ululation and gotras etc. uttered by the 8. Sarala Das, Ambika O Ambalikanku priests have been given.21 Through this Satyabatinkara Upadesha,42-86,110 marriage Sarala Das has established the &111, Ibid, pp. 77 to 81 and p.85. identity of Odias through a splendid 9. Ibid, 1 to 124, pp 74 to 84. chronicling of their customs, rituals and traditions. 10. Sarala Das,Bhima Janma, Ibid, 34-97, pp 203-208.
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 30 11. Sarala Das, Gokarnika Tirthara 15. Ibid, 202 -206, p.120. Mahatmya, 32,47-64, Mahabharata 16. Sarala Das, Mahabharata, (Odia) Banaparba, Prathama Khanda, Swargarohana Parba, Edited by : Dr. Edited by: Dr. Artaballav Mohanty, Artaballav Mohanty, Directorate of Directorate of Cultural Affairs Orissa, Cultural Affairs Orissa, Bhubaneswar, st Bhubaneswar,1 Edition,1966 pp 588, 1st Edition, 1970, pp. 1 to 54. 589-591 . 17. Prajankatharu Yudhisthiranka Bidaya, 12. Ibid, 63 & 64, p.591. Parikshitanku Rajniti Siksha, 13. Sarala Das, Kirtibasa Daitya Badha, Subarnachudi O Kaliyuga Bibarana, 31- Chandrabhagatirthara Mahatmya O 33, Ibid p.4. Arka Daitya Badha, 2-117 18. Ibid,39-53, pp.5 & 6. Mahabharata, Vanaparba, Dwitiyakhanda Edited by : Dr. Artaballav 19. Ibid, 90-93, p.9. Mohanty, Directorate of Cultural Affairs 20. Ibid, 128-261, pp.12-23. Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1st Edition, 1970, pp 2-90. 21. Ibid, 181-187, pp.16-17. 14. Sarala Das, Chandrabhaga tirthe Shambankara Kustha byadhi mochana O Yudhisthiranka Mahodadhire Magha Snana Phala Bibarana, 37-156, Ibid, pp. 106-115.
SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 31 THE UPANISHADIC MIND: A NEED OF REAPPRAISAL Bibhuti Bhusan Mohapatra Prafulla Kumar Mishra ABSTRACT Mind in Sanskrit manas, a vital organ of human body. Mind is the cause of all types of bondage and liberation. Also Mind is a major part in the subtle body of beings. In our ancient scriptures, our seers describe how to control over the mind and how by this one can able to get salvation. In this paper, the significance of mind, the scope and nature of mind are discussed with the Vedic seers views. How mind is the cause of the body as well as the Universe are discussed in the paper. In addition, the vital energy (Prana) and Speech are the major part of the Universe as well as the beings. The different aspects of these three major parts are analysing with spiritual as well as psychological point of view. Our Upanishads are described the aims and objects of these three essences. Also the different stages of human as well as Universe are discussed in this paper.] INTRODUCTION: The term mind (manas in Sanskrit) is a psychic element. It has an abstract existence applied to: intellect, intelligence. whereas the modern science relies more in understanding, perception. sense, conscience, ‘brain’ or ‘neurons’ that has a physical will, thought, imagination, excogitation. existence. However in ancient time the things invention, reflection, opinion. intention, had a different picture - the seers used to see inclination, affection, desire, mood, temper, the so-called modern developments in a Sslejs³eesHeefve SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 32 a question yet to be satisfactorily answered. brain4. Its speed is very high5. Contrary to However, it is certainly the cause of every the theory of the v³ee³e-JewMesef SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 33 and DeHeje. the ‘Supreme Self’ and the Body, Mind & Speech constitute the Being ‘individual self’; they are popularly known as that acts Hejceelcee and peerJeelcee, There are many theories on the true nature of peerJeelcee in Indian The Mind scriptures. According to some, the peerJeelcee is Self part and parcel of the Hejceelcee. Some think it to The Speech be the reflection of the Supreme Self in the inner-body, Some others think it to be the The Body consciousness that works in the body made up of five elements; Some think it as the In modern times, people talk of the trinity enjoyer of the pains and pleasures caused by of Body-Mind-Spirit in the yogic system of his/her own karma (deeds). There are many holistic theory. However, I think there is a such theories propounded in Vedic period on misconception as far as the Indian outlook of the nature of Soul. However, according to Yogic perspective is concern. In fact the the Vedic thinkers soul is nothing but coherence of Body-Mind-Speech is coexistence and coordinated functioning of what made of the ‘being’ not the ‘spirit’. If we take ‘spirit’ to mean broadly the ‘Self’ the cevemed (mind), the ÒeeCe (vital energy), and the then according to the Vedic system it is the JeekedÀ ye=noejC³ekeÀesHeefve SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 34 constituents components ‘efvejJe³eJe’? The ‘Hejceelcee’ (the Supreme Self or the Universal answer is - Yes it is ‘efvel³eMeg×-yeg×-cegceg#egYeeJe SkeÀceܳeb Soul). The most significant thing that may be efMeJeced’. However, the ‘pure nature’ of the Self noted here that the Inner Self is often in the comes only in ‘cegeqkeÌleoMee’ (at the stage of Vedic literature called as ‘®eleg SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 35 noting that the three Primordial Elements three subtle forms of the three Primordial lespeme DeeHeë DeVeced namely , and are indeed the three Elements namely JeekedÀ - ÒeeCe - cevemed constitute ‘Energy Forms’ which can be defined in five internal elements and they together make terms of the Life Energy of the heaven, the 15 keÀuee and taking the ef®eodkeÀuee along with the Ether and they are identical with the Deeefol³e, fifteen keÀuee make it SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 36 Mundakopanishad further says that: nothing but symbolic representation of the ef®eodkeÀuee Heg© SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 38 former is governed by the latter part, and the existence of Yetleelcee is due to the osJeleelcee only. The osJeleelcee part in the being as we know is constitute the cevemed (mind) JeekedÀ (non- verbal speech) ÒeeCe (the vital energy). Earlier we had spoken of the trinity i.e., the body-mind- speech and now we are talking of cevemed, JeekedÀ and ÒeeCe, and one should not think that it is misleading, because the osJeleelcee is constitute the trinity of body, mind and speech but not the Yetleelcee. Therefore, it must be noted here that we are talking of the osJeleelcee part of the being in which the ‘physical body’ transforms into ‘vital body’ in the form of ‘vital ÒeeCe Well, without going into more details of energy’( ). The Upanishad says: ceveesce³eÒeeCeMejerjYeeªHeë24 the Upanishdic statement, the only thing I wish . This clearly states that the vital body (ÒeeCeMejerj) in its luminous I to point out here is that the soul splits into two YeeªHe contrast states, which are conceived as appearance ( ) is made of mind. opposites. The Upanishdic seers probably had The being is known in the universal YegkeÌleelcee definitely perceived the so-called conscious phenomena as the (enjoyer of the and unconscious (®eslevee and De®eslevee) things fruits) also. He is bound to enjoy the results essentially are not very different by nature of his karma (action). Therefore, he is known keÀcee&lcee being product and part of the Supreme Truth. as also. And karma is possible only cevemed, JeekedÀ ÒeeCe It, therefore, refers to the theory that mind through and . It must be pointed Yetleelcee and matters are essentially not different, out here that the get affected by the where mind stand for the conscious being. karma he performs. Karma is very natural Moreover, the foresaid classification / division to the being Bhagavan says in Gita, that no leads to the unified theory of mind and matter one can remain inactive or without performing that explains monistic (Advaita) approach of any action25 even for a moment. However, Yetle Deelcee the ancient Indian theology. It however, may the karma can affect the part of but Yetleelcee be pointed out at this context that the osJeleelcee not the deva part; that means the can part and the Yetleelcee part of the being are affect the karma or get affected with the osJeleelcee cevemed JeekedÀ created out of one and the same sources and karma but not . and themselves in the end both these perceived to be unified are action-less’ but they appear to be active ÒeeCe MeeqkeÌle through yogic practice. We need to keep in only due to (the vital energy = ). The JeekedÀ, ÒeeCe cevemed mind here that the BhÊtÈtmÈ part is controlled and indeed are three form of the (HejeMeeqkeÌle) by the osJeleelcee part or in other words, the Prime Energy and whole universe SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 39 is the manifestation of the Prime Energy, thus The ÒeeCe is also related to the three states (JeekedÀMeeqkeÌle we talk of Verbal energy ), Vital namely peeûele (awakening), mveHve (dreaming) and (ÒeeCeMeeqkeÌle) energy and Mental energy / power meg Òe%ee Fvê meg The ÒeeCeefJeÐee, i.e., the science of the vital JeekedÀ and cevemed is constituting the ‘Being’ and as energy is very significant as far as the yogic we have seen that ÒeeCe is part and parcel of system of psychotherapy is concerned. It the ‘Being’, which unfortunately is either ÒeeCee³eece governs the process. Relaxation and ignored or forgotten today. People talk of functional systematization of the physical as ÒeeCee³eece only a process of ‘breathing treatment’ well as mental body is possible due to ÒeeCee³eece for physical or mental disorder. We need to only. Our concern in this context is to underline understand its greater role and significant ÒeeCe, ÒeeCe, the role of i.e. the integrated whole of position as far as the ‘Being’ is concerned. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 40 The Vedic seer wanted to make their bodies the ‘bliss’ through an internal stride and that strong and energetic and the tongue sweeter. leads to ‘completeness’ (HetCe&lee) of the They says: Mejerjb ces efJe®e SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 42 22. Tai.U 2.6.1 27. Ye=ieg Jew Jee©efCeë JeªCeb efHelejcegHememeejs ~ DeOeerefn YeieJees ye´ïesefle ~...leb nesJee®e ~ ³elees Jee Fceeefve Yetleeefve pee³evles. ³esve peeleeefve 23. The terms sat and tyat are explained Òel³e#e Hejes#es peerJeefvle, ³eled Òe³eefvle DeefYeMebefJeMeefvle ~leod efJe%eemJe ~ leod by Adi Shankaracarya as ye´ïesefle ~ me leHeesçleH³eles ~ meaning perceivable and imperceivable. 28. DeÐe les DeefÊe ®e Yetleeefve lemceeod DeVeb leog®³eles ~ ... lemceeled However, to me it appears that the term Jee Slemceeod DeVejmece³eeov³eesvlejelcee ÒeeCece³eë ~ lemceeod Tyat unfortunately lost its meaning. Jee Slemceeod ÒeeCece³eeov³eesvlejelcee ceveesce³eë ~... lemceeod Since it is seen in contrast to Sat (the Jee Slemceeov³eesvlejelcee efJe%eevece³eë ~...lemceeod Jee Slemcee Eternal), it may mean temporal and that ov³eesvlejelcee...... Deevevoce³eë~ lesve S SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 43 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEGRADED AND WASTELANDS IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF BIHAR Mohammad Afsar Alam (Ph.D.) Zubairul Islam (Ph.D.) ABSTRACT India is land of farmers. More than 70 per cent of India’s population is living in rural areas with agriculture as their livelihood support system. Sustainable agricultural development and food security will be one of the key challenges for India in this century because the task of providing food security to our country’s burgeoning population is becoming increasingly difficult. This challenge must and needs to be met in the face of the changing consumption pattern, impacts of climate change and the degradation of the finite land and water resources. The vast majority of Indian farmers are small and marginal. Their farm size is decreasing further and per capita availability of inelastic land resource is rapidly declining in relation to annual population growth of 1.58 per cent in the country. The quality of land is deteriorating due to heightened nutrient mining, soil erosion, increasing water scarcity, adverse impact of climate change and accumulation of toxic elements in soil and water. Increasing GDP growth is expanding urbanization and industrialization and, therefore, more and more agricultural lands are being utilized for non-agricultural purposes. The complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic processes compounds problems of land use planning further. All of these factors combined with increased rate of land degradation are contributing towards decline in agricultural productivity leading to food insecurity. State level and country level information has already been published by the National Remote Sensing Agency (now NRSC). The first order need of the day, therefore, is to prepare a national degraded and wastelands map downscaled to districts. In the present paper an attempt has been made to discuss the nature and causes of the land degradation, its spatial distribution and the determination of degree and extent of damaged lands in general at national level and in particular at the state level i.e. Bihar. So that developmental agencies in participation with stakeholders proactively adopt measures to reclaim degraded lands for distancing food insecurity, a real challenge. Keywords: Spatial Distribution, Degraded land, Wasteland INTRODUCTION especially the farmlands in India are in the India shares 17 per cent of the world constant process of various degrees of population, while its land is 2 per cent of the degradation and are fast turning into total geographical area of the world. Naturally, wastelands. At present, approximately 68.35 the pressure on the land is beyond its carrying million hectare area of land is lying as capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, wastelands in India. Out of these lands, SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 44 approximately 50 per cent lands are such degraded and wastelands is essential. In non-forest lands, which can be made fertile addition to the type and the extent of again if treated properly. It was unprotected degradation the lands have undergone or are non-forest lands, which suffered the undergoing, appropriate management maximum degradation mainly due to the strategies need to be designed. tremendous biotic pressure on it. In the last METHODOLOGY 50 years it is India’s lush green village forests and woodlots have been deforested to the The present study is mainly based on maximum, To restore this ecological secondary data because the area of study is imbalance, the Government of India had very vast. The data pertaining to the present created the Department of Wasteland study was collected from the published Development to develop the degraded non- documents of Ministry of Agriculture, forest wastelands. The wastelands represent different journals, magazines and also from underutilization of resources. In fact, the the Internet. prevalence of poverty, malnutrition, hunger and regional inequality is to some extent due The compiled data on different subjects have to underutilization of resources particularly been tabulated. Synthesis, perusal and in India, it exists in the form of wastelands. analysis of data have been carried out with It could be noted that a country like Japan the help of simple statistical techniques. In has inadequate land area with high density the table the rank and percentile analysis has of population, but it has achieved a high rate been produced that contains the ordinal and of economic development, indicating their percentage rank of each state in data set. It intensive effort towards better utilization of is for analyzing the relative standing of land resources. In India, despite having a large degradation in India and Bihar as well. land area, the problem of underutilization of CATEGORIES OF WASTE LANDS IN resources persists in different parts of the INDIA country. Hence, there is a growing concern on wasteland development in India. In India there are two types of wastelands in general i.e. ecological wastelands and Since land resources are finite, requisite developmental wastelands. The ecological measures are required to reclaim degraded wastelands consist of degraded forests, and wastelands. So that areas going out of gullied and ravenous lands, marked hill slopes, cultivation due to social and economic reasons saline-alkali soils, deserts, sand dunes and are replenished by reclaiming these lands and shifting cultivation areas. The developmental by arresting further loss of production wastelands include mine spoils areas, water potential. logged areas formed by seepage of canal In this direction, an effective utilization, irrigation, foreshores of irrigation reservoirs, rejuvenation and management of degraded industrial wastelands, land strip cleared for and wastelands by public and private laying of electric transmission and so on. Area investment become imperative. As a first wise detailed account of categories of waste- step, a reliable set of estimates of the lands is given below respectively, (Table 1). SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 45 Table-1 Categories of Wastelands in India S.No. Category Area (in sq.Kms.) 1 Snow covered/Glacial 55788.49 2 Barren rocky/Sheet Rock 64584.77 3 Sands-inland/Coastal 50021.65 4 Land affected by Salinity/ alkalinity 20477.38 5 Gullied/or ravenous land 20553.35 6 Upland with or without scrub 194014.29 7 Water logged & marshy 16568.45 8 Steep sloping area 7656.29 9 Shifting cultivation land 35142.2 10 Mining/industrial wastelands 1252.13 11 Degraded/pastures/grazing land 25978.91 12 Underutilized/degraded notified forest land 140652.31 13 Degraded land under plantation crop 5828.09 Grand Total: 638518. 31 Sq.Kms. In this context, it is important to highlight million hectares, according to the estimates the extent of variation in the spatial distribution given by different agencies with diverse of wastelands throughout the country. In fact, classification strategies, table 2. in India the wasteland ranges from 38 to 187 Table-2 Estimate of Wastelands from Different Sources S. Sources Area Estimated (E) / Scientific No. (m.ha) 1 National Commission on Agriculture(NCA-1976) 175.00 E 2 Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department 38.40 E of Agriculture and Cooperation 3 Ministry of Agriculture (1982) 175.00 E 4 Department of Environment and Forest 95.00 E 5 National Wasteland Development Board 123.00 E 6 NBBS and LUP, ICAR, 1994 187.00 E 7 Society for Promotion of Wastelands 129.00 E 8 # National Remote Sensing Agency, 1995 75.50 S 9 Dr.N.C. Saxena (Secretary RD-WD) 125.00 E SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 46 # The figure of 75.50 m.ha is derived picture. Some of the states have very high from the results of land use/land cover percentage of wasteland, while some states mapping done on1:250,000 scale during 1989- have very low percentage of wasteland and 90, using satellite data at the request of in some of the states the land degradation is Planning Commission for increasing food even less than one per cent. State wise area production in various Agro-climatic zones. statistics of degraded and wastelands is SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF shown in table 3, map-1. In the given table DEGRADED AND WASTELANDS IN the rank and percentile analysis has been INDIA produced that contains the ordinal and So far as the spatial distribution of percentage rank of each state in data set. It degraded and wastelands in India is is for analyzing the relative standing of land concerned, no doubt, it gives a highly erratic degradation in India. Table – 3 State Wise Total Geographical Area And Degraded Land In India - 2011 S.No. STATE TGA LD % LD OF TGA 1 Andhrapradesh 275045.0 9193.0 3.34 2 Andaman &Nicobar 8249.0 71.0 0.86 3 Arunachalpradesh 83743.0 2154.0 2.57 4 Assam 78438.0 4571.0 5.83 5 Bihar 94163.0 1371.0 1.46 6 Chhattisgarh 134805.0 4784.0 3.55 7 Delhi 1483.0 28.0 1.89 8 Goa 3702.0 122.0 3.30 9 Gujarat 196042.0 3129.0 1.60 10 Haryana 44212.0 551.0 1.25 11 Himachalpradesh 55673.0 1065.0 1.91 12 Jammu &Kashmir 222236.0 2094.0 0.94 13 Jharkhand 79714.0 3943.0 4.95 14 Karnataka 191791.0 8093.0 4.22 15 Kerala 38863.0 2608.0 6.71 16 Madhyapradesh 308641.0 14095.0 4.57 17 Maharashtra 307713.0 9728.0 3.16 18 Manipur 22327.0 1768.0 7.92 19 Meghalaya 22429.0 1732.0 7.72 20 Mizoram 21081.0 1163.0 5.52 21 Nagaland 16579.0 1550.0 9.35 22 Orissa 155707.0 3722.0 2.39 23 Punjab 50362.0 494.0 0.98 24 Rajasthan 342239.0 20424.0 5.97 SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 47 25 Sikkim 7096.0 60.0 0.85 26 Tamil Nadu 130058.0 2997.0 2.30 27 Tripura 10486.0 785.0 7.49 28 Uttarpradesh 238566.0 14405.0 6.04 29 Uttarakhand 55845.0 1435.0 2.57 30 West Bengal 88752.0 2140.0 2.41 Total 3286040.0 120275.0 113.59 TGA – Total Geographical Area (Hectare), LD – Land degraded (Hectare) Map - 1 On the basis of the above table, the five categories, i.e. very high, high, medium, following table-4 has been prepared in which low, and very low respectively. land degradation percent of total geographical In the first order category of states, the area, rank and their percentile at the state land degradation is very high (7.49-9.35%). level in India has been calculated according In this category only four states are included to the available statistics of 2011. i.e. Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya and DATA ANALYSIS Tripura. These states are in descending order of their land degradation among which So far as the state wise wasteland area Nagaland has the highest land degradation statistics of India is concerned, out of thirty (9.35%) and Tripura has the lowest percent states, land degradation per cent out of their of land degradation (7.49%). total geographical area has been divided into SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 48 TABLE – 4 - LAND DDEGRADION PERCENT OF TOTAL GEOGRAPHICAL AREA, RANK AND PERCENTILE IN INDIA - 2011 S.NO. OF TABLE- 3 LD % OF TGA RANK PERCENTILE 21 9.35 1 100.00% 18 7.92 2 96.50% 19 7.72 3 93.10% 27 7.49 4 89.60% 15 6.71 5 86.20% 28 6.04 6 82.70% 24 5.97 7 79.30% 4 5.83 8 75.80% 20 5.52 9 72.40% 13 4.95 10 68.90% 16 4.57 11 65.50% 14 4.22 12 62.00% 6 3.55 13 58.60% 1 3.34 14 55.10% 8 3.30 15 51.70% 17 3.16 16 48.20% 3 2.57 17 44.80% 29 2.57 18 41.30% 30 2.41 19 37.90% 22 2.39 20 34.40% 26 2.30 21 31.00% 11 1.91 22 27.50% 7 1.89 23 24.10% 9 1.60 24 20.60% 5 1.46 25 17.20% 10 1.25 26 13.70% 23 0.98 27 10.30% 12 0.94 28 6.80% 2 0.86 29 3.40% 25 0.85 30 0.00% TGA – Total Geographical Area (Hectare), LD – Land degraded (Hectare) SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 49 In the second order category of states In the fourth category, six states are where the land degradation is high (4.95- included i.e. Uttarakhand, West Bengal, 6.71%), only six states are included, i.e. Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Himachalpradesh and Kerala, Uttarpradesh, Rajasthan, Assam, Delhi. In these states land degradation is low Mezoram, and Jharkhand. Among these (1.89-2.57%). Among these states states Kerala has the highest land degradation Uttarakhand has the highest (2.57%) land (6.71%) and Jharkhand has the lowest per degradation and Delhi has the lowest (1.89%) cent (4.95%) of land under degradation. area under land degradation. In the third order category of states In the fifth and the last category of where the land degradation is medium (2.57- states again there are only six states i.e. 4.57%), Seven states are included, i.e. Gujarat, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Madhyapradesh, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Kashmir, Andaman & Nicobar and Sikkim Andhrapradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and respectively. In these states land degradation Arunachalpradesh. Among these states is very low (0.85-1.6%). Among these states Madhyapradesh has the highest land Gujarat has the highest (1.6%) land degradation (4.57%) and Arunachalpradesh degradation and Sikkim has the lowest has the lowest (2.57%) area under land (0.85%) area under land degradation. degradation. TABLE- 5 DISTRICT WISE TOTAL GEOGRAPHICAL AREA AND DEGRADED LAND IN BIHAR - 2011 S.No. DISTRICTS TGA LD % LD OF TGA 1 Araria 284 2 0.70 2 Aurangabad 330 43 13.03 3 Banka 308 72 23.38 4 Begusarai 192 30 15.63 5 Bhabhua 331 114 34.44 6 Bhagalpur 257 73 28.40 7 Bhojpur 246 93 37.80 8 Buxar 163 23 14.11 9 Darbhanga 229 37 16.16 10 Gaya 406 74 18.23 11 Gopalganj 203 77 37.93 12 Jahanabad 157 3 1.91 13 Jamui 311 43 13.83 14 Katihar 306 59 19.28 15 Khagaria 149 24 16.11 16 Kishanganj 188 20 10.64 SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 50 17 Lukeesarai 123 2 1.63 18 Mdhepura 179 2 1.12 19 Madhubani 351 4 1.14 20 Munger 142 2 1.41 21 Muzaffarpur 350 67 19.14 22 Nalanda 235 22 9.36 23 Nawada 251 21 8.37 24 W Champaran 523 43 8.22 25 Patna 319 83 26.02 26 E Champaran 398 7 1.76 27 Purnia 223 30 13.45 28 Rohtas 382 81 21.20 29 Saharsa 170 5 2.94 30 Samastipur 290 67 23.10 31 Saran 265 50 18.87 32 Sheikhpura 69 0 0.00 33 Seohar 44 0 0.00 34 Sitamarhi 220 0 0.00 35 Siwan 223 3 1.35 36 Supaul 241 6 2.49 37 Vaishali 203 56 27.59 TOTAL 9261 1338 490.73 TGA – Total Geographical Area (Hectare), LD – Land degraded (Hectare) On the basis of the above table, the 6. The rest of the 34 districts on the basis of following table-6 has been prepared in which per cent of land degradation have been land degradation percent of total geographical categorized into five types, i.e. very high, high, area, rank and their percentile has been medium, low, and very low. calculated in Bihar according to the available statistics of 2011. In the first order category where the land degradation is very high (28.41-37.93%), DATA ANALYSIS there are only three districts, i.e. Gopalganj, So far as the wasteland area statistics of Bhojpur, and Bhabhua respectively in their Bihar is concerned, out of 37 districts, land descending order of land degradation. Among degradation per cent out of total geographical these districts Gopalganj has the highest land area is zero in three districts i.e. Sheikhpura, degradation (37.93%), and Bhabhua has the Seohar and Sitamarhi districts. These districts lowest per cent (34.44%) land under stand at 35th rank according to the given table- degradation. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 51 Similarly, in the second order of the included and are in their descending order of districts in Bihar where the land degradation land degradation. Among these districts, is high (19.29-28.40%) includes Bhagalpur, Bhagalpur has the highest land degradation Vaishali, Patna, Banka, Samastipur and (28.4%) and Rohtas has the lowest percent Rohtas. In this category only six districts are of land degradation (21.20%). TABLE – 6 LAND DEGRADATION PERCENT OF TOTAL GEOGRAPHICAL AREA, RANK AND PERCENTILE IN BIHAR - 2011 S.No. OF TABLE-5 LD % OF TGA RANK PERCENTILE 11 37.93 1 100.00% 7 37.80 2 97.20% 5 34.44 3 94.40% 6 28.40 4 91.60% 37 27.59 5 88.80% 25 26.02 6 86.10% 3 23.38 7 83.30% 30 23.10 8 80.50% 28 21.20 9 77.70% 14 19.28 10 75.00% 21 19.14 11 72.20% 31 18.87 12 69.40% 10 18.23 13 66.60% 9 16.16 14 63.80% 15 16.11 15 61.10% 4 15.63 16 58.30% 8 14.11 17 55.50% 13 13.83 18 52.70% 27 13.45 19 50.00% 2 13.03 20 47.20% 16 10.64 21 44.40% 22 9.36 22 41.60% 23 8.37 23 38.80% 24 8.22 24 36.10% 29 2.94 25 33.30% SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 52 29 2.94 25 33.30% 36 2.49 26 30.50% 12 1.91 27 27.70% 26 1.76 28 25.00% 17 1.63 29 22.20% 20 1.41 30 19.40% 35 1.35 31 16.60% 19 1.14 32 13.80% 18 1.12 33 11.10% 1 0.70 34 8.30% 32 0.00 35 0.00% 33 0.00 35 0.00% 34 0.00 35 0.00% TGA – Total Geographical Area (Hectare), LD – Land degraded ( Hectare) highest per cent (10.64%) of the land under In the third order category of districts where the land degradation is medium (10.65- degradation and West Champaran has the 19.27%) includes Katihar, Muzaffarpur, Sa- lowest per cent (8.22%) of the land degrada- ran, Gaya, Darbhanga, Khagaria, Begusarai, tion. Buxar, Jamui, Purnia, and Aurangabad. In this In the fifth and the last category of dis- category eleven districts are included among tricts where the land degradation is very low which Katihar has the highest percent (0-2.94%) includes Saharsa, Supaul, (19.28%) of land degradation and Aurangabad Jahanabad, East Champaran, Lukeesarai, has the lowest per cent (13.03%) of land Munger, Siwan, Madhubani, Madhepura, degradation. Araria, Sitamarhi, Seohar, and Sheikhpura In the fourth order category, only four districts. These are thirteen in number and districts are included, i.e. Kishanganj, Nalanda, are also in their descending order of their land Nawada and West Champaran respectively, degradation. Among these districts, Saharsa where the land degradation is low (2.95- 10.64%). These districts are also in their de- has the highest per cent (2.94%) of land deg- scending order of their land degradation. radation and Araria has the lowest per cent Among these districts, Kishanganj has the (0.7%) land under degradation, map-2. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 53 MAP - 2 CONCLUSION and yielding to adverse environmental impacts The task of providing food security to and without reducing area under forests. our country’s burgeoning population is In the population rich countries with becoming increasingly difficult. This finite land resources, agricultural natural challenge must and needs to be met in the resource security is of utmost importance. face of the changing consumption patterns, Further, because the crop yields and impacts of the climate change and productivity of the ‘favoured agricultural degradation of the finite land and water regions’ have platued out, it is essential that resources. Management of land resources in the degraded and wastelands are rehabilitated general, and crop production methods that will and rejuvenated so that such lands are keep pace with country’s food needs, rendered cultivable and may become sustaining environment, blunting impact of effective in supporting food crop production, climate change, preserving and enhancing agro-forestry and forestry-based land natural resources, and supporting livelihood systems. Further, global environmental change of farmers and rural population in the country. and variability are forcing irreparable damage Thus, there is a pressing need for enlarging to the arable lands adjoining degraded lands, area under arable lands by the way of water and biodiversity resources. These reclaiming degraded lands for sustainable would have serious consequences on food intensification of agriculture, in which crop production and food security in the coming yields can be increased without compromising years. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 54 RECOMMENDATIONS Where complex problems of This study on the degraded and degradation like water erosion, acidity wastelands of India in a way contains the first and water erosion salinity and sodicity approximation of the harmonized results of co-exist, the research agenda needs to the inter-institutional effort. Several points of be re-oriented to bring out a list of “good recommendations for immediate application practices” for amelioration of soil health are indicated. These are detailed as follows: of such degraded lands. Planning for land conservation should be Cultivation of bio-fuel producing plants and fuel trees/crops should be prioritized based on the severity of the encouraged in the degraded and degradational problems arising owing to wastelands. This is an essential step for water and wind erosions and environmental protection. The data sets anthropogenic activities like agro- and maps of this study can help the forestry, silviculture and social forestry government. should be adopted to protect agricultural REFERENCES lands from further deterioration arising 1. Abrol, I.P. (1990). Problem soils in out of degradational processes. India, pp. 153-65. In: Problem Soils of Afforestation of degraded and Asia and the Pacific.FAO/RAPA, wastelands should be given priority. Bangkok. As conservation and land rehabilitation 2. Bhattacharyya, T., Sehgal, J. and Sarkar, measures are highly expensive, the area D. (1996). Soils of Tripura for for reclamation should be prioritized Optimizing Land Use. p.154. NBSS based on the severity of the land Publ. 65a, c, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, India. degradation, the nature of the extent of 3. Borlaug, N. and Dowswell, C.R. (1993). the problem and the proposed land use. Fertilizer to nourish infertile soil that The maps and the data given in this study feeds a fertile population that can be effectively used for such crowds a fragile world. 61st initiatives. International Fertilizer Association Reclamation of acidic, saline and sodic (Annual Conference). soils should get priority in the districts 4. Chaturvedi, Arun. (2010). Land that are severally affected by them in degradation – its socioeconomic different states. These are chemical implication, pp 97-103. State level land degradational processes and seminar on Sustainable Soil Health and materials needed for their amelioration Food Security held on 2-4 January 2010. and reclamation is easily available. The Indian Society of Soil Science, Akola, materials should make available in a Maharashtra, India. planned manner in accordance with the 5. Chaturvedi, Arun and Thayalan, S. severity of the problem prevailing in the (2003). Eroded/degraded lands of districts/states. north Deccan plateau and their utilization. Annals of National SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 55 Association of Geographers, (NAGI), 15. Maji, A.K., Obi Reddy, G.P. and Vol. XXIII (1): 58–66. Meshram, S. (2008). Soil loss map of 6. Das, D.C. (1985). Problem of soil different states of India. Annual Report erosion and land degradation in 2008. NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, India. India. Proceedings of the National 16. Maji, A.K., Obi Reddy, G.P. and Seminar on the Soil Conservation and Meshram, S. (2008a). Acid soil map of Watershed Management held on17–18 India. Annual Report 2008. September New Delhi. NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, India. 7. FAO. (1983). Guidelines: Land 17. Mondal, D.K., Mondal, C., Velayutham, Evaluation for Rainfed Agriculture, M. and Sehgal, J. (2000). Agro- p. 237. Soil Bull. 52, FAO, Rome. ecological regions/ sub-regions of 8. FAO. (1991). Network on Erosion- India for research and planning. In induced Loss in Soil Productivity, pp. Souvenir on Development in Soil 52. FAO, Rome. Science, 65th Annual Convention of Indian So. of Soil Sc., Nagpur, India. 9. Gautam, N.C. and Narayan, L.R.A. (1988). Wastelands in India, pp. 96. Pink 18. Oldeman, L.R. (Ed.) (1988). Global Assessment of Soil Degradation Publishing House, Mathura, India. (GLASOD). Guidelines for general 10. Haldar, A.K., Srivastava, R., Thampi, assessment of status of human-induced soil C.J., Sarkar, D., Singh, D.S., Sehgal, J. degradation. ISRIC, Wageningen. Working and Velayutham, M. (1996). Soils of paper and reprint no. 88 (4), pp. 12. Bihar for Optimizing Land Use. p. 70. 19. Sahoo, A.K, Sarkar, Dipak, Sah, K.D., . NBSS Publ. 50. NBSS&LUP, Maji, A.K and Dhyani, B.L (2005). Soil 11. Higgins, G.M. and Kassam, A.H. (1981). Erosion of Bihar. p. 49. NBSS Publ. The FAO Agro-ecological zone 125. NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, India. approach to determination of 20. Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. (1994). Soil land potential. Pedologie 31(2):147-68. Degradation in India: Status and 12. Lal, R. (1988). Soil erosion by wind Impact. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi. and water: problems and prospects, 21. Sharma, R. C., Rao, B. R. M. and pp. 1-6. In: Soil Erosion Research Saxena, R. K. (2004). Salt Affected Methods. R. Lal (Ed.) Soil Water soils in India-Current Assessment. In: Conserv. Soc. Amer., Ankeny, IA, USA. Advances in Sodic Land Reclamation, 13. Lal, R. and Stewart, B.A. (1990). Soil pp.1-26. International Conference degradation: A global threat. Sustainable Management of Sodic Advances in Soil Science 11:XIII-XVII. Lands, held on 9-14 February at 14. Mahapatra, S.K., Rana, K.P.C., Singh, Lucknow, India. S.P., Vellayutham, M. (2000). Soils of 22. Vasisht, A.K., Singh, R.P., Mathur, V.C. Delhi for Optimizing Land Use. p.70. (2003). Economic implications of land NBSS Publ. 72. NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, degradation on sustainability and India. food security in India. Agropedology, 13(2):19-27. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 56 RESISTANCE AND OBSTACLES AGAINST ERADICATING THE PRACTICE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM) IN ERITREA: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS Saidur Rahman ABSTRACT Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Circumcision is a deeply rooted traditional practice in Eritrea. It is usually done during the period from 1 month to two years. This period of FGM varies across the cultures. This practice has number of untold health and psychological consequences for the circumcised girls or women. Among the negative consequences of health are: painful marital life in terms of sex, problem of child birth, infection, fistula and psychological trauma etc. As such, the governmental and non-governmental organizations are trying hard to eradicate this evil practice of FGM completely as to ensure guarantee of the rights of the girl child in particular and women in general. The long efforts of government have made a drastic change in the attitude of the people in this direction. But, still the good numbers of people are against the eradication of the practice of FGM. The present study is an attempt to know and reveal those factors which are responsible for the resistance shown by the people and obstacles faced by the Eritrean Government against the complete eradication of the practice of FGM which would entail government to adopt the next step forward. KEY WORDS: Female Genital Mutilation, Circumcision, Clitoridectomy, Excision and Infibulation. 1. INTRODUCTION: been an old African rite that came to Egypt by diffusion (the type Infibulation is known in There are number of traditional practice Sudan as “Pharonic Circumcision” and in we have in our society across the cultures. Egypt it is known as “Sudanese Among many of them one is the Female Circumcision”). It is interesting to note that Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female the most radical form of FGM is the Circumcision in Eritrea. The customs and Infibulation which is most widespread in the beliefs surrounding the various forms of FGM Horn of Africa: Sudan, Somalia, and Djibouti are so widespread and so tenacious that far and Eritrea where Arab and Black African more research needs to be done on their cultures met. It is reported that Infibulation is origins and past and present practices. a chastity belt made of flesh, was enforced Researchers’ feels that there is sufficient on Black African women in these areas in evidence to assume that Infibulation (a type the ancient Arab slave trade.2 The dominant of FGM) was practiced in ancient Egypt and culture in these areas is Arabic. And, to this perhaps this custom originated there.1 An day African women from southern Sudan alternative explanation is that it could have (where FGM is not practiced) who have SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 57 married into dominant group, Sudanese Arabs In the whole Horn of Africa, the in northern Sudan have had to undergo practice of FGM is very much prevalent from Infibulation. It is possible that over a period the day immemorial and Eritrea is not the of time Infibulation was practiced in exception to this practice of Female Genital northeastern Africa which became a mark Mutilation (FGM) or Female Circumcision. of distinction as it was the mark of Black In this country, there three types of FGM Africans into the dominant ancient Arab have been officially identified which are group. known as: Clitoridectomy, Excision and James DeMeo believes that the global Infibulation. Apart of these, some other distribution of both male and female genital forms of female circumcisions are also mutilations among non-Western people practiced in the remote regions of the country suggests their genesis in the deserts of north- but it is difficult to give any specific east Africa and the Near East. It is believed nomenclature since its kinds and nature is not that the global distribution of both male and properly classified. female genital mutilations among the non- LITERATURE REVIEW: western people suggests their genesis in the “Women are victims of outdated deserts of northeast Africa and the near east. customs, attitudes and male prejudice. This The practice was transmitted from one region results in negative attitudes of women about to the other by virtue of relocation diffusion, them selves. There are many forms of sexual and by phases of military conquest of cultures oppression, but this particular one is based on who do not mutilate by invading cultures the manipulation of women’s sexuality in which do, or by ‘voluntary adoption’ of those order to assure male domination and assimilated cultures.3 exploitation. The origins of such practices may In conclusion, it seems likely that genital be found in the family, society and religion”.4 mutilations were introduced when the Nile To those from other cultures unfamiliar Valley was invaded by militant pastoral with the practice of female genital mutilation, nomads and it culturally transformed around it may appear shocking, horrifying and even 3100 BC. These invaders, who possessed barbaric; yet it is important that it is not viewed Asian and Semitic characteristics, ushered in as an isolated practice. Female genital an era of divine kings, ritual widow murder, a mutilation is part of a continuum of patriarchal military and priestly caste and other trappings repression of female sexuality, which has been of extreme patriarchal authoritarian culture. repressed in a variety of ways in all parts of Although female genital mutilation occurs in the world throughout history and up to the Egypt today, but there is no evidence as are present time. Methods vary in scope and in found in the period of earlier times. Female degree, but not in kind. Females slaves in genital mutilation must have developed ancient Rome had one or more rings put independently amongst certain ethnic groups through their labia major to prevent them in sub Saharan Africa as part of puberty rites. having intercourse. Chastity belts were SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 58 brought to Europe by the Crusaders during “unhappy” marriages.8 In 1859 Dr. Charles the twelfth century and used to ensure that Meigs recommended the application of silver women, locked up in these iron contraptions, solution to the clitoris of female children who remained faithful while their husbands were masturbated 9 and until 1925 in the United way fighting. In Russia, the Skoptozy States, a medical association called the official (meaning “the circumciser’), a Christian sect, Surgery Society offered training in were reported to practice infibulations to Clitoridectomy and infibulations. Because of ensure perceptual virginity. The justified this the vast amount of sickness and suffering practice with a quote from the St. Matthew’s which could be saved the gentler sex”. Such Gospel (Chapter 19, verse 12) which states, mutilations occurred as recently as the 1940’s “…… and there be eunuchs, which have and 1950’s in the United States. For example, made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom in New York, the daughter of a well- to-do of heaven’s sake”.5 family underwent Clitoridectomy as “ Going back in women’s history to find treatment” for masturbation, as recommended FGM practiced outside Africa was quite by a family physician.10 Some prostitutes revealing. Robin Morgan and Gloria Steinem were encouraged by well- meaning Church provide interesting insights into the way in social workers to have this procedure as a which FGM manifested itself in North form of “ rehabilitation”11. 6 America and in Europe. According to It must not be thought that such Morgan and Steinem, Sigmund Freud, the practices have been eradicated. Indeed there renowned psychologist, performed psychic are women living in North America and Clitoridectomy on all females in North Europe today who have suffered this form ( America and in Europe for more than a as well as other, more familiar, form) of century. He decreed that a “vagina” orgasm gynophobia, medically unnecessary, mutilating was a mark on maturity (even though it does 12 not physiologically exist) and that clitoral surgery. The author has met five British orgasm must be abandoned (even though women in their 40’s and over have had orgasm begins in the clitoral nerves). This Clitoridectomy performed on them in propaganda had negative effects on the childhood for non- physical reasons. Because psyche and the sexuality of millions of women of persuasion by their partners that their labia in North America and Europe. minora are ugly, some white British women have gone for labia reduction purely for In the nineteenth century, medical texts aesthetic reasons. This and hymen repair to also proclaimed genital mutilation as an restore “Virginity” for Arab and Asian girls accepted treatment for “nymphomania”, costs some £1,500 in private clinics in “Hysteria”, “Masturbation”, “deviance” and London.13 Equally, in Japan, demands by men other non-conforming behavior 7. In London, for proof of virginity from their brides have Dr. Issac Brown justified scissoring off the reached such proportions that women are clitoris of some of his patients as a cure for prepared to pay up 500,000 yen (£3,000) for various ailments such as insomnia, sterility and hymen repair.14 SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 59 Whatever the justifications, mechanism countries where almost all the female and pressures imposed on women to make population undergoes mutilation. These are their bodies conform to societal expectations, Somalia, Djibouti and north and Central we can explore the real reasons for them only Sudan, where more than 80 percent of within the context of patriarchy. In no other women have undergone the more severe continent did the mutilation of female sexual mutilation, infibulations. organs take such holds in Africa. Outside Africa, FGM is practiced in At present it is estimated that over 100 Oman, both North and South of Yemen, and million girls and women in Africa are the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Other Arab genetically mutilated. 15, 16 At the current rate countries in which it has been reported to be of population growth in Africa, two million practiced are Bahrain, Qatar and some areas girls a year- some 6,000 per day —— are of Saudi Arabia 22. Reports from doctors and estimated by some authors to be at risk of midwives working in the Middle East indicate FGM.17 However, information available on total prevalence and rates by type of that infibulations is practiced widely by 23 operation is incomplete. It is often based on immigrants from the Sudan and Somalia . anecdotal reports or biased samples using However, the extent of the practice in the unclear or faulty methods of data collection.18 Middle East is unknown and research data is The only country with reliable nation-wide required to confirm its prevalence and type. data on FGM is the Sudan, where three FGM is practiced by the Ethiopian Jewish surveys included data on FGM.19, 20 Falashas who have recently settled in Israel and there are reports that the Bedouin women One or more forms of FGM are reported of Israel also practice FGM 24, 25. to be practiced in more than 28 African countries, although national borders are not Clitoridectomy is reported to be so important as ethnic groups practicing FGM practiced in South America by some straddle boundaries. Because civil wars have indigenous people in Peru, 26, Colombia,27 caused major refugee movements from the Mexico and Brazil,28 again the extent of the horn of Africa, FGM is now being performed practice is unknown. Female circumcision is in refugee camps. It is therefore more practiced by the Muslim populations of accurate to view female genital mutilation as Indonesia and Malaysia and by Bohra being practiced by specific ethnic groups in Muslims in India, Pakistan and East Africa. Africa.21 The gravity of mutilations varies from one ethnic group to the other. Those In western countries - Europe, Australia, cloth together geographically are by no means Canada and the USA – immigrant women affected in the same way: for example, in from areas where FGM is practiced are Kenya, the Kikuyu, the Ibo and the Hausa reported to be genitally mutilated 29 but there do, but not the Nupes or the Fulanis; in are no studies on its prevalence neither in Senegal the Woloff do not practice mutilation. immigrant population nor on the numbers of There are many examples. There are three girls at risk. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 60 2. PERSPECTIVES OF FEMALE very small which less than 1 percent. Some GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM) people believe that non- health workers who perform circumcisions have a financial Age at circumcision interest in the continuation of the practice. Female circumcision is performed at Perceived benefits of Female different ages within the different nine ethnic Circumcision groups in Eritrea. Approximately 62 percent of circumcised women were circumcised For many Eritrean women circumcision before their first birthday. One in six women is an important factor in attaining social was circumcised at five years of age or older. acceptance and having better marriage Urban women are more likely to be prospects. Social acceptance is the most circumcised at an early age than women in frequently cited benefit of circumcision rural areas. The age at circumcision by followed by better marriage prospects and regions (Zobas) show differences of the religious approval. Personal cleanliness or timing of circumcision. The majority of hygiene and the view that female women in Zobas Southern Red Sea, Central circumcision preserves virginity and prevents and South were circumcised within the first premarital sex are mentioned frequently as 30 days after birth, while the majority of benefits of circumcision (EDHS: 2002). women in other Zobas were circumcised after Perceived Benefits of Girls not being infancy- most commonly after 5 years of age circumcised (EDHS: 2002). Those rural and uneducated women and Person who Perform Circumcision women in the lowest quintile of the wealth The risks of complications and infections index say that there is no benefit to a girl not with female genital mutilation are a function being circumcised. Among those who of the conditions under which the surgery is perceive benefits for not being circumcised performed and the cleanliness of the are cited as: avoiding pain, having fewer instruments used for circumcision. According medical problems and more sexual pleasure to the report of EDHS (2002), there are for the woman. Avoiding pain is the most special persons and circumcision practitioners frequently cited benefit for not being who perform the vast majority of female circumcised than the circumcised one. The circumcision in Eritrea. The most important more education a woman has, the more likely fact is that the traditional birth attendants she is to believe that girls have fewer medical performed less than 10 percent of the problems if they are not circumcised. Urban circumcision rather they are more likely to women, especially those in Asmara (capital perform the two most severe types of city) perceive that the girl or women who are circumcision. The number of circumcisions not circumcised enjoy more sexual pleasure performed by trained health professionals is than the circumcised one (EDHS: 2002). SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 61 Beliefs about Circumcision in the extent of the problem. For example, the proportion of women reporting problems Female circumcision is practiced by all during sexual relations declined from 12 religious groups in Eritrea, including traditional percent in 1995 to 7 percent in 2002 and the believers. Despite the fact that in recent year proportion of citing problems during delivery religious leaders of all faiths have either fell from 17 percent to 11 percent. spoken against the practice or distanced themselves from showing support for the The type of circumcision has a direct practice. In the beliefs that circumcision is link with proportion of women who have required by religion and that circumcision problems during sexual intercourse and at the time of delivery. Women who have had the prevents premarital sex is shared by majority most severe type (Infibulation) of of Eritrean population. In contrast, women in circumcision are much more likely to report urban areas like Asmara and in the Central experiencing problems during sexual relations zone are considerably less likely than other than women who have had the least severe women to believe that circumcision is a types (Clitoridectomy & Excision) of religious requirement or that it prevents circumcisions. Younger women are more premarital sex (EDHS: 2002). likely than older women to report having Problems associated with Female problems during sexual relations because of Circumcision circumcision (EDHS: 2002). Long-term complications of female GOVERNMENTAL RESPONSE TO THE PRACTICE OF FGM circumcision can cause suffering for many years. Hardening of the scar tissue can cause Legislative Response problems during sexual intercourse or at the The Eritrean government considers time of delivery. Because the problems FGM/C as a serious violation of children’s associated with circumcision were self- and women’s rights. In 2007, the government diagnosed, it is likely that some women did of Eritrea passed the FGM/C Proclamation not report having problems because they did 158/2007 banning the practice in all its forms. not recognize them as such regarded their It went further to develop a national strategic experience as normal and natural for women. framework and plan of action in order to eradicate completely. The 7 percent of circumcised women who had ever had sex reported having Health Response problems during sexual relations due to their Female genital mutilation / cutting have circumcision. Among circumcised women been integrated into sexual reproductive who had at least one birth, the 11 percent of health and clinical assessments in the country. them reported having problems during delivery The reduction in less than five mortality rate and 4 percent reported having problems both from 93 percent in 2002 to 70 percent in 2007 during sexual relations and delivery. These indicates that Eritrea is likely to meet the 45.3 finding indicate a slight decrease from 1995 percent target of 2015. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 62 Media Response FGM and its various implications on the health and socio-psychological issues. The Eritrean The Ministry of Health has a behavioral government has taken a drastic measure in and communication strategy to deal with order to stop the practice of FGM after its issues of female genital mutilation/ cutting. independence in the year 1991. Many In 2009-2010, the Ministry of Information governmental and non-governmental developed and broadcast 28 radios and 18 organizations are also active in this direction. TV programmes including programs of nine Today, in Eritrea, the level of educations local languages on FGM/C. Plans are among masses, awareness, motivations, underway to train members of the media on campaigns and legislations together might developing and packaging appropriate have become the engine of changing attitude messages on FGM/C. Over 100 cartoons towards the practice of FGM. But, till date have been produced and posted on buses, bus not a single study has been conducted on the terminals, and recreational areas to promote changing attitude of FGM. The present community behavioral change. In addition, research is an effort to this direction. As such, 3,000 booklets, 1,000 bags, 30,000 T-shirts and the ongoing study is an exploratory in nature. 30,000 caps with the catch phrase “Stop FGM/C” written in Tigrigna and Arabic and Objectives of the present study English have been produced and distributed. To have concise and clear objectives in 3. METHODOLOGY conducting a research is a key to the successful outcome of the research. In this The Nature of Study particular research paper, the objectives are The practice of Female Genital as following: Mutilations (FGM) is highly deep rooted and 1. To know the population traits of the has a long history. The FGM is practiced in respondents under the study. almost all over the African Continent including some Middle East Countries too. 2. To know whether people want to stop Apart of these geographical locations, it is the practice of FGM. also practiced among some immigrants of the 3. To know the factors which are the die Western World. Till date, the numbers of hard obstacles and resistance against the studies have been conducted in African changing attitude towards the practice countries in particular and some other of FGM? countries in general. Among these studies, most of them are based on the types of FGM Research Hypothesis: and its implications in terms of health and The researcher will be guided by the socio-psychological perspectives. Within the hypotheses are: African Continent, in the North-East African 1. By in large, the trends of socio- region, the country like Eritrea has also demographic status are hypothesized as: conducted various studies on the practice of mostly are male, the age group is SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 63 between 26 -30, are unmarried, commodities which are produced in Asmara educational status is undergraduate level, are tanning, lumber, flour milling, vegetable majority are unemployed, individual processing and the manufacture of perfumes, income level is between 300-500 Nakfa, glass, cement, bricks, and buttons. Asmara and family income is 600 - 900. Majority has only one international airport by which it of respondent are Tigrigna ethnic group is connected with the outside world. Apart of and Muslims. It is to be noted that except this, researchers also conducted study at the Tigrigna and Kunama rest all the seven Eritrea Institute of Technology, Hal-Hale ethnic groups are constituted by College and Adi-Keih College of Arts & Social Muslims. Sciences. 2. Peoples attitude towards the practice of The Population under Study female genital mutilation is changing but The survey data of the proposed study still there is strong resistance among the intended to throw light on several unknown good number of people. characteristics of the population under study. 3. The factors which are responsible for The important characteristics are in terms of the resistance and obstacles against the their socio-demographic structures and factors eradication of the evil practice of FGM responsible for the resistance and obstacles include the combination of various against the eradication of the practice of factors, such as: social, educational, FGM. religious, and psychological, health and Sampling Plan sex factors. In the present study, a multi-stage The Universe sampling procedure is adopted in order to The present research is conducted in administer the research tool. In the first Asmara and all the institutions of higher stage it was proposed to study all the nine education in Eritrea. Asmara is the capital ethnic groups comprising of 100 respondents city of Eritrea. By and large, people in from each category in order to make it a Asmara are engaged in governmental and representative one of the society as a whole. non-governmental jobs as well as big and As such, total sample had to be administered small businesses. The total population of in the field were 900 incumbents .In the Asmara is approximately 563,948 (2008 second-stage, the researcher planned to estimated) which is 1.12 percent of the total travel to different regions or pockets of the population of the country. The ratio of male country where the respective ethnic groups and female population is 50: 50. The maximum are mostly concentrated in terms of their and minimum temperature of Asmara is 16.5 native place of origin or living. But, finally, degree centigrade and 6 centigrade this idea was dropped because of practical respectively. The rainfall on average is 501 difficulty and considering limitations of the mm (19.7 in) of precipitation annually or 42 researcher. In the third- stage, the total mm (1.6 in) each month. The main sample was reduced to 300 keeping in mind SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 64 the difficulty in terms of time, energy and like education and urban lives are the vehicles resources at hand to the researcher. The of attitudinal and social change of any society. Researcher also realized that it would not be Again, the Marine College and Hamel Malo possible to administer the research tool with College were exempted from the universe of 900 respondents and travel to number of the study because of long distance travel regions or pockets of the country due to travel problem and time constraint. In the fifth- permit restriction. But, the researcher was stage, the researcher prepared a list of 300 very much determined to keep the sample respondents having representation of all ethnic highly representative in kind; the criteria of groups from the above mentioned Institute, including all nine ethnic groups into the sample Colleges and the Capital ( Centre of diverse remain unchanged. The researcher was very population of the country) of Asmara in much aware that reducing the sample from proportionate to the demographic size of the 900 to 300 based on all ethnic groups is too respective ethnic group. Since students and small to produce viable or expected results indigenous staffs of the higher education or representative one. In the fourth-stage, centers belong to different parts of the in order to minimize the damage may cause country with having diverse social, economic, by reducing the sample to a smaller one i.e. educational, religious and cultural background, 300), the researcher dropped the idea to travel hence, it is regarded as the representative all the native regions or pockets of these nine ethnic groups, instead, the researcher adopted sample of Eritrean society. The researcher is the mechanism of standardizing and happy to acknowledge that a detail study can concretizing the sample by selecting the be made by some governmental or non- respondents only from institute (Eritrea governmental institutions in the near future Institute of Technology), Colleges (Health to fill up the gap left out by the present study. College, Hal-Hale and Adi-Keih College of The following distribution of respondents Arts & Social Sciences), and the capital city (Table No.3.1) is made in terms of respective of Asmara, because, the researcher is total demographic size (Table No.3.2) of each confident and firmly believes that variables ethnic group in the country: Table No.3.1: Distribution of the Respondents Ethnic Group Frequency Percentage Tigrina 120 40 percent Tigre 75 25 percent Bilen 12 4 percent Afar 21 7 percent Saho 21 7 percent Nara 15 5 percent Hidareb 12 4 percent Kunama 15 5 percent Rashadia 9 3 percent Total 300 100 percent SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 65 Table No.3.2: Distribution of Nine Ethnic Groups in terms of their Corresponding Percentages out of the Total Population. Ethnic Group Frequency Percentage Tigrinya 2000000 50 percent Tigre 1200000 30.05 percent Bilen 100000 2.5 percent Afar 200000 5 percent Saho 200000 5 percent Nara 80000 2 percent Hidareb 100000 2.5 percent Kunama 80000 2 percent Rashadia 20000 0.5 percent Source: Eritrea Demographic and Health Survey, 2002. List of Variables under Study been statistically analyzed and presented in Population trait, size of family, education, tabular form. In the tables, the frequencies income, family income, female genital and their corresponding percentage have been mutilation (FGM) and factors responsible for given. not stopping the FGM. Analysis of Data The Construction of Interview Schedule The data have been analyzed on the basis The major tool for collecting data for of tables and statistical inferences. The the present research was interview schedule characteristics of the data and the direction which included questions on the following to which they lead have been given in areas: respective chapters. While interpreting the 1. Population Trait: Population trait of the data impressionistic and subjective respondents, such as age, sex, marital interpretation have been consciously avoided. status, religion, ethnic group, size of the Only the factual analysis and the conclusion family, education, income and family arising out of that have been presented. income. 4. SOCIO- DEMOGRAPHIC 2. Factors responsible for the resistance STRUCTURES OF THE POPULATION and obstacles against the eradication of UNDER STUDY the practice of FGM are as: social, In this chapter, the researcher tries to educational, religious, health and present, analyze and interpret the data psychological factors. obtained from the research finding about the Presentation of Data socio- demographic structures of the The data collected through the respondents. The data is presented in tabular administration of the interview schedule have form. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 66 Sex: The variable sex is one of the Table 4.2: Age Distribution important elements of our society. The sex Age group Frequency Percentage variable determines the status of the members 20-25 93 31 percent in society. Each society has its own way in 26-30 102 34 percent defining the status of male and female. Some 31-35 54 18 percent 36-41 42 14 percent society puts the men at top of level of the 42 and 9 3 percent social hierarchy in terms of social position. above Whereas, in other society have opposite Total 300 100 percent practice. Also, there are society, which According to the data presented in table determine the respect status and prestige of No.4. 2, the 31 percent of the respondents sex in terms of their achieve goals which they found to be in the age group between 20-25 have made during their whole span of life- and 34 percent were in the age group between time. 26-30 and 18 percent of the respondents were in the age group between 31-35 and 14 Table 4.1: Sex Distribution percent were in the age group between 36- Sex Frequency Percentage 41 and 3 percent of the respondents were in Male 186 62 percent the age group between 42 and above. The highest age group was the age group of 20- Female 114 38 percent 25 and the least age group was the age group Total 300 100 percent of 42 and above. According to the data presented in table Marital Status: Marriage is socially 4.1, the 62 percent of the respondents were recognized and approved union between male and 38 percent of the respondents were individuals, who commit to one another with female. Therefore, as the data presents the the expectation a stable and lasting intimate male respondents are great than the female relationship. Marital status is an important respondents. factor in determining ones position in a society Age: The variable age is one of the im- in certain ways, especially in society such as Eritrean society where as ones marital status portant elements of our society because it de- plays a great role in his or her interaction termines the role and status of the individual manners. This marital status includes variables members of the society and because it is a such as , married, unmarried, single, widowed, crucial stage of life when people are consid- Divorced . ered to be fully bound by their words and Table 4.3: Marital Distribution. deeds. Different society adopt different treat- Marital status Frequency Percentage ment of its members based on age and dif- Married 111 37 percent ferent members of a society with different Unmarried 159 53 percent age level considered to have different treat- Divorced 24 8 percent ment and respect according their respective Widowed 3 1 percent age level Single 3 1 percent Total 300 100 percent SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 67 As the data presented in table No.4.3, and 42 percent were undergraduate and 3 reports that 37 percent of the respondents percent were shows to be at the status of were married and 53 percent were unmar- masters and doctoral. Therefore, as the data ried and 8 percent of the respondents were presented above shows the percentage of the divorced and 1 percent was widowed and the undergraduate shows to be the highest one same percentage showed up to be single. and the percentage of the illiterate shows to Therefore, the highest percentage shows in be the least one. the unmarried status and the least goes to the status with widowed and single. Source of Income: the place where an individual works has its role in determining Education is one of the most important an individual’s position in a society and to variables in the population traits mainly be- cause it determines the role and understand- some extent it affects his or her educational ing of the individual in the society and the level, income level and the role he or she plays. education level an individual determines his The source of income could be in different or her attitude towards different variables of sectors such as, the governmental sectors, social aspects. Moreover, the education level non- government, national service, small of parents affects child rearing, such as the business, etc. children of college educated parents are less Table 4.5: Source of Income. likely to experience those harmful practices which are traditional deeply rooted in a soci- Source of Income Frequency Percentage ety as a cultural or religious practices than Governmental 42 14 percent Sector those who are illiterate. Non-governmental 9 3 percent Table 4.4: Educational Status. Sector National Service 84 28 percent Educational Status Frequency Percentage Small Business 27 9 percent Illiterate 3 1 percent Unemployed 33 11 percent Literate 30 10 percent No source of 105 35 percent Elementary 27 9 percent income Junior level 48 16 percent Total 300 100 Secondary level 48 16 percent percent Undergraduate 126 42 percent Masters 9 3 percent According to the data presented in table Doctoral 9 3 percent No.4.5, it is found that 14 percent of the Total 300 100 respondents’ source of income is from their According to the data presented in table employment in governmental sectors and 3 No.4.4, the 1 percent of the respondents were percent gets their income from working in illiterate and 10 percent shows to be literate non- governmental sectors and 28 percent are and 9 percent were at elementary level and national service 16 percent were at junior and secondary level SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 68 and 9 percent gets their income through income determines the style of living of an engaging in small business and 11 percent individual and it is highly related to the were found to be unemployed and 35 percent educational level of an individual. Moreover, were found to be no source of income. based on the income level of its member’s society assigned different positions to its Income Level: In a society the income level members. of an individual is a curial variable, because Table 4. 6: Income Level. Income Level Frequency Percentage 300-500Nakfa 120 62.5 percent 600-800Nakfa 42 21.9 percent 900-1100Nakfa 15 7.6 percent 1200-1400Nakfa 0 0 percent 1500-1700Nakfa 3 1.7 percent 1800-2000Nakfa 0 0 percent 2100-2300Nakfa 0 0 percent 2400 and above Nakfa 12 6.3 percent Total 192 100 percent According to the data presented in table 1700 Nakfa, and 6.3 percent have an income No.4. 6, the 62.5 percent of the respondents of 2400 percent and above. Therefore, found to be their level of income between majority of the respondents have the income 300-500 Nakfa, and 21.9 percent have a level level between 300-500 Nakfa and at the least of income between 600-800 Nakfa, and 7.6 there are respondents with no income level percent of the respondents report that they at all. have the income level between 900-1100 Nakfa and not a single respondent found that Family Size: Family size is the total number the income level between 1200-1400 Nakfa, of members a family consists. In Eritrean and the income level between 1800-2000 society the family size is highly affected by Nakfa and the income level between 2100- cultural orientations of early marriage and 2300 Nakfa as significant. Out of the total early child bearing and also it is related to population of the respondents 1.7 percent some extent to the wealth and strongly linked report that their income level is between 1500- to educational level of an individual. Table 4.7: Family Size. Family Size Frequency Percentage 1-3 members 87 29 percent 4-6 members 147 49 percent 7-9 members 60 20 percent 10-12 members 0 0.00 percent 13 and above 6 2 percent Total 300 100 percent SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 69 According to the data presented in table 1800- 2100 Nakfa of family income and1 No.4.7, the 29 percent of the respondents had percent of the respondents have a family a family size of 1-3 members and 49 percent income between 2200-2500 Nakfa and 2600- are found to had a family size of 4-6 members 2900 Nakfa and 3 percent have a family and 20 percent had 7-9 members of their income between 3000 Nakfa and above. family and the respondents found that the Therefore, the highest percentage is in the family size between 10-12 members has no family income between 600-900 Nakfa and relation with them and 2 percent shows the the least is in the family income between 2200- population have up to the family size of 13 2500 Nakfa and 2600-2900 Nakfa. and above members. As the data shows up Ethnic Group Status: Ethnic of a particular the family size with 4-6 members is with the origin or culture mosaic cultures and highest percentage and the family size with traditions. relating to a person or to a large 10-12 members presents the least percentage group of people who share a national, racial, which is 0.00 percent. linguistic or religious heritage whether or not Family Income: It is the summation of all reside in their country or place of origin. Ethnic members’ income in a family. As family is a group of an individual shapes his or her basic unit of a society the income level of a practices, actions and interactions and inner family is a curial or an important variable in thoughts. The Eritrean society is a determining the family’s social class and combination of nine ethnic groups with position in the society. And this in turn affects an individual’s livelihood. Table 4.9: Ethnic Group Status. Table 4.8: Family Income. Ethnic Group Frequency Percentage Tigrina 120 40 percent Family Income Frequency Percentage Tigre 75 25 percent 600-900 Nakfa 204 68 percent Bilen 12 4 percent 1000-1300 Nakfa 48 16 percent Afar 21 7 percent 1400-1700 Nakfa 21 7 percent Saho 21 7 percent 1800-2100 Nakfa 12 4 percent Nara 15 5 percent 2200-2500 Nakfa 3 1 percent Hidareb 12 4 percent 2600-2900 Nakfa 3 1 percent Kunama 15 5 percent 3000-and above 9 3 percent Rashadia 9 3 percent Nakfa Total 300 100 percent Total 300 100 percent As it is presented in table No.4.9, the According to the data presented in the 40 percent of respondents are from Tigrigna table No.4.8, the 68 percent of the ethnic group and 25 percent are representing respondents have a family income between the Tigre ethnic group and 4 percent are 600-900 Nakfa and 16 percent have a family representing the Bilen and Hidareb ethnic income between 1000-1300 Nakfa and 7 group respectively and 7 percent are percent have a family income between 1400- representing the Afar and Saho ethnic group 1700 Nakfa and 4 percent have between respectively and 5 percent of the respondents SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 70 are representing the ethnic groups of Nara 5. PEOPLES’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS and Kunama respectively and 3 percent of THE PRACTICE OF FEMALE the respondents are representing the Rashaida GENITAL MUTILATION ethnic group. As it is mentioned above the Tigrina ethnic group has the highest number This chapter will reveal the data finding of respondents and the Rashaida has the least of people’s attitude towards the practice of number of respondents. The distribution of female genital mutilation. The attitude of an the number is based on the total percentage individual is an important element of one’s of each ethnic group in the country. personality. It reflects individual’s vision, Religious Background: Religion is sacred philosophy, ideology, and other inner thoughts engagement with that which is believed to be in terms of his or her interaction with other a spiritual reality. Religion is a worldwide members of the society. When we deal with phenomenon that has played a part in all change it has been observed and experienced human culture. By defining a religion as a that people’s attitude change very slowly as sacred engagement with what is taken to be compared to our material aspects of life. a spiritually reality, it is possible to consider the importance of religion in human life Table 5.1. Attitudinal Dimensions without making claims about what it really is towards the Practice of Female Genital or ought to be. It is an aspect of human Mutilation (FGM): experience that may intersect, incorporate, Do you want the Frequency Percentage or transcend other aspects of life and society. FGM practice to Table 4.10: Religious Background. be stopped? Yes 195 65 percent No 105 35 percent Religious Status Frequency Percentage Total 300 100 percent Orthodox 75 25 percent Catholic 51 17 percent As it is presented in table No.5.1, out of Protestant 18 6 percent the total population of the respondents 65 Muslim 156 52 percent percent are against the continuation of the Total 300 100 percent practice of female genital mutilation and 35 percent are in favor of its continuation. Ac- According to the data presented in table cordingly, the highest percentage goes against No.4.10, out of the total population of the its continuation as a practice and the lowest respondents 25 percent are the followers of percentage (35 percent) shows in favor of its the Orthodox Christians and the 17 percent continuation. Therefore, this study confirmed are Catholics Christians and the 6 percent that the attitudinal dimension of people to- are Protestant Christians and the 52 percent wards the practice of female genital mutila- are the followers of the Islam religion tion is changing towards the orientation of its prevention. But, still good number of percent- SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 71 age i.e. 35 is pressing forward to continue 6. FACTORS AFFECTING NEGATIVELY the practice of FGM. The present study would TOWA RDS THE CHANGING be an attempt to know those factors which ATTITUDE OF FEMALE GENITAL are responsible for the resistance and obstacle MUTILATI ON (FGM ) for the complete eradication of the evil prac- The factors which are affecting the tice of FGM. The result of this study would practice of female genital mutilation are clas- be the guideline and an unequivocal direction sified into six major factors. The researcher to the governmental and non-governmental will analyze the factors which are respon- organizations in particular and the Eritrean sible for hindering change towards the prac- society in general. As such, the least fre- tice of female genital mutilation one by one. These responsible factors are as following: quency of 105 and the corresponding per- * Social factors. centage of it is 35 are the subject matter * Educational factors. of the present study i.e. what factors are * Religious factors. responsible for the resistance and ob- * Psychological factors. stacles against the complete eradication * Health factors. of the practice of FGM? * Governmental factors. Table 6.1: Social Factor: As an Obstacle for The Eradication of the Practice of FGM Do you think that the practice of FGM is to be continued Frequency/Total Percentage because: Frequency It is part of our social respect 90/105 85.7 percent It is a pride to our women 84/105 80 percent It is socially unacceptable that a woman is not circumcised 93/105 88.6 percent No boy would marry to an uncircumcised girl or a woman 84/105 80 percent It is a symbol of purity and pollution of a girl or a woman 75/105 71.5 percent According to the data presented in table argue its continuation because no boy would No.6.1, the 85.7 percent of the respondents marry to an uncircumcised girl or a woman, report that the practice of FGM should not and 71.5 claims that it is a symbol of purity stop because it is part of their social respect, and pollution of a girl or a woman. Therefore, and 80 percent report that it is a pride to their the largest number of the respondents report women, and 88.6 percent report that it should that FGM should be continued because it is continue because it is socially unacceptable socially unacceptable that a woman is not that a women is not circumcised. Out of the circumcised and the least one reports that it total population of the respondents 80 percent should not stop because it is a symbol of purity and pollution of a girl and a woman. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 72 Table 6.2: Educational Factor: Effects of Education on the Eradication of the Practice of FGM? Do you think the practice of FGM is to be continued Frequency/ Percentage because: Total Frequency Today, we are exposed to education and science, but we 93/105 88.6 percent do not want to compromise with the practice of FGM We consider education and the practice of FGM are two 105/105 100 percent separate issues Being educated we want the practice to be continued 57/105 54.3 percent According to the data presented in table report that they favor its continuation as an N0.6.2, the 88.6 percent of the respondents educated ones. As it is presented in the above, report that FGM is to be continued because the largest percent of the respondents report they do not want to compromise with the that the practice of FGM is to be continued practice of FGM with the exposing to because they consider education and the education and science, and 100 percent of practice as two separate issues and the least the respondents favor its continuation because percentage of the respondents report that they they consider education and the practice of want the practice of FGM to be continued as FGM as two separate issues, and 54.3 percent educated ones. Table 6.3: Religious Factor: An Obstacle for the Eradication of the Practice of FGM Do you think the practice of FGM is to be continued Frequency/Total Percentage because: Frequency We consider the practice of FGM as a part of our religion 87/105 82.9 percent We consider it as one of our greatest social traditions 84/105 80 percent It may not have religious roots but we treat FGM as a 69/105 65.7 percent religious practice Our religious leaders and scholars strongly support the 66/105 62.9 percent practice of FGM Although, our religious leaders and scholars do not 36/105 34.3 percent support the practice of FGM but we want to practice of our own According to the data presented in table the total population of the respondents 62.9 No.6.3, the 82.9 percent of the respondents percent reports that they favor the report that the practice of FGM should be continuation of the FGM because their continued because they consider it as part of religious leaders and scholars strongly support their religion, and 80 percent of the it, and 34.3 percent of the respondents support respondents report that it is one of their the practice of FGM because they want to greatest social traditions, 65.7 percent think practice it of their own way even though their that it may not have religious roots but they religious leaders and scholars do not support want to treat it as a religious practice. Out of it. Therefore, the largest number of the SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 73 respondents consider the practice of FGM it of their own even though their religious as part of their religion and the least leaders and scholars do not support the percentage reports that they want to practice practice of FGM. Table 6.4: Psychological Factor: As an Obstacle for the Eradication of The Practice of FGM Do you think that the practice of FGM is to be continued Frequency/Total Percentage because: Frequency We consider as a very important value of our society. 63/105 60 percent We would never compromise with the practice of FGM at any 78/105 74.3 percent cost. We feel glorified when our girls and women are circumcised. 78/105 74.3 percent We bother and care a lot whether our girls or women are 66/105 62.9 percent circumcised or not? Male partners are specially too concerned about FGM, when 72/105 68.6 percent they decide to marry. Our circumcised girls and women feel that they are very clean 60/105 57.1 percent than the non- circumcised one. Male partners feel that the circumcised girls or women are clean 33/105 31.4 percent than non-circumcised one As it is presented in table No.6.4, the 57.1 percent report that their circumcised girls 60 percent of the respondents argue the and women feel that they are very clean than practice of FGM to be continued because they the non-circumcised one, and 31.4 percent consider it as a very important value of their argue that the practice should continue society, and 74.3 percent think that they would because the male partners feel that the never compromise with the practice of FGM circumcised girls or women are clean than at any circumstances and the same non-circumcised one. Therefore, the largest percentage reports that they feel glorified when number of the respondents report that the their girls and women are circumcised, and practice of FGM is to be continued because 62.9 percent report that they bother and care they feel glorified when their girls or women a lot whether their girls or women are are circumcised and they never compromise circumcised or not. Out of the total population with the practice FGM at any circumstances of the respondents 68.6 percent report that and the least percentage reports that the male the male partners are too much concerned partners feel that the circumcised girls and about FGM when they decide to marry, and women are clean than the non- circumcised one. Table 6.5: Health Factor: As an Obstacle for the Eradication of the Practice of FGM Do you think that the practice of FGM is to be continued Frequency/Total Percentage because: Frequency It has no any negative consequences on the health of 72/105 68.6 percent circumcised mother or women It has no any side effects at all 96/105 91.4 percent It is good for the health of the circumcised girl or women 78/105 74.3 percent It may cause health problems only for the infibulated girl 45/105 42.9 percent or women I have not known that anybody gets pain, injury, trauma 60/105 57.1 percent or diseases because of FGM SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 74 As the data presented in table No.6.5, woman; Educational Factor - Today, we the 68.6 percent of the respondents report are exposed to education and science, but we that FGM has no any negative consequences do not want to compromise with the practice on the health of circumcised mother or of FGM and we consider education and the women, and 91.4 percent of the respondents practice of FGM are two separate issues; report that the practice of FGM is to be Religious Factor - We consider the practice continued because it has no any side effects of FGM as a part of our greatest tradition, at all, 74.3 percent of the total respondents we consider it as one of our religion and our report that it is good for the health of the religious leaders and scholars strongly support circumcised girl or women, and 42.9 percent the practice of FGM; Psychological factor report that the practice of FGM is to be - Male partners are specially too concerned continued because it only cause health about FGM when they decide to marry, we problems only for the infibulated girl or women. consider our circumcised girls and women are Out of the total population of the respondents the sign of cleanliness and increase the desire 57.1 percent report that they have not known to be with her and we feel glorified when our anybody gets pain, injury, trauma or diseases girls and women are circumcised; and Health because of FGM. Therefore, the largest factor - It has no any side effects at all and percentage reports that the continuation of it may cause health problems only for the the practice of FGM is favored because it infibulated girl or women but not other types has no any side effects at all and the least of circumcised girls or women. percentage reports that FGM causes health REFERENCES: problems only on for the infibulated women. 1. Abed, Asali, Naif Khamaysi, Yunis CONCLUSION: Aburabia et al, Ritual Female Genital The study shows that the changing attitude Surgery among Bedouin in Israel, towards the practice of FGM has been Beersheve Mental Health center, PO hindered due to the deeply rooted traditional Box 4600, Beersheva, 1992. and cultural believes and myths about the 2. AIDOS, Documentary of FGM, Seven functions and benefits of the practice. Drops of Blood, Rome, Italy, 1984. According to the majority number of respondent who supports the continuation of 3. Belkis Woldes Giorghis, Female the evil practice of FGM and deadly opposed Circumcision in Africa , ST/ECA/ the eradication of it have indicated that the ATRCW, 1995. reasons for their support are as: Social 4. Communicated to the author by Factor - It is a part of our social respect, it is midwives attending a midwifery socially unacceptable that a woman is not refresher in London, 1994. circumcised, no boy would marry to an 5. Dr. Nahid Toubia, Female genital uncircumcised girl or a woman and it is a Mutilation. A call for global action, symbol of purity and pollution of a girl or a Women INK, NY, 1993. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 75 6. Ibid. 16. Lousie Carpenter, Intimate Plastic 7. Dr. Asma El Dareer, An Epidemiological Surgery”, Company magazines, April, study of female circumcision in the 1994. Sudan, M.Sc. thesis, department of 17. Marie Assaad, Female Circumcision in Community Medicine, university of Egypt: Current Research and Social Khartoum, Sudan 1980/81 Implications, American University of Cairo, 1979. 8. Dr. Sami A.Aldeed Abu-Sahlieh, To Mutilate in the Name of Jehovah or 18. Roqiya Haji Abdella Dualeh, Sisters in Allah- legitimization of Male and female Affection, Zed Press, London, 1982. Circumcision, unpublished research 19. Robin Morgan and Gloria Steinem, document, the Institute of Canon Law, International Crime of genital Mutilation, University of Human Sciences, first published in Ms Magazine, March Strasbourg, France. 1979. 9. Dalia Ben- Air,Naomi- A Prize- winning 20. Ibid Portrait Wizo Review, Fall/Winter, 1993 21. Ibid 10. Fran P Hosken, the Hosken report on 22. Ibid genital and sexual mutilation of females, 23. Ibid fourth revised edition, WIN NEWS, 24. Ibid 1993. 25. Ibid 11. Frank P Hosken, The All ethnic Groups 26. The Bible, Gospel according to St. Practicing FGM in Africa, 1983. Matthew, Chapter 19, Verse 12, 12. FGM Appeal, Letter on File of Authorized King James Version ERUALITY NOW, NY, 1989 27. The first National Conference on Genital Mutilation on Girls in Europe, organized 13. Joanna Pitma, “City Lights”, The Times by FORWARD, London, 6-8 July, 1992. Magazine, February 1994. 28. University of Khartoum, 1979, World 14. Jerome Pasteur, Selva Sauvage, editions fertility Survey 1979/80. Filipacchi, 1989 29. World Health Organization, Resolutions 15. James DeMeo, The Geography of and Decisions, executive Board, Ninet- Genital Mutilations, the Truth Seeker, third Session, Geneva, 17-26 January, July/August, 1982 1994. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 76 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON TRIBAL LIVELIHOOD AND LIFESTYLE: A STUDY OF A TRIBAL VILLAGE IN THE DISTRICT OF KORAPUT, ODISHA” Himani Mishra ABSTRACT “Impact of Climate Change is a global issue across geographical regions and population groups. The issue has also assumed geo-political significance. Developmental issues with special reference to tribal population is a significant aspect of the discourse. There is a close connection between tribes and the environment. The present paper makes an effort to understand the impact of Climate Change on the tribal population with the focus on a single tribal village in Koraput districts of Odisha. The micro study would enrich our macro understanding.” Keywords: Climate change, Tribal, Livelihood, Lifestyle Climate change is a terrible problem, and it absolutely needs to be solved. It deserves to be a huge priority. Bill Gates Climate change is a global issue today. Climate Change may be defined as a It is described as the greatest challenge of change which is attributed directly or indirectly the present century. The Climate of the globe to human activities which alters the is in a process of constant change. The composition of global atmosphere and which change is towards devastation. Climate is in additional to natural climate variability change is a long-term shift in the climate of a observed over comparable time periods. This specific location, region or planet. This change definition makes it lucid that Climate Change is measured through the changes in variables is caused not only through the natural process; like weather, temperature, wind patterns and rather it is more caused because of the human precipitation. Climate change occurs when activities. the climate of the particular area alters The International Panel on Climate between two different periods of time and is Change (IPCC) defines “Climate Change” marked through erratic and extreme weather change in the state of the climate that can be conditions, which results in heavier rainfall, identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by more snow in some places, longer periods of changes in the mean and/or the variability of drought, more storms and hurricanes and more its properties and that persists for an extended frequent heat waves. period, typically decades or longer. It refers SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 77 to any change in climate over time, whether “There is strong evidence that the warming due to natural variability or as a result of of the earth over the last century has been human activity. As per UN Framework caused largely by human activity, such as Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC, the burning of fossil fuels and changes in 1992), it refers to change of climate that is land use, including agriculture and attributed directly or indirectly to human deforestation.” activity that alters the composition of the global The Royal Society 2010 atmosphere and that is in addition to natural This problem of Climate Change has a climate variability observed over comparable ruthless impact on the society. Its impact is time periods. not limited to any specific area rather it has In the words of Hilary Benn: broadened its impact on diversified areas of Climate Change is the greatest the society like health, agriculture, challenge facing our generation. It is the environment. While focusing on the impact ultimate expression of our of Climate Change A report by environmental health perspectives and the interdependence and its effects will be felt national institutes of environmental health by all of us, in every corner of this small science (2010) has focused on the various and fragile planet. The debate about the health impacts of climate change. According science is over. The economic message is to the report climate change has crudely just as stark: doing nothing will cost us affected human health in many respects. far more than dealing with the problem now. Climate change has leads to the diseases like Collective and decisive action is needed Asthma, Allergies, Cancer, Cardiovascular if we are to deal with this threat and create diseases. Apart from this climate change leads a global low carbon economy. to heat related morbidity and mortality various FACTORS OF CLIMATE CHANGE mental health related diseases, stress related disorder, neurological diseases and disorder. The causes of climate change can be broadly classified into 2 parts that are the Climate Change as a problem has Natural causes and the Human/ Manmade reached to the optimum height. The impacts causes. It is always a reality that neither of of Climate Change have crossed the barriers the cause alone is solely responsible for the of developing and developed nation. Even the issue of Climate Change. Rather both the developed countries are also vulnerable and causes are equally responsible for the problem at the serious risk of major damages from of climate Change. climate change (World Bank, 2009). SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 78 While discussing about climate change, To find out the impacts of climate the most vulnerable group who are affected change on tribal livelihood and lifestyle. the by it are the tribals. To explore the major strategies adopted The tribes are known as “Adivasis” i.e., by the tribals to adapt to climate change. aboriginals. They are considered as the STUDY AREA OF THE RESEARCH original natives and are settled in different The study has been conducted in a socio- parts of the nation. The tribes are often known cultural context at Pupondi Village of as the “Forest dwellers” or “vanavasi”. Mahadeiput Panchayat of Koraput Block, With this devasting impact of Climate Koraput District. This is mono-tribal villages Change the population in general are suffering consist of only Gadaba Tribe. The total at a larger scale. But the tribals are the most household in the village were 44 having the vulnerable group because of their nexus with population of 218. While the male and female population of the village is 112 and 106 the environment; who rely mostly on nature respectively. and the natural resources for their very survival. In every sphere of their life they are RESEARCH TOOLS closely associated with nature may it be the An interview guide has been prepared economic, social, cultural, spiritual. So change for the collection of data at the primary level at any level of the nature hampers their life along with observation and Focused Group to a great extent. The tribals the original Discussion. Both primary and secondary inhabitants of the earth are more prone to sources of data have been used for the study. the impacts of climate change and this study To understand the impacts of Climate is just an attempt to understand the poor Change on tribal livelihood and lifestyle the tribals as a particular group. study has broadly focused on four major areas like Economic Dimension, Social dimension, METHODOLOGY: Environmental dimension and others. With the broad conceptual background and STUDY OUTCOMES the available literature the current study has made an attempt to analyze the “Impact of One of the primary objectives of the Climate Change and on Tribal Livelihood and study pertained to trace out the socio- Life Style”. The study is based on the economic profile of the tribals. Keeping this objective in view, the study collected following objectives. information about the social and economic To understand the perception of the affiliations of the tribals which is compiled tribals about climate and climate change. and presented in Table no.1 SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 79 Table No.1 Distribution of the Respondents on the basis of their Socio-Economic Identity N=44 Variables Sub-groups Total number of sample percentage respondents belonging/ claiming Age group 20-30 14 31.81 >30-40 12 27.27 >40-50 8 18.18 50 & above 10 22.72 Sex Male 28 63.63 Female 16 36.36 Marital Married 39 88.63 status Unmarried 5 11.36 Widow 0 0 Divorcee 0 0 Level of Illiterate 17 38.63 Education Primary 22 50 High School 4 9.09 Higher Education 1 2.27 Nature of Nuclear 11 25 Family Joint 33 75 Extended 0 0 Occupation Agriculture 9 20.45 Daily Wage Labourer 29 65.90 Business 4 9.09 Others 2 4.54 Income 3000-5000 12 27.27 5000-7000 24 54.54 7000-9000 5 11.36 Above 9000 3 6.81 Land Landless 4 9.09 Minor land (0-2acre) 19 43.18 Average land (2-4 acre) 15 34.09 Major land (5acre & above) 6 13.63 PDS BPL 29 65.90 APL 7 15.90 Antordaya 2 4.54 Annapurna 4 9.09 None 2 4.54 80 Thus the socio-economic profile of the agriculture by influencing emergence and sample respondents makes the following distribution of crop pests and livestock important revelations. diseases, exacerbating the frequency and distribution of adverse weather conditions, Most of the respondents belong to the reducing water supplies and irrigation; and young category as they are from the age enhancing severity of soil erosion (Watson et group of 20-30. al. 1998; IPCC 2001). Male members are the majority among the respondents having a percentage of It is a well known fact that the tribal 63.63. people are the first community who are more susceptible to this change. While Among all the respondents a large understanding their perception about climate portion of them are married. change it is well understood that for the tribals The level of literacy among the tribals is there is a constant process of change very minimal as primary education is undergoing in their local climatic condition. only recorded as the highest proportion Though they are unaware of the global issue having a share of 50 percent. of climate change but they feel the change in Joint family system is still continuing at their own locality. So when we can a higher rate among the tribals. understand their perception about climate The most predominant occupation found change, then it becomes an obvious task to among the tribals is daily wage labourer. understand their understanding about the With this occupation also the level of various aspect of their life which gets affected income among the tribals is also very because of climate change. low which is just between 5000-7000 per The tribal’s life gets affected because annum. of climate change in a multifarious ways. Minor land holding pattern is a common Their life is almost in a dialectical position trend found among the tribals. where they neither can think to go back nor A maximum share of the tribal village can they understand how to cope with the comes under the PDS category of BPL. present situation. The Climate Change has its impact not only on their livelihood but also Many believe agriculture is the most on the social, economic and other dimensions. susceptible sector to climate change. This is attributed to the fact that climate change CHANGE IN SOCIAL DIMENSION: affects the two most important direct While understanding the changes in the agricultural production inputs, precipitation social dimension of the tribals it includes and temperature (Deschenes & Greenstone change in their food pattern, habitat, dressing 2006). Climate change also indirectly affects style etc. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 81 Food habit: noodles and all. To quote “we used to produce the items like vegetables, mandia, rice etc in Studies on the impact of Climate Change our own field and we used to have those , but have on Food pattern has mostly reflected now we have to buy them and eat them. This on the changes in the cropping pattern and has become very costly for us”. The natural the failures of cropping. The other dimensions food items are now being replaced for them of the climate Change on food pattern has with the new food items they buy from the rarely been found in any studies. The various market. regions like Semi arid agro-ecological region, Arid agro-ecological region, Tropical wet and Housing pattern: dry agro-ecological regions have different There is a significant change in the consequences of Climate Change as it is housing pattern of the tribal people. The mostly affected with the adverse impact of description and the kind of changes in the Climate Change resulting in either Flood or housing pattern are described in table 2. Drought due to scarcity of water. (Rannuzi Table No. 2 & Srivastava, 2012) Distribution of respondents on the But the current study has made an basis of their housing pattern attempt to find out exactly how the Climate Housing Frequency Percentage Change has brought the change in the food Pattern pattern of the tribals. The tribal used to Kuchha 18 40.90 depend on their traditional food habit where House Raggi was there prime food. While going to Pucca 3 6.81 field for agriculture the people used to have House it and they believe that it helps them to sustain Semi-Pucca 23 52.27 for a longer period of time without any House hindrances. Even they used to cultivate it of Total 44 their own. At the present situation the The above table reflects on the changing occupation of agriculture has been changed housing pattern of the tribal people. and with the minimal cultivation there is the Traditionally the tribals were dominantly rare cultivation of Raggi. This is the major having the kuchha houses which were made reason which forced them to change their up of straw, woods, mud and clay. They used traditional food habit. There is also the thought to collect all these materials for preparing their among the people that now rice is the major house from their near by surrounding and from food for them as they are going out for the daily wage labour they carry rice with them forest also. But the table gives a very gloomy and prefer to have it. Even the pattern of their picture that now there is shift from the kuchha food has also been altered with the changing house to that of a Semi-pucca house. Now occupation and changing time, where they are they build their house from brick, stone, also having the modern food practices like cement, asbestos sheets etc. While sharing SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 82 about the basic reason behind this they view temperature in summer. If we go by literature that now there is the seasonal change and then we will get an idea where the tribals there is no guarantee for winter and rainfall. were even unaware of the basic clothes and They had faced lots of problem because of used to wear the leafs, barks from tree (the this in their past days, so they prefer to have beginning of human civilization), then a period a semi-pucca house. They said that with this came where the tribal used the clothes like semi-pucca housing style in they use a kind saree, dhoti, etc and now with the changing of muddy layer below their roof/asbestos time and changing cliamte they have also sheets, which is helpful for them during the adapted the modern ways of dressing style. summer. This layer protects them from the CHANGE IN ECONOMIC unwanted temperature in the summer. So it DIMENSION: is clearly understood that there is also a gradual change in the housing pattern of the Tribal economy is characterised as tribal village where most houses are semi- subsistence oriented. The subsistence pucca housing having the maximum economy is based mainly on collecting, hunting percentage of 52.27, followed by kuchha and and fishing (e.g., the Birhor, Hill Kharia), or a pucca house of 40.90 and 6.81 percent combination of hunting and collecting with respectively. shifting cultivation (e.g., the Juang,, Hill Dressing style: Bhuyan, Lanjia Saora, Kondh etc.) Even the so-called plough using agricultural tribes do Among the tribal the use of dress is very often, wherever scope is available, significant and worthwhile. The tribal do not supplement their economy with hunting and use dress just merely to hide their nakedness collecting. Subsistence economy is rather it reflects the racial feeling and their characterised by simple technology, simple cultural identity. The tribal people use separate division of labour, small-scale units of costumes at the time of festivals and production and no investment of capital. The ceremonies. social unit of production, distribution and Though dressing pattern of the tribals is consumption is limited to the family and not a direct impact of climate change but to lineage. Subsistence economy is imposed by some extent there is a connection between circumstances which are beyond the control the two. The tribal who used to protect of human beings, poverty of the physical themselves from the winter through the help environment, ignorance of efficient technique of firewood are now depending on the of exploiting natural resources and lack of modern winter wears. They have also adopted capital for investment. It also implies existence this way of living, where they understand the of barter and lack of trade. role of these winter wears. Not only that now To understand the major changes that there is also the adaptation of modern dressing have taken place in the economic dimension style among the tribal where they too wear of the tribal life is the change in occupation, the night dresses to get relief from the rising income, agriculture etc. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 83 Occupation: livelihood is by the daily wage labourer, atleast for every day work we will receive a minimum With the changing situation of climate the amount which is enough for us to sustain. The most adverse impact of it on the tribals is the table is clear with the changing occupational Occupation Frequency Percentage pattern among the tribes where there is a shift Agriculture 11 25 from the traditional agriculture having 25% Daily wage 29 65.90 to that of a daily wage labour of 65.90 %. labour Even it is also found that some people have Business 3 6.81 also started with the business activities in their Others 1 2.27 nearby locality having a share of 6.81 %. Total 44 The above table reflects the changing Income: occupational pattern among the tribals It is not only a shift in the occupation of because of the change in the climatic the tribal people rather with the changing condition. The tribals, whose predominant occupation there is also a change in the source occupation is agriculture id declining in course of income among the tribals. The tribals even of time. The poor tribal say that they basically though had the practice of agriculture still they used to have the seasonal crop cultivation and used to engage themselves in some other also they rely on the shifting cultivation. But productive work which was an additional it is very depressing that as there is no such source of income for them. But now as they fixed time for the season so the tribal could are busy in only one kind of activity either not completely rely on the cultivation as a business or daily wage labour where they do source of livelihood. Similarly with the use of not get the extra time to engage themselves modern techniques of cultivation the quality in other productive works. So they say that of the soil is also deteriorating day by day their source of income has also got limited and therefore shifting cultivation as a pattern because of the change in the occupation is also declining among them. Even the aged pattern for them. Even they face the problem population of the tribe view that as they have when there is no option for daily wage labour faced the gradual change in their local climate everyday and they are forced to sit idle on so they even do not encourage the younger those days. So these are the problem where generation to adopt the same occupation of the tribal could not make over any further agriculture as their source of livelihood. In change. the same way the young population of the Agriculture: tribe view that “the time has changed from their parents time and nothing is same as Due to the uncertainties resulting from before (scarcity of water, decline in rainfall, Climate Change, it is quite a difficult task to decline in quality of soil, rise in temperature) measure its impact on agriculture. With the so we are also searching for the new ways increasing seasonal changes, rise in of earning. The best way we can earn our temperature there is the adverse impact on SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 84 agriculture resulting in crop failure, decline CHANGE IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL at the rate of productivity etc. (Rannuzi & DIMENSION: Srivastava 2012) The changes because of climatic Agriculture is the most predominant condition on the environmental dimension of occupation among the tribes. Though the rate tribal life are the changes in the relationship of agriculture is declining still it is practices of the tribal with forest, extinction of rare at a very minimal rate. With this agricultural species etc. occupation there is also a significant change. Now the tribal are also relying more on the Relationship with the forest: modern ways of agriculture. It is the young Tribals are otherwise called as the forest population among the tribes who practice this dwellers, Vanavasi. These names were modern way of agriculture to get maximum justified because of the close proximity output with minimum input. While undergoing between the tribals and the forest. Forest was the process of modern ways of agriculture not only the source of livelihood rather the the tribals seek the help of HYV seeds, tribals used to depend on forest on various pesticides, chemical fertilizers etc. It is the grounds like collecting food, fodder, firewood, aged population who consider this as the cause basic forest products like rubber, gum etc. of the climatic condition in the local As there is the change in climate there is also community but the young population considers a gradual decline in the forest areas. it as the best and easy way for cultivation. Deforestation which can be considered both Even though they know that it will hamper as a cause and a consequence for climate the quality of the soil still they accept it whole change but here the tribal believe that it is heartedly for easy way. There is a rift just a consequence that after the change in between the two generation with regard to the climatic condition that there is the decline this because the aged population consider that in the forest areas. So forest which is the these modern techniques not only has its impact on the nature but also view that the first and foremost source of livelihood for the products received after cultivation is not of tribals is no more a source for them. In that the same quality as they used to have in their sense the poor tribals could not even collect past days where they used to rely only on the the basic requirement like firewood also and organic fertilizers. sometimes they are buying it from the market. The tribals view that this is also an extra There is also another major change in burden on them. the agriculture pattern i.e. there is a shift from the traditional shifting cultivation among the Extinction of rare species: people. Now the tribal people do the There are some rare species on the agriculture in their own land that they have in earth which are playing a vital role for the their possession or even they take the land ecosystem. But now with the change in the on lease for agriculture but they do not climatic condition there is the extinction of continue with the traditional pattern of shifting those rare species. Even the tribals do face cultivation. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 85 the similar problem. As we know the tribals refers to the policies and measures designed depend mostly on the ethno medicinal to reduce GHG emissions. IPCC defines practices, for which they used to rely on mitigation as ‘technological change and certain herbs that were found in the dense substitution that reduce resource inputs and forest but as the forest in itself getting emissions per unit of output with respect to affected there is also a gradual extinction of climate change, mitigation means these medicinal herbs in the nature. Similarily implementing policies to reduce GHG they said previously certain species like some emissions and enhance sinks’. Though snake, insects were playing the natural role UNFCC has given these two alternatives but of pesticides. But now as these snakes and the tribals are seen to be more closed with insects were not present in the eco system the way of adaptation. They are gradually so they are forced to depend on the modern adapting with the change resulting from chemical pesticides which have its adverse climate change but not at the conscious level. impacts on not only the crops and vegetables This process of adaptation is at a sub but also on the nature. conscious level of the tribals. They are CHANGE IN THE PREDICTABILITY: bringing the alternative like changing dress pattern, cropping pattern, housing style etc The most crucial impact of climate but they do not have any idea that it is a change on tribals is that there is the change process of adaptation. in the predictability of the tribal people. Previously the tribals could predict looking at CONCLUSION: one season about the forthcoming season like Climate Change has become an urgent when it will arise, what would be its and pervasive preoccupation across the globe. magnitude impact etc and accordingly they It is a global challenge which requires an used to get prepared for the upcoming season. ambitious global response. India and other But with this changing scenario their role of developing countries would be among those prediction has also been lost to a great extent. most seriously impacted by the consequences As there is no such fixed period of a particular of Climate Change. season now so they cannot predict for the This study shows that the increasing future season and could not make the trend of climate change and its impact on necessary arrangements which will help them livelihood of tribals is exacerbating the to cope with the new season. vulnerability to different socio-economic UNFCC says about two ways for activities of the society. It is evident from the checking climate change i.e. Adaptation and above study that the global phenomena of Mitigation. IPCC defines adaptation as an climate change have its severe impact on the adjustment in natural or human systems to a poor and innocent tribals. These tribals are new or changing environment. Mitigation the people who live in a close proximity with SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 86 the environment are badly affected with the 3. Chaudhury Sukant K. (2004), Tribal adverse impact of the climate change. Identity, Rawat Publication, Jaipur Though they are being affected by climate 4. Gupta Basanta (2007), Environmental change still their perception, awareness about perception and Tribal Modernization, climate change is very low for which they Ritu Publication, Jaipur. are more vulnerable to climate change. They are gradually in a process of adaptation but 5. Grove Richard H. (1998), Ecology, that is also in a very subconscious level. The Climate and Empire: The Indian changes in various dimensions of tribal life Legacy in Global Environmental have made their plight quite vulnerable. They History 1400-1940, Oxford University are therefore in a dilemmatic position where Press, New Delhi. neither can they completely live in their 6. Khan.M.Z.A and Gangawala Sonal traditional way nor they can completely live (2011), Global Climate Change: with their changing conditions. So with this option in their life they still continue to live Causes and Consequences, Rawat with a partial acceptance of both the ways Publication, Jaipur. of life. Though various researches have been 7. Lundqvist Lennart J. and Andersbiel conducted on the same area still there is the (ed) (2008), From Kyoto to the Town lack of literature suggesting the poor condition Hall, Earthscan, UK. of the tribals. The study has made an attempt to focus at the very grassroots level. Various 8. Mitra.A.P, Sharma Subodh, studies reflects at the international, national Bhattacharya Sumana, Garg Amit, level but now the situation demands that the Devotta Sukumar and Sen Kalyan (ed) real study should focus at the local level. While (2004), Climate Change and India: focusing at the local level it is also quite an Uncertainity Reduction in essential part that various dimensions have Greenhouse Gas inventory Estimates, to be reflected in the research. As our University Press (India) Pvt Ltd, development approach also demands on Hyderabad. bottom-top approach so the research also has 9. Padhi Sobhagya Ranjan and Padhy to begin from the local level followed by Biswajita (2010), Tribal Development national and then international. in India: Contemporary Issues and REFERENCES Perspectives, Mangalam Publication, Delhi. 1. A report by World Bank (2009), “ Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4oC Warmer 10. Prasad H.A.C and Kochher J.S. (2009), World must be avoided” Climate Change and India- Some Major Issues and Policy Implication, 2. Climate Change: Impacts, Department of Economic Affairs, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in Ministry of Finance, Government of Developing Countries, A report by India. UNFCC. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 87 11. Report by Rajya Sabha Research Unit 14. Sarkar Amitabha and Dasgupta Samira (2008), Climate Change: Challenges (2000), Ethno-Ecology of Indian to Sustainable Development in India Tribes, Rawat Publication, Jaipur. 12. Report of Committee on Climate 15. Toman Michael A. Chakravorty Ujjayant Change (2008), Building a Low- and Gupta Sheekant (2004), India and Carbon Economy- The UK’s Global Climate Change: Perspectives Contribution to tackling Climate on Economic and policy from a Change, TSO (The Stationary Office), Developing Country, Oxford UK University press, New Delhi. 13. Ranuzzi. Anna and Srivastava. Richa 16. United Nations Framework Convention (2012), Impact of Climate Change on on Climate Change Report (2007), Agriculture and Food Security, Climate Change: Impacts ICRIER Policy Series No.16 ,Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in Developing Countries SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 88 ENSURING HEALTH TO THE TRIBAL PEOPLE: THE NEED FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH Atashi Rath ABSTRACT Health constitutes one of the important aspects that determine one’s quality of living. Majority of the tribal groups are living amidst acute poverty that denies them adequate and qualitative health care. Again, their geographical location makes it quite difficult on their part to avail the required medical facilities. Therefore, since ages they have been depending on the traditional practices of healing which gives them immediate relief from the long ailing diseases. The article here tries to delve into these traditional indigenous methods of treatment and wants to establish a positive correlation with that of the modern health devices and practices that would come to their rescue as and when needed. Key Words: Tribals, Health, Indigenous Knowledge INTRODUCTION Indigenous people suffer from poor health and ultimately die younger. They are The World Health Organization defines shrouded by a vast array of social maladies health as “a state of complete physical, mental like poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and social well-being and not merely the migration, exclusion from mainstream society, absence of disease and infirmity”. Health is lack of land and territory, destruction of also perceived as some sort of equilibrium ecosystem etc. The factors responsible for between the organism and its environment. all the above problems include lack of access But the perception about health, disease and to education and social services, destruction health seeking behaviour is not same across of indigenous economies and socio-political all cultures. It varies from one culture to the structures, forced displacement, armed other as an integral part of human ecology conflict and the degradation of their land and and cultural ways. Culture has its own ideas water resources. All these factors and and ideologies regarding sickness, and its problems compounded make the indigenous prevention and cure. And, this knowledge of people, especially women and children, prevention and cure is passed on from one vulnerable to poor health. generation to the other. Medicine is a part of culture and is influenced and refined by a The impact of these phenomena is that number of non-medicinal cultural practices. indigenous people experience The primitive societies and folk or peasant disproportionately high levels of maternal and cultures also has got a rich and vast literature infant mortality, malnutrition, cardiovascular on health seeking behaviour. illnesses, HIV/AIDS, and other infectious SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 89 diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis. from internet. The researcher tries to show Indigenous women experience these health that if an effective linkage can be built problems with much severity because they between the modern means of health care are disproportionately affected by natural and the available traditional knowledge then disasters and armed conflicts, and are often the target for providing better means of health denied access to education, land, property and care to the tribal population can be achieved. other economic resources. Yet they play a TRIBAL HEALTH PROBLEMS primary role in overseeing the health and well-being their families and communities. The tribes in Odisha have distinct health problems, governed by a multiplicity of factors OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY such as habitat, difficult terrains, varied The researcher undertakes the study with the ecological niches, illiteracy, poverty, isolation, following objectives- superstitions and deforestation. The tribal To understand the basic tribal health people have their own life styles, food habits, problems beliefs, traditions and socio-cultural practices. The health and nutritional problems of the vast To understand tribal health culture and tribal populations are varied because of trace the importance of indigenous bewildering diversity in their socio-economic, knowledge in tribal health system cultural and ecological settings (Balgir, 2000)1. To study the role of Western medicine There are number communicable diseases in tribal health care and its link with that prevalent among the tribals of Odisha. These of the indigenous knowledge. are Tuberculosis, Hepatitis, Sexually SCOPE AND METHODS OF DATA Transmitted Diseases (STDs), Malaria, COLLECTION Filariasis, Diarrhoea and Dysentry, Jaundice, Parasitic infestation, Viral and Fungal The study is located in the state of infections, Conjunctivitis, Yaws, Scabies, Odisha and primarily focuses on the major Measles, Leprosy, Cough and Cold, HIV/ tribes of the state. This article makes an AIDS etc. which is spreading rampantly due assessment of the government initiatives lack of sanitation and unhygienic living (Balgir, taken for the tribal people that ensure them 2005)2. They frequently become victims of effective and affordable health care. The repeated epidemics of the above mentioned study also takes into account the view of the contagious diseases. High infant mortality tribal people who heavily rely upon the rate, high maternal mortality rate, low life indigenous knowledge that is not only expectancy and high crude death rate are a accessible but also is heavily relied upon. The marked feature of the primitive tribes in study relies on the secondary methods of data Odisha. collection. The researcher makes an in depth study of a number of books, government The scarcity of trained man power for reports and also makes an analysis of the health is a major health problem and obstacle budget plans. Some data are also collected to the extension of health services to tribal SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 90 areas. Moreover, the qualified health workers Faith healing has always been a part of the do not want to work in tribal areas because traditional treatment in tribal health care of professional, personal and social reasons. system, which can be equated with the The health problems of the tribal population modern treatment procedure. Health cannot automatically be overcome by problems and health practices of tribal establishing more health personnel or communities have been profoundly influenced providing integrated health services would be by the interplay of complex social, cultural, operated on a teamwork basis by division of educational, economic and political practices. labour so that the greatest possible use of The study of health culture of tribal professional skills could be made. While the communities belonging to the poorest strata physician is the central figure in the health of society is highly desirable and essential to centre complex, the efficiency and output determine their access to different health health services would depend upon the services available in a social set up. supporting personnel consisting of nurses, The common beliefs, customs, traditions, various categories of paramedical and values and practices connected with health auxiliary staff. and disease have been closely associated with There is a complete lack of managerial the treatment of diseases. In most of tribal training, financial empowerment and facilities communities, there is a wealth of folklore available to the doctor to efficiently and associated with health beliefs. Knowledge of effectively monitor and carry out public health folklore of different socio-cultural systems of duties in the tribal areas. This drastically tribals may have positive impact, which could affects the well-being and tribal health in the provide the model for appropriate health and state. Frequent transfers and absenteeism of sanitary practices in a given ecosystem. The the staff, favouritism and corrupt practices health culture of a community does not change hinder the smooth functioning of the Primary so easily with changes in the access to various Health Centre (PHC), which have adverse health services (Balgir, 2004)4. Hence, it is health effects on the tribal population. required to change the health services to conform to health culture of tribal TRIBAL HEALTH CULTURE communities for optimal utilization of health Tribes mostly reside in forests. Their services. Studies by anthropologists suggest health system and medical knowledge, known that traditional medicines do exist and persist as the ‘The Traditional Health Care System’, even though the health consumer has now depend both on the herbal and psychosomatic access to western medicine. There is a need lines of treatment. While plants, flowers, to scientifically study the traditional tribal seeds, animals and other naturally available medicine and healing systems and combine substances formed the basis of treatment, this them with modern allopathic system so as to practice always had a touch of mysticism, make it available and affordable for the tribal supernatural and magic, often resulting in poor. specific magico-religious rites (Balgir, 1997)3. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 91 According to Sachidananda(1994)5, the Limited paying capacity or habit of tribal people believe in four supernatural getting treatment always free of cost. powers- Comparative inaccessibility of medical 1. Protective spirits who always protect care services due to underdeveloped them. communication and transport facilities. 2. Benevolent spirits who are worshipped Non availability of qualified medical at the community and familial level practitioners in the village. regularly, otherwise they may bring Qualified health workers and disease and death. professional medical and para medical 3. Malevolent spirits are the evil spirits who staff do not want to work in rural and control smallpox, fever, abortion etc. tribal areas because of professional, 4. Ancestral spirits, the spirit of their personal and social reasons. ancestors and always protect them. Non availability of private and The causes of ill health perceived by the governmental doctors as and when need tribal communities can be divided into two arises. categories, namely, known and super natural. Indigenous health system does not treat Therefore, the study of tribal health should illness as just epidemiological and mental be with reference to their distinctive notions health sickness as identified by western regarding different aspects of diseases, medicine, rather it is believed to have direct health, food, human anatomy and faith as well relationship with indigenous beliefs and as in the process of interaction with the practices. Some indigenous beliefs hold that outside world. illness may come from supernatural figures, There are some tribal groups like the from other humans who know how to Sabaras, Bogatha, Valmiki, Koya, Kond manipulate supernatural forces, or from Reddi etc., who believe in the power of imbalances produced in nature by humans, prayers and rituals that enables some herbs any of which can be cured by spiritual to act as medicines to heal diseases among mediators who maintain contact with the them (Pramukh and Palkumar,2006)6. They supernatural world. Some communities attribute diseases to certain deviant acts of believe that many illnesses have a spiritual self and others towards elders, nature and character that can be understood only by the divine rules. Thus, their first priority is to get indigenous prophets, shamans, healers and spiritual cure in a traditional way. other health agents who understand the spiritual past and present of the communities REASONS FOR DEPENDENCE ON in which they live. Community ceremonies INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE and rituals are believed to protect and restore Lack of motivation of people for availing harmony within and among individual medical care at the initial stage of the members of the community, families, nature disease. and the ancestors and gods. Western medicine SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 92 does not recognize traditional healing forced them to keep faith on their traditional techniques such as song and dance, or system of healing. Though the government traditional training methods for medical has taken a chain of innovative programmes practitioners such as dreams, yet these to improve their health condition, their practices are viewed as integral to the insistence on the traditional system of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illnesses medicine has not totally done away with. The in indigenous health system. reasons are obvious. Firstly, the medical In the recent decades the tribal people facilities available for some of the have witnessed unprecedented wave of non communicable and non-communicable traditional elements entering into their social diseases are not easily accessible or timely and cultural life. The concept of health and available. Secondly, if accessible the medical treatment is no exception. The inflow of facilities are too expensive for the tribal people western concept of health care system and who live below the poverty line. Keeping in changing social and physical environment has placed the traditional health care system of a view these two factors, the tribal people feel tribal group in a complex situation. The tribal safe to use their traditional methods of people are exposed to medicinal pluralism. prevention and cure. The acceptance of a particular health care Therefore, the government must take system among the tribal people mostly into account the actual needs of the tribal depends on its availability and accessibility. It people. It must take an integrative stand is interesting to note that while the tribal where the traditional system of healing can groups following traditional religions use be combinedly prescribed along with the traditional medicines putting religious and western medicine. This not only will preserve supernatural value on it, the converted their age old traditional practices but also will Christian tribes use the same medicine excluding its religious tune. It is a well provide an alternative at the time when the observed fact that education has been able to mainstream medicine is not available. More heal the traditional inhibitions of the tribal and more qualified doctors having expertise people to attend PHCs without ignoring the in the traditional medicinal system must be traditional healing practices. appointed so that the tribal people can be made aware about the pros and cons of their AN INTEGRATED APPROACH superstitious beliefs and practices. Steps must It is almost impossible to keep the tribal also be taken to correct the evil practices like people aloof from their traditional and animal sacrifices and witchcraft which is one indigenous practices. Their geographical of the primary reasons for increasing rate of location and their level of education do not infant mortality and maternal mortality in the allow them to search for an alternative tribal areas. Health education should be made approach. Their superstitious beliefs have an inseparable part of the school curriculum. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 93 Regular street plays and awareness perspective. Pp- 87-104. Ranchi: S.C campaigns must be organized to make the Roy Institute of Anthropological Studies. people aware about the prevention and cure 2. Balgir, R.S. (2005). Biomedical of various diseases, especially HIV/AIDS. anthropology in contemporary tribal On the whole, the government plans and society in India. In Behera, Deepak programs must be based on an integrated Kumar and Pfeffer, Georg (Eds.), approach where both or at least one system Contemporary society: Tribal studies of medicine is always available for the (Tribal situation in India). 292-301, 6. innocent tribals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing CONCLUSION Company. The traditional health care system still 3. Balgir, R.S. (1997). Khonds- Health finds its meaning of survival in tribal domain. status. In Madhava, Menon T., Sivathanu, C., Prasanth, K.P., The traditional healer, who are considered as Sasikumar, M., and Mathur, PRG (Eds.), guardians of tribal society acts as the medium Encyclopedia of Dravidian tribes. 21- between man, nature and super natural entity 29. Trivendrum: The International School and provides spiritual security to the tribal of Dravidian Linguistics. people. This is the link on which the uniqueness of tribal society exists. The tribal 4. Balgir, R.S. (2004). Dimensions of people feel secured with the protection given rural tribal health, nutritional status by their traditional healers against psycho- of Kondh tribe and tribal welfare in social problems or spiritual insecurity. The Orissa: A biotechnological spiritual insecurity plays vital role in availing approach. Proceedings of the UGC healthcare services, lack of which leads to sponsored national conference on human health and nutrition: a failure of the system. But it is sad to see that biotechnological approach, 12th-13th many government policies hardly accept this December 2004, Thane, 47-57. component in their health related aids and campaigns. A rational synthesis of traditional 5. Sachidananda. (1994). Socio-cultural perception with modern facilities would dimensions of tribal health. In Basu, Salil certainly give better results in tribal health (Ed.), Tribal health in India, pp- 57- issues in India. 69. Manak Publishing House. REFERENCES 6. Pramukh, Raj and Palkumar, PDS. (2006). Indigenous knowledge 1. Balgir, R.S. (2000). Human genetics, implication in tribal health and health and tribal development in Orissa. disease: Studies in tribes and tribals. In Dash, P. (Ed.), Environment, health 1-6, 4(1). Delhi: Kamla Raj Enterprises. and development: An anthropological SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 94 INTERNET USE AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS: AN ANALYSIS Nikunja Ranjan Dash ABSTRACT This article reports a survey on the use of internet services and resources by Master Degree in Education (MA/ME.D) students of Orissa, India. A well structure questionnaire was distributed among 100 college students under study. The response rate was 97percent. Result showed that students use internet in college (51.55%) and home (48.45%), more than 90% respondents use the Internet service mainly for educational purposes, E-mail and search engine Google were widely used. Students use internet for 5 to 6 hours in a week (42%), 70% of respondents find that Internet is useful, informative, and time saving. 40% students were partially satisfied with the internet facilities provided by the institutes and found the speed of internet to be slow as it takes a lot of time to retrieve the relevant information. These findings were positioned against national and international data to derive lessons for planners. Key words- Internet use, College students INTRODUCTION training opportunity and has empowered Change is the only constant in Nature. teachers and learners. Anytime, anywhere, The present dynamic society is termed both any one education has become a reality. as knowledge and information society. Internet as a technology for education needs Knowledge is the key driving force of the to be studied and understood. The present present society and information is the key tool article explores its usage and impact at a of creating and disseminating knowledge. micro level. Information and communication technology notably the internet has resulted in explosive THE REACH OF INTERNET changes. As in past, printing technology, At present there are 2.4 billon internet video, television, graham phone, and voice users in the world, out of these 48% belongs recorders etc. had dynamically changed the to Asia. India’s share is 7.36 of the world and society; today computers, internet and mobile 13% of Asia. India is the third largest internet phones are affecting societal change. In the user (China and USA ranked second and first, past agrarian revolution, trade revolution and December 2012). Out of 150 million Indian’s space revolution had ushered in a complete internet users 111 million are active internet change in the society. Now a day’s internet users (accessing at least once in a month). has become the catalyst of a total change. Internet is also affecting education. It has Most users are young. Downloads, social widened access to education at all levels, has networking, E-mail, search, multimedia usage, overcome geographical distance, multiplied communication, news and directory etc. are SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 95 principal usage. There are 25 million e-book the library for research. Seventy-nine percent users aged between 25-39 in India and their of the students agreed “that Internet use has number is going up. Odisha specific data on had a positive impact on their college internet use is inadequate. The I-Cub survey academic experience”. Hanauer et al. 2012 which included Odisha beside Andhra (2004) surveyed a diverse community college Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, to assess the use of the Internet by the Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh finds that 118.2 students for health-related information. The million are aware of internet, 17.8 million used survey showed that although all the students internet at least once in a month and rest surveyed had free Internet access through millions are non users. Out of the total internet their community college, 97% of the students users 12% use internet for education looking reported having access to the Internet. The information regarding school, universities and survey showed that 83% Internet users had examination related information. As a whole, access to the Internet at their home and 51% accessing music, videos, photo and of the respondents accessed Internet at entertainment are major uses. E-mails for college or library. 81% of the students communication is also used. The serious gap reported to access the Internet mostly for in non availability Odisha specific data needs college work and 80% for e-mail and chat. to be addressed. This paper is a small step in Men and women searched for health this direction. information in almost equal numbers. USE OF INTERNET BY STUDENTS: Asemi (2005) shows that all the INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO respondents were provided net connectivity and used the Internet frequently. It was Voorbij (1999) examined the use of the revealed that the researchers of the university Internet amongst students and academicians were getting quality information through the in the Netherlands and identified that Internet. Fifty –five percent of the searching web was problematic. Laite respondents searched for scientific (2000) surveyed 406 graduate and information through the Internet because the undergraduate students from Shippensburg university library had provided access to University and found that 57.6% of the various databases and online journals for all undergraduate students use the Internet 1-2 the students and staff. Badu (2005) times per week and another 37.1% use it 1-2 conducted a study to find the extent of times daily. More than 50% of the graduate awareness and use of the internet and its students use Internet 1-2 times per week and resources by academic staff and 37.7% uses it 1-2 times daily. The net usage postgraduate students of the University of was predominantly for E-mail .Jones and Ghana. The main findings indicate that both Madden (2002) conducted a study on staff and students are fully aware of the college students’ Internet usage. Browsing Internet and most of its services. The study the Internet was a daily activity; 73% of established that email is highly used by both college students used the Internet more than staff and students. Both staff and students SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 96 found the Internet a very useful resource. The as a convenience, although 17.8% considered main reason for non-use of the Internet is the Internet a source of amusement. inadequate training. Both staff and students Approximately 5% of college students need appropriate education and training of to reported negative perceptions of the Internet ensure effective use of the Internet in all their (frustrating or a waste of time). Thus the academic pursuits. Robinson (2005) survey of literature has limited usage as examined the Internet use among African- internet and its usage is under going fast American college students. The results of changes. However it is apparent that between the study indicated that most of the African- 2000 to 2007 use of internet has increased American college students (76%) had used manifold for educational purpose worldwide. the Internet for more than three years. The It is a worldwide phenomenon. There is no use of the Internet for most African-American significant gender difference in pattern of college students occurred at school or at the usage. work place with 49% of the responses at USE OF INTERNET BY STUDENTS: home. 47% of the responses indicated they THE NATIONAL AND REGIONAL spent an average of two hours per day on- SCENARIO line. A small percentage of the students spent 5-6 hours per day on the Internet. 43% of A study conducted by Bavakutty and the students used the Internet primarily to Salih (1999) found that the students, research scholars, and teachers used the Internet for learn and find school resources. the purpose of study, research and teaching David Nagel (2007) collected respectively at Calicut University. The information from 896 students enrolled in purposes of Internet use were: sending and Houghton Mifflin college and reported that receiving e-mails in connection with academic more than half of college students use the requirements, making a search on library Internet “to keep up with course work and catalogues, downloading images and prepare for exams.” 59% percent of college communication with the peer. Panda and students in the survey reported using online Sahu (2003) revealed that 50% of the study aids, about 29 % use video tutorials; 24 engineering college’s students of Odisha used % engage in online tutoring, 16 % participate dial-up connection and majority of the colleges in online study groups and 44 % use for used the Internet to provide on-line entertainment. Johnson (2007) conducted demonstrations and searching materials a study to assess patterns of Internet use related to their course curriculum. Mishra, among college students. Results describe the Yadav and Bisht (2005) conducted a study vast majority of college students frequently to know Internet utilization pattern of the communicate online and access websites. undergraduate students of G B Pant While an Internet game experience is typical, University of Agriculture and Technology, relatively few college students are heavy Panthanagar. The findings of the study online gamers. Overwhelmingly (i.e., 77.8%), indicated that a majority of the students college students conceptualized the Internet (85.7%) used the Internet. Out of the Internet SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 97 users 67.7% were male students and 32.3% Maharana., Sethi & Behera (2010) female students. The findings of the study conducted a study to know the necessity and also showed that 61.5% of the males and usage of Internet and e-resources by the 51.6% of the females used Internet for students undertaking the master’s course in preparing assignments. A majority of the Business Administration, in Sambalpur respondents i.e. 83.1% male and 61.3% University, Orissa, India. A structured female respondents indicated that they faced questionnaire was monitored among 120 the problem of slow functioning of Internet MBA students, out of which 91 (75.83%) connection. responded to this survey. The investigation Amritpal Kaur and Rajeev result shows that majority of the students (1/ Kumar(December, 2005) conducted a 3 of them) have a long experience of using case study regarding the Internet and its use Internet for 2 - 4 years and all are more or in the Engineering Colleges of Punjab, India less aware of the applications of Internet .The study showed that the most frequently technology. More than half of the students used places for accessing the Internet are surveyed in the study strongly feel that the college (70.1%) and the home (18.5%). management study will be severely A majority of the respondents i.e. 69.4% use compromised without the use of internet and the Internet mainly for educational purposes e-resources. They are mostly accessing and comparatively less number of internet and e-resources from their respondents i.e. 34.7% use the Internet for department. Most of the students are in favour entertainment purposes. A majority of the of the internet to save time, expenditure, for respondents use the Internet for consulting collecting information. They find internet as technical reports (54.3%), for reading e-books an requirement for management education on the Internet (42.3%) and for consulting e- and research. Chandrashekara M., Hydar journals (38.5%). All the Internet users prefer Ali, & K.R. Mulla (2011) found that e-mail facility. The World Wide Web comes majority of the students learnt the use of next in order of preference. The most Internet by assistance from the teachers, common problems faced by the majority of compared to formal training self- instruction the respondents in surfing Internet relate to and assistance from others. It was also found the inordinate delay in retrieving relevant that maximum users are satisfied with the use information (69.4%) and difficulty in finding of Internet and the information available on the relevant information (21.3%). Above 70% the Internet. of respondents feel that the Internet is more useful, more preferred, more informative, A study conducted by S. Thankuskodi easy to use, less expensive and time saving. (2011) on user awareness towards ICT in More than 50% of the respondents feel that Govt. Arts and Science College in Tamilnadu dependency on the Internet has increased. and taken sample as faculty, research scholar, More than one third of the respondents feel post graduate and undergraduate students of that the Internet has improved their respective college. The study examined that professional competence. the under graduate students occupy the first SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 98 position with respect to their overall time spent samples were (MA in Education/M.ED) of for using internet, and postgraduate students Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, and Regional the second, research scholar the third and Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar, Odisha faculty member the last. The study also only. revealed that under graduate students take Internet use- It refers to the pattern of the first position with respect to their overall internet usage by college students for doing purpose of using e-resources ( such as- For educational, social and personal activities. research, E-books, Career information, Preparation for class teaching, E-journals, OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY General Information, Sending and receiving To determine the frequency of internet e-mail, Entertainment ) post graduate students usage by college students. the second, research scholars the third and To ascertain various internet services faculty respondents the last. used by college students for teaching, A review of literature reveals that data learning and research. on use of internet by master degree students To assess time spent in using internet of Education in Odisha is not available. The by college students. findings relating to students of engineering, To identify the different purposes for management and general etc. need to be which internet is used by college compared with the master degree students students. of education. As per the master degree students of education is concerned, internet To examine the usefulness of internet plays an important role for their academic based information resource. growth as for all other faculties. The To find out the problem faced by the knowledge of internet will help them to college students while using internet. prepare assignment; projects/dissertation To access the satisfaction level of the relating to their subject .They can also gather internet facilities provided by college knowledge regarding classroom management, under study. current pedagogy and new technology. It SCOPE OF THE STUDY would improve the teaching learning and research process. It is useful for academic, Keeping in view the time factor and resources social and personal life. The study attempts available the present study is delimited to the to investigate the internet use among Master followings: of Arts Education students of Government The present study was confined to 100 College/University of Orissa. (50 male and 50 female) students only. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF The study was conducted on students KEY TERMS of master degree in Education (MA) of College students- In this study college Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, and M. Students mean those who are doing master Ed students of Regional Institute of degree in Education in college /university. The Education, Bhubaneswar Odisha only. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 99 RESEARCH METHODLOGY II. Number of students using internet (Note: N=100) Descriptive survey method was used for the study. A total of 100 college students were selected as sample by stratified random sampling, 50 students (25 male and 25 female) were selected randomly from each institution. The questionnaire method has been employed for collection of data from each respondent. This test consisted of 16 items. The item consisted of both close and open-ended questions. The reliability co- efficient of the tool was calculated by test re-test method and the reliability co-efficient Figure 1: Number of students using of the tool was .7. The time limit for internet administering of the test was 2 hours. Accordingly 100 questionnaires were Description: 97% students are using distributed among the students of respective internet in their daily life. Only small number college under study. Out of which 93 of students did not use internet due to lack of questionnaire were received back duly filled awareness and disinterestedness. in. The questionnaires filled by the students III. Most frequently location of internet were analyzed by calculating percentage. use (Note: N=97) ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION I. Number of students having computer Table 1: Number of students having computer No. Answer No. of Percentage Respondents 1 Yes 57 57% 2 No 43 43% Description: 57% of students have their own computer, out of which 49% students have their personal computer and Figure 2: Most frequently location of 8% of students used their relative’s internet use computer. Description: 51.55% use internet in col- lege as compared 48.45% at home. College also provided internet facilities. Internet us- age at other places is 17.53 %. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 100 IV. Experience of internet use (Note: N=97) Figure 3: Experience of internet use Description: It was found that 34.02% of respondents were using it for more than 4 students were using the internet since 1-2 years, 13.4% respondents were indicated that years, 20.62% of students were using the they were using since 2-4 years, and 12.37% internet since 6 months-1 year, 19.59% students were using it less than 6 months. V. Frequency of internet use (Note: N=97) 4% Daily 23% 31% 2-3 times a week 2-3 times a month Once in a month 42% Figure 4: Frequency of internet use Description: In order to assess the a week. More than 30% of the respondents frequency of using the Internet services, the use the Internet every day and 23% for 2-3 time gap has been classified into four different times in a month. Only 4% of the respondents categories (see Figure 4). It has been found use it once in a month. that 42% of student uses the Internet 2-3 times SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 101 Amount of time spent on the internet (Note: N=97) Figure 5: Amount of time spent on the internet Description: figure 5 depicts that for 7-9 hours and 8.25% for10-20 hours a 28.87% of the respondents use the Internet week. Only 4.12% of the respondents have for 5-6 hours a week, 26.8% for 2-4 hours, indicated that they use the Internet more than 18.56% for less than 1 hour a week, 13.4% 20 hour in a week. VI. Methods of learning internet skills Table 2: Methods of learning internet skills Answer No. of Percentage No. Respondents 1 Trial and error method 43 44.33% 2 Guidance from friends 62 63.92% and family 3 Training from college 18 18.56% 4 Self instruction 34 35.05% 5 External courses 21 21.65% Description: Respondents were asked they learn the internet skill through trial and to indicate the methods used for acquiring the error method; 35.05% respondents also Internet skills. It was found that most popular indicate that they acquired skill by self method of acquiring the necessary skills to instruction method. 18.56% of users learnt use Internet is via Guidance from friends and the Internet through formal training offered family (Table 2). A majority of the respondents by the college and 21.65% participated in used this method with 62 (63.92 percent) other training courses such as external responses. 44.33% respondents indicated that courses and workshops. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 102 VIII. Purpose for browsing internet 100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 92.78% 40.00% 30.00% 48.45% 48.45% 20.00% 27.84% 10.00% 0.00% Research Entertainment Education Communication Figure 6: Purpose for browsing internet Description: Figure no. 6 depicts that communication purpose, and 27.84% of the a majority of the respondents i.e. 92.78% respondents also admit that they use the use the Internet primarily for education Internet for research purpose. purpose, 48.45% for entertainment and IX. Use of internet services Table 3: Use of internet services NO. Answer No. of Percentage respondents 1 E-mail 90 92.78% 2 WWW (World Wide Web) 86 88.66% 3 Search engines (e.g. 88 90.72% Google) 4 Remote login (Telnet) 8 8.25% 5 File Transfer Protocol 14 14.43% (FTP) 6 Archie 4 4.12% 7 List servers/ Discussion 11 11.34% Group 8 Bulletin Board Service 3 3.09% (BBS) 9 Frequently Asked 26 26.8% Questions (FAQs) 10 Chatting 62 63.92% SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 103 Description: Another question was responses, FAQs (Frequently Asked related to the use of various Internet services Questions) with 26.8% responses, FTP (File by the respondents. Table no. 3 shows that Transfer Protocol) with 14.43% responses, among Internet services, electronic mail has discussion groups with 11.34% responses, been chosen as the most popular Internet telnet with 8.25% responses, Archie with service. Email is used by 92.78% 4.12% responses and BBS (Bulletin Board respondents. 90.72% respondents use search Services) with 3.09% responses. It is seen engines. 88.66% respondents use internet for that use of Archie and BBS (Bulletin Board browsing www, chatting with 63.92% Services) is very low among the Internet users (Table 3). X. Problems while using internet Table 4: Problems while using internet No. Answer No. of Respondents Percentage 1 Slow access speed 74 76.29% 2 It takes too long to 66 68.04% view/download pages 3 Difficulty in finding 47 48.45% relevant information 4 Overload of information on 35 36.1% the Internet 5 Privacy problem 9 9.28% Description: It can be inferred from speed which takes a lot of their slot time to Table 4 that using the Internet is not free from retrieve the relevant information. 68.04% of problems. The barriers or problems respondents are of the opinion that it takes encountered while using the Internet mainly too long to view Web pages/ download pages. come from five factors: slowness of network 48.45% respondents find it difficult to get the communication or slow access speed; it takes relevant information from the Internet. 36.1% too long to view Web pages/ download pages; of respondents report that they face the difficulty in finding relevant information; problem of overload of information on the overload of information on the Internet; and Internet. 9.28% of respondents face the the privacy problems. 76.29% of respondents face the problem of slow Internet access privacy problem on the Internet. XI. Ways to browse information from the internet Table 5: Ways to browse information from the internet No. Answer No. of Percentage Respondents 1 Type the Web address 63 64.95% directly 2 Use search engines 74 76.29% 3 Use subscription databases Nil Nil SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 104 Description: Table 5 exhibits that a majority they type the Web address directly for of the respondents with 74 (76.29 %) browsing information. But no one respondent responses browse the required information indicated that they use subscription databases from the Internet by using Internet search for getting the required information from the engines. 63 (64.95 %) respondents admit that Internet. XII. Comparison of conventional documents and internet Figure 7: Comparison of conventional documents and internet Description: figure no 7 shows that 82 majority of the respondents i.e. 68 (70.1 per (84.54 percent) respondents are of the opinion cent) and 36.08% of the respondents also that Internet is time saving, more informative admit that it is less expensive as compared to and more useful as compared to conventional conventional documents. documents. Internet is more preferred by XIII. Influence on academic efficiency Table 6: Influence on academic efficiency No. Answer No. of Percentage Respondents 1 Use of conventional documents 31 31.96% has decreased 2 Dependency on the Internet has 58 59.79% increased 3 Expedited the research process 37 38.14% 4 Improved professional 54 55.67% competence SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 105 Description: The information available think that due to the availability of latest and on the Internet has proved to be a great as- instant access to information on the Internet, set for many of the respondents. They have dependency on Internet has increased. Simi- been able to keep themselves abreast with larly 55.67% respondents feel that the Internet the latest information and improve their pro- has improved their professional competence. fessional competence. Table 6 depicts the 38.14% respondents admit that the Internet has expedited their research process and influence of Internet on academic efficiency 31.96% respondents think that dependency of the respondents. 59.79% of respondents on conventional documents has decreased. XIV. Satisfaction with internet facilities Figure 8: satisfaction with internet facilities Description : figure 8 shows that only satisfied, 34.02% least satisfied and 11.34% 13.4% of respondents feel fully satisfied with of respondents have not expressed any the Internet facilities, 41.24% partially opinion regarding the service. VI. Can internet replace library services? Table 7: can internet replace library services? No. Answer No. of Percentage Respondents 1 Yes 22 22.68% 2 No 75 77.32% Description: A majority of the that it only supplements the library services. respondents i.e. (77.32%) feel that the They think that both Internet and library are Internet cannot replace library services and sources of information but Internet is more SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 106 effective, more useful and more informative by the earlier research study of Hanauer et and provides desired information in less time. al. (2004), Kaur and Kumar (2005), Only 22.68% of respondents feel that Internet Robinson (2005),Maharana, Sethi & can replace library services because they find Behera (2010) . It clearly indicates that there that it is easier to locate the desired was availability of internet facility in their information on the Internet than in the library. college and home and parents and peers So it is concluded that Internet cannot replace helped the students in use of internet. library services. It can only supplement library The study also revealed that most of the services (Table7). students were using internet for educational RESULT AND DISCUSSION purposes. These findings is corroborated with The findings of the present study clearly the earlier research study conducted by revealed that 57% of the students had their Bavakutty and Muhamad (1999), Jones own computer and they were using internet and Madden (2002), David Nagel (2007), and rest of students reported that they were Panda and Sahu (2003), Mishra, Yadav not using internet due to the lack of knowledge and Bisht (2005), Kaur and Kumar regarding internet and disinterested to use (2005), S. Thankuskodi (2011), internet. These findings is corroborated with Robinson (2005). It also found that E-mail the earlier research findings of Badu (2005), was the dominant usage and most of the Mishra, Yadav and Bisht (2005), Hanauer students have their own e-mail id. This finding et al. (2004). is supported by other research study conducted by Laite (2000), Bavakutty and It also found that maximum students Muhamad (1999), Hanauer et al. (2004), were using internet for 1-2 year, 2-3 times Kaur and Kumar (2005), Badu (2005). and 1-2 hours in a week. This finding is not supported by earlier research. Although It found that most of the students were number of study had taken by taking this partially satisfied with the internet facility objective still then there were no exact available in their college. They also reported findings available. This is due to may be that the internet connection was very slow. variation in stream, gender and methodology Earlier research corroborate this findings such etc. on other hand by analyzing the earlier as- Voorbij (1999), Kaur and Kumar research study it was found that the intensity (2005), Mishra, Yadav and Bisht (2005). of internet use varies from country to country, This is may be due to the non availability of institution to institution, and stream to stream high frequency bandwidth, lease line problem and the use of internet is fully depend upon and modem capacity etc. the resources available in a particular institute/ Majority of the student’s felt internet was country/state. useful, informative, and time saving and most It found that the primary location for use of the students revealed that the dependency of internet is the college and home is the on internet had increased due to the secondary location. This finding is supported availability of latest and instant access to SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 107 information. This is supported by Kaur and of internet. This may not be requirement Kumar (2005), Maharana, Sethi & after a decade. Behera (2010). The information available More efficient technical staff should be on the Internet has proved to be a great asset appointed to guide the students about for many of the students. They are able to how to use internet and what is available keep themselves abreast and improve their to them on the internet specifically professional competency. Students hold that concerned to their studies and its the internet can not replace the library service possible advantages and disadvantages. but supplement the library service. The problem of slow connectivity should EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION be overcome by increasing the The results of the present study reflect bandwidth and software protection to the level of internet usage by Post graduate improve the quality of speed be provide. students of Education. There is no significant Care should be taken to block certain difference from other faculties. However, in sites to provide quality access for some earlier studies gender differences was educational sites in the Colleges and visible, now it is insignificant. It is also apparent Universities. that the usage falls short of international level. There is a tremendous scope for improvement The College and University website in all segments of internet usage. Based on should have proper link with relevant the findings the teachers, administrators and sites and should be user friendly. management of education institute can plan CONCLUSION and organize training, orientation programme and provide technical support for both student From the above study following conclusion as well as staff in order to facilitate maximum may be drawn. use of internet. Internet is being increasingly used for SUGGESTION TO IMPROVE educational purpose of all spatial level INTERNET SERVICE local, national and international. On the basis of the findings of the study There is access, spatial, gender, faculty following recommendations for the and other variations. improvement of internet facilities in institutes The speed, quality of bandwidth and skill emerge. for use of internet needs further Proper orientation and training improvement. programmes should be organized by the There is a need for a wider array an colleges and universities at regular usage of internet of regional (say intervals to develop technological Odisha) level to find out difference capacity as well as create awareness across courses, gender divide, rural- among the students regarding the use urban divide, faculty divide(humanities, SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 108 science, engineering, medical etc) and 4. Kumar and kaur (2005). Internet and age divide. Such a full scale survey its use in the engineering college of would enable planners, policy maker and Punjab, India: A case study. webology, internet service providers. Such a study 2(4), Article 21. Retrieved oct.22/ would also examine popular myths a 11fromhttp://www.webology.org/2005/ misuse of internet and its negative v2n4/a21.html. positive educational effect. 5. Laite, Berkley, (2000). Internet Use The Post Graduate education students Survey: Analysis. Retrieved December of Ravenshaw University and RIE O1, 2011, from http://www.ship.edu/ (NCERT) are using internet widely for ~bhl/survey/. educational purpose. 6. Maharana, B., Sethi, B., & Behera, S. The study has limitations in terms of all (2010). Use of internet and e-resources size of sample, spatial distance between by the students of business two institutes only one course is taken management: A survey of P. G. students up and no socio-economic-cultural of business administration, Sambalpur survey is included. Yet limited University, India. International Journal implications can be drawn. The study of Library and Information Science establishes need for a wider survey. Vol. 2(3), pp. 45-53 . REFERENCES 7. Mishra, O.P., Yadava, N., & Bisht, K. (2005). Internet Utilization Pattern of 1. Asemi, A. (2005). Information searching Undergraduate Students. University habits of Internet users : A case study News, 43(13), 8-12. on the Medical Sciences University of Isfahan, Iran. Retrieved sept. 9, 2011, 8. Panda, K. C., and N. K. Sahu, (2003). from http://www.webology.org/2005/ Use of Internet in the Engineering v2n1/a10.html Colleges of Orissa: An Analysis. Conference, Mapping Technology on 2. Bavakutty, M., & Salih Muhamad, T. K. Libraries and People. Ahemdabad, (1999). Internet services in Calicut India: Proceedings of the 1st University. National Convention International Conference on Mapping Academic Libraries in the Internet Technology on Libraries and People. Era. Organized by INFLIBNET, Pp. 619-631. Ahemdabad, p.37-44. 9. Robinson, Jannie W, (2005). Internet 3. Hanauer, David, (2004). Internet Use Use among African-American College among Community College Students: Students: An Exploratory Study. Implications in Designing Healthcare Retrieved 20, Nov, 2011, from http:// Interventions. Journal of American wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/ College Health, 52 (15), 197-202. 3156015. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 109 10. Thanuskodi , S. (2011). User awareness 4. http://www.iamaia.in towards using information and communication technology (ICT) in 5. http://www.ideasmarkit.blogspot.in/ government arts and Science Colleges search/label/analysis internet India in Southern Tamil Nadu: An analytical 6. http://www.indiabroadband.net/india- study. International Journal of broadband-telecom-news/11169-some- Science and Technology Education statistics-about-internet-users- Research Vol. 2(6), pp. 98 – 105. india.html. 11. Voorbij, H. (1999). Searching for scientific information on the Internet: A 7. http://www. “India Telcos: Battle of the Dutch academic user survey. Journal Titans”. Retrieved 19 August 2012. of the American Society for 8. http://www.internetworldstats.com/ Information Science, 50(7), 598-615. stats3.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-10 RELATED WEBSITES : 9. http://www.iamai.in/Pres Coverage. 1. http://www.campustechnology .com/ aspx?NYear=2011&NMonth=8 Articles/…/Research-College- Students-Use-Internet-f or-Education— 10. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/mgi/ Huh.as… research/technology_and_innovation/ 2. http://www.coaching Indian .com internet_matters 3. http://www.dazeinfo.com/2012/03/13/ 11. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in internet-facts-figures-and-statistics-in- Retrieved 18 April 2012. just-24-hours-infographic/ SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 110 TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE CONCEPT: A KEY TO SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING PRACTICE Giridhari Sahoo ABSTRACT The outcome of management processes, from strategic planning to implementation of the plan, underpins the measurement of corporate performance. Thus, corporate performance refers to the end result of management processes in relation to corporate goals. The trend towards greater transparency and accountability in public reporting and communication is reflected in a progression towards more comprehensive disclosure of corporate performance to include the environmental, social and economic dimensions of an entity’s activities. Reporting information on any one or more of these three elements is referred to as Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBLR). This trend is being largely driven by stakeholders, who are increasingly demanding information on the approach and performance of companies in managing the environmental and social impact of their activities and obtaining a broader prospective of their economic impact. Amid this background, the present paper endeavors to study the concept of Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBLR), Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) measures and status of Indian Companies, key challenges and managing the same regarding TBL reporting. Key Words: Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBLR), Sustainability, Stakeholder, Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) INTRODUCTION: wants to consider applying a corporate The outcome of management processes, sustainability plan by addressing their “Triple from strategic planning to implementation of Bottom Line Reporting”(TBLR) which the plan, underpins the measurement of includes paying close attention to their corporate performance. Thus, corporate economic (financial factors), environmental performance refers to the end result of (risk and requirement factors) and social management processes in relation to (human factors) issues. Hence, Triple Bottom corporate goals. Corporate Sustainability is Line Reporting (TBLR) is considered to be a of utmost important for the survival of good sign for corporate growth on a sustained organizations and their future generations’ basis. Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBLR) stakeholders. To cope up with the globalized goes beyond the traditional way of reporting challenges, corporate, all around the globe mechanism and encourages businesses to give SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 111 closer attention to the whole impact of their operations of the organization. A TBL commercial activities, over and above their company seeks to benefit both these financial performance. constituencies and not exploit or endanger any of them. It is expected to have objective The trend towards greater transparency measures in place for ensuring sharing of and accountability in public reporting and value / profits with all employees, employ communication is reflected in a progression safeguards against unethical practices like use towards more comprehensive disclosure of of child labour and destabilizing of local corporate performance to include the communities, proactively “give back” to environmental, social and economic society by contributing to the strengthening dimensions of an entity’s activities. Reporting of local communities in specific areas like information on any one or more of these three livelihood generation, health, education etc. elements is referred to as Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBLR). This trend is being largely Planet, TBL’s second dimension refers to driven by stakeholders, who are increasingly sustainable environmental practices. A TBL demanding information on the approach and company endeavours to benefit the performance of companies in managing the environment and not engage in any practice environmental and social impact of their which damages the natural ecological activities and obtaining a broader prospective balance. The organization reduces its of their economic impact. ecological footprint by carefully managing its consumption of non-renewable energy. It The concept of TBL demands that an proactively adopts practices for reducing organization’s responsibility is to all its manufacturing waste as well as processing stakeholders rather than only shareholders. waste to make it less toxic before disposing it Anyone who is influenced, either directly or in a safe and legal manner. It embraces indirectly, by the actions of the organization practices for assessing the environmental is a stakeholder and the organization’s impact (and cost) of its products and services primary objective should be to address throughout their lifecycle and bears its share stakeholder interests instead of a narrow of the costs in an objective and transparent focus on maximizing shareholder profits. manner. CONCEPT OF 3P’S IN TBLR: Profit, the third and final dimension of the People, the first dimension of the TBL, TBL, represents the economic value created relates to fair and beneficial business by the organization after deducting all input practices towards employees as well as the costs, including cost of invested capital. While communities which are impacted by the the original concept defines profit as the real SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 112 economic benefit enjoyed by the society in affects management practices. which the organization operates, performance Moreover, using country-level data, they under this dimension is often assessed by found that these effects are larger for measuring the financial profits generated by countries that have stronger the enterprise to facilitate objective enforcement of laws and regulations and measurement. for countries where assurance of sustainability disclosure is more frequent. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: Gupta and Saha in their article on The study has been planned with the “Sustainability Reporting Practices - following objectives: A Study of Recent Trends in Indian To make a conceptual study of Triple Context” in The Chartered Bottom Line Reporting. Accountant, December 2012, suggest To study the Global Reporting Initiative that Government, regulators, the (GRI) measures and status of Indian Institute of Chartered Accountants of Companies in this regard. India, all other professional bodies (such To critically examine the key challenges as Institute of Cost Accountants of India and managing the same regarding TBL and Institute of Company Secretaries of reporting. India), academic institutions and RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OF universities (such as IIMs, IITs), etc. THE STUDY: should function together to formulate a comprehensive standard for The study is based on secondary data sustainability reporting and promote which is collected from the published reports sustainability initiatives among both of different corporate, GRI reports, corporate and non-corporate entities newspapers, articles, magazines, journals, operating in Indian territory. In future, websites, etc. all Indian entities are expected to issue LITERATURE REVIEW: separate sustainability reports just like their annual financial reports. Ioannis and George in their article on “The Consequences of Mitra in his paper on “Sustainability Mandatory Corporate Sustainability Reporting Practices in India: It’s Reporting” in Harvard Business Problem & Prospects” in School, in 2012, observed that both International Journal of Marketing, country-level and firm-level MCSR Financial Services and Management SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 113 Research, 2011, made an attempt to description of their functions and roles focus on the state of Reporting Practices but no emphasis has been given on a in India, analyze in brief the factors defined set of quantitative parameters, responsible for reporting and understand which may lead to understanding of how to increase the depth and company’s approach and performance commitment of Indian Companies from a social cost benefit perspective. towards Sustainability Reporting in the Ian in his article on “Sustainability” years to come. in Development in Practice, August, Steve, Jean and David, in his paper 2007, found that, Sustainability on “ From Transparency to Reporting practices is a key debate of Performance - Industry-Based global importance, bringing with it a Sustainability Reporting on Key coalition of actors - across governments, Issues” in Initiative for Responsible civic groups, academia and business - Investment (?) June 2010, in perhaps an unparalleled fashion. recommended that Key performance Francesco in his article on indicators can play a vital role in any “Sustainability and Stakeholder sustainability disclosure scheme. Management: the Need for New Increased uptake in voluntary reporting, Corporate Performance Evaluation with a move towards mandatory and Reporting Systems” in Business reporting on a basic set of KPIs is Strategy and the Environment, ultimately necessary to fill varying 2006, found that the sustainability disclosure needs of our diverse societies evaluation and reporting system (SERS), and complete the convergence of an integrated methodology aimed at financial and sustainability reporting. monitoring and tracking from a Baxi and Ray in their paper on qualitative and quantitative viewpoint the “Corporate Social & Environmental overall corporate performance Disclosures & Reporting” in Indian according to a stakeholder framework, Journal of Industrial Relations, in line with small and medium-sized January, 2009, found that, the current enterprises’ managerial requirements is business practices in Indian companies felt necessary. do not reveal substantive approach Hedberg and Malmborg in his paper towards environ mental and social on “The Global Reporting Initiative disclosures and reporting. The major and Corporate Sustainability focus of reporting is based on qualitative Reporting in Swedish Companies” in SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 114 Corporate Social Responsibility operate’, especially in the resources Environment Management, 2003, sector where the concept of a social dealt with the reasons for companies licence to operate has been central for choosing to use the Global Reporting some years. Communication with Initiative (GRI) guidelines and how this stakeholder is often critical to securing has affected corporate social and maintaining a ‘licence to operate’. responsibility and environmental Communities and Stakeholders management. generally, are likely to be more BUSINESS BENEFITS IN REPORTING: supportive of companies that communicate openly honestly about their Alignment of company reporting with management and performance in the expectations of key stakeholders serves relation to environmental, social and to improve the quality of a company’s economic factors. relationships with such stakeholders and thus protect and enhance the value of the Attraction and retention of high organization. Some of the specific calibre employees: Existing and organizational benefits identified are: prospective employees have expectation about corporate environmental, social Reputation and Brand Benefits- and economic behavior and include such Corporate reputation is a function of the factors in their decisions. The way in which a company is perceived publication of TBL related information it’s by stakeholders. Effective can play a role in positioning an employer communication with stakeholders with as an ‘employer choice’ which can one or more of the environmental, social enhance employee loyalty, reduce staff and economic dimensions can play an turnover and increase a company’s important role in managing stakeholder’s ability to attract high quality employees. perceptions and in doing so, protect and enhance corporate reputation. Improved access to investor market: A growing numbers of investor are Securing a ‘social licence to operate’- including environmental and social a ‘licence to operate’ is not a piece of factors within their decision making paper, but informal community and processes. The growth in socially stakeholder support for an organization’s responsible investment and share holder operations. Business is increasingly activities is an evidence of this. recognizing the link between ongoing Responding to investor’s requirement business success and its ‘licence to SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 115 through the publication of TBL related Cost savings: TBL reporting often information is a way a ensuring that the involves the collection and analysis of company is aligning its communication data on resource and material usages with this stake holder group, and and the assessment of business therefore enhancing its attractiveness to processes. For example this can enable these segments of the investment a company to better identify markets. opportunities for cost savings through more efficient use of resources and Establish position as a preferred materials. supplier: Obtaining a differentiated position in the market place is one way Innovation: The development of to establish the status of preferred innovative product and services can be facilitated through the alignment of R&D supplier. Effectively communicating with activities with the expectation of the stake holder group on environmental, stake holders. The process of publishing social and economic issues is central to TBL reporting provides a medium by obtaining a differentiated position in the which companies can engage with stake market place. holders and understand their priorities Reduced risk profile: There is an and concern. expanding body of evidence to suggest QUALITIES AND CHARACTERISTICS that performance in respect of OF INFORMATION IN TBL economic, social and environmental REPORTS factors has the capacity to affect the views of market and market participants The report usually contains both qualitative and quantitative information. In about a company exposure to and order for all reported information to be management of risk. TBL reporting credible, regardless whether the information enables a company to demonstrate its is qualitative or quantitative, it is suggested commitment to effectively managing that it should possess the following such factors and to communicate its characteristics. These include: performance in these areas. Communication policies that address Reliability: Information should be these issues can play an important role accurate and provide a true reflection in the company’s overall risk of the activities and performance of the management strategies. company. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 116 Usefulness: The information must be FORMS OF REPORTING relevant to both internal and external There are different options available for stakeholders, and be relevant to their companies considering TBL reporting. They decision-making processes. are as follows. Consistency of presentation: Inclusion of environmental and social Throughout the report, there should be information in annual reporting to consistency of presentation of data and shareholders. information. This includes consistencies and in aspects such as format, time A separate environment report or frame, graphics and matrix. community report. Full disclosure: Reported information Separate environment and social report. should provide an open explanation of Combined social and environment specific action undertaken and report. performance outcomes. Full TBL report and Reproducible: Information is likely to Any other form of communication with be published on an ongoing basis and stake holders. companies must ensure that they have IMPLEMENTATION AND STRATEGY the capacity to reproduce data and In order to maximize the benefits information in future reporting periods. associated with TBL reporting, development Auditablility: Alignment with the trend and implementation of TBL reporting should towards external verification requires be integrated with overall business strategy that all statements and data within the and objectives. report be able to be readily substantiated. Key issues for consideration in the development and implementation of TBL Where the reported information possess reporting include; a clear definition of the role the above characteristics, the reporting of TBL reporting driving strategic business companies is able to present balanced and objectives; establishment of the resource and credible information that delivers benefits to cost requirement; awareness of any both the reporting companies and its stake associated legal implications and holders, while also minimizing any potential understanding the risk involves in publishing reputation risk associated with the publication TBL information. of TBL reporting. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 117 A decision to move to full TBL reporting Review of associated legal implications. should not be taken lightly. It must have senior Developed TBL reporting strategy. management endorsement and commitment Determine performance indicators for as any half hearted approach is likely to be inclusion in report. worse than not adopting it at all. Establish appropriate structure and THE REPORTING PROCESS content of the report. The major steps involved in undertaking the III. Implementation of TBL reporting reporting process are: strategy Implementation of TBL reporting, I. Planning for Reporting strategy(including required data Understand the national, international collection and review processes) and industry sector trends in TBL Clarify relationship in the statutory reporting. financial reporting. Identify key stakeholders. IV. Publication of TBL Report Establish the business case and set high Prepared draft report. level objective for TBL reporting. Review content and structure of report Secure support from the board and internally and modify accordingly. senior executive. Obtain independent assurance-external Identify resource requirement and verification. determine budget. Publish TBL report. II. Setting the Direction for TBL Seek feedbacks from stake holders and Reporting incorporate into planning for the next Engage with stake holders to understand period reporting. their requirement. KEY CHALLENGES Prioritize stake holder requirement and Specific challenges associated with TBL concerns. reporting vary from company to company and Set overall objectives for TBL reporting. between industry sectors. In working to overcome challenges associated with the Review current approach and assess implementation of the TBL reporting the capability to deliver on reporting principal areas requiring specific effort objectives. include: Identify gaps and barrier associated with current approach and prioritizes risk Gaining of an awareness of relevant associated with overall reporting issues associated with TBL to the reporting authority. objectives. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 118 Obtaining an understanding of the MANAGING KEY CHALLENGES requirements for key stake holders in Guidelines, frameworks and tool kits relation to public reporting. have been developed with the purpose of Achieving clarity in relation to the achieving greater standardization and company objectives and the risk related consistency in TBL reporting. However, given to reporting and the unique circumstances and issues in Determining key indicators of different industry sectors, a uniform “one size environmental, social and economic fits all” approach across all industry sectors performance and basis of measurement. is neither practical nor appropriate. Key Challenges Approach to overcoming Key Challenges Awareness of the relevance of TBL Review of national, international and industry sector trends in TBL reporting. Review of competitive activity in TBL reporting Assessment of business implication for the company. Understanding Key Stakeholders’ Identify stakeholders. requirements & expectations Engage in dialogue with key stakeholders. Insight into stakeholder expectations. Clarity in relation to objectives & risks Engage senior executives in order to gain their perspectives. Assess current capability to meet stakeholder expectations. Determination of objectives & awareness of risks. Measurement of key aspect of TBL Development of KPIs and Metrics. performance Ensure alignment with stakeholder expectation and company objectives. KEY INDIVIDUALS IN THE message from the chairman can provide REPORTING PROCESS AND THE the report with additional profile and ROLE OF CFO: credibility. The key individuals and groups within a Chief Executive Officer: Support and company and their primary role in commitment from the CEO is critical to implementing TBL reporting typically include: achieving the objectives of TBL Chairman and the Board of reporting. A statement within the report Directors: The Board must be aware from the CEO enhances the credibility of all public reporting, including non- of the report. The CEO should review financial reporting. A statement or the report to assess any risks associated SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 119 with statement made, or information GLOBAL REPORTING INITIATIVE: within the report. The GRI guidelines contain information Chief Financial Officer: A key role of to assist companies seeking to enhance the the CFO is to ensure accuracy of credibility of their reports through independent financial and economic data, oversee the verification and assurance. The guidelines of financial efficiency of the reporting five critical areas for consideration by those process and review the report to assess companies seeking independent assurance any risks associated with statements or are: information within the report. In addition, Internal information systems and the CFO may be given the role of processes: Investigation and evaluation of the effectiveness of internal systems assuring accuracy and integrity of the and process to provide accurate and non financial data contained within the meaningful data. report. The assurance processes: In order to Corporate Affairs, Public Relations, provide value to the reporting company, and Investor Relations: Provide the assurance process must provide guidance in relation to presentation and assurance in relation to subject matter, effect to maximize the impact of the evidence, control systems and the report. usefulness of reported information. Sustainability Leader: For those Selection and assurance providers: companies with a person responsible for The assurance providers should be implementation of sustainability TBL, it independent, be able to balance is likely that such a person will coordinate stakeholder and company needs, have the reporting project and play a lead role no conflict of interest, be able commit in the process of identifying and sufficient time and appropriate engaging with stakeholders. resources. Business Unit Heads: Ensures that any Director’s responsibilities: Recognition information in relation to specific by the Board of the role of the business units accurately reflects activity assurance provider and ensuring that and performance. sufficient resources are made available to the assurance provider serve to Legal: Review report to provide enhance the quality of process. assurance that there are no adverse Assurance statements or reports: The legal implications associated with GRI offers guidelines on the minimum publication of the report. requirements for inclusion in assurance Sales and Marketing: Utilizing the TBL statements and reports. report and the company’s approach to AA 1000 ASSURANCE STANDARD: business contained within the report The AA 1000 Assurance Standard has within sales and marketing strategy to developed an approach for assurance drive competitive advantage. providers to assess the credibility of publicly SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 120 reported TBL related information. Evidence and Assurance Approaches: Verification of TBL reports in accordance These are concerned with the evaluation with the AA 1000 Assurance Standard must of the supporting data, systems, policies apply the AA 1000 Assurance Principles. The and procedures. AA Assurance Principles are: TBLR ADOPTION BY INDIAN Completeness: The inclusion of all COMPANIES: appropriate information. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) (2002) makes it clear that the corporations Materiality: Information is seen to be do not operate in isolation and that their material if it would reasonably influence continuing existence, i.e. sustainability, the conclusions and decisions of the depends on an acknowledgement of their report users. embeddedness in a broader social context. Responsiveness: It refers to a Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) can be commitment to continuous improvement considered as a socially responsible in relation to its impacts, stakeholder framework with principles, procedures and standards that entities can use voluntarily to concerns and relevant standards. measure and report their economic, Accessibility: It is the effective environmental and social performance. The communication of TBL information in a applicability of the concept of TBLR with manner that is readily accessible and special reference to GRI (Global Reporting affordable for the stakeholder. Initiative) status of Indian Corporate houses are given in Table 1. Table: 1 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) status of Indian Companies Name of Organization Guideline Application level Status BPCL G3 A+ Third Party checked Chemplast Senmar G3 A+ GRI checked Dr.Reddy’s G3 Undeclared Free scale G3 Undeclared Grasim Industries G3 A+ GRI checked Infosys Technologies G3 A+ GRI checked ITC G3 A+ Third Party checked Jubilant Organosys G3 A+ GRI checked Larsen & Toubro G3 A+ GRI checked Mahindra G3 A+ GRI checked Moser Baer India G3 A MSPL G3 Undeclared Reliance Industries G3 A+ GRI checked Shree cement G3 A+ GRI checked Sterlite Industries G3 Undeclared Tata Motors G3 A+ GRI checked Tata Tea G3 A+ Third Party checked VS Dempo & Co G3 B+ Third Party checked WIPRO G3 A+ Third Party checked So urce: http://www.globalreporting.org SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 121 The GRI provide the following threefold Out of 100 Companies registered with mission to the Corporate: BSE/NSE 35 Companies voluntarily To elevate sustainability reporting at a report on the basis of GRI reporting and global level so that it may be at par with financial reporting in terms of 65 companies do not report on GRI comparability, auditability, and generally basis. accepted practices; Furthermore, the companies which are To design and continually improve following GRI reporting practice are standardized reporting mechanism performing better in all aspects than which is applicable to all enterprises, and customized, sector-specific others. measurements for reflecting the TBL Top 10 Reporting Countries in 2011: dimensions of sustainability. To ensure a permanent and effective Country % of institutional host to support such reporting registered practices and to build a global, 2011 GRI independent institution to become Reports USA 11 steward of the Guidelines. Spain 8 GRI Based Sustainability Reporting Sweden 6 among BSE/NSE 100 Companies: Brazil 6 China 5 Netherlands 4 Germany 4 Australia 4 Switzerland 3 Canada 3 Source; http://greencleanguide.com OBSERVATION: From the survey of greencleanguide.com it was found that; Most of the European Countries are Source; http://efficientcarbon.com very much aware about TBL reporting practice and USA has pioneer reporting OBSERVATION: practice among all of them i.e. 11%. This From the survey made by efficient carbon.com indicates that European Countries have it was found that: greater transparency in reporting practices. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 122 Organization that creates their non Inertia: The difficulty of achieving global financial report based on GRI agreement on simultaneous policy may sustainability reporting framework can render such measures at best advisory, be considered as credible output aligned and thus unenforceable. with applicable standards and norms. Application: As because there is no CRITICISM: single way in monetary terms to measure Division of labour: It is the the benefits to the society and characteristic of rich societies and a environment as there is with profit, it major contributor to their wealth. This does not allow for businesses to sum leads to the view that organisations across all three bottom lines. In this contribute most to the welfare of society regard, it makes it difficult for businesses in all respects when they focus on what to recognize the benefits of using TBL they do best. for the company, itself. Effectiveness: It is observed that CONCLUSION: concern for social and environmental There must be critical need based matters is rare in poor societies. As a society becomes richer its citizens development for a new conceptual basis for develop an increasing desire for a clean generating accounting information in order to environment and protected wildlife, and support multi-stakeholders interests & both the willingness and financial ability relationship and explains the logical to contribute to this and to a development of an integrated sustainability compassionate society. reporting system founded upon the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) of an organization’s Nationalism: Some countries adopt the economic, environmental and social view that they must look after their own performance. The content of sustainability citizens first. This view is not confined reports focus more on complying to the to one sector of society, having support reporting guidelines requirements rather than from elements of business, labour unions, and politicians. elaborating on materiality, stakeholder engagement and future plans and targets. Libertarian: As it is possible for a Although, problem regarding reporting socially responsible person to sincerely practices is widely accepted; it is equally believe that the triple bottom line is widely accepted that the impact of corporate harmful to society, the libertarian view activity upon society and its citizens as well is that it would be arrogant to force them as all stakeholders including the environment to support a mechanism for the is considerable and has an impact not just improvement of society that may, or may upon the present but also upon the future. not, be the best available. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 123 REFERENCES: G 100(2003),An association of Anonymous.(2004). “The next step for Australia’s Finance Executives from the CSR: economic democracy,” Nation’s Business Enterprises, “Sustainability: A Guide To Triple Blanco ruiz, Silvia and Fernandez Feijoo Bottom Line Reporting”. 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WEBSITES: www.ssrn.com accessed on 12th March 2013. http://www.business-ethics.com/ nextstepforcsr.htm accessed 14th may www.wikipedia.com accessed on 12th 2013. March 2013. SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 125 OUR CONTRIBUTORS Dr.Pratap Kumar Dash Mr.Bibhuti Bhusan Mohapatra Assistant Professor in English PhD Research Scholar, Faculty of Education Brack, P.G Department of Sanskrit, Sebha University, Libya Utkal University ,Vani Vihar, Email: [email protected] Bhubaneswar-751004 Email: [email protected] Mr.Abhisek Upadhyay PhD scholar Mr. Prafulla Kumar Mishra P.G Department of English, Professor in Sanskrit, Dept. of Sanskrit Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Chairman, P.G. Council, Bhunaneswar-751004 Email: [email protected] Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751004 Ms.Kriti K Kalia Email : [email protected] Assistant Professor, Department of English, Mr. Mohammad Afsar Alam D.A.V College, Sector 10, Chandigarh. Assistant Professor and Head Department Email: [email protected] of Geography, Adi-Keih College of Arts and Social Dr.Biraja Mohan Das Sr.Asst. DDCE, Sciences, P.O. Box 59, Utkal University Vani Vihar, Eritrea, N.E. Africa Bhubaneswar-751007 Email: [email protected] Email:[email protected] SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 126 Mr.Zubairul Islam Ms.Atashi Rath Assistant Professor, Department of Research Scholar Geography, P.G Department of Sociology Adi-Keih College of Arts and Social Utkal University, Vanivihar Sciences, P.O. Box 59, Bhubaneswar Eritrea, N.E. Africa Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Mr. Nikunja Ranjan Dash Ms.Himani Mishra Academic Consultant, Academic Consultant, Education, Sociology, DDCE Utkal University, DDCE Utkal University Vani Vihar, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751007 Bhubaneswar-751007 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Mr.Giridhari Sahoo Dr.Saidur Rahman Academic Consultant, Associate Professor Commerce, Department of Sociology & Social Work DDCE Utkal University Eritrea institute of Technology Vani Vihar, P.O. Box 8585, Asmara Eritrea Bhubaneswar-751007 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 127 OUR REVIEWERS Prof. A.K Mohanty Prof.Priyadarshi Patnaik Retd.Professor Department of Humanities & Social P.G Department of Economics, Sciences IIT, Utkal University, Kharagpur, Bhubaneswar & RBI chair. West Bengal-721302 Prof.Himanshu Sekhar Rout Dr.Subhendu Kumar Mund Reader, Department of A&A Economics, Visiting Professor, IIT Utkal University, Former Principal BJB College, Bhubaneswar Bhubaneswar Prof. Nabaneeta Rath Prof.Udayanath Sahoo Professor,P.G Department of Sociology, P.G Department of Odia Utkal University Utkal University,Vanivihar Bhubaneswar Bhubanneswar-751004 Prof.Surya Narayan Mishra Prof.M.Gangadhar Rao Professor, Former Vice-Chancellor, KIIT Law school, GITAM University, KIIT University Visakhapatnam-530045 Patia,Bhubaneswar-751024 Dr.Amareswar Mishra Prof.K.B Rath Retired Professor, Principal,Regional Institute of Education, P.G Department of Political Science, NCERT, Utkal University,Vanivihar Bhubaneswar. Bhubanneswar-751004 SEARCH - A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management, ISSN : 0974-5416, Vol-VII, Issue-2 July, 2013 128