Some Examples of Central Asian Decorative Elements in Ajanta and Bagh Indian Paintings

SOME EXAMPLES OF CENTRAL ASIAN DECORATIVE ELEMENTS IN AJANTA AND BAGH INDIAN PAINTINGS

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he pictorial decoration of the 29 Buddhist caves The representations of foreigners are easily recog- T of Ajanta (Maharashtra) is amongst the most an- QL]DEOH HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ WKH\ FDQ EH LGHQWLÀHG DV cient Indian painting extant.1 According to Walter Iranians, because of the characteristic garments so un- Spink (1976/77, 1990, 1991a, 1991b, 1992, 2004, 2005, usual for the Indian climatic conditions and more suit- 2010), the caves should be dated to the second part able for members of the Kushan aristocracy or other RIÀIWKFHQWXU\&(PRVWOLNHO\EHWZHHQDQG H[WHUQDOLQYDGHUV7KHVHSHRSOHZHUHÀUVWFRQVLGHUHG The paintings were commissioned by members of the 3HUVLDQVE\VWXGHQWVRI,QGLDQDUWDQGLQRQHVSHFLÀF aristocracy of the Vakataka (c. 255–480), one of the case, it was thought that one famous scene from Cave most powerful dynasties of Southern India, at the time , KDG EHHQ SRVLWLYHO\ LGHQWLÀHG DV D SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI ruled by King Harishena (Weiner 1977: 7–35; Spink the embassy sent by Khusro II Parvez (590–628) to 1990, 1991a, 1992). The paintings in the Buddhist Pulakeshin II Calukya (c. 608–642) which took place caves at Bagh (south-western Madhya Pradesh) have around 625 [Fig. 1].2 7KDW LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ RSHQO\ FRQ- in common with the ones at Ajanta both chronology ÁLFWVZLWKWKHFKURQRORJ\RIWKHSDLQWLQJVSURSRVHG and patronage (Spink 1976/77; Zin 2001). by Walter Spink and currently accepted by most VFKRODUV0RUHRYHUWKHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQIDLOVWRFRQVLG- Several studies have been dedicated to the represen- er that Pulakeshin was a Hindu sovereign, and so his WDWLRQVRIIRUHLJQHUVLQ,QGLDQDUWDQGVSHFLÀFDOO\LQ presence in a Buddhist context is furthermore suspect the paintings at Ajanta (Dhavalikar 1970, p. 24; Van (Spink 1992, p. 251). Lohuizen-De Leeuw 1989). However, there are many REMHFWLRQV WR WKH SURSRVHG LGHQWLÀFDWLRQV IRU WKHVH According to Dieter Schlingloff, the scene should be paintings (Schlingloff 1988, pp. 59–60; Zin, 2003, pp. LGHQWLÀHGDVDVWRU\WKDWWKH%XGGKDWROGWR$QDQGD ² *LYHQKRZQXPHURXVDUHWKHÀJXUHVRIIRU- when the latter raised objections to his master’s choice eigners at Ajanta and Bagh, a brief article would not of Kushinagara as the place to enter QLUYDQD. The Bud- be enough. For this reason, only few details in Ajanta dha related the story of a pious Kushinagara king Caves I, II, XVI and XVII and Bagh Caves IV–V will be called Mahasudarshana. His people loved him and considered in the present paper. wanted to give him precious gifts. Mahasudarshana was reluctant in the beginning but in the end he ÀQDQFHGDUHOLJLRXVEXLOGLQJZLWKWKHPRQH\UH- ceived from the gifts. According to Schlingloff, the Iranian features of some people depicted giving gifts to the king underlines the exotic character of the inhabitants of Kushinagara, who very often are represented in foreign dress (Schlingloff 1988, pp. 59–60; 1996, Cave I, No. 44, p. 1; 2000, n. 44/Cave I, pp.1, 2). Foreigners dressed like Kushana or caka (that is to say wearing caftans, trousers, boots and the

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Copyright © 2014 Matteo Compareti 7KH6LON5RDG12 (2014): 39 – 48 + Color Plates III and IV 39 Copyright © 2014 The Silkroad Foundation )LJ&HLOLQJSDQHOZLWKEDQTXHWVFHQHV$MDQWD&DYH,$IWHU *ULIÀWKV3O so-called “Phrygian” cap) can be seen very often in Indian art. However, they seem to be used simply as that sometimes appears also in Gupta Vakataka arts D GHFRUDWLYH WKHPH ZLWKRXW DQ\ VSHFLÀF DOOXVLRQ WR (Pal 1978, p. 64). The servants are all women or men, Iranians.3 Most likely, the models for such representa- and so the person sitting next to the central one can tions were just merchants, soldiers, or invaders come EHDPDQRUDZRPDQZLWKDÀQJHUOLIWHGLQDPDQ- to India from the northwest. In fact, Frantz Grenet ner commonly depicted in Sasanian and Sogdian art, S LGHQWLÀHG WZR GRQRUV LQ IURQW RI .LQJ expressing reverence (Frye 1972; Bromberg 1991). The Mahasudarshana as Persians because of their beards WKUHHVFHQHVKDYHEHHQLGHQWLÀHGDVJHQHULFUHSUHVHQ- and bright skin. tations of the Persian court4 or as representations of Kubera/Vaishravana in his Western Paradise (Grenet The other important pictorial cycle of cave I is repro- 1996, pp. 79–80, n. 34; Bautze-Picron 2002, pp. 250–51). duced on the central ceiling [Fig. 2]. Here four panels +RZHYHUVLQFHWKHWKUHHPDLQÀJXUHVRIHYHU\VFHQH are decorated with banquet scenes, which were great- are not identical, it is not excluded that they are rep- ly appreciated in pre-Islamic Persia and Central Asia resentations of the /RNDSDOD, especially considering (Silvi Antonini 1996). Unfortunately, one of the panels the fact that, counting the missing panel, there would KDVEHHQFRPSOHWHO\ORVW7KHVLWWLQJFHQWUDOÀJXUHVRI have been four altogether (Bautze-Picron 2002, pp. the three that remain are larger in size than the atten- 250–51; Zin, 2003, pp. 287–91). dants around them. They hold weapons and in one hand a dish or a cup. Their garments are typical of At least two dancers wearing garments similar to the the people from Central Asia, and they wear also ex- ones of the foreigners at Ajanta, appear in a painting otic headgear. In two panels, it is possible to observe on the wall between Caves IV and V at Bagh [Fig. 3]. ÁRDWLQJULEERQVDWWDFKHGWRWKHVKRXOGHUVRIWKHODUJ- The scene is probably the representation of a dance HUÀJXUHV7KLVLVDQRWKHUFKDUDFWHULVWLFRI,UDQLDQDUW which takes place in the sky close to Indra’s palace as part of the story of King Mandhatar (Zin 2001).5 Several people in the paintings at Ajanta and the two dancers at Bagh wear a particular kind of dress called FKDPDLO. This is a pon- cho-like, multi-pointed jack- et similar to the one worn by the joker of the modern playing cards. According to James Harle (1987, pp. 571– 72), the FKDPDLO is a Central Asian invention and its

)LJ3DLQWLQJRQZDOOEHWZHHQ %DJK &DYHV ,9 DQG 9 $IWHU Marg 40 modern Afghanistan like Bamyan and Fondukistan, the FKDPDLO can be seen even on Buddha paintings and statues [Fig. 4; Color Plate III].6 Also some 6th–7th-century bronze statuettes of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Surya from Kashmir (Pal 1975, Pls. 30a-b, 32, 36; Paul 1986, Pl. 87; Bhan 2010, Fig. 372; Siudmak 2013, Pls. 145-146, 149) and at least two 7th–8th-century stone statues (Paul, 1986, Pl. 88; Bhan, 2010, Figs. 14-15; Siudmak 2013, Pls. 152, 189) have the same dress.7 The FKDPDLO was certainly known also in 8th-century Sogdi- ana, as can be noted in painted programs at Panjikent LGHQWLÀHGDVHSLFORFDOVWRULHV>)LJ@+HUHWKHFKDPDLO seems to be a garment for men and women. In a painting found in the Temple I at Panjikent a deity accom- panied by a horse wears the FKDPDLO as well [Fig. 6]. But the statues from Afghanistan and Kashmir, and the Sogdian paintings are all dated to a later period than the Ajanta and Bagh paintings, while the only earlier specimens come from Gandharan reliefs representing foreign donors. So, it is highly improbable that the people dressed like Central Asians at Ajanta and Bagh are Sogdians. Most likely, they are Bactrians who, in the second half of the 5th century had been conquered by the Hephtalites (Grenet 2002, pp. 209–10).8

)LJ%XGGKDDGRUQHGZLWKWKHFKDPDLO*KRUEDQG9DOOH\)RQ GXNLVWDQ0RQDVWHU\1LFKH'thFHQtXU\&(&ROOHFtLRQRIthH 0XVpH *XLPHt ,QY QR 0* 3hRtRJUDSh &RS\ULJht 'DQLHO&:DXJh introduction in India would have been dated to the period of the caka and Kushan invasions. The FKDPDLO can be observed in Gandharan reliefs and on the dress donors around the Buddha over a very long period as far away as in Xinjiang (Harle 1987, pp. 571–72; Bus- sagli 1984, p. 25; Kurita 1990, p. 291, Fig. 4; pp. 335, 465, 523). At several 6th–7th-century Buddhist sites of

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A 5th–6th-century silver bowl considered to be Bactri- an (now in the British Museum) is embellished with roundels containing human heads whose features of- fer a clear parallel with the Ajanta and Bagh paintings [Fig. 7, next page].9 The visible portion of their dress DQGDERYHDOOWKHLUKHDGJHDUFDOOWRPLQGVRPHÀJ- ures at Ajanta. Also the beard is a characteristic typical of many foreigners represented in Indian paintings. The ceilings of Caves I and II are divided into several squares, in some of which other foreigners can be recognized. In this case their attitudes are not serious

41 )LJ6LOYHUJLOtERZO1RUthZHVt)URQtLHU3URYLQFH3DNLVtDQth Horsemen wearing caftans, with particular headgear FHQtXU\&(&ROOHFtLRQRIthH%ULtLVh0XVHXP2$ DQG ÁRDWLQJ ULEERQV FDQ EH VHHQ LQ VRPH SDLQWLQJV 3hRtRJUDShV&RS\ULJht'DQLHO&:DXJh from Caves XVI and XVII. The horses of the strangers LQDVFHQHSDLQWHGLQ&DYH;9,,LGHQWLÀHGDVWKH'HYD- and their pronounced noses and beards call to mind vatara MDtDND (Schlingloff 1996, Cave XVII, No. 86, p. typical Chinese funerary statuettes (the PLQJTL) which 53; 2000, p. 486) have a crenellated mane, uncommon are, however, mostly dated to the 6th–7th centuries.10 in Indian art [Fig. 9, next page]. This is another ele- In fact, it is not improbable that at both Indian and PHQWRULJLQDOO\H[WUDQHRXVDQGGHÀQLWHO\LQWURGXFHG &KLQHVHFRXUWVGXULQJWKHÀIWKFHQWXU\WKHPRVWUH- into India from the steppe world during the inva- quested dancers and musicians were of Iranian ori- sions that occurred from the northwestern regions.13 gin, possibly just Bactrian. While such a hypothesis is Those horsemen and one other foreigner sitting next reasonable, it does not explain the representation of to the central preaching Buddha are wearing typical foreigners in more serious contexts both at Ajanta and 6th-century CE Sogdian “6DSDR” headdresses (Mar- Bagh [Figs. 2, 3]. Possibly in Indian art the “paradisi- shak, 2001). As Sören Stark kindly pointed at me, there cal” scenes had to evoke exotic lands like Central Asia LVQRHYLGHQFHWRH[FOXGHWKDWWKHVHVSHFLÀFLPDJHVRI or Persia, and in such a context the people had to be IRUHLJQHUVFRXOGEHDFWXDOO\LGHQWLÀHGZLWK6RJGLDQV dressed like strangers.11 A last decoration worth men- Another peculiarity of the for- tioning concerns the pictorial or- eigners at Ajanta is that they hold nament of four inner octagonal metal objects. Very interesting pillars of Cave XVII.14 At the end metalwork resembling typical Ira- of 19th FHQWXU\ -RKQ *ULIÀWKV UH- nian vessels can be observed on produced the decorative elements the external ceiling of Cave II and of these pillars, but his work was in a painting on the external wall of almost completely destroyed Cave XVII where two lovers seem GXULQJDÀUH *ULIÀWKV to be disturbed by a servant wear- Pls. 143, 147). One pillar in par- ing a green caftan and a cap who ticular presents very interesting holds a metal jar [Fig. 8] (Ghosh decorative elements composed by 1996, Pl. LVIII, Fig. 15; Okada and white pearl roundels on every side Nou 1996, p. 169). Also, in this of the octagonal support contain- case there is a clear parallel with ing single vegetal and animal sub- some Chinese funerary paintings jects, such as the bull and the wild of the Tang period, representing local or Central Asian attendants )LJ /RYHUV DQG D VHUYDQt PXUDO RQ with imported metal objects in H[tHUQDOZDOORI&DYH9,,,$MDQtD$ItHU their hands.12 $ItHU*hRVh)LJ 42 )LJ7hH'HYDYDtDUDMDtDNDPXUDOLQ$MDQtD&DYH ;9,,$ItHU6FhOLQJORII&DYH;9,,1RS )LJ EHORZOHIt ,QQHURFtDJRQDOSLOODUV$MDQtD&DYH ;9,,$ItHU*ULIÀthV3OV

boar [Fig. 10]. The pearl roundel containing the wild boar could be compared to similar Sasa- nian decorations from Damghan (northwestern Iran) where some 6th-century stucco panels present boar heads within pearl roundels (Kröger 1982: 262; Bromberg 1983). Sasanian DUWSRVVLEO\KDGVRPHLQÁXHQFHRQth-century Indian decorations (Jairazbhoy 1963, pp. 148–62; Meister 1970, pp. 265–66; Kröger 1981, p 447; Klimburg-Salter 1996, pp. 480–81, 485), but it is clear that round frames embellished by pearls along their rims and containing var- ious subjects spread in India at least since the ÀUVWFHQWXU\%&(157KHHQWLUHÀJXUHRIDZKLWH wild boar is depicted on the column of Cave XVII, whereas in Persian (at least in Bamiyan) and Sogdian art (in the motherland and in the colonies in the Tarim Basin), there is only the head of the animal [Fig. 11; Color Plate IV] (Compareti 2004a). It is not clear if this was just a decorative element or a symbol- ic representation of a deity, nor is it clear whether the ZLOGERDUKDGDVSHFLÀFPHDQLQJ,WLVZRUWKQRWLFLQJ that the coinage circulating in the Vakataka kingdom included also representations of a bull, a conch, a vase and other objects that call to mind the elements included within the roundels painted on the column in Cave XVII (Raven 2004).

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43 Pearl roundel decorations have been among the fa- He graduated at the department of Oriental languages vorite textile embellishments in Central Asia since the and literatures at Venice University “Ca’ Foscari” and sixth century and were spread in the ancient world defended his PhD at the University of Naples “L’Ori- most likely by the Sogdian merchants active along entale”. His main interests focus on the representation the so-called “Silk Road” from China to the Byzan- of Zoroastrian divinities in Sasanian art and pre-Is- tine Empire (Compareti 2000; 2004a, 2006a). Howev- lamic Sogdian paintings. In 2013-2014 he was Visiting er, the pearl roundels observed in India, especially as Research Scholar at the Institute for the Studies of the architectonic decorations, seem to be a local creation: Ancient World, New York University. WKH\DSSHDULVRODWHGLQVLGHWKHUHLVXVXDOO\DÁRZHU or vegetal motif, and it is only at Ajanta that different 16 subjects are represented. The textile decorations of References the foreigners at Ajanta and Bagh display only sim- ple geometric designs and no pearl roundels at all. Albanese 2004 This observation is further evidence in support of the Marilia Albanese, $QtLFD,QGLD, Vercelli; Roma: White Star; chronology advanced by Walter Spink. If the later Gruppo editoriale L’Espresso, 2004. chronology advocated by other scholars, especially Al’baum 1960 the Indian ones (e. g., Khandalavala 1990; Jamkhedkar Lazar‘ I. Al’baum, %DODO\N7HSH.LVtRULLPDtHULDO·QRLNXO·tXU\ 1991; Deshpande 1991; Khandalavala 1991) were to be LLVNXVVtYD7RhDULVtDQD[Balalyk-Tepe. On the history of the correct, then we would expect pearl roundel decora- material culture and art of Tocharistan]. Tashkent: Izd-vo. tions to have been reproduced on the garments worn AN UzSSR, 1960. by the numerous foreigners of Iranian origin por- Bautze-Picron 2002 trayed in those Indian paintings. Claudine Bautze-Picron, “1LGhLVand Other Images of Rich- The relationship between the Subcontinent and the ness and Fertility in AjaӠWœµ (DVtDQG:HVt 52/1-4 (2002): Iranian world must have been very intense during the 225–84. SUH,VODPLFSHULRGMXGJLQJIURPLWVUHÁHFWLRQLQ,QGL- Bénisti 1952 an arts. However, the perception that Sasanian Persia ZDVWKHPDLQVRXUFHRILQÁXHQFHVKRXOGEHUHH[DP- Mireille Bénisti, /H PpGDLOORQ ORtLIRUPH GDQV OD VFXOStXUH LQ GLHQQHGX,,,eVLqFOeDYDQt-²&DX9,,eVFLqFOeDSUqV-&Publi- LQHGLQWKHOLJKWRIQHZGLVFRYHULHVLQWKHÀHOGRI,UDQL- cations du Musée Guimet. Recherches et documents d’art et th an studies. The evidence seems to point at 5 -century d’archéologie, t. 4. Paris: Impr. nationale, 1952. Bactria-Tokharistan as the place of origin of most of the decorations that appear in the paintings at Ajanta Bhan 2010 and Bagh, while only the foreigners depicted next to J. L. Bhan, .DVhPLU6FXOStXUeV$Q,FRQRJUDShLFDO6tXG\RI%Uœh the preaching Buddha in cave XVII could be possibly PDQLFDO 6FXOStXUeV, New Delhi: Readworthy Publications, LGHQWLÀHGDV6RJGLDQVEHFDXVHRIWKHLUKDWV 2010. Bromberg 1983 Acknowledgements &DURO $ %URPEHUJ ´6DVDQLDQ 6WXFFR ,QÁXHQFH 6RUUHQWR

th th and East-West.” 2ULeQtDOLD /RYDQLeQVLD 3eULRGLFD 14 (1983): Between July 29 and August 5 2002, I attended Prof. 247–67. Walter M. Spink’s seminar on the Ajanta grottoes at Fardapur village (Maharashtra, India). I wish to thank ______. “An Iranian Gesture at Miran.” %XOOetLQRIthe$VLD him for the kind invitation and for the rich informa- ,QVtLtXte, N. S.,5 (1991): 45–58. tion he provided. The present paper was published in Bussagli 1984 Chinese (, but now seems to be unavailable. Some Dulan and Astana Silks.” $QQDOL GL &D· )RVFDUL 39/3 7KH SUHVHQW YHUVLRQ KDV EHHQ VOLJKWO\ PRGLÀHG DQG (2000): 331–68. the bibliography has been updated. Compareti 2004a ______. “The Sasanian and the Sogdian ‘Pearl Roundel’ About the author Design: Remarks on an Iranian Decorative Pattern.”

Klimburg-Salter 1989 Meister 1970 Deborah E. Klimburg-Salter. 7he.LnJGRPRI%œPL\œn%XG Michael W. Meister. “The Pearl Roundel in Chinese Textile GhLVt$UtDnG&XOtXUeRIthe+LnGXNXVh. Naples: Istituto uni- Design.” $UV2ULentDOLV8 (1970): 255–67. versitario orientale, Dipartimento di studi asiatici; Rome: Melikian-Chirvani 1975 Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente, 1989. Assadullah S. Melikian-Chirvani. “Recherches sur l’archi- Klimburg-Salter 1996 tecture de l’Iran bouddhique I. Essai sur les origines et le ______. “Some Remarks on Canopies in Bamiyan.” In: /D V\PEROLVPHGXVWƈSDLUDQLHQµ,Q/ePRnGeLUDnLenetO·,VODP 3eUVLDeO·$VLD&entUDOeGD$OeVVDnGURDO;VeFROR. Roma: Acca- 6RFLptpVetFXOtXUeV, t. 3. Paris : Minard, 1975: 1–61. demia Nazionale dei Lincei, 1996: 473–87. Nakamura 1968 Kröger 1981 Nakamura Hajime. ,nGRnR%XVVetLtRhLnGƈMLLn ࢖ࣥࢻࡢ௖㋱ Jens Kröger. “Sasanian Iran and India: Questions of Interac- ࡜ࣄࣥࢻ࣮ࢗᑎ㝔7żN\ż.RGDQVKD tion.” In: 6RXth$VLDn$UFhDeRORJ\. Ed. Herbert Härtel. Okada and Nou 1996 Berlin: D. Reimer, 1981: 441–48. Amina Okada; Jean-Louis Nou. $MDntD. New Delhi: Brijbasi, Kröger 1982 1996. ______. 6DVDnLGLVFheU 6tXFNGeNRU. Mainz am Rhein: P. von Pal 1975 Zabern, 1982. Pratapaditya Pal. %URn]eV RI .DVhPLU. New Delhi: Munshi- Kurita 1990 ram Manoharlal, 1975. .XULWD,VDR*DQGœUDELMXWVX*DnGhDUDn$Ut࢞ࣥࢲࣛ⨾ Pal 1978 ⾡9RO%XGGDnRVeNDL7he:RUOGRIthe%XGGhD. Tokyo: Nigensha, 1990. ______. 7he,GeDO,PDJe7he*XStD6FXOStXUDO7UDGLtLRnDnG ,tV,nÁXenFe. New York: Asia Soceity, 1978. Lucidi 1969 Pande 2002 Maria Teresa Lucidi. “Valore e lettura di un motivo cultu- rale caratteristico: la criniera dentellata del cavallo, alla luce Anupa Pande. 7he%XGGhLVt&DYe3DLntLnJVRI%DJh. New Del- di una interpretazione analitica dei reperti artistici.” 5LYLVtD hi: Aryan Books International, 2002. GeJOL6tXGL2ULentDOL 44/4 (1969): 295–323. Paul 1986 Mahler 1959 Pran Gopal Paul. (DUO\6FXOStXUeRI.DVhPLU %eIRUethe0LG Jane Gaston Mahler. 7he:eVteUneUVDPRnJthe)LJXULneVRIthe GOe RI the (LJht&entXU\ $' $n $SSURDFh tR $Ut +LVtRU\ 7·DnJ'\nDVt\RI&hLnD. Roma: Instituto italiano per il Medio DnG(SLJUDSh\RIthe-heOXP9DOOe\DnG,tV3eULSheUDO5eJLRnV. ed Estremo Oriente, 1959. Leiden: Sneldruk Enschede, 1986. 0DUJ 1972 Qi 1999 “Notes on Plates. Bagh Caves.” 0DUJ 25/3 (1972): 9–16. Qi Dongfang 喀ьᯩ. 7DnJGDL MLn\LnTL \DnMLX ୀԓ䠁䬦ಘ⹿ ウ [Research on Tang Gold and Silver]. Beijing: Zhongguo Marshak 2001 shehui kexue chubanshe, 1999. Boris I. Marshak. “La thématique sogdienne dans l’art de la Raven 2004 Chine de la seconde moitié du VIe siècle.” &RPSteV5enGXV GeO·$FDGpPLeGeV,nVFULStLRnVet%eOOeV/ettUeV 1 (2001): 227–64. Ellen M. Raven. “Kings in Copper.” In: 7he9œNœԂDND +eU LtDJe ,nGLDn&XOtXUeDt the &URVVURDGV. Ed. Hans T. Bakker. Marshak 2002 Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 2004: 19–31. ______. /eJenGV7DOeVDnG)DEOeVLnthe$UtRI6RJGLDnD. New Rowland 1961 York: Bibliotheca Persica Pr., 2002. Benjamin Rowland. “The Bejewelled Buddha in Afghani- Marshak 2004 stan.” $UtLEXV$VLDe 24 (1961): 20–24. ______. “Central Asian Metalwork in China.” In: James C. Y. Watt et al. &hLnD'DZnRID*ROGen$Je$'. New Rowland 1974 York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven & London: ______. 7he$UtRI&entUDO$VLD. New York: Crown, 1974. Yale Univ. Pr., 2004: 47–55. Schafer 1951 Marshak and Raspopova 1991 Edward H. Schafer. “Iranian Merchants in T’ang Dynasty Boris I. Marshak; Valentina I. Raspopova. “Cultes commu- Tales.” In: 6ePLtLF DnG 2ULentDO 6tXGLeV 3UeVenteG tR :LOOLDP nitaires et cultes privés en Sogdiane.” In: +LVtRLUeetFXOteVGe 3RSeUniversity of California Publications in Semitic Philol- O·$VLeFentUDOeSUpLVODPLTXe. Ed. Paul Bernard. Paris: Ed. du ogy, Vol. XI, Berkeley, 1951: 403–22. &HQWUH1DWLRQDOGHOD5HFKHUFKH6FLHQWLÀTXH² Schlingloff 1988 Marshall et al.1927 Dieter Schlingloff. 6tXGLeVLnthe$MDntD3DLntLnJV,GentLÀFD John H. Marshall et al. 7he%DJh&DYeVLnthe*ZDOLRU6tDte. tLRnDnG,nteUSUetDtLRnV. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1988. 46 Schlingloff 1996 Stern 1972 ______. *XLGetRthe$MDntD3DLntLnJVVol. 11DUUDtLYe:DOO Philippe Stern. &RORnneV LnGLenneV G·$MDntk et G·(OORUD 3DLntLnJV. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996. ÉYROXtLRn etUpSeUFXVVLRn 6t\OeV *XStD etSRVt*XStD. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1972. Schlingloff 2000 ______. $MDntD+DnGEXFhGeU0DOeUeLen(U]lhOenGe:Dn Stone 1994 GePDOeUeLen, Vol. I. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000. Elizabeth Rosen Stone. 7he%XGGhLVt$UtRI1œJœUMXnDNRĀҢD. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1994. Silvi Antonini 1972 Chiara Silvi Antonini. “Le pitture murali di Balalyk Tepe.” Taddei 1976 $nnDOL GeOO·,VtLtXtR 8nLYeUVLtDULR 2ULentDOe GL 1DSROL 32/1 Maurizio Taddei. ,nGLD$ntLFD. Verona: Arnoldo Mondadori, (1972): 35–77. 1976.

Silvi Antonini 1996 Tarzi 1977 ______. “Il tema del banchetto nella pittura dell’Asia cen- Zermaryalai Tarzi. /·DUFhLteFtXUeetOeGpFRUUXSeVtUeGeVJURtteV trale.” In: /D3eUVLDeO·$VLD&entUDOeGD$OeVVDnGURDO;VeFROR. Ge%œPL\œn, 2 vols. Paris : Jean Maisonneuve, 1977. Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 1996: 439–60. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw 1980 Siudmak 3013 J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw. “Foreign Elements in Indian John Siudmak. 7he+LnGX%XGGhLVt6FXOStXUeRI$nFLent.DVh Culture Introduced during the Scythian Period with Special PLUDnG,tV,nÁXenFeV. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2013. Reference to Mathura.” In: 0DthXUD 7he&XOtXUDO +eULtDJe. Ed. Doris Meth Srinivasan. New Delhi: Manohar; American Spink 1976/77 Institute of Indian Studies, 1989: 73–82. Walter M. Spink. “Bagh: a Study.” $UFhLYeVRI$VLDn$Ut 30 (1976/77): 53–84. Vanden Berghe 1988 Louis Vanden Berghe. “Les scènes d’investiture sur les re- Spink 1990 OLHIVUXSHVWUHVGHO·,UDQDQFLHQpYROXWLRQHWVLJQLÀFDWLRQµ ______. “Ajanta in a Historical and Political Context.” 0D 2ULentDOLD,RVeShL7XFFL0ePRULDe'LFDtD, Vol. 3. Eds. Gherar- hDUDVhtUD3DtLN 2/1 (1990): 5–17. do Gnoli; Lionello Lanciotti. Roma: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1988: 1511–31. Spink 1991a ______. “The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall.” In: 7he$Ut Vondrovee 2008 RI$MDntD1eZ3eUVSeFtLYeV, Vol. 1. Eds. Ratan Parimoo et al. Klaus Vondrovec. “Numismatic Evidence of the Alchon New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991: 71–99. Huns Reconsidered.” %eLtUlJe]XU8UXnG )UhJeVFhLFhte 0LtteOeXURSDV 50 (2008): 25–56. Spink 1991b ______. “The Archaeology of Ajanta. Overview of Ajanta’s Weiner 1977 Stratigraphy.” $UV2ULentDOLV 21 (1991): 67–93. Sheila L. Weiner.$MDntD,tV3ODFeLn%XGGhLVt$Ut. Berkeley: Univ. of California Pr., 1977. Spink 1992 ______. “The Vakataka Caves at Ajanta and Their Succes- Zin 2001 sors.” In: 5eDSSUDLVLnJ*XStD+LVtRU\IRU65*R\DO. Eds. Ba- 0RQLND=LQ´7KH,GHQWLÀFDWLRQRIWKH%DJK3DLQWLQJµ(DVt hadur Chand Chhabra et al. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, DnG:eVt 51/3-4 (2001): 299–322. 1992: 248–62. Zin 2003 Spink 2004 ______. $MDntD+DnGEXFhGeU0DOeUeLen'eYRtLRnDOeXnGRU ______. “The Innocent Evolution of Ajanta’s Technology.” nDPentDOe0DOeUeLenVol. 1,nteUSUetDtLRn. Wiesbaden: Har- In: 7he9œNœԂDND+eULtDJe,nGLDn&XOtXUeDtthe&URVVURDGV. Ed. rassowitz, 2003. Hans T. Bakker. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 2004: 86–105.

Spink 2005 Notes ______. $MDntD+LVtRU\DnG'eYeORSPentVol. 1.7he(nGRI 1. The monks at Ajanta were followers of the Mulasarvas- the*ROGen$Je. Handbuch der Orientalistik, Zweite Abtei- tivadin sect which is a form of Hinayana (Weiner 1977: lung,Indien, Bd. 18. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2005. 32–35). Spink 2010 7KH K\SRWKHVLV RI LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ ZDV DGYDQFHG IHZ GH- ______. “To Keep One’s Memory Green-Ajanta’s Major cades after the discovery of the Ajanta caves (Fergusson, Inscriptions.” In: )URP7XUIDntR$MDntD)eVtVFhULItIRU'LeteU 1879). See also the summary of this story with commentaries 6FhOLnJORIIRnthe2FFDVLRnRI+LV(LJhtLeth%LUthGD\. Vol. 2. Ed. in Spink, 2005: 181–83. Eli Franco; Monika Zin. Lumbini: Lumbini International Re- 3. At Ajanta some decorations of the façade of cave XIX are search Institute, 2010: 955–66. arch-like-niches containing the head of a foreigner, in some

47 cases wearing a Phrygian cap and with long moustaches knotted cloak and headgear can be observed in a painting (Bautze-Picron 2002, p. 248; Zin, 2003, p. 287). I owe the IURP&DYH;9,,DW$MDQWDLGHQWLÀHGDVWKH0DKDNDSLMDtDND latter reference to Falk Reitz, whom I wish to thank. Other (Schlingloff 1988, Cave XVII, No. 31, p. 47; 1996, Cave XVII, ornamental architectonic elements of probable Iranian ori- No. 24.1, p. 30; 2000, p. 144. Decorations of bearded human gins are the crenellations represented very often at Ajanta heads wearing a cap inside pearl roundels appear on the (Melikian-Chirvani 1975, pp. 9–10). Crenellations can be ob- garments of a participant at the banquet at Balalyk Tepe, a served at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bhaja (see for example, Franz site of 6th-7th century Bactriana (Al’baum 1960, Figs. 115–116, 1965, Figs. 31, 53, 64, 91; Huntington and Huntington 1999, 148; Silvi Antonini 1972). Fig. 5.22); so it is possible that their introduction from Persia 10. Most of the material on this kind of PLnJTL was collected or Central Asia in India happened during the Parthian peri- by Mahler 1959. It is worth remembering that in 6th-7th cen- od or even before (Goetz 1974, pp. 4–5). tury China, the Iranians represented in arts are mostly Sog- 4. It is worth noting that in contemporary Sasanian art the GLDQV &RPSDUHWLEF 7KHUHLVQRVSHFLÀFVWXG\ gods have never weapons (Vanden Berghe 1988, p. 1514). on these foreigners in Indian paintings. For a recent mention Only at Taq-e Bostan does the equestrian statue in the big of foreigners in Ajanta, see Albanese 2004, p. 203. grotto have a shield and a spear, but it is probable that this is a representation of the king as a warrior and not a deity 11. Evocative distant lands represent a literary tRSRV in many as previously thought by this writer (Compareti 2006b, p. cultures and civilizations. For the Muslim Persians, for ex- 167). In any case, Taq-e Bostan is a very late Sasanian mon- ample, China and Khotan played this role. This appears very ument which could hardly be considered representative for clearly in the famous 6hDhnDPe by Firdousi. A similar phe- the whole of Sasanian art. nomenon happened also in Chinese literature where some characters of entertaining tales were Iranians or Arabs come 5. On the paintings at Bagh, see Marshall 1927 and 0DUJ from very distant lands (Schafer 1951). Curiously enough, 1972. For more recently published studies see Zin 2001 and it is very likely that, for the Sogdians, India represented the Pande 2002. According to Walter Spink (1976/77; 2004, p. magic land of their tales (Marshak 2002, pp. 27-28). In the 97), the period of inactivity at Ajanta caused by a war that Greco-Roman world too, India was more exotic than any ODVWHGEHWZHHQ²FRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHÁRXULVKLQJSH- other land (Compareti 2012). riod at Bagh because of the migration of the artists to this latter site. $JDLQWKHPHWDOZRUNLQ&KLQHVHSDLQWLQJVUHÁHFWVPRVW likely a Sogdian production. See, e.g., the 8th-century Tang 6. Tarzi 1977; Klimburg-Salter 1989. On the problem of the funerary paintings found in the Shaanxi Province with at- so-called “Buddha paré” see Rowland 1961. tendants bringing in their hands metal objects (Qi 1999, pp. 7. Some garments worn by Indian deities seem to be typical 420–27). Some of these exotic objects include also the Uh\tRn. of Kashmir only. A typical dress for the so-called “moth- This is a horn usually in the shape of animals used to drink. er-goddesses” also has a pointed ending in the lower part It appears sometimes in Indian reliefs representing foreign- and a pearl border (Bhan 2010, Figs. 207–208, 213, 221; Siud- ers such as on a relief on a pillar from Nagarjunakonda, mak 2013, Pls. 85–88, 196). Site 37 at present kept in the National Museum, New Delhi (Stone 1994, Fig. 281). 8. It is now clear that the Hephtalites were not part of those Huns who conquered the land south of the Hindu-Kush and 13. For a general discussion on this element see Lucidi 1969. th Sind as well in the early 6 century. In fact, this latter Hun- 14. One of the main studies on Indian columns is still Stern nic group was the one commonly known as Alkhon because 1972. The pearl roundels on the pillar under examination in of the inscriptions on their coins (Vondrovec, 2008). The Cave XVII at Ajanta can be seen in Nakamura 1968, p. 35, Hephtalites in Central Asia and the Alkhon in north-west- Tab. 21, and Taddei 1976, Fig. 57. ern India had probably some connections (Errington and Curtis 2007, pp. 85–88). 15. Pearl roundels can be observed on the reliefs at Sanchi and Bharhut (2nd–1st century BCE) (Bénisti 1952). On pearl 9. The bowl is part of the so-called “Oxus Treasure,” at pres- roundels in Indian painting see also Eastman 1943. ent in the British Museum (Dalton 1964, Pl. 205). There are at least other three metal vessels like this. Two were recov- 7KHUHZHUHSUREDEO\VRPHGLUHFWLQÁXHQFHVRI6RJGLDQ ered at Datong, China, while the third one was found in the art into Northern India and especially in Kashmir, but there Molotov Region (Russia) and is now part of the Hermitage is no evidence about such an exchange before the 7th century collection (Fajans 1957, p. 56, Figs. 3-4; Qi 1999, part 2, p. (Compareti 2000, pp. 338–39). 257, Figs. 124, 125; p. 319, Fig. 3-8; Marshak 2004). The same

48 Plate III

[Compareti, “Some Examples,” p. 41]

Buddha adorned with the chamail. Ghorband Valley, Fondukistan Monastery, Niche D. 7th c. CE. Collection of the Musée Guimet, Inv. no. MG 18960. Photograph Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh. Plate IV [Compareti, “Some Examples,” p. 43]