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Attitudes Towards Usefulness of Languages in Tunisia

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Attitudes Towards Usefulness of Languages in Tunisia Globalisation and Language Policy in Tunisia: Shifts in Domains of Use and Linguistic Attitudes A Dissertation By Hichem Aouina Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Linguistics Department, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences University of West of England，Bristol March, 2013 This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I must express my gratitude to my outstanding director of studies, Kate Beeching, for her help, patience, and support. Her comprehensive feedback, insights and suggestions were tremendously illuminating. I am as well thankful to my supervisor, Nicolas Startin whose comments were invaluable. I also thank all my friends and colleagues who helped me administer the questionnaire; on top of them Mohamed Chouria, Ahlam Keffala, Hela Bessaadi, Mohamed Limame, Khaled Lahbib and Larbi Lahbib. Thanks also go to the senior inspectors who took the time and sometimes the ‘risk’ to answer my interview questions; to all the teachers and students who responded to the surveys. I finally have to thank my wife, Raoudha, without whose support and encouragement I could not have gone anywhere. iii ABSTRACT This thesis builds on previous studies on the linguistic situation, attitudes and domains of language use in the Maghreb countries undertaken by Marley (2000, 2004, 2005, 2008) in Morocco, Benrabah (2007a, 2007b), in Algeria, and by Jabeur (1999) Daoud (2001, 2011a, 2011b) and Bahloul (2001) in Tunisia. It explores the shifts in the domains of language use, the differences in linguistic attitudes between generations in Tunisia and the role played by globalisation in this process. In order to investigate the ways in which domains of use and attitudes to English and French are shifting, a questionnaire was administered to a group of 100 teachers aged 40 to 60 and a group of 200 students aged 17 to 19. SPSS data analyses showed some statistically significant differences between the two groups. With respect to domains of use, the younger group uses significantly more English as a lingua franca, in chatting online, reading for pleasure, watching TV programmes and listening to songs. Teachers, by contrast, use significantly more French in activities such as reading and watching TV programmes. French remains the preferred foreign language of the older generation, but they believe it is threatened by English in Tunisia, whereas the younger generation preferred English. One main reason for these differences could be what the older generation consider to be the negative impact of globalisation on French and its positive impact on English. Interesting qualitative data were also extracted from the responses to a vox pop questionnaire submitted to 100 lay people in the street and from essays written by two groups of 25 students. These confirmed that the majority of Tunisians consider English to be the most useful foreign language in Tunisia and that it should be given more importance in academic settings due to its world status as an international lingua franca. This thesis also investigates language policy in Tunisia by analysing all relevant extracts from the speeches of Ben Ali, Tunisia’s ex-president, and interviews conducted with the three senior inspectors of the three main languages. Policy has promoted English over French in two ways: first, Arabic rather than French is now the vehicle for the teaching of the human and natural sciences in the Basic Education1and, second, new measures in favour of English have simultaneously been taken in and outside academia. 1 From year 1 to year 9 of public education iv To conclude, the findings of this study contribute to knowledge in three ways: Firstly, by identifying differences in domains of language use and attitudes between generations in contemporary Tunisia, secondly, by scrutinizing the way students, teachers and lay people feel about French and English, the two main rival foreign languages in the country and, thirdly, by exploring the political discourse which influences the language situation both directly, through language policy, and indirectly, through hearts and minds. v Contents ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Theoretical Frameworks............................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two: Literature Review ....................................................................................... 3 2.1 Overview of Globalisation ........................................................................................... 3 2.1.1 What Is Globalisation? .......................................................................................... 3 2.1.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 8 2.1.3 Controversies over Globalisation .......................................................................... 9 2.1.4 Attitudes towards Globalisation: ......................................................................... 10 2.1.5 Agents of Globalisation ...................................................................................... 12 2. 2 English and Globalisation ......................................................................................... 18 2. 3 Francophony and Globalisation: ............................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 25 2.4 Tunisia and Globalisation .......................................................................................... 25 2.5 Language Policy: A Brief Overview .......................................................................... 27 2.5.1 Policies of assimilation: ...................................................................................... 30 2.5.2 Policies of non-intervention ................................................................................ 30 2.5.3 Policies of promotion of the official language .................................................... 31 2.6 Language Policy Responses to Globalization in the World ....................................... 31 2.7 The Multilingual Profile in Tunisia: A Brief Account ............................................... 31 2.7.1 The Arabic Language: ......................................................................................... 33 2.7.2 The French Language .......................................................................................... 36 2.7.3 The English Language ........................................................................................ 38 2.7.4 Code-switching ................................................................................................... 40 2.8 Past Research and the Gap ......................................................................................... 41 2.9 Research questions and approaches ........................................................................... 46 Chapter Three: Methodology............................................................................................ 48 3.1 Introduction: The Mixed Method Approach .............................................................. 48 vi 3.2 Quantitative Tools ................................................................................................. 48 3.2.1 Questionnaires ..................................................................................................... 48 3.2 Qualitative Method..................................................................................................... 58 3.2.1 The Interviews:.................................................................................................... 58 3.2.2 Open-ended question: ......................................................................................... 59 3.2.3 Essays: ................................................................................................................. 60 3.2.4 Ben Ali Speeches ................................................................................................ 62 3.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................... 62 3.4 My Hypotheses: ......................................................................................................... 64 3.5 Conclusion: ................................................................................................................ 65 Chapter Four: Globalisation and Domains of Language Use in Tunisia ...................... 66 4.1. Introduction: .............................................................................................................. 66 4.2 Aspects of Daily Linguistic Behaviour ................................................................. 66 4.2.1 Tunisian Arabic as the Main Language of Communication ............................... 67 4.2.2 Code-switching to French ................................................................................... 70 4.2.3. Code-switching to English ................................................................................
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