1 Carthage was indeed destroyed Introduction to Carthage According to classical texts (Polybe 27) Carthage’s history started with the Phoenician queen Elissa who was ousted from power in Tyre and in 814 BC settled with her supporters in what is now known as Carthage. There might have been conflicts with the local population and the local Berber kings, but the power of the Phoenician settlement Carthage kept growing. The Phoenicians based in the coastal cities of Lebanon constituted in the Mediterranean Sea a large maritime trade power but Carthage gradually became the hub for all East Mediterranean trade by the end of the 6th century BC. Thus Carthage evolved from being a Phoenician settlement to becoming the capital of an empire (Fantar, M.H., 1998, chapter 3). The local and the Phoenician religions mixed (e.g. Tanit and Baal) and in brief Carthage developed from its establishment in roughly 800 BC and already from 6th century BC had become the centre for a large empire of colonies across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Spain, and the islands of Mallorca, Sardinia, and Sicily (Heimburger, 2008 p.36). Illustration: The empire of Carthage prior to the 1st Punic war in 264 BC, encyclo.voila.fr/wiki/Ports_puniques_de_Carthage 2010 Following two lost wars with the rising Rome (264-241 BC and 218-201 BC) Carthage was deprived of its right to engage in wars but experienced a very prosperous period as a commercial power until Rome besieged the city in 149 BC and in 146 BC destroyed it completely 25 years later Rome decided to rebuild the city but not until 43 BC was Carthage reconstructed as the centre for Rome’s African Province. The vandals conquered the city in 439 AD and held it for a century, until it became Bent Noerby Bonde 2 a Byzantine stronghold and finally by the end of 7th century AD was invaded by Arab and Ottoman powers, eventually losing its position as a national, regional or imperial centre and was left and forgotten by the Arabs who instead settled in Tunis. What makes Carthage particularly interesting is that for centuries it was the centre of a large empire, the adversary in two preventive wars waged by omnipotent Rome (Mondot, Jean-Francois and Nehmé, Najat, 2008, p. 113) and was ultimately deliberately destroyed during the third and last mythical war. After what genocide scholars have described as the first genocide in history (Kirnan, Ben, 2004, p. 27-39) Carthage was again completely rebuilt as a prosperous centre for the African province of the Roman Empire. Carthage had until the Save Carthage Campaign primarily been described within a Hellenistic-Roman framework and based on their literary sources whereas little attention had been afforded the ancient Semitic based history of the Carthaginian Empire itself. (Ennabli, A. and Rebourg, 1994, p. 17). In archaeological terms the biggest challenge of UNESCO’s Save Carthage campaign starting in 1972 was not to excavate, save and analyse the Roman ruins but rather below these ruins to find, excavate and search for an understanding of Punic Carthage that reaches beyond literary sources and provide information about into the civilisation that once was on the brink of toppling the Roman Empire. The research on the Punic town played “...a central role and the choice of excavation sites was determined by that.” (Lund, John, 1986, p.364). By searching for the remains of the completely destroyed Punic Carthage UNESCO’s Save Carthage campaign also served to change the focus from earlier excavations. Similarly, the methodologies and approaches employed during the UNESCO Save Carthage Campaign (SCC) differed. This point will be elaborated further below. Excavations in historical perspective The excavations in Carthage are evidence of changing European traditions for collection and searches for antiquities as described by Dyson (Dyson, S.L., 2006). Historians visiting Carthage in 12th century described how excavations all over the area had found valuable remains in marble and used them for constructions. Nobody left Carthage without bringing considerable amounts of antiquities with them. Through centuries, precious marble and other constructions from Carthage were used in Northern Africa as well as Pisa, Vienna, and Constantinople (Fantar, 1995 p. 10). In the early 19th century the French writer and diplomat François-René, Vicomte de Chateaubriand, described how the very few inhabitants living in Carthage cultivated their fields, selling medallions and other remains to visitors to the area (CONOR, M., 1918, p. 337-348). Even though archaeo- logical research was not a scholarly discipline at the time, Carthage would attract a number of collectors digging for sculptures and other works of art on the ground. In Recherches sur l’emplacement de Carthage in 1833 the Danish Consul in Tunis, Christian Tuxen Falbe, published a city map so precise that it is still useful for archaeologists in Carthage (Fantar 1995, p. 11). Four years later, France initiated a society for research and excavation of ancient Carthage. Encouraged by the Danish crown prince, Christian Frederik Falbe excavated antiquities for the King’s personal Bent Noerby Bonde 3 collection and brought back more than 700 finds in an attempt to create interest from collectors to invest in larger excavations in Carthage (Lund 2008, p. 126). Through the second half of the 19th century a number of British and French archaeologists arrived in Carthage according to Ennabli and Rebourg (1994, p. 15-16) and Fantar (1995, p. 13-14) mainly to collect things for museums in London and Paris. In 1874 l’Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in France sent a mission to Carthage to collect as many Punic inscriptions as possible. Unfortunately more than 2000 steles with Punic inscriptions were lost in a shipwreck and only a few have since been recovered. Individuals like Père Blanc, Delattre and other Frenchmen went to Carthage to carry out investigations in order to gain a better understanding of Carthage and its civilisation (Fantar 1995, p.14). Missionaries from Algeria searched in 1875 for remains of Christian churches according to Ennabli and Rebourg (1994, p.16) because hopes were high among European missionaries that a Christian revival would take place in Tunisia For this reason, the Catholic church became an active agent for archaeological excavations (Dyson, S.L., 2006, p. 62-63), and constructed the Saint Louis Cathedral on top of the ancient Punic metropolis and Roman Acropolis on the Byrsa hill in the late 19th century in connection with these aspirations to Christianise Africa. However, from the end of 19th century until 1972 a number of serious French archaeologists excavated primarily the Roman sites in Carthage and writing about Roman Carthage. The UNESCO Save Carthage Campaign Through the 20th century Carthage developed into an attractive suburb for wealthy Tunisians and French colonial rulers because of its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the lake of Tunis and its ancient roots Following Tunisian independence in 1956 the presidential palace was built on a former temple plateau in Northern Carthage, and new houses were built covering the grounds. For the new nation state Carthage was a potential symbol because of its past as the seat of the Punic Empire . By 1972, the situation in Carthage was typical for historic cities where the economic development becomes a threat to the historic remains. The director of the Museum of Carthage, Abdelmajid Ennabli, managed to secure support from the Tunisian government to prevent further demolition of the historic site and engage UNESCO in an international rescue campaign to secure internationally funded archaeological excavations. A dozen countries(Bulgaria, Germany, Canada, Denmark, the U.S.A., France, Poland, United Kingdom, Italy, Sweden, Tunisia and the Netherlands) took part in the excavations (Lund, J. 1986 and Ennabli, A.1987) primarily carried out between 1974 and 1984. One of the reasons that the Save Carthage campaign was particularly stimulating was “because it has brought together archaeologists from such different backgrounds and traditions that they have had constantly to justify, to themselves, if not in print, their methods and priorities.” (Wells, C.M. 1982). Many of the teams working in Carthage were multidisciplinary, engaging not only general and specialised archaeologists, historians and epigraphists but also geophysical and other technical methods in the work to get an understanding of the Punic and Roman remains (Ennabli, A. 1987). Bent Noerby Bonde 4 “The Carthage project embodied many of the best developments in post-war classical archaeology. The archaeologists from a newly independent state and several former colonial powers worked together to salvage information on one of the great cities of antiquity. The full range of new archaeological approaches, from field survey to nautical archaeology, were applied.“(Dyson, S.L. 2006, p. 248). In addition, the campaign made it possible for the archaeologists to transcend their national traditions and objectives for publishing reports and study results . They exchanged knowledge by working together and by publishing the results of individual excavations. The explicit goal of a team from the University of Michigan was to publish the results as soon as possible and to produce at least annual reports to benefit the archaeological community in general: “The rapidity with which the present volume has been compiled and printed may be justified, in terms of the wider archaeological efforts which are now being made at Carthage... It is plainly in the interest of all those involved to be able to profit from the work of others while their own researches are still proceeding”. (Wells, C. M. 1982) The Save Carthage Campaign (SCC) was coordinated by the Institut National d’Archéologie et d’Art and UNESCO supported a documentation center (CEDAC) with an archive of microfilmed records of all contributing teams whichpublished the Bulletin CEDAC Carthage until 2002.