Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy Technologies, Quality Standards and Business Models 1 1

Home , Electrification, Renewable energy, Rural electrification

Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy Technologies, quality standards and business models 1 1

Introduction 5 Section 3 21 Section 5 35 SMALL HYDROPOWER Electricity Home Systems Section 1 8 or Mini-grids? The stand-alone Technology overview 22 photovoltaics family Another potential solution: Site location and installation 23 Energy container and Energy kiosk 37 Technology overview 9 Costs calculations and case study PicoPV Systems (PPS) 9 for small hydropower systems 24 SECTION 6 38 Classical Solar Home Systems (SHS) 10 BASIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE Solar Residential Systems (SRS) 10 International quality standards for small hydropower systems 25 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF System components and COMPONENTS IN OFF-GRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS maintenance of standalone Section 4 26 PV systems 11 Mini-grids Solar module 39 Business models and case study (fed by hybrid power systems) for standalone PV Systems 12 Small wind turbine 39 Introduction 27 International quality standards Charge controllers 40 for small standalone systems 16 Technology overview 28 Lead-acid battery 40 Technological configurations 28 Section 2 17 Battery inverters 40 SMALL Wind Home Systems Costs, business model and Loads (appliances) 41 case study for hybrid Technology overview 18 mini-grid power systems 30 Small hydropower system 41 Life-cycle cost perspective 30 International quality standards O&M and financial schemes 30 Section 7 42 for small wind systems 20 The future of DECENTRALISED International quality standards for energy solutions hybrid power systems with mini-grids 34 Energy efficiency and demand side management 43

Technological progress and decreasing generation costs 44 Technology manufacturing prices 44 Innovative storage technologies 45

ANNEXES 49-55 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 4 Introduction

According to the International Energy Agency global environmental sustainability (MDG7). Ener- (IEA)1, there was in 2008 an estimated 1.5 billion gy alone is not sufficient to alleviate poverty, but it is people, or 22% of the world’s population, living certainly necessary and there will not be any major without access to electricity, 85% of whom live in development progress without a growing number of rural areas. The IEA foresees that if current policies people gaining sustainable access. On the contrary: do not change, by 2030 there will still be 1.2 billion the energy disparity between countries or regions people without access to electricity. The number only increases the problems, adding new issues to of people without electricity will even rise in Sub- the existing ones (e.g. rural exodus). Saharan Africa. There are three basic technical approaches to bring- 5 Such an energy outlook for the poor is unaccepta- ing electricity to remote areas: ble. It is possible to achieve universal access in the A first option is simply to extend the national foreseeable future, and modern renewable energy electricity grid. In many countries however, ex- technologies (RETs) can play a crucial role in tending the national grid can be extremely costly achieving this goal. However, technology alone is (according to the World Bank, grid extension not enough and universal access requires sustaina- prices vary from $6,340/Km in densely populated ble operation and business models, political efforts country such as Bangladesh to $19,070/Km in and targeted public support. 3 countries like Mali ). Rural areas are normally The role of energy, and more specifically electricity, located far away from what is often a very small is critical for development. Access to modern energy national grid; therefore the high cost of extending reduces hunger and improves access to safe drink- the transmission lines usually makes these projects ing water through food preservation and pumping unfeasible. The difficult terrain in many rural re- system (MDG1)2. It fosters education by providing gions also increases expansion costs significantly. light and communication tools (MDG2), it im- Mountainous or forest areas for instance, with dif- proves gender equality by relieving women of fuel ficult access for machinery, require more time and and water collecting tasks (MDG3), it reduces child resources to install transmission lines. and maternal mortality as well as the incidences of A third factor - the size of the demand - deter- disease by enabling refrigeration of medication as mines the cost per kWh of grid extension. A critical well as access to modern equipment. It also helps to mass is necessary for a project to be viable. Rural fight pandemics like HIV (MDG4, 5, 6). Finally, if areas are vast and have a relatively small energy access to energy is implemented with environmen- demand per connection, so for public authorities tally sound technologies, it directly contributes to or impoverished utilities, the economic interest to

1 http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/database_electricity/electricity_ connect them to the grid is very small. Furthermore, access_database.htm 2 Millennium Development Goal 3 “Reducing the Cost of Grid Extension for Rural Electrification”, ESMAP (2000) the electricity provided by utilities in developing A third option is based on electricity mini- countries often lacks security of supply and quality. grids4, which can provide electricity generation Consumers may only have access to the electric- at the local level, using village-wide distribution ity during limited hours each day and blackouts or networks. Mini-grids provide capacity for both brownouts are common. Grid extension increases domestic appliances and local businesses, and have the demand, but if there is not a consequent increase the potential to become one of the most power- in the energy generation capacity, adding new con- ful technological approaches for accelerated rural sumers will only aggravate the situation and reduce electrification. They can be powered by fossil fuel the quality of service. (mostly diesel), but they can also easily utilise local renewable energy resources. Many locations, The second approach is through Electricity Home especially in developing nations, offer excellent Systems (EHS). These small power systems are natural conditions for the use of solar photovoltaic, designed to power individual households or small wind, or small hydro power. Diesel gensets remain buildings and provide an easily accessible, relatively the most used technology because it used to be inexpensive, and simple to maintain solution. The the cheapest option and it requires rather modest dispersed character of rural settlements is an ideal initial investments. However, nowadays renewable setting for these solutions, in particular with renew- energies present numerous competitive advantages, able energies (RE) that are especially competitive including lower levelised costs5. in remote areas. Pico PV system (PPS), solar home systems (SHS), small hydro plants (SHP), or wind Besides the Alliance for Rural Electrification home systems (WHS) almost always offer a solu- (ARE), many recognized institutions have already tion for providing electricity to isolated places. In stated that decentralised renewables will impose 6 these stand-alone systems, power generation is themselves as mainstream technologies in the years installed close to the load and there are no trans- to come. According to IEA/UNDP and UNIDO, mission and distribution costs. Moreover, to keep universal access by 2030 will require 379 TWh of prices affordable, components can be minimised grid electricity, 399 TWh for mini-grids and 171 and capacities maintained low mainly serving small for off-grid. These organisations also reiterate that DC appliances for lighting and communication. the Millennium Development Goals cannot be However, capacities and potential are very different achieved unless substantial progress in developing between the different EHS. alternative sources of energy, and especially off-grid renewables, is made. In the short to medium-term, renewables are not only going to become a mainstream solution, but they are also going to massively contribute to local economic development.

4 Sometimes referred to as isolated grids

Technologies, quality and business models standards Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy:Technologies, 5 See “Lifecycle analysis” in section 4 Mini grids ARE is the only renewable energy industry associa- studies. In addition, this publication discusses some tion in the world exclusively working for the ad- key technological questions for RETs and their vancement of renewable energy markets in develop- future in developing countries. More detailed and ing countries. It represents companies, organisations technical issues such as storage and international and research institutions active in the renewable quality standards, will be discussed in the annexes. energy business who believe in the growth potential If many RET projects have failed in the past, it of developing countries and want to make a differ- is mostly due to poor project management and ence. ARE positions itself in the heart of the global inadequately designed programs, lack of qualified dialogue on RE and energy access, and exchanges technical assistance and engineering, or the quality with governments, international organisations, de- of some components. This publication is designed velopment agencies, NGOs and others. to inform readers how to avoid repeating the errors Among several objectives, ARE is filling the im- from the past by offering a technological overview mense knowledge gap around renewable energy and a set of quality standards that should be fol- technologies, especially in developing and emerging lowed by program developers. Of course, along with economies. Hence, this publication aims to give eve- technology, many other issues need to be addressed, ryone, from the general public to decision makers, financing and regulatory frameworks. These from potential investors to project promoters, the questions are discussed by the Alliance in other tools to understand what off-grid renewable energy documents6. technologies (RETs) are all about. Finally, one of the most common concerns the From small individual installations to village or is- private sector has when working in developing

land grids, from PV to small wind or hydro, renewa- countries is the connection between all stakehold- 7 bles offer a wide range of options to end-users and ers interested in renewables. To stimulate these project promoters, backed up by 30 years of experi- connections and for the first time in this type of ence and research. Many of these technologies are publication, ARE makes available the contact de- presented here, with detailed explanations and case tails of its members at the end of this publication.

Table 1: Generation requirements for universal electricity access, 20307 (TWh)

On-Grid Mini-grid Isolated Total off-grid

Africa 196 187 80 463 Sub-Saharan Africa 195 187 80 462

Developing Asia 173 206 88 468 China 1 1 0 2 India 85 112 48 245 Other Asia 87 94 40 221

Latin America 6 3 1 10

Developing countries* 379 399 171 949

World** 380 400 172 952

* Includes Middle-East countries **Includes OECD and transition economies

6 For more information please visit: http://www.ruralelec.org/38.0.html 7 IEA, “World Energy Outlook 2010”. Section 1 photovol The st one and-alone t aics f amil y has allowed thedevelopment ofreal market approaches thatdonotdependon subsidies. all, investment thewidedisseminationandtheirsmall ofstandalone costs PVsystems lamps, orself efficientstoragetechnologies adaptative charge controllers. highly Mostof solutions andincomponent’in new improvement asPVLED- withinnovationssuch PV standalone systems. However, continues toinvest theglobalphotovoltaic industry around systems theworld,energy isalready around 30years of oldandisthesymbol System,Solar Home The of type renewable themostknown probably andinstalled due tothereduction ofsmoke and toxic waste. alsohave positive PVsystems impacts ongrid people’s healthandon theenvironment ordieselgenerators. batteries bydriven dry-cell Beside economic andsocialbenefits, off- lightingpurposes, usedfor arewhich often usually otherapplications aswell as run solution.ity can candles, replace They kerosene andtraditional unsustainablebiomass, public buildingsorcommercial units,- andcost-effective electric auser-friendly offer PV-systems off-grid Stand-alone needs of singlehouseholds, that cover the electricity be grouped according topower dimension asfollows: anindependentuser. appliancesserving solarPVmodulesandvarious several can They In general, with oneor bedefinedasanoff-grid-system can astand-alone PVSystem T tries. Infact, market working iscurrently mostofthePPS payment. on cash coun- people in developing ofmostrural capacity withinthepayment areprices generally andsolarlamps(from systems small €7). very for becheaper but can Inany case, these solarmodule, aone rangesbetween €50and€150for lampkitincluding costusually PPS and flexibleuse. plication, low investment costs, littlemaintenancerequired, highdegree ofexpandability range a widePlay), of offer advantages:PPS & ap- easy installation (Plug user-friendly inside aroom. weather conditions, befixed sinceitcan allows theproduct nottobeexposed fromseparated it. Inthelattercase, this the product itself (e.g. or solarlanterns) self. can beeitherfixedThe PV panelon inthelampit- beintegrated can which by solarpanelanduseabattery asmall alsobeadded.dio) can are PPS powered (e.g.plications mobilephone charger,- ra Depending on themodel, ICTap- small askerosenesuch lampsandcandles. replace unhealthy and inefficient sources lightingandthusableto usedfor mainly SHS withapower of1to10W, output is defined as a small system A PicoPV PicoPV Sy echnology overviewechnology S) stem (PPS) Figure 1: A PicoPVSystem

9 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 10 systems worksystems withhighervoltage (48V). voltage,12V and24Vbattery ifbigger even power,4000W output integrate SRS usually chines). range from 500Wto atypical With (e.g. larger workingand ma- instruments with AC beoperated only needed can power and/oriftheloads larger for systems reserved upfront investment, mature helpwiththissituation. businessmodelshave thatcan beendeveloped and are soldwithoutany commonly subsidy. For bigger systems, cover the householdscannot whenrural from ranging prices €140to€1.600,With end-users ofrural many SHSremain capacity withinpayment ofloads.variety therefore potentialadditional services. Finally, SHSkeepevolving, andahigher more flexibility offering years. for supply to provide reliable energy Moreover, aSHSprovides and higherpower thanPPS output allowtheSHS easily theinstallationandsuitableoperationmaintenance(O&M)will for technicians Consequently, itrequires technology. charging good designandtheuseofanoptimized However, trained deepdischarge.permanent age capacity, damaged ifletinastateof mightbequickly which have along-termimpact andthuscan on thestor- and oversized use ofaDC/AC inverter, however inefficient theseloads are often For bigger SHS, theintegration ofAC loads ispossiblewiththe systems without any efficientconversion losses. energy SHS very usableby directly fridges thesystem.and specialDC This makes savinglamps, energy SHS areloads likeDC theDC radios, DC TV componentcentral ofthesystem. advantages ofclassical Important management isdone by thechargecontroller energy asthe overall components: modules, chargecontroller, andtheloads. battery The to 250Wpeak. independent composed ofseveral areThey normally cover apower ofup output generally Home Systems Solar Classical Classical SolarHomeSy 9 8 certain advantages certain the useofAC loads. The useof AC power has allowing aninverter include They generally For moredetailsseesectiondedicatedtoloads seepage 12 For moreinformation 9 , butshouldbeprimarily stem (SHS) Figure 3: still relatively easy to operate andmaintain. relatively easytooperate still loads.of applicable are ofsystems At thesametimethistype hotels, hospitals, schools, etc. factories range awide andoffer tolarge individualinstallationslike provide electricity ally countries. developing including around theworld usu- They tems (SRS) have inmany alsobeeninstalled different places - ResidentialSys Solar called stand-aloneLarger PVsystems Solar ResidentialSy An AC SolarHomeSystem Figure 4: An AC SolarResidential System Figure 2: stem (SRS) A DCSolarHome 8 10 solutions presented inthispaper.nents are therenewableenergy relevanttoall The role andspecificmaintenanceneedsofthembrieflyexplained in sectioneach are 6,as some compo- ponent has specificmaintenanceneeds. long-termprofessional guarantee providersO&M. can com - cooperation withservice singlesystem Every systems.factors asuccessfulandsustainableoperationofPVoff-grid for and operators of local Training andloadsinverters (appliances). management ofthesecomponentsThe maintenanceandquality are key include: elementsofastandalone PVsystem solarmodule,Classical chargecontroller, lead-acid battery, of standalonePVsystems System componentsandmaintenance T Figure 6: DC/AC AHybrid SolarResidentialSystem two ormore sources ofenergy option. Infact, many SRS areandalready hybridised combine countries, existindeveloping with batteries are they nottheonly It isinterestingpower tonotethatifPVoff-grid plants working SRS AC-SHS DC-SHS PPS Description System able 2: Comparative table For more information see the section 4 on hybrid power systems. seethe section4onhybrid For moreinformation 50kWh 1-2 kWh0,5-1kWh/D (ADC<0,5-1kWh/D) (ADC5à50 Wh) consumption -ADC-) Average Daily 10 . distribution with AC mostly 12/24/48VDC 12-24VDC 24V ifcooling 12VDC 12 VDC production Voltage Recommended AC AC DC AC ormixed production(DC) Same as production(DC) Same as voltage Distribution Recommended

grain mill,grain sewingmachine, mixer etc. AC-loads machine, suchasadrilling ICT (radio, cassetteplayer TV), fans, Light, mobilephonecharger, fan, Light, mobilephone, ITC Light fanandcoolingonDC cooling Light, mobilephonecharger, fan, ICT, charger Light, TV, Radio, mobilephone Loads

Figure 5: A DCSolarResidentialSystem

11 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 12 PV systems standalone is required, 3years. ofUS$11during fee aswell asmonthly of Bangladesh,case a down of 15% of the total payment price andlower-income andtoreach customers.rier middle Inthe microfinance itispossibletolower theinvestmentWith bar- users. have local schemes tobesetupfor come aninvestment such inone stroke. This iswhy financial ofthepopulation hasenoughincome toover- part asmall only 50Wp SHS costsUS $440. figure As the following shows, service.an after-sales InBangladeshinstance, for asubsidised high up-front investment costs, come ifthey with particularly appreciation ofthevaluesystem. SHShave relatively beginning, fromers contribute the very in order to sense their avoided.should beabsolutely Itisfundamentalthatcustom- freeholders agree ofsystems charge that thedistribution ever, chosen, thetechnology whatever development stake- all basis. soldonpayment are afull andPPS mostly case How- SHS financingandbusinessmodel, sincetheSRS arerarer a banking model. Therefore, a on thissectionfocusesprimarily or at least without an adapted of support without any form In contrast, larger SHS and of course SRS are affordable rarely Overcoming the investment barrier forOvercoming aSHSthroughmicrofinance theinvestment barrier Figure 7:

Income / Price study for for study Business and case and case models I n P veloping countries. and low-income groups inde- middle for payment cash full SHS are affordablefora even last years. andsome MostPPS inthe have declined systems tion, standard small for prices velopments andmassproduc- widely. de- totechnical Due standalone for PVdiffer prices ofthesystem,the complexity and Depending on thesize c o o m p e u

o l f a

a t

i h o o n u s e h o ld I n v e s t m e n t S the usualcompetitive (e.g. technologies diesel, etc.). candles In addition, ofSHSalsohave toreflect theprices thoseof installation. after directly failure) ofpayment andthelossofvaluesystem case ladesh reflects the costs of installation and de-installation (in second-hand market exists, the15%downinBang - payment Bangladesh, where SHS are standardised and where a large over time.to thelossofvaluesystem For instance, In the current expenses oftheend-users, andon theotherhand well tailored microfinance is scheme adapted on one handto flect the system’s failure. case of payment resale valuein A For theleasingcompany, have payments tore themonthly - over time,value ofthesystem asitisusual in leasingcontracts. istheadaptationing scheme tothedepreciation andlossof a well aspect designed for SHS financ- Another important tation fuel. costsfor andobjectively,fully takingintoaccount factors- liketranspor group’s expensesisessential. energy Itshouldbedone care- to reimburse. For this purpose, the assessment of the target expenses in order to ensure be that able the users will energy donemicrofinance according contract isoften totheexisting be usedtopaythemicro back loan. Hence, thedesignof sulting from whatisgoing to theuseofSHSare generally ments. Moreover, the savings (on kerosene, etc.) re- candles sure andabletopayinstal- bewilling for thatanend-userwill condition toen- bethemostimportant will since reliability In fact, andmicrofinance iscrucial thelinkbetween quality products thatmightbemorequality expensive, butlastlonger. the market andallows an emphasisless price-sensitive on high- thatmicrofinancestrates for SHSsinceitmakes isausefultool timeandlesstheamountofinstalments.payback Itdemon - thelengthof mainly accessing itaffects themarket because for The figureprice isnot relevant shows thatthetotalreally

~ c H a

p S $ it

4 P a 40 l ric ( f o e r

S P H a y Do S m ) $6 e w 0 n n t

Ow Mo T n n i m t e h rs l y e h

ip ra

t o e f

~ S H

$1 S 1 100% 120% -40% -20% 20% 40% 60% 80% 0% 12 11 department.then replicatethismodelandtheir own energy solutions andproducts together withtheirloans.gy MFIscan subsidiaries. promoteThese will simpleandstandardised ener- or departments their own to develop energy-ending gramme company orpro by- betrained arenewableenergy (MFIs) can itsactivitiesto develop inaregion, microfinance institutions product provider orable willing If there isnorenewableenergy Figure 9: TheOne-Handmodel The One-HandBusinessModel credit model(SEEDS Model). Lanka orSri Model)andthetwo-handed end-user Shakti/Bangladesh theone-handed dealercredit services: model(Grameen gy Two different microfinance forener- businessmodelsexist ofCosts Figure 8:Comparison Shakti following figureThe shows the Grameen average expensesof expensestoenjoytheir former thelongbenefitsofaSHS. term shows thatmany customers are topay willing more even than expenditures.regular energy For example, theBangladesh case an SHS, are fees adapted asthemonthly tothe particularly nise thattheirmoneyisbetterinvested asadownfor payment compare and theprices recog- can thenfairly The customers end-users start savingmoney.end-users start system. lessthanfive yearsthe This demonstratesthatafter M in caseoffailure D Also calledtheDealerCreditModel/Grameen Shakti/BangladeshModel www.gshakti.org I C C 1 2345678 o i T n R R o w E s O C l e l t C n e MF c 11 a O F H

c M o l I MF P l M customers before and after they bought a solarhome they customers before and after N t m N v i a F o A e P y I / e O I n r N m

n A I / y L / C t

o N C e

O s I and kerosene+battery expenses Accumulated difference between SHS Kerosene lamp Battery SHS f O n

N Y

G t N G Y S U M E R C e S /M S S u s I N H H t s Years afterasysteminstallation a M t S S S o b T

a l P m i I A i n r C s R L k h s e R O L t e r O a A t V l t i E l T n r I a D N I a g t O i i

E T o n N R R i n n E g P R E N E S S U e y R A r s M v t S F e R i a T c m S i e E e n p 12 c R-S

t up-grade g a y e u r c n e l a A a i n s r n L a g c E n e S t e e started offering end-user credits, offering started Solar in Zara as as such Tan- microfinance havewhich beenhiring specialistsandhave desh, this model has been reproduced companies by energy than 250.000SHSloans. Following thesuccessofBangla- provider andhasgiven system more ing today asanenergy This modelhasbeencreatedShakti, by Grameen is which act- areas mightbeaproblem. scatteredandlow populatedrural money collectioninhighly andmaintenanceservices. end-usertraining and offer Also, must of the supply-chain, become part logistics, stock develop challenge oftheOne-Hand-ModelisthatMFI The main 13 or product guarantees, toloan-repayment. are which crucial provider proper is not delivering services iftheenergy pecially responsibilities, businessand totakeover technical energy es- shows that over time, the integrate MFIstendtovertically successofthepartnership.term Internationalexperience thelong- ensuring for arement andoperationallevels crucial provider andtheMFIatmanageshared- by theenergy Furthermore, a strong and a common partnership vision involves two institutions andtheirrespective infrastructures. ness. However, more it expensive because itisalsousually only,from themfinancialservices closer totheir core busi- is of structure, phase since this type the starting requires which This approachfor MFIs, is more comfortable in particularly Figure 10: TheTwo-HandModel M in caseoffailure D LankaModel) Also calledtheEnduserCreditModel(SEEDS/Sri I C o C M R R w O o e M a n c l r F l F

e k o I P N I c e v a zania or Solar Energy Uganda. Energy orSolar zania ing andmaintenance. credit, supply, theotherenergy knowledge,- train products.customisation of energy One provides the Model, itismore diversification and suitablefor vice provider. IncontrasttotheOne-HandBusiness ser- energy tween theMFIsandacommitted rural be- This modelisbased on along-termpartnership The t t A e y i i o r n N m y g n C e

C I n N O t G N T C S o wo-Hand BusinessModel U n M t r E a R c S /M t C S u I N H s M I t S S C o T

a R m i A n r O L k s e E L t e r E a N A t l t i N l T n T r a I a g E R t O i i

R o E n N P i n G n R g Y E N C E O U S S M e R y P A r s M S v t F A e R i a T c N m S i e E e n p Y c

R-SALES up-grade t g a y e u r c n e l a a i n s r n a g c n e t 13 e e

13 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 14 which aprojectwhich isrealised andare discussions. subjecttovibrant business models depend on the conditions and environment in Advantages anddisadvantages standalone ofeach small PV Figure 12: TheLease/HirePurchaseModel maintenance andrepair. lessor remains andisresponsible owner ofthesystem its for depending on thearrangement. thelease period, During the riod, ownership may or may not be transferred to the end-user, totheend-user.the PVsystem At theendofleasepe- case, leases thePVsupplier/dealerorafinancialintermediary Another approach isthe purchase“Lease/hire model”. Inthis The Lease/Hire Purchase Model non-paying customers). popularinsomeof places tocopewith therisk cards are very instance pre-paid orothermethods (for chip incash service monththeelectricity for sumevery the end-userspay acertain maintenance andreplacement ofthesystem, andinexchange totheend-users.(electricity) Italsoensures theoperation, company (ESCO) andprovides ownsaservice thesystem In thisapproach, provider, theelectricity service anenergy Figure 11: Model The Feefor Service ”service modelisquitecommon. developed.are alsowidely For instance, thesocalled for “fee other approaches where theownership withtheprovider stays therepayment period, after gain ownership over thesystem but bothofthemicrofinance businessmodelsthecustomers With The F E n d - use Lessee End-user/ ee for Service Model ee for Service r Credit Provider/LeasingCompany Cr edit Pr o vider ESCO Lessor Dealer/ suplier PV customers. second-hand ofnon-performing market tocopewiththerisk based models require the existence or the development of a ofdefaultpayment,a userincase whereas ownership- However, disconnect easily provider can aFee-for-Service to control andmisuse. customer behaviour to avoid overuse have tofind ways case of inthe specifically Fee-for-Service) care, ownership is a strong Models (but more issue and all Finally, as a SHS also requires customer maintenance and MFIs. sidefor technical companieson or themicrofinanceon for technical side building, needcapacity always One-Hand Modelwill either orrequireand experience specialists, training whereas the know-how needtoinvolve companies withatechnical ally moreprobably viableapproaches. BoththeseModelsgener- point ofview, andOne-Handmodelsare theFee-for-Service become oftwo companiescostly. can infrastructure From this plement initsinitialphase, buton thelonger thedouble term Generally, the Two-Hand toim- Modeliseasierandcheaper Case study: addressing the barriers to the development of small scale renewables

In 2010, most African rural households lacked access to mod- This way, millions of households can reduce their energy ex- ern energy. However, solar home systems, pico hydro systems, penses and accelerate their own development. household biogas systems, improved cook stoves, siphon wa- A member of ARE is using a market development approach to ter filters and LED lighting can be sold and serviced by local facilitate access to renewable energy to thousands in sub-Saha- entrepreneurs, reducing dependency on subsidies. ran Africa. The focus is on effectively reducing the three main This represents a great opportunity for households to reduce barriers to sustainable growth: a lack of availability, low aware- their energy expenses, increase productivity as well as their ness and limited affordability. They coach, support, and finance living conditions. However although these attractive and low- entrepreneurs and their technicians and sales staff, thus creating cost renewable energy solutions have been developed, they re- sustainable supply chains. Awareness is boosted by large-scale main scarcely available in rural areas, as entrepreneurs lack the marketing campaigns and local village demonstrations. As soon technical skills and capacity to start or expand a renewable as supply and demand start to develop, the organisation imple- energy business. Moreover, the public is by and large unaware ments credit and carbon schemes thereby improving the af- of their benefits and many households do not have the cash to fordability of the products. make the upfront investment. Thanks to this very down to earth approach, in a few years this The challenge at a local and regional level is to build a sustain- organisation has helped 500.000 people to access electricity at able supply chain, boost awareness and improve affordability. a cost of less than €4 per connected person. 15

Figure 13: An entrepreneur starting his solar energy business as part of the Solar Now! Network. Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 16 acknowledged thatrecognised standards leadofagiven toincreased product. quality plementation programme, enhanced. thelikelihoodofaproject’s besubstantially successcan Itisgenerally system components. of safeguardingments for a sufficient quality remit By imposing a quality on an im- guidelines inorder toensure that thebestproducts are andused. installed areThey theminimum require- Electrification. Rural for the Alliance Any programfollowthese orprojectshould targeting sustainability andare inthePV These Internationalstandardsworld respected areby themembersof theauthority for smallstandalonesystems International qualitystandards International standards for smallstandalonePVsystemsandcomponents: T equipments and minor BOS components lights Energy-efficient Inverters Controllers Charge Panels Components able 3:

V-Parts 1-4: requirements General IEC 60227-1-4: Polyvinyl voltage insulatedcables uptoandincluding450 ofrated chloride V/750 requirements. IEC 60669-1: Switchesfor installations. householdandsimilarfixed-electrical 1: Part General with anominalvoltage below 24 V.” PV GAP, PVRS7A “Lighting systemswithfluorescent lamps for photovoltaic stand-alonesystems lighting. for fluorescentlamps, 4: requirements for DC-suppliedelectronicballasts for general Part Particular IEC 61347-2: Lampcontrolgear. 3: requirementsfor Part Particular AC-supplied electronicballasts IEC 61347-1: 2007, Lampcontrolgear. 1: andsafety Part requirements. General IEC 60969Ed2: -Performance lighting purposes Requirements. Selfballastedlampsfor general PV GAP, PVRS8A for photovoltaic stand-alone systems.”“Inverters techniques, Sections2-5. IEC 61000-4:1995, Electromagneticcompatibility(EMC). 4: Part Testing andmeasurement ofindustrial,radio-frequency equipment. characteristics scientificandmedical(ISM) IEC CISPR11:1990, Limitsandmethodsofmeasurementelectromagnetic disturbance type approval. IEC 62093Ed. 1.0: BOScomponents-Environmental reliabilitytesting-Designqualificationand requirements. 2: requirementsfor inverters. Part Particular for useinphotovoltaicIEC 62109Safetypower ofpower systems. converters 1: Part General IEC 61683Ed. 2.0: Photovoltaic systems-Power efficiency -Procedurefor measuring conditioners below 50V” acceptedfor useintheIECEEPVscheme. PV GAP, PVRS6A for photovoltaic controllers stand-alonesystemswithanominalvoltage “Charge techniques, Sections2-5. IEC 61000-4:1995, Electromagneticcompatibility(EMC). 4: Part Testing andmeasurement ofindustrial,radio-frequency equipment. characteristics scientificandmedical(ISM) IEC CISPR11:1990, Limitsandmethodsofmeasurementelectromagnetic disturbance type approval. IEC 62093Ed. 1.0: BOScomponents-Environmental reliabilitytesting-Designqualificationand requirements, 3: Part Controllers IEC 62109: for useinphotovoltaic Safetypower ofpower systems. converters 1: Part General IEC 62509Ed.1: controllers Performancecharge andfunctioningofphotovoltaic battery approval. IEC 61646Ed. 1.0: photovoltaic modules-Designqualificationandtype Thin-film terrestrial type approval. IEC 61215Ed. photovoltaic modules-Designqualificationand 2.0: siliconterrestrial Crystalline StandardsandExplanation International

SMALL Wind Home Systems Section Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 18 charging systems,charging from achargecontroller over charging. isadded toprevent thebattery allows theuse, connection. grid orfor charging toPVsystems, battery similarly for For ofSWT in-battery AC-voltage current, must which berectifiedDC to by meansofasimplebridge rectifier. DC-voltage The have magnetgeneratoranddonotneedagearbox. apermanent Most SWT ofproducesgenerator type This maintenanceandrepair.for area sincethey andoffer good easytoinstall accessibility countries popularindeveloping towers are very a pole, higher than 15m to keep them out of ground preferably turbulence. For this purpose, tilt-up poles/ ones,vertical duetoabetterrotor aswell asahigher reliability balance. placed areon The turbines always axisetc.or vertical Ingeneral, than have ahigherefficiency windturbines usedhorizontal thecommonly bedesignedinanumberofdifferent ways, can turbines Wind 1to3blades, integrating withhorizontal beused. can diameter andwitha1kWoutput 1kW and 10kW. For a remote instance for installations for small household, very below 2m wind turbines 50kW. however have adiameterofaround 7morlessandapower between MostSWT ranging output electrification.rural arewithadiameteroflessthan15mandpower below turbines output SWT applications, (SWT), windturbines excellentsolutionsfor small offer andinparticular windtechnologies EHS are PVinstallation. notlimited to small Inadifferentrange ofinvestment costs,for different and T A SWT rated at 5kWwitharotor rated diameterof5m(20m A SWT average windspeed,At 5 m/sec persquare meterrotor annually. surface produces 300kWh adecentSWT In general, average windspeedsover 5m/secare strong soundoperation. enoughtohave aneconomically wind interferences. developers. Similarly, studied toavoid andshouldbecarefully important isvery oftheturbine thelocation relation andadded totheoutput valueofthewindturbine, bypassed by theproject partially andare often different seasonal variations. However, ortimeconsuming in toocostly long-termwindstudiesare often Ideally, ofwind mapping should be made oftime(1year) over along the period tointegrate thistype 6.000kWh/a. At anaverage of6m/secwindspeed, generateupto8.500kWh/a. will thesameturbine echnology overviewechnology Rotor For basicrecommendationsregarding the maintenance of small wind power systems see windpower systems the maintenanceofsmall Alternator Generator/ ower e w To Tail

2 rotor swept area) example, for generatesaround ction 6 section bine from over-speeding. andtoprevent thetur- from overvoltage be required toprotect thebattery/inverter quency. Additionally, adumpload might voltage fre to grid and grid - ing electricity - supply andfor used tocontrol theSWT connected systems,In grid is aninverter be necessary prior toinstallation. prior be necessary is unavailable, windmeasurements might projects. thetargeted Ifthedatafor site are requirements key successfulSWT for awindresourcemined after assessment, ity, a proper setting and location, deter- needwindtoproduce- electric As SWT Figure 14: ofasmallwindturbine Basicparts . model and case study study case for small for Business A typicalSWTcostsproject design 14 country, whereas aninternationalfinance institutionas such ment, toa ofSWT proposes theexport for a20-30%grant govern- astheDutch such A government ordonor agency likely have the capacity to cover thehighinvestment costs. have thecapacity likely project-based andmore businesssincethey suitedfor than those of PV.cheaper are usually Yet, are generally SWT a couple of years. after covery In fact, of SWT prices the kWh not rare to have a high return ofinvestment, costre withafull - conditions andwindmeasurements have beenwell done, itis nies withinvestment capacity. In thesecases, andifthenatural need a substantial amount of power and byare run compa- liketelecom specificapplications towers,be usedfor which cash, paidin common tofind SWT thosethatwill especially However, or emerging in economiesdeveloping even it is investment. nal organisation duetothehighinitial financed projectsby anexter- are partly schemes. In contrast, most ‘development’ orusecredit theirSWT for ents pay cash rope orothermature markets,- cli private of needs.answer to the same type In Eu- anddonot PVsystems assmall egories - cat donotenterinthesameprices SWT over otheralternatives. SWT a andoperating ofinstalling the viability of possibletogive arough overview ally costs. thesedifferent data, With itisusu- wires, training, foundation, transport, windspeedanddiesel use, maximum power, turbines, electronics, batteries, poles, candles). For projects, all costsare basedon:perday kWh compared prices withthealternative (diesel/kerosene/ity down- should be made beforehand theelectric to determine systems Based on an example provided by FortisWind Energy. Basedonanexample provided by FortisWind energy energy wind (uninstalled). costaroundwill €8.000to€12.000 5kW (turbine, pole, andelectronics) of system charging battery SWT stalled. For example, acomplete to €7.500 per kilowatt in- €2.500 size. as asfrommuch The costsvary and ofturbine withthetype fer dif- Prices windturbines ofsmall The costs calculations andbreakThe costs - costs.20-40% totheoverall installation cost, would add another a standalone inverter, aswell asthe

Adding and batteries 14 potential return on investment isexpectedwithin2years. bankataround €18.000, andthebattery the windturbine a prices.the highelectricity thetotalinstallationcostsof With ver, maintenance costs somehad €350monthly tobeadded to dieselexpensesinvolvedall were ashigh€1.2/kWh. Moreo- Prior totheinstallationofSWT, with prices theelectricity tion is32kWh. in thislocation, produc- electricity theexpectedaverage daily sumption of1kW. Basedon theaverage windspeedof7m/s con - of thetelecomhasanaverage antennawhich electricity pole of18mheight. banksuppliestheelectronics The battery manufactured guyed isinstalled onalocally wireThe turbine bank.troller voltage gives intothebattery a48V DC directly in2008onstalled thissite. The windturbine’s voltage con- were anda48V1000Ah system A 5kWwindturbine inexpensive. diesel andthemaintenanceofgenset very cover theexploitation andinvestment costs. thesufficientrevenues needed to doesnot bring applications areas, inrural the maintarget ofSWT sincelightingorsmall quick.diesel) is rather Infact, productive uses ofpower are front costsandthebreak-even withthealternative (usually these cases, have themeanstopay theup- theusersusually centersinneedofpowercation andautonomy. reliability In factures arebusinessesortelecommuni anddevelopers local - As mentioned before, manu- another large market SWT for andreplacementcover therunning costsofthesystem. theinvestment,the end-usersreceive for support buthave to well adapted toabusinessplanwhere ment/operation) isoften withamini-grid,systems (invest- ofSWT thecostsstructure The endusershave topayforexploitation costs.for bigger As ofBackwards Regions”.sian Ministry the –inthiscase - “Indone inchargeofaccess toenergy tries the IFC, covers theother70%through aloantotheminis- Mad telecommunica for Small wind Case Study: difficult to reach, of transport making the inaremote isespecially located sitewhich picture nexttoaGSMtower wasinstalled of theAlliance. intheenclosed The SWT and installer. Bothcompanies are members bylocations aEuropean project developer have indifferent5kW which beeninstalled manufacturer of hassold30windturbines In Madagascar, aEuropean turbine small agascar

in tions in

19 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 20 of agiven product. enhanced.substantially acknowledged thatrecognised standards Itisgenerally lead totheincreased quality remit onBy imposingaquality animplementation programme, thelikelihoodofaproject’s be successcan none” conditions windsystem. tothesustainableoperationofasmall programme or project them in orderdesign should integrate to have the best products. areThey “sine qua tro Technical Committee (IEC). are andhave turbines safe apredictable power Certified soany output based areon standards systems mainly developed by theInternationalElec- availablecertification Currently are systems beingdeveloped. certification several andmarket levels visibility; improve quality windsectorisquiteayoung thesmall market,Since there are alotofimmature products sale, for soto for smallwindsystems International qualitystandards T Turbine Turbine Components able 4: Internationalstandards for smallwindturbines: including factory inspection)and AWEAincluding factory (American Wind Energy Association). Other known andrespectedstandardsaredesignedby MCS(UK, overall certification IEC 61400‑12: Power measurements performance IEC 61400‑11: Procedurefor acousticemissionmeasurementtechniques IEC 61400‑2: Designandsafety requirements International Standards andExplanation

SMALL HYDROPOWER Section Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 22 T T Figure 15: “small” ifitisunder10MW, “mini” under1kW, “micro” under100kWand “pico” under20kW. situation,local provided thatasuitablewaterflow isavailable. A hydro considered as plantis generally fromhuge 0.2kWupto800kWandtherefore rangeofcapacity provide anadequate can solution toevery The small-hydropower anda initselfiscomposedgenerator. ofaturbine system Hydro cover a turbines more for installed than30years over theworld. all countries. developing for Mostofall, hydro small thathasalready isamaturebeen andreliable technology and maintenancecosts, even up to100years pay-backratio alifespan andtherefore anattractive energy job creation, ofsupply), security efficient(from are SHP highly 70%to90%), have low operation relatively on fuels. fossil sources Besidetheadvantages(clean, shared withotherrenewableenergy indigenous, local HydropowerSmall hasmany benefitsand (SHP) advantageover othertechnologies, thosebased especially hydroelectric power. generators,bine designs and electric together with the growth electricity, in demand for of led to the rise powersource in Europe. of mechanical Technological developments, water tur- highly-efficient including Hydropower thousandyears several andattheendof17thcentury, hasbeenusedfor itwasthemain Total Australasia -Oceania Australasia Europe North and Central andCentral America North South America Africa Asia able 5: InstalledSmallhydro capacity worldwide echnology overviewechnology A classical small hydro plants structure A classicalsmallhydro plantsstructure Installed SHPCapacity 47.997 198 10.723 2.929 1.280 228 32.641 P ercentage 100% 0.4% 22.3% 6.1% 2.7% 0.5% 68.0% ity or critical passage zones aswell astoaccess passage otherenvironmental zones orcritical factors (e.g.ity fishmigrations). Moreover, environmental should also be involved as landslides, to study engineering elements such instabil- be done by proven specialists, whoemploy methods, statistical direct measurements atgaugingstations etc. to third parties’ properties. measured, beprecisely theplant head can Whereas evaluation theflowrates must the maximumriver,must flood of the also include in order to avoid any damage to the diversion works and This hydrological work shouldnotbelimitedtotheminimumrange valueandtheofavailableflows, but ofthe flowrates.predictions andtimedistribution oftheavailability quires andhydrology inorder adeepknowledge toreach ofthesitewithrespect reliable togeomorphology hydropower interactswithitsenvironment more thanany asthistechnology other. hydropower Small re - and the system,of the scheme Beside the choice the plant’s layout and surroundings are mainissues with it acceleratesaround theoutsideandslows on theinsideofbend. surface, where are they notinhibitedby banksandbed. withtheriver friction flows Asariver around abend highvelocities.sulting inlocally The strongestclose tothe currentsriver areinthecentre ina located and pointswhere situatedatstrategic thelandprovidesflowInstallations are anatural usually restriction, re- 1m/s, suitabledepth, asolidandstableriverbed, andsediment-free water. mustbut rivers have characteristics: thefollowing ayear-round continuous flow, a velocitiy greater than tion increases drop withtheelevation ofwaterwhereas kineticturbines, for ison thebestlocation aplain, ormountainousregions areHilly plants, mostsuitabletoweir anddiversion type produc - sincetheenergy plantstogeneratepower.sion type devices. can beharnessed riversby kineticenergy offast The kineticenergy drop ofthewater due totheelevation (i.e.tional energy heightdifference, orhead) isused by weir anddiver - There ofsmall arehydropowertypes three plants: using weir, diversioncanal andkineticpower. gravita- The from intotherivers. drain water will which best resources drop, are anelevation offer those which highannualprecipitationrates, areascatchment and to nowaterstoragecapacity, soareon withaconsistent rivers andsteady bestlocated flow. Areas withthe Unlike conventional hydroelectric power plants, hydro small power plants)have plants(orrun-of-river little Site loca generators (withload regulation by loads)bigger meansofballast for units. connected plants, grid theasynchronousfor kW), units(uptoafew small magnets for andthesynchronous can becombinedThere withtheturbine: ofthat aregenerators types three thewithpermanent generators ones, buthave ahigherefficiency. blades toproducethe face oftherunner energy. areThey more complexthantheimpulse tobuildandinstall contrast, intheFrancis turbines, andKaplan reaction called turbines, thewater pressure applieson directly andgeneratingelectricity. therunner ofahighspeedjet)before entering (intheform kinetic energy In ofthe PeltonIn thecase andBankiturbines, impulseturbines, called thewaterpressure is converted into axis,with horizontal axis. have vertical makesmaintenanceeasierwhereasunitsnormally which theKaplan whereas ismore low theKaplan usedfor head rivers. Pelton, BankiandFrancis beinstalled can turbines also called “cross-flow”),“Francis” and“Kaplan” turbines. The turbine is cross-flow adaptedtohigh heads situation are the of every “Pelton”,types hydro almost covering turbines The mostimportant “Banki” (both For basicrecommendationsregarding the maintenance of small wind power systems see windpower systems the maintenanceofsmall tion and inst alla tion tion ction 6 section .

23 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 24 hydropower hydropower calculations calculations riod capital return. capital riod third, theSHP’s project ofislonger lifetime thanofthepe- Second, the large costs of hydro-technical and infrastructure beashigh50%ofthetotalcosts. studiescan feasibility be aware thatthe preparation ofproject documentation and should betakenintoconsideration. First, should developers creatingfor SHP, afinancial plan When elements several andskills.materials be reduced and costs can by using many local forward straight expertise, theinstallationofplant initselfisrelatively Although thepreparation aplantrequires ofsuch technical house, headrace, tailrace, andvalves. installationofpenstock civil workswhich must be added, a weir, including power- components to andelectrical andothermechanical inverter hydro turbine, include plantwill generator, batteries, pipe, the give arough balanceofcostsandexpectedbenefits. Asmall at the site of parameters the power stationtechnical and to inorderbe developed togatheraccurateestimations ofhydro- Therefore, studyofthe project should feasibility asimplified evaluation work T able 6: example ofinvestment costbreakdown after study for for study Cost ofexploitation Equipment Electrical Building Turbines Hydrotechnical Construction investment Element of and case and case systems small Costs

25% for theequipment.25% for 75% ofproject costsagainstonly preparation around determine considered andsite thatlocation low. costsareoperating very Itis investments thoughits even requires substantialinitialcapital hydropowera small plant ofthesystem.lifetime However, over the electrification rural for technology as thecheapest hydro presentedSmall isoften hydroelectric powerhydroelectric station). 0.5 10 5 25 60 up to(%) P articipation articipation Dig and works for the Dig andworks Source:& APER ACRA Figure 16:

tension of thelines. more andtheex- withtheinstallationofsecond turbine This project connected firstmore than 200usersand1.000 nance were already andpresent trained intheregion. operationandmainte- for withadequatetechnicians expertise users, while meters were commercial for installed users. Some ing the3villagesinvolved. are rates chargedtodomestic Flat representthe plantwashandedover toamulti-village utility - economic development andentrepreneurship. building, After andthepromotion ed toenvironmental oflocal conservation itself, theconstruction funding included thecomponents relat- ulia, andthe Fondazione theRegione Lombardia Cariplo. This ofForeignMinistry Affairs, theRegione Friuli Gi- Venezia oftheplantwasco-financedThe construction bytheItalian » » » » » » itselfincludes: The system it constitutes agoodmicro sitefor hydro installation. presenting gradientof77m. anelevation waterfall Therefore, of intheSouth located Tanzania hasadebitof500l/secand hydromented asmall project on theKisongo river. river This ofARE hasimple- anItalianNGOpartner In thisframework cost competitive way. tothe people in a energy provide sustainableand clean nally thesurrounding infinitepotentialtofi- offers river the world the national grid. However, asinmany otherplaces around populations in Rural Tanzania from excluded are largely still R Small hydropo Case study: » » » » » » ural Tanzani transformer pole to the distribution cabin. poletothedistribution transformer voltage from underground departing Low distribution transformers. Medium voltage overhead7 power linetosupply capacities and an isolated transformer for 10.000volts. for andanisolatedtransformer capacities Power house: with2generatorsof150kW two turbines almost horizontally to the penstock pipe. tothepenstock almost horizontally Underground diversion leads steelpipelinewhich water the power house. creases from directly inwater speedoperated for detectingunexpectedin- equipped A butterflyvalve A de-silting of channel 1,7mwidthbyA de-siltingofchannel 25mlong.

nt in wer plantin

T that recognised standards lead ofagiven toincreased product. quality programme, enhanced. thelikelihoodofaproject’s besubstantially successcan acknowledged Itisgenerally system components. of safeguarding asufficientquality remit Byimposingaquality onan implementation order to ensure that the best products are and used. installed areThey the minimum requirementsfor Electrification. Rural for Alliance Any programfollowthemin orprojectshould targeting sustainability and areThese Internationalin standardsthe PV world arerespected the authority by the members of the systems International qualitystandards for smallhydropower able 7: Internationalstandards for smallhydro systems&components acceptance tests turbines,Hydraulic pumpsandpumpturbines–Model storage turbines Guide for commissioning, andmaintenance ofhydraulic operation Inlet valves for hydro power stations&systems Transformers Governing systemforturbines hydraulic Field Acceptance Test ofturbine performance for Hydraulic Turbines machines) (rotatingelectrical andgenerator Components IEC 60041(1991-11) IEC 60545(1976-01) IS 7326-1902 IS 2026 -1983 IS 2705–1992 IS 3156–1992 IEC 6030 IEC 60041: 1991 3)1991 IS 12800(part IS: 4722-2001 IEC 61116-1992 IEC 61366-1: 1998 IEC 61362 IEC 60034–1: 1983 IEC-34-1 Standards International

Mini-grids (fed by hybrid power systems) Section (fed byhyridpo Mini-grids

wer sy stem) will besustainable.will to ensure thatthesystem’s operationandmaintenance general, involve intensepreparation mini-grids work avoid potentialconflicts withinthecommunity. In measure andlimittheconsumption ofeachuserand individualmeters,should include to orotherdevices sustain the operation, that will structure and a tariff rules if they particularly alimitedresource andpower requiresSharing amongtheusersinamini-grid all technologies. toberetrofitted lendthemselves which withenergy isolated grids renewable sel powered mini-grids. Worldwide there are hundreds of GW of diesel-based Finally, solution isaconvincing existingdie- alternative for ofenergy thistype asadditional generation capacity. connectedand serve tothenational grid tially up when the demand grows be poten- scaled can and be they easily can systems advantages:extra oftheirgeneration components, duetothemodularity these Besides thefactare thatthey agood isolatedsolution,two offer mini-grids hybrid system.linked withtheenergy tures through theinvolvement ofthecommunityindecision-making process - have apositive governance struc socialimpact andimproving by local fostering systems).ter irrigation Finally, have theimplementation proved ofmini-grids to astelecommunication such towers andwa- andrelated industries services (small (healthcentres,public services economy andthedevelopment ofalocal schools) domestic needs (lighting, communication, refrigeration, as well as water supply) countries.ers indeveloping alsoprovideThey enoughpower tosatisfymodern equivalentto(andsometimes betterthan)theoneus- even provided togrid ply community. ensure sup- mini-grids a continuous and reliable Hybrid electricity reducesfuelsandincreases fossil theneedfor theautonomy ofthe matically sources aswind, such energy The useoflocal renewable solarand hydro- dra nected toitinthenearfuture. andwithoutrealisticaway grid hopeofbeingcon from- thenational electricity resource. interestingtowns,for isolatedvillages/small This solution isespecially withgasolineandLPG) butpotentially (most ofthetimedieselfed up asaback source andagenset asaprimary power usesrenewableenergy A hybrid system exist. thoughbiggerbetween 5and300kWeven systems of productionwith centralised have capacity andstoragewill aninstalled individual installation. In fact, asastandalonesolutionsupplying many ofthemareworking 15 systems ofthisdocument, thepurpose for on focus thosesuppliedby power itwill hybrid resources andpower ofenergy plants, besuppliedby sorts can all A mini-grid but distinct andautonomous orparticipation. end-usersagainstpayment toseveral andwhosupplies electricity takedifferentforms legal who can erator not connected tothemainnational grid. The production ismanaged by anop- level, generation atthelocal electricity networks usingvillage-wide distribution (alsosometimes referredA mini-grid provides toasamicro-gridorisolated-grid) Introduction withamini-grid. systemswork This doesnotmeaneitherthatallhybrid 15 . Mostofthetime, uselow will AC amini-grid voltage (220or380V)

27 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 28 Photovoltaics AC busline T DC Voltage AC Voltage system andalsohelpstokeepcostsdown. system theoptimumpowertial for operationofamini-grid system, hybrid. especially ItsimplifiestheO&Mof the sometimes combined andcoordinating withtheinverter battery, generator, andload management isessen- sources/backup.are added commonly ascomplementary Finally, (EMS) Management System anEnergy andreduce costs, overall thebattery) the stress (especially on thesystem diesel/gasoline/LPG generators tations. Inorder toensureofsupply, thecontinuity ofcomponents maximisethelifetime by reducing Hence, andbalancetheirdifferent limi- theadvantages integrate ofeachtechnology can system ahybrid the site’s specificwindprofile over the year. nightfall.there isnogeneration after anddepends isalsointermittent on The generation potentialofSWT ever, andPVhasahigh solarisbyrequirementfor storagesince definitionsource anintermittent ofenergy As solarresources are abundant, beusedalmosteverywhere, PVcan countries. inSouthern especially How - towaterresources, villagesclose for electricity site-specificandisdependent on seasonal effects. butisvery ofeachtheresources:ining theintermittency hydropower small produces continuously cost-competitive of each resource.and shortcoming for complementingThe potential resources becomes when exam- obvious (RETs) technologies renewableenergy use several can system A hybrid andbalancethespecific advantages phase are distribution) possibleandallowproject tothespecificitiesofeacharea. designerstoadapt thesystem alternative solutionsing different (AC andgrid generation technologies DC buslines, or three phase orsingle adapted tothespecific economic, natural, area. andrural social conditions ofthe Many configurations combin- driven, orpolitically shouldnotbetechnologically but power withmini-grid The designofa system hybrid T loads and the battery charging.loads andthebattery suppliedby be optionally thebattery. loads can DC hydroor small power. Inbothoptions, theAC for supply abidirectional controls masterinverter theenergy components. Components likeavoltage operating e.g sourcebecoupleddirectly dieselgenerator, can wind connecteddirectly totheAC buslineormay needanDC/AC converter toenablestablecouplingofthe generatingcomponents are connected electricity toan ACAll busline. AC generatingcomponents may be generation coupled atAC busline Electricity linkthe different ofbuslinethatwill components together. useandthetype marily - A good way of pri to define andcomparevoltage will power istype they according systems tothe hybrid echnological configurations echnology overviewechnology Wind Hydro Battery Charger Battery Master Inverter and Genset Inverters AC/AC Converters Battery Optional AC Loads DC Loads An AC power coupledhybrid system Figure 17: P h o t o vo DC Voltage AC Voltage D l C t a

b i u c s s

l i n e loads can be connected directly to the DC bus. beconnected totheDC loads directly can the chargecontroller andsuppliespower totheAC load through theDC/AC inverter. Additionally, DC- efficient. isvery fore thissystem is controlled and protected Thebattery from overcharge anddischarge by directly. generating components are bus connectedlineand electricity charge the battery All to a DC There- generation coupled atDCbusline Electricity professionals with proven expertise and track records.professionals andtrack with proven expertise choice. by true beundertaken isacomplex taskthatshould system only isthatdesigninga The hybrid reality etc. andvillagesize tion grid impact ofcoursealsohave itselfwill asignificant onthefinal The technology socio-economic and even graphical elements. load and consumption factors profile, Key include - distribu configuration over anotherdepends onmany of technological technological,type choice of The one geo- W i n d Figure 18: powerA DCcoupledhybrid system Hyd r o C h a r ge

C o G n e t n r s o B e l a t l P e t t h r e A C o DC Voltage AC Voltage r y h C t o a / D r vo ge C

l C

C t o a o n i n c ve t s r o r t l l e e r r s I D n W ve C

b i r n u t s e d

l r i n e B a Hyd D t A t C e C

L r

L o r y o o a a d d s (bi-directional inverter) s I n v e r components. toenablestablecouplingofthe verter bus lineormay needanDC/AC con- may connected bedirectly to theAC bus line, AC generatingcomponents supplied by thebattery. OntheAC loads. beoptionally loads can DC oftheAC supply trols theenergy sides ofamasterinverter, con which - components are connected atboth andACDC generating electricity at DC/AC buslines generation coupled Electricity t e r/charger coupled hybrid powercoupled hybrid system DC/ACFigure 19:An A G C e

L n o s a e d t s

29 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 30 model and mini-grid mini-grid for hybrid hybrid for case study study case business systems fordable tariff (with a limited support on the capital subsidy) on the (withalimitedsupport fordable tariff load),a small anaf- offer can system awell designedhybrid and arevolatility. lessexposed tofuelprice For avillage(with become moresystems attractive, require sincethey lower tariffs subsidies.100% capital Ontheotherhand, diesel-PV-hybrid “Diesel-gensets” are notaffordable orsustainable,even with RET are fixed upfront (anddecreasing). long-term upwards trend, whereas thegeneration costswith a follow andthefact thatfuelprices and costsoffueldelivery basis,On aLife-Cycle one alsohastofactor inthedifficulty lower ofthegenerator. lifetime the substantially fuelpurchase, costsduetopricy running and scarcity supply real natural conditions. 18 ESMAP Technical Paper, 2007, p. 26 17 of thesystemandstorage security size whileatthesametimeincreasingcommunityenergy likeof adispensable sourceofenergy dieselallows thereductionofcoststhrough the reduction tion, adieselgensetallows for abetterbalanceandefficiencyofthepower system. Moreover, theuse costsandincreasestheautonomyofcommunity.dramatically diminishestheirrunning Inaddi- for renewables.for areasandarealopportunity manyrural The introductionof RE intoasystem represent an excellent cost competitive option (thousands of which are already installed worldwide) of renewable system. energy First, of exiting mini-grids diesel systemspowering thehybridization 16 lifecycle basis powerof energy systemsona Figure 20:Costcomparisons in developing countries in developing systems,fed themaincompetitor ofthehybrid/REsystems building, but have costs. low running In contrast, 100% diesel- costsduetoRETs,higher capital purchase, battery andgrid tors, dieselsubsidiesetc. vironment, andhealthfac- as en- such based systems and traditionalfuel fossil based renewable energy in acomparisonbetween Finally, shouldalsobeconsidered numerous variables external power Costs, Alliance for Rural Electrification. ProjectionsmadefromacasestudybasedinEcuadorwith “Solar-diesel Options for the Peruvian Hybrid Amazon, from Padre Lessons Learned Cocha”, However, itisinterestingtonotethatinmanycasesdieselgensetsarealsothebestpartners 18 costs. have generation systems Hybrid spective, of thecalculation including from per- along-termandLife-Cycle thesystem aspectisanalysing The key basedonfuels. fossil systems supply withconventionalparison energy have shownare they competitive incom- cation. Numerous studiesandsimulations - economical solutionvillageelectrifi for power are themost systems inmany cases suppliedby mini-grids hybrid Local perspective Life Cycleost 16 , have lower costs, capital buthigher

Total cost ($US) 1,200,000 1,000,000 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 0 0 1 2 Hybrid PV-Wind Diesel Generator–0.7$US/L Diesel Generator–1$US/L Diesel Generator–1.5¢US 3 4 5678 17 . and cash-flow and cash-flow generationasmaintargets. mustsidies on mini-grids have longO&Mprofitability term mini-grids, buttoattractcompanies, any regulations andsub- address investment, implementation andoperationofhybrid source.ternal factor sectorisalsoakey neededto The private and finance solutions,cases, and in many from support an ex- needsstablepolicies withmini-grids electrification Village ofsolution.type thewidespread for greatest ofall development ofthis barriers the structures/regulation collectionandlocal arefee certainly ergy, end-users. paying toseveral upO&Mschemes, Setting from ofalimitedamounten- thecollective distribution socio-economic andorganisationalarise challenges Several O&M over theyears. lation costrecovery eration andMaintenance(O&M), andspreading theinstal- based on a20-25years performance, efficientOp- ensuring as aspromotingand financialschemes well businessmodels work suitableoperation withthe technical plement inparallel 25 years of their lifetime. For this reason, it isessential to im- power whentakingintoaccount the20to of hybrid systems demonstrates the lower costs (LCOE)Cost of Energy clearly perceived on theshort-term. Onthecontrary, theLevelized most solutions usingrenewables, bemisleading when can As demonstratedabove, systems, flows of cash hybrid like site: www.ruralelec.org ARE studyon forelectrification: rural mini-grids “hybrid lessonslearned” available onthe AREweb- 19 of aproject.viability Atariff mustalsointegrate replacement whenitcomesject developers todemonstrating thefinancial its lifetime. are also essential toattract pro Cost-based tariffs - in order to ensure theongoing through operation ofa system to O&M. Along withthequestion ofsubsidies; itinfluences project, ofamini-grid sustainability whenitcomes especially questionforthe isacentral The determinationofthetariff Tariff andsubsidies 9 Y For a more thorough description ofO&Mandfinancialschemes, Foramorethoroughdescription canchecktheUSAID- readers 1 ear 0 11 and Finncialscheme 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 running costs(O&M),running least cover thesystem’s chosen, shouldat atariff regardless ofthescheme planningisthat,fication - electri accepted inrural generally A basicrule business model. a role of inthechoice ject andtherefore plays ofaprothe profitability - 19 The mostcommonsubsidyschemes are: according to the technology andthebusinessmodelchosen,according tothetechnology subsidies. Tariffs must beflexibleandtailor made anddecided role, acrucial plays fordability bebalancedwith butitcan kerosene lamps, etc.). candles Ofcoursetheconcept ofaf- on thehouseholds’ expensesbefore theproject (i.e. energy on thegrounds ofbeing “equitable”, norshoulditbebased ofthenational atthelevel utility set asamatterofprinciple To thesedifferent achieve criteria, shouldneitherbe thetariff sumers’ topay andwillingness (affordability). ability commercial (sustainability), viability con - andmeetingrural least, structures must keepabalance between ensuring tariff are beusedwhenthey fund thatwill needed. butnot Last toa andshouldcontribute necessities (batteries) “reserve” Subsidy Subsidy based based Investment based based Connection Output based and Cross and Cross Lifeline Rates Operation Operation Description Description initial investment (or part ofit) initial investment (orpart theoverall Capital subsidiestargeting the number ofconnectionsachieved accordingto One-time subsidygranted ------between therevenues andthecosts thegap measures tohelpbridge schemes aretransition Most OBA produced theelectricity Subsidy supporting poorer/smaller/rural ones poorer/smaller/rural tosubsidise bigger/urban consumers Cross-subsidies: taximposedonricher/ the poorestconsumers Lifeline rate: usefor subsidisingenergy and costrecovery thegapbetween affordability Bridges system but nottheinitialinvestment. ofthe theoperation Subsidy supports Advantages Advantages ------Easy toimplement by maindonororganisations Supported projects only economically viable Supports Can boostPPP entrepreneurship Mobilisation ofcapital& scattered areas maximising connectionsinvery Incentive for investment andfor Safeguard O&M Can boostPPP capitalandentrepreneurship private Strong incentive for mobilisationof instrument ofsocialjustice instrument andgood electrification for rural Good potentialsourceofrevenues touseelectricity consumers Effective rural policiesfor encouraging of private capitalandentrepreneurship of private actor,private incentive for mobilisation Helps tosecurerevenues for the private investments.private projectscommercial andtherefore potentialofrural leverage services,in accessing energy modern but also to increase the rural areas poor tosupport notdies are only spentefficiently electrification,sources tofundrural itisessentialthatsubsi- on theinvestment costsofthesystem. Given thelimitedre- or theoperationcostsaffordablefocus toend-usersand/or of subsidies setting, tothetariff Complementary different combinations economicaldevelopment. sibilities oflocal socioeconomic ofthelocal situation andpos- analysis after ofinvestmentthe level andsubsidies(ifany) andofcourse Development.” World Bank, 2008. are beingprovided); andensuregoodgovernance. “REToolkit: A Resourcefor Renewable Energy minimization incentives(i.e., toreducecostseven thoughsubsidies retainthecommercialorientation need ofsupport; easytoadminister; linked toresults(i.e., focus onexpanding access); strongcost- 20 According tothe World Bankefficientsubsidies mustbe transparent; peopleinmost target can be developed tohelpmaketheconnection bedeveloped can 20 Shortcomings Shortcomings ------O&M isnotguaranteed covering O&Mcosts) (atleast Implies costreflective tariff legal, financialandpoliticalenvironment Harder toimplement, requiresstable Risk ofinsufficientresources for O&M Risk ofsystembeingoverstretched legal, financialandpoliticalenvironment Harder toimplement, requiresstable indispensable Metering development objectives sector withprivate Has togoinparallel special fund through cost-splitting, statebudget or Requires stable refinancingeither bigger users Cross subsidycanlimitconsumptionof companies energy the rural compromising thefinancialviabilityof Lifeline canbesettoohigh legal, financialandpoliticalenvironment Harder toimplement, requiresstable sustainability No incentive toachieve economic

31 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 32 21 Most commonBusinessModels andsustainableO&M. capital sation ofprivate production) themobili- are suitablesolutionssupport asthey theconnection incentives orthe output-based (supporting attractive solutions.grids Ifadditional subsidiesare needed, downenoughtomakeRE up-frontbuys mini- costsisoften ning costs of a system, an investment/capital subsidy which run- Following needtocover the thattariffs theprinciple duties. of import asproductionbe implementedsuch taxcredits orreduction Beside these subsidies,can offinancialsupport other forms Mixed Utility based based sector Private Community based odel Model For a more thorough description ofbusinessmodels, Foramorethoroughdescription pleasechecktheUSAID-AREstudy for Learned” Rural Mini-grids Electrification:Llessons “Hybrid available onwww.ruralelec.org.” - - - tariff maintains thesystemandcollects The utilityinstalls, and operates PPA). over (long-term tariff along-term and maintainsthesystem, collectsthe company installs,A private operates thesystem operates thatownssets upacooperative and itselfand The community organises escription Description - - - involved canbe All previousstakeholders differentiated andO&Mcanbe Ownership Mix ofpreviousmodels 21 for thesustainable for operation mini-grids: hybrid of ------dvantages Advantages ------scale Potential toachieve economiesof resources Easier accesstofinancialandtechnical actor Experienced byDriven efficiencyandperformance O&M) (longterm expertise investment capacityandtechnical company mayPrivate have acertain of thesystem O&M Strong interestinthelongterm system buy-in intotheelectrification ofselfgovernance andlocal in terms Positive impactsonthecommunity by acompany etc owned by thecommunity andO&M owned by theutility, localsystem different systems, e.g. infrastructures Combination oftheadvantages models. factors.key four mainbusiness the The nexttablesummarises O&Mare andresponsibilityfor thetwo grid) distribution of eachcountry. (generation and ofthesystem Ownership socio-economic situation conditions and on theregulatory Different approaches tooperationexistdepending on local ------hortcomings Shortcomings ------the locallevel Lack ofinterestandcommitmenton Often inefficient Political interference liquid partner PPALong term requiresstable and competences. managerial Company needshightechnicaland Implies accesstofinance viable already financially viable oralmost only projectswhichare Concerns over time Risk oftechnicalandfinancialfailure the potentialfor socialconflicts to compensatethelackofskillsand technical andsocialcapacitybuilding andneedfor period Long preparation the public side especially from Need stable partners, andconflicts misunderstandings canleadto manifold contracts Complexity ofagreements, 22 Lao project’s structure: Figure 21: eration ofthesystem. ongoing successfulop- remains invested inthe andthereforestruction kind work thecon for - investment with in- inthe also participated access. community The benefits ofelectricity velopment ofincome-generation activities tomaximisethe tor inthedialoguewithvillagers, on alsofocuses thede- community.The NGO,- which actsastheirmaininterlocu studyandinvolvement ofthelocal on boththefeasibility NGO on with alocal company early The private collaborated ofreturn rate ofaroundvillage andhasaninternal 15%. ject, thePEP hascommitted itself to a25-year PPA withthe outby thePEP.maintenance isalsocarried Through thispro - owned isofficially bythevillagers,though themini-grid the of theseemployees arecollect. they linkedtothefees Even sincethesalaries istrative costsandincrease theirefficiency thefees.and collect This helpedthemto reduce their admin - The companytwo thesystem employs villagerstooperate on itsconsumption. generation system, toeachhouseholdbased andchargesafee able assets. PEPThe owns andis responsiblefor thepower provider financedthemove- energy whereas local theprivate andvillagegrid),funded thefixed assets(publicinfrastructure thepublicpartners inwhich The projectPPP is based on a season andthegenset toaddress any unexpecteddemand. dry duced thecostsofsystem. PVwasaddedthe for Solar power nightloads, isavailablefor re- hassignificantly which Moreover, sincehydro inthesystem are batteries notincluded and PVisenoughtocover thehouseholds’ needs. everyday ing on renewables, produced from hydro sincetheenergy 3-4hoursperday.ing for isalmostentirely workThe system - peakload of8kW,households withadaily this peakremain- a3phases grid. supply which feeds 105 mini-grid This hybrid on jatrophasel generator(supposedtorun fuelinthefuture) hydro anda15kVA generatorwitha2kWpPVsystem die- The power presented system here combines a12kWsmall (PEP) responsibilities. assumeswideranging Private Partnership (PPP), provider energy aprivate inwhich power withmini-grid.hybrid system Itisbasedon aPublic of type following examplefromanoriginal The Lao describes rural La A sut Case study: Source: Sunlabob. rid in ainable hybridmini-g o PDR

22 Pico/Micro Hydro Private Energy Provider (PEP) Operate Generation Hybrid Generator Solar Sell ACSell KWh Bio-fuel Genset With Grid Remote Village high investment costs, low subsidies, obligation to collaborate project: electrification looking topursuearural entity private This project demonstrates thedifferentchallenges facing a model, model. utility-based toamainly sector-basedbusiness ject would from private switch amainly while reducing tothegrid itscosts. electricity to sell The pro - PEP increase will itsrevenues by power usingitsfull capacity an additional and already power operating capacity, and the (US$0.06 instead ofUS$0.24), benefitfrom will theutility grid users efit fromfor thatexist thesubsidisedsocialtariff This step presents advantage: a triple ben- the end-users will by company.erated theprivate the IPP’scosts), whilethegeneratingequipment remains op- reduce significantly work will collection(which andpayment tion capacity. care thentakeofthevillagenet- will The utility regional providers’ and to use the local grid additional genera- providertothe toconnect themini-grid national electricity organised end-users. Thus itmakeseconomicfor the sense an already-installed andinvolve generation well infrastructure disposeof attractive sincethey complement tothemaingrid further. are grids an has realised thatsmall The utility hybrid even inorderconnect itwithanearby grid toextendthePPP PEPThe network distribution and planstoexpanditslocal of investment, thesehave beenslower todevelop. ever, oftheabsencebankingsectorand because mainly two years, takingintoaccountvillageapplications. all How - after on anaverage consumption of1.5kWh/day/household activities that the company had anticipated. had They counted tions. of This wasduetothelack additional income generating hasrequiredwhich thecompany tolower itsrevenue projec- enues. expected,The demand on siteislower thanoriginally factor, ofthevillage, size duetothesmall limitsthePEP’s rev- sive theend-users. for Inaddition, thesystem’s limitedload remains expen- rather sotheelectricity tional publicsupport however,Currently withoutany theproject addi- isrunning population. therural too highfor torecoversince theprices theproject costswould have been infrastructure,grid thisproject would nothave beenpossible, finance the needed to initially the public support Without Partnership Fixed Assets Moveable Private Public assets Trust-Fund Eco-Fund

Village Electi cation with Hybrid System the extension ofthegrid. solutions and tween off-grid there isnodichotomybe- ver, italsohighlights that areschemes setup. Moreo- support possible if the right vate sectorinvolvement is - shows that long-termpri Most of all, study this case issues thePEP encountered. playerswith local were all collaboration, andrelations with theutility, long-term

33 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 34 lead ofagiven toincreased product. quality enhanced.of aproject’s besubstantially successcan acknowledgedstandards thatrecognized Itisgenerally project components. and system remit on Byimposing a quality animplementation program, thelikelihood order tohave thebestprojects. areThey theminimum of requirementsfor safeguarding asufficientquality Electrification. Rural for members of the Alliance Any program or project themin designshouldintegrate and are world respected bythe intheenergy renewable specifications are theauthority These technical systems withmini-grids International qualitystandards for hybrid power T IEC/TS 62257-12-1 - Part 12-1 IEC/TS 62257-12-1-Part 9-6 IEC/TS 62257-9-6-Part 9-5 IEC/TS 62257-9-5-Part 9-4 IEC/TS 62257-9-4-Part 9-3 IEC/TS 62257-9-3-Part 9-2 IEC/TS 62257-9-2-Part 9-1 IEC/TS 62257-9-1-Part 8-1 IEC/TS 62257-8-1-Part 7-3 IEC/TS 62257-7-3-Part 7-1 IEC/TS 62257-7-1-Part 7 IEC/TS 62257-7-Part 6 IEC/TS 62257-6-Part 5 IEC/TS 62257-5-Part 4 IEC/TS 62257-4-Part 3 IEC/TS 62257-3-Part 2 IEC/TS 62257-2-Part 1 IEC/TS 62257-1-Part IEC/TS 62257-1 Technical Specification able 8: Internationalstandards for hydro sectorwithminigrids&components recommendations for household lightingequipment systemsand electrification Selection ofself-ballastedlamps(CFL) for rural (PV-IES) system-SelectionofPhotovoltaic Systems Integrated IndividualElectrification projects electrification for rural PVlanterns system-Selectionofportable Integrated system-Userinstallation Integrated system-Userinterface Integrated Micro-grids Micropower systems availablebatteries indeveloping countries systems-Specificcaseofautomotive floodedlead-acid electrification managementsystemsfor stand-alone andbattery Selection ofbatteries systems electrification setsfor rural set-Selectionofgenerator Generator -Photovoltaic array Generators Generators Acceptance, operation, maintenanceandreplacement hazards Protection againstelectrical System selectionanddesign Project development andmanagement systems ofelectrification From requirementstoarange electrification introductiontorural General electrification systemsforRecommendations forandhybrid rural smallrenewable energy Explanation

Electricity Home Systems or Mini-grids? Section Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 36 background it is obvious that there is no general rule onbackground thatthere whetherEHS itisobvious isnogeneralrule are ormini-grids thebetterchoice. area.the rural shouldbetakenintoconsideration. which categories The tablebelow highlights Againstthis limitations. The decision choosebetween themshouldbebased on whetherto on thespecific conditions of solutions withdistinct ofoff-grid advantages and are andMini-Grids types Home Systems Electricity * REN21, “RENEWABLE ENERGIESFOR AFRICA, Potential, andStrategies”, Markets 2010. Financial models framework Institutional schemes Maintenance Operation and community organisation ofthe Degree ofself- Role ofuser workPreparatory Uses ofelectricity Suitable locations Cost* Power users Number electricity - Fee for service possible. - Feefor service - Usertargeted - Micro-finance - Low customsduties. development - Needofmarket settlements) dispersed massfor very of critical from basicskilledtechnicians(problem extensive geographically maintenance and Minimum O&Mfromusers development andfinance market - Low degreeofsocialorganisation, of strong. very - Ownership onO&M trainings Bigger PVsystemand WHS stillneeds system shouldbecompulsory. onhow tousea is needandtraining Training ondemandsidemanagement - preparation. WHS needsanimportant sized correctly. - BiggerPVsystemalreadyneedstobe for PPS. - Nopreparation - SmallDCFridges - Fans - Radios/TVs - Mobilechargers - Lighting(Public andprivate) DC and AC uses(dominatedby DC): grid the nationalelectricity Low densitypopulationareasfarfrom WHS: 15-25UScts/kWh SHS: 40-60UScts/kWh 5000 WWHS – 100 SHS 20-250 W buildings, commercialunits) (singlehouseholds,Individual users public HomeSystem(EHS) Electricity

- scalesoftfinancingproducts Access toquitelarge and localcommunities targeted operators - Subsidies(Investments private andOBA) Need for stable government institutions. staff. aswell asafulltimetrained independent operator massisusually bigenoughtojustifyan The critical Local needfor skilledtechnicianonaregularbasis. collection governance neededincludingtariff andlocal - Highdegreeofsocialorganisation low withoutathoroughpreparation - Ownership on user’s behaviour for demandsidemanagement. level,decentralised sinceitseemshardtorely only manage thepower demandata andtheenergy incentive solutionsmightbemoreefficientto compulsory. However, technical&economical necessary, aswell asonhow touseasystem Training neededondemandside, management training. demand assessment, sizing, right technicalandsocial compulsory: thorough Heavy work preparation - Healthservices - Motive power supply - Water -Public lighting householdappliances - Modern DC and AC uses(dominatedby AC): existing dieselmini-grids grid,national electricity smallisland, of hybridisation Medium-high densitypopulationareasfarfromthe Mini-grid: 25-100UScts/kWh 5 –500kW than 100dependingontheconsumption) Whole communities (from5householdstomore System(Mini-grid) Village Electrification A special and increasingly popular type of An energy kiosk is a business model Another energy system is the energy container, an all closely linked to the energy container in one solution with capacity to cater for concept. The idea is to use a central ener- potential the energy needs of external users. The en- gy generation facility (such as a contain- ergy container combines different genera- er) for the provision of energy services solution: tion components and a storage system and (e.g. battery charging) or energy related constitute an easy to deploy and ready to use services (e.g. internet connections or Energy energy “package”. TV). In this case, the energy generat- container and The main advantage of such systems is their mobility, which makes them especially suit- Energy kiosk able in situations where no other type of power is available and where there is a need for emergency access (e.g. humanitarian crises). They are not only easy to transport, they are also easy to install (not more than a few hours) and require low maintenance costs. In very remote, hard to reach locations, this type of systems offers an immediate solu- Figure 24: An energy kiosk in Gambia tion to the problem of energy access even in case of unstable weather, since most of the ing unit is coupled with income-gen- containers contain two or three different types of generation components. erating loads to foster the relationship The Energy Container presented in Image 24 for instance, is a battery-buffered between access to energy and economic wind-solar-Diesel-system, with the container sheltering all the generation com- development. ponents (e.g. diesel genset, wind turbine, PV module, and batteries), as well as the These types of energy kiosks have been entire controlling device. It can produce a peak output of 10kW and a continuous developed by several organisation/ output up to 5kW. companies,24 with different types of in- Figure 22: A model of energy container23. come generating activities. Some are de- 37 veloping an energy kiosk around ICT activities, hence addressing two main issues in developing countries: access to electricity and to new information and communication technologies. Sometimes the energy kiosk concept is applied in relation to the electrification of rural hospitals, mis- sionary stations or schools. In these cases Dieselgenerator Photovoltaics Wind Energy System the existing local infrastructure is used as a starting point for the provision of energy and energy-related services.

Inventer

Storage Battery Consuming Device

24 For instance NICE International, Greenpeace or Kaito AG 23 System designed by terrawatt planungsgesellschaft mbH SECTION 6 ENERGY S IN OFF-GRIDRENEWABLE Maintenance OFCOMPONENT S for the BASIC RECOMMEND Opera STEM tion A S TIONS nd and

mately 8m mately ofapproxi 4-6individualmoduleswithatotalsurface - of1kWp(typically capacity sunny conditions countries,Since aremostdeveloping for thenorm aninstalled electrification). rural for (untypical system tracking as well as on the operating conditions (arctic or desert? strongormoderateas wellon theoperating wind site?etc.). conditions(arcticordesert? 26 25 require ofmaintenance ahigher level SWT Small windturbine power electronics instancewhetheraMPPT (for ity), ofthetechnology, efficiency irradiation atthesite, cleanlinessofthesurface, the ofthesolarmoduledepends The output onmany factors:capac- (installed itssize Solar module local training component in every project. component training inevery local suitableO&M.of timetoguarantee a include Another solution would betoalways theprojectinvolving developers, period over acertain shouldbemade compulsory some guidance withplanning, installationandmaintenance. ofscheme,type This proposes manufacturer itself dealeror the It isnotrare thateithera components stage.failure atanearly are equippedwithremoteandpossible control tomonitor theperformance systems and paidfor. To helpwith theseissues, more areas andmore installationsinrural must beordered, parts right spare personneltrained tofixthemandthe shipped ofspare parts.ability Faults and needtobeidentifiedcorrectly require qualified/ istherepairs andtheavail- along-termoperationofanSWT for A bigchallenge needsregular maintenance.good performance shows that acoupleofyears. Experience wires) mightbe required, after but only year. Heavy maintenance, (e.g. refurbishmentofrotor blades and ofguyed changing visual and audio inspection, of guy-wires and bolts/screws once checking a or twice rosion ifnotcontrolled. “blooming” air, duetosalty effects on thealuminiumframe can lead tocor- which byage caused animals. Finally, of nearthecoastbearrisk located PVsystems bycontrol theusertoprevent dam- shouldbedone eventual regularly ofthecables opening andcontrol ofthejunction box reliefcables. andthe strain ofelectric Visual tenance isalsonecessary. cables andfixation, upof check This shouldinclude the withwaterandasponge, cleaned beeasily modulescan Solar butongoing main- shadowing, butalsotodecreaseofhotspotsthatdamage thegenerator. therisk rupted. Hence, ofthesurrounding area toavoid is essentialnotonly theobservation balancemightbedis- situations, decreases andtheenergy harvested theenergy beidentifiedvisually. modulesandcan lems occurduetomisplaced ordirty Inthese probMaintenance ofPVmodulesisrelatively easyasthemostcommon- technical 20years. of80%for output andmaintained, installed are properly mostPVmanufacturers apower guarantee mates, themodulesmay reach 50%orlessofthisoutput. only Iftheirproducts depend ontheturbinedesign The specificmaintenanceneedsofaSWTcourse MaximumPower Point Tracking 2 ) can generate more than 2.000kWh annually. generatemore) can than2.000kWh Inmoderate,- cli cloudy 26 . involves somegreasing, Generally it 25 isengaged), on a andeventually

39 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 40 a few seconds.a few using systems insmall important areAC power.characteristics especially The latter Inaddition surge power itmust power 2to3timestherated load beabletohandle small (<2-3W). for very sible instandby, savingmodes(<2%ofnominal power) andastandby ofdetectinga modecapable energy efficiency at partial loads use atpartial efficiency important.chosen isespecially inverter ofbattery type The characteristics are: Themostimportant a good inverters. isguided The sizingoftheinverter by thesystem’s totalloads consumptioncapacity. fact, whenthesystem’s inmany cases production level, exceeds acertain AC supply itwill loadswith fed are inverters uses AC advisedlarge for SRSandneededifthesystem system Battery power andloads. In invertersBattery tasks. important trolled toprevent corrosion. The controlcontacts andasecure ofbothfixed electrical standing are also andverified. checked bevisually too can and con- cleaned regularly capsshouldalsobe pole The battery’s duetofreezing orovercharging. ofthecase isthedeformation thebattery for Another potentialrisk This personnel.service Maintenance-freeofcontrol donotrequire lead batteries task. thistype the maximum mark. issues, tohealthandsecurity by trained Due beperformed thisoperationshouldonly needs to be refilled water to up with distilled byto water loss caused gas release the battery and in this case control level. filling important isthevisualinspection oftheelectrolytes candecrease level due filling The Normally, protection and O&M but a relatively the charge easy controlleralthough the battery guarantees itcomes tomaintenanceofstandalone PVsystems,When isthemostsensitive component. thebattery 29 28 27 time totime. connections andthecable needtobefixed fromslots shouldbekeptclean this information. Charge controllers needbasicmaintenance: only ventilation chosen, the interface Whatever the to end-user understand should be trained failures. provider toanalyse the service ofincorrect theuserincase use,alarm whereas dataloggers integrated help dataloggermorenals and/oranintegrated for advanced types. signals Sound mance through LEDs or/andLCD simplemodels, for displays andsoundsig- provideaboutthesystem’s information Charge controllers normally - perfor life. long battery thethreehelpensuring methodthatwill form stepscharging and should be equipped with microprocessors and power to per- transistors againstsulphation andacid stratification, protectsmethod which thebattery protecting longevity. itandguaranteeing Itmust charging provide aperiodic overcharging thus charge anddeepdischarging The controller controls battery Charge controllers Lead-acid battery InastandalonePVsystem, loaduse. ismostofthetime usedatpartial theinverter andtooffer controllerisalreadyintegrated solutions, wherethecharge turnkey Inordertosimplifythesystemwiring intheinverter. proposeinverters somemanufacturers andO&Msee characteristics Formoredetailsaboutbattery Annexes. 29 (>85%with5to50%ofworking loads), consumption aslow levels aspos- 28 27

countries, on only non-dispensable sources relying but it is also unavoidableof energy systems for project toensureoperation. iscentral asustainablesystem isacommon problem indeveloping Oversizing expected working withtheADC. time ofthesystem Therefore, athoroughtothe demandassessmentprior consumption and the storage according (ADC) to the according energy averagesized to daily the calculated 31 30 (hydraulic turbine, generatorrotor) have time between 20and30years. alife ing’s (weir, life-cycle intake, rangefrom andcanal) 50to60years whereas thegeneration components iswell maintained,If thesystem mini-hydro installationshave extensive life. andbuild- The construction remove from theturbines thewater. by large items of debris, situations (e.g. and in certain times of heavy flood), during to it may be necessary todamage vulnerable are schemes particularly in order type toprotect themfrom damage. Kineticenergy water, ice segments, bemountedupstream logsandotherdebris. can oforaround rack theturbines Atrash For three all technologies, toprotectfrom theturbines itisimportant damage from suspendedsolidsin hydroelectric alsobeanissue. can schemes ofkinetictype system around theanchoring riverbed Erosion hydroelectricby ofthe erosion run-of-river schemes. diversion arefor andweir amajorrisk type used. Damages tocivil works oftechnology type ofthecomponents alsodepend will onthe The longevity to occurandtheseneedbedredged periodically. racks,trash ofdamorweir, there isany type andgates). Where valves accumulations likely ofsiltare very tion ofthecivilworks (i.e. type, kineticenergy for system the dam/weir, the anchoring andtailrace, penstock andequipment usedinthepower-housemaintenance oftheturbine must beensured, aswell astheinspec- For schemes, ofrun-of-river three all types maintenance needs are well known andunderstood. Routine Small hydropower system project/programme, electrification of any rural chosen the technology whatever and should bepart very important even subsidisedpromoted and as products is The use of energy-efficient system itself. ofthe andthelifetime oftheirimpact on because theefficiency chosen have tobecarefully In standalone PVsystems, ones, thesmaller especially and ofthesystems theloads are part anintegrated Loads (appliances) systems whereloads aresystems DC andlessconsuming. cheaper inforce (e.g.has tobetransformed fridge, pumpetc). small Italsodoesnotmakeeconomicalsensefor ofusingexcessivealso anumberoflimitationsastherisk loads such ortheloads’ when power inefficiency protection, thebattery finally fundamentaltoensure alonger time, life cannot be bypassed. AC current has elements(e.g. anditsuseeliminatestheneedtoinvestcheaper insupplementary tousethemand inverters) ing AC bigger for systems: power advantages has several especially AC loads are more common andusually currentforon the distribution system.chosentype choice of loads dependThe of the should largely Choos- contamination are thatshouldbekeptinmind. risks long-term performance. Inany case, by theusers. handled loads must becarefully Shocks, moisture and sumption. powercan helptheusersto adjust theirbehaviourtothesystem balance,This toensure its If adataloggerinthesystem, isintegrated theusersabouttheircon helptotrain - can thedatacollected of theindividualload profiles grid. plusthelossesindistribution same consumption. of mini-grids, In the case the load to be supplied by the power plant(s) is the aggregate failure andbroken andwiththe loads have tobereplaced ones belonging withnew tothesamecategory Wind). can leadThe excessive tosystem and useoftheloadsrathercommon isalso countries indeveloping For more information seeSection 6: Formoreinformation Efficiencyanddemandsidemanagement Energy istheintroduction ofdieselinthesystemwithaninverter/charger. oversizing tolarge The onlyalternative 30 . The should be generator 31 (e.g. PV,

The future of DECENTRALISED energy solutions Section by €14,900 over time (See figureby 19). €14,900over time(See the component costsare brought down saving applianceswere €1,900, however ditional investment theenergy- costsfor reduced by 76%to1.880kW/h. The ad- 7.800kW/h, couldbe otherwise which measures wasexpectedtobearoundcy - consumption withoutenergy-efficien gy bulbs, andaPC/laptop. afridge The ener- In thiscase, SolarWorld on focused light consulting. ofenergy-efficiency portance SolarWorldcase study of a following The project in Bamako, Mali, im- highlights the crucial new components withinproducts. energy-efficient toinclude compulsory among themostsuccessfulrecipes toimproving thissituation. Inaddition, itshouldbecome efficient appliances and appliances, access to microcredits for the purchase of energy-efficient are come:changes can ongoing oftheend-user, dialogueandeducation ofenergy- availability local andbehavioral throughIt isonly strong approach local andincentives thatenergy-efficiency thebatteries,ger theentireandespecially system higherconsequencesofcosts. witheven interms losses.crease over timeduetoefficiency verywell endan- Thissudden over consumption mightalso toreplacetendency broken ones withcheap, bulbs, incandescent consumption may in- soenergy For instance, bulbs (CFL) of arethe initial equipment, part if energy-saving even there is a strong system. andshouldbetakeninto timeofthe account over thelife efficiency sensitive energy for ceed, involve ahighinitialinvestment costs. andlow usually running sincethey However, itisvery already needtobeovercome from theproject inception inorder renewableenergiestosuc- for but alsohasastrong component psychological (e.g. strong on focus thenearfuture). These barriers investments thatpayover off time. ofmicro-financing, cashand lack duetolimited Thisispartly thelowest peopletendtochoose upfrontImpoverished investment andshy away from higher toaddress socialchallenges One ofthekey isaphenomenon called “the economics ofpoverty”. ongoing involvement oftheendconsumer. issueasasocialone,not somuch atechnical building, concernscapacity which andan training and sustainedinteraction withtheend-users. projects, electrification Inrural is efficiency energy consumption (demandsidemanagement) require down theanticipatedenergy to bring intensive on investmenton andconsequently thedimension costs. oftheRE generator capacity Measures tries. For RE systems,crucial forsuccesssinceithasadirectfactor impact isa efficiency energy veloped economies, lossesandpotentialgainsare more coun- even indeveloping dramatic energy often newpresented asthe firstpotential is efficiency If energy “reserve” inde- supply ofenergy demand sidemanagement efficiency and Energy solutions. the futureenergy-based ofoff-grid renewable years tocome. This section highlights sometrendshave ofthekey will amajorimpact which on tion. Their attractiveness increaseeven will more progress astechnologies andcostsdecrease inthe are systems alreadyOff-grid today mature,- electrifica rural reliable andcost-effective solutionsfor ficiency andprojectcost Figure 23: ef- Therelationbetween energy

Cmntr (300 W, 8h/d) (3000 Wh/d) 1 PC+monitor 1 ine cientfridge (60W, 4h/d) 10 incandescentbulbs system:Ine cient Calculation basedonfollowing scenario: Bamako/Mail, component cost: 8€/Wp Source: SolarWorld Energy Consumption in Wh Ine cient consulting ofenergy e ciency Importance 7800 Consumers E cient - 76%! 1880 atp (50 W, 8h/d, €1000) 1 laptop (1000 Wh/d, €800) 1 e cientfridge (12W, 4h/d, €10) 10 CFLlightbulbs E cient system:

Component Cost in Ine cient 22400 Consumers Cost ofnewappliances Cost ofpv-components €14.900 ! - 67%or E cient E ciency 5600 1900 Energy

43 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 44 immense in supporting their publicity andinincentivisingtheirpurchase. theirpublicity immense insupporting Figure 24: connectedPV ofgrid Evolutionprice ofmanufacturing everywhere inthenearfuture. everywhere chains,distribution customs ofcompetition. dutiesandlack However, beexpected alsoshow they whatcan connected countries, installationandindeveloping grid higherduetoinefficient besubstantially can they Of course, markets thedeveloped inEurope validfor are ortheUSandfor thesefavorable prices mostly PV manufactured panel isbelow US$3/Wp, expectedtodecrease further. withprices even years. inthelastfew ofPVpanelshave beendecreasingprices dramatically Currently, ofareliable theprice produced by windorhydro, small higherthantheenergy isgenerally Although thecostofPVelectricity Technology manuf benefits sectordirectly frombut theoff-grid it. decreasing.constantly There markets isno doubt thatgrid-connected are ofthispositive thedrivers trend, around theworld,capacity andthankstoeconomiescontinuous innovations, ofscales are theirprices schemes. and support encouraged by climates favorable political nowThey represent energy most of the new In thelastdecades, expansion,formidable a have experienced andoff-grid renewables bothgrid-connected decreasing generation costs T 33 32 gy-efficient products andwhere tofindthem gy-efficient components, part. animportant alsoplays Many organisations propose guidelineson how ener- tochoose policy,opment ofasoundenergy-efficiency thetechnology, choiceofsuitable the andmore specifically - fundamentaltothedevel Even though asocialapproachresellers isabsolutely totheend-usersandlocal PV LCOE ranges 20 25 0 5 0 5 € cts/kWh 1200 echnological progress and Someofthemostknown websitesonthisissueare: Source: EPIA/ARE/A.T. Kearney: “Unlocking theSunbeltpotentialofphotovoltaic”, 2010 : NREL, IEA technology Roadmap Solar photovoltaicSources: NREL,IEAtechnologySolar Roadmap energy, A.T. analysis Kearney 2) Low andhighLCOE correspond respectively withthelowest andhighestturnkey system price withintheprice range 1) Turnkey industrialorIPPPVsystems largerratio; than1MWp:85%performance Lifetimeuntilandafter2020isrespectively 25and30years; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp www.energyrating.gov.au/con1.html www.aceee.org/consumer www.energystar.gov www.topten.info O&M costs nancingwithWACC: 1.5%ofCapex; Debt 6,4%;system Price 2010:2800-2600€/kWp 11.8 18.7 20.1 5.9 8.3 8.7 1300 (1,2) 1400 (€cts/kWh) 1500 a cturing prices Operating hourskWh/kW 1600 33 . is The of andpublicauthorities governments responsibility

1700 32

p 1800 1900 2000 Low 2030 Low 2020 Low 2010 2030 High 2020 High 2010 High 2100 11.7 12.6 3.7 5.2 5.4 7.4

35 34 not affected by deepdischargesanddonot require maintenance.much slow ageingloss below at high 0°C temperaturesare and low attractive, capacity as isthe fact are that they in extreme located conditions systems for with wide operational temperature range (-25°Cto+50°C). Their N PVoperation,to beoptimisedfor upinorder hastobescaled reduce andtheirproduction costs. capacity ofPPS. types innew integrated However, has designstill andbattery aswell astheircell theirelectrochemistry maintenance-free set up.and a totally systems and are already small also offer good optionsThey for some very cycle, and life as an excellent calendar such (95%), a high energy-efficiency SOC and SOH of the indication arenew known advantages, lithium-ionbatteries beingadapted totheoff-grid REsectorandoffer the widely areNew technologies reaching ofcommercialisation thelevel andare getting more competitive. For instance, and life, andstateofhealth(SOH)monitoring/control andthedevelopment ofSOC systems. targeted: through costreduction designandmanufacturing standardisation), (especially increased service products. quality validate thecompanies offering However, some areas ofimprovement have already been nance. In addition, already benefits from the internationalindustry IEC standards,regulation and which wide rangeofproducts, low ornomainte- and very charging(SOC) statesof atvarious ahighefficiency sectorproposing ofstorageintheoff-grid a are batteries themostpopularandmature type Lead-based and theindustry. ismore than100 years old,technology improved ithascontinuously boththankstotheresearch community areprojects. electrification systems) rural off-grid by usedin farthemost commonly for While thebasic are which notappropriate (not tobemistakenwithlead-acidbatteries lead-based batteries car Deep-cycle miniaturisation, pushedby butitisalsogreatly massive global investments sector. inthegrid-connected PVinstallationthatare companiesinstancespecialisedinsmall by for goingdriven towards afew more one oftheareas where innovationisexpectedtohave amajorimpact on themarkets. This innovationis system’s systems. thesustainableoperationsofoff-grid for isamajorchallenge lifetime also They represent the during represent technologies cost factor andthedegradation ofstoragecapacity Storage animportant Innov T intheseregions. term atrend bereplicableonhowever alsoindicate thatwill theshort/medium they scale. Herehave countries, tobeadaptedofdeveloping tooprices tothereality where costsare different, windare ofsmall alsodroppingimprovementThe prices duetoconstant andeconomies technological of able 9: Evolution ofgridconnectedSmall Wind prices System size/type 2009 1.5-15kW 15-50kW 50-250kW 1.5-15kW 2015 15-50kW 50-250kW 1.5-15kW 2020 15-50kW 50-250kW ickel (N ickel Interested people can find more information onstorage Interestedpeoplecanfindmoreinformation in Annexe 1. Source: DesignofFeed-in Tariffs inGreatBritain, for Sub-5MWElectricity BWEA&Poyry a are also an option for further developments inthestoragesector, are alsoanoptionfurther for i-Cd) basedbatteries especially tive storag e technologies (per site&perkWh) Fixed cost €11.790 €3.540 €3.540 €11.790 €2.882 €2.882 €11.790 €2.594 €2.594

(€/kW) Marginal cost €2.360 €3.540 €3.540 total €1.425 €2.882 €2.882 €1.340 €2.594 €2.594 34 35

maintenance cost Annual €260 €87 €87 €260 €72 €72 €260 €65 €65

45 Rural Electrification with Renewable Energy: Technologies, quality standards and business models 46 Enhanced energy management systems and unified communication protocols andunifiedcommunication management systems Enhanced energy to 600Vhave beendesignedandnow are inafieldtest phase. renewable generators(large PVplantsandmicro windturbine), withvoltages up support grid aswell asfor is foreseen thatfuture tobefastandsuccessful. developments will combined Demonstrationwith systems vehicles, andhybrid electric for andsystems obtainedinthedevelopment ofbatteries tensive experience it further spur the market penetration of such systems worldwide. spurthemarket systems penetrationofsuch further of planning, installationandmaintenance. andthus systems hybrid alsobemuch Itwill easiertosupervise ardised communication, interms systems ofhybrid bepossibletoimprove performance itwill theoverall the performance, systems. ofPVhybrid andflexibility harmonised costefficiency such andstand- With logue on communication protocol. communication toimprove standards contribute Newly-developed can To move towards standartisation, itisessentialtocontinue andintensifycurrent research andglobaldia- tion, impossible. technically nearly this problemexpansion and, more makes system costly withoutdetailedknowledge- ofthespecificinstalla dataloggingandsystem’sand turn andexpensive maintenanceintoacomplicated operation. Furthermore, pendent control strategy. systemThese situationscontrol makeitdifficulttoimplementstrategy a general For instance, achargermay notbeabletocommunicate withaninverter, havingitsown inde- eachdevice many different components donotfitwithother. include which each designedandoften individually still ardisation andaproblem ofcommunication components. between thedifferent system are Mostsystems fromofproduct isthelack thatarise stand- experience inmini-grids challenges One ofthebiggest technical ever, oflessons have providinglearned. many already alarge ofthesesystems corpus worldwide beeninstalled cover the needs of hundreds projects of millions of aroundpeople multiply as mini-grid will the world. How- becomewill one ofthemainstream andemergingeconomies. indeveloping technologies areThey expectedto There isnodoubt thatinthenearfuture, technology and villagepower based on mini-grids hybrid systems 36 Sodium N Sodium to abuse, buton theotherhand, itisnotsuited tositeswithlow loads (e.g. <400Wcontinuous). ule (ZBM)used. and robustness density) The biggest advantage oftheZBMisitslow weight (highenergy bank of at least 300Ah mod- and powerat least 800W charging available per zinc-brominebattery battery Typical bus, a48VDC are they include inwhich installed requirements system amini-grid for alead-acid with plasticelectrodes, from any discharged. donotsuffer deterioration they beingcompletely 220kg andare repeated designedfor 100%depth-of-dischargecycling. As “zinc electroplating machines” andupto5kW power rating. capacity from have 10kWh availableflow a The smallest batteries They weigh banks by increasing capacity. theiroverall battery tolarger systems, applicable available designsare mostly where are they usedtoaugmentexistinglead-acid onto plasticelectrodes. made ofplastic, Asitisprimarily ofover 10years. life ithasacalendar Currently by electroplating thatstore zinc electricity offlow battery areclass anew batteries Flow Zinc-Bromine waterreplenishmentdesign toeliminatetheneedfor time. over alife charge/discharge conditions. Moreover, toimprove electrochemistry, research isalsonecessary and separator ume, andhightemperatures underRE athighdeptofdischarge(DOD) life andanincrease intheircycle However, PVoperation, alsoneedtobeoptimisedfor they areduction oftheirweight including andvol- For details on communication standards and energy managementsystemssee Fordetailsoncommunicationstandardsandenergy Annex 2. ickel C ickel on thisfieldarephase, intheirstarting batteries hloride butthankstoalong andex- 36

ANNEXES The membersofthe Annex 6: Communication Management Systems Standards andEnergy Annex 5: Standards andrecommendations for Sodium–Nickel Chloride Annex 4: Standards andrecommendations for Lithium-ion Annex 3: Standards andrecommendations for Nickel-based batteries ANNEX 2: Standards andrecommendations for Lead-acidbatteries ANNEX 1: Open standardsfor communication protocols What iscommunication for? Technical Technology qualitystandardsfor lead-acidbatteries International Technical types:Deep cycleleadbattery FLAand VRLA vs.Deep cyclebatteries Shallow cycle

50 recommendations 49 recommendations Alliance for RuralElectrification T echnology 50 T echnology

54-55 53 53 52 50 49 53 53 50 49 49 1.000 cyclesat50%DOD25 banksfor solarapplicationsshallcycleaminimum of battery 2-Volt or6 Volts cellsblock. Such2-Volt or6-Volt configured loads, banksaretypically configuredin multiple of battery ANNEX I: Standards andrecommendations forlead-acidbatteries Minimum st Labels T Caseomposition V Plate Design General Design P Minimum st (DOD)at25 times at50%depthofdischarge approximately /recharged 600 canbedischarged battery A 12-Volt monoblock floodedleadacid(FLA)deepcycle applications.energy & Ignition(SLI)batteries, for renewable arenotappropriate toas alsoreferred batteries Automotive orStarting,Lighting projects. electrification Shallowassociated withrural Cycle capabilitiesunderthechallengingconditions performance applications,ies shouldbeconsideredfor off-grid given their Cycle andShallow Cyclebatteries. Only DeepCyclebatter life cycle. groups:They aredividedintotwoDeep primary providing ofinitialcostversus thebestoverall valueinterms technologyisawell developed solution Lead acidbattery the lowest life cyclecost. tobeableexcellent deepcyclingperformances toprovide with moderequiresselectingbatteries challenging operating andthis statesofcharge onadaily basisinvarious operates cloudydays. atnightandduring to operate The solarbattery needstobestoredsothesystemcancontinue the energy is onlythedaytime available and during inlimiteddurations poweredhome systemandmini-grid system. Solarenergy for theelectricity storage provides energy A solarbattery vs. Shallow cycle Deep cyclebatteries recommendations. systems. This sectionhighlightsessentialchoicesandgives for off-grid successfactors and maintenanceareimportant teristics, provisions management, for theright operations type,- itsphysicalcharac andperformance tion ofbattery electrification. systemsfor rural for off-grid right selec- The technology arethedominatingstorage Lead-acid batteries T Operating CycleLife Initial Capacity Efficiency Self -Discharge Rate Parameter emperature ent / arameter erminal V alve Construction P olarity and and ards forchr ards forphy

o Minimum standards-Flooded The discharge capacity of a deep cycle solar battery may initially be approximately 75% of full rating and build up in capacity during normal operation. may initially normal beapproximately andbuild upincapacityduring 75%offullrating capacityofadeepcyclesolarbattery The discharge minimum 1,000cyclesat50%DOD25oC. 2-Volt, 6-Volt bankshallprovide cellsconfiguredbattery at 50%DOD25oC, accordingtotheIEC61427standard. 12-Volt monoblock shallprovide minimum 600cycles battery Efficiencies aretocomply withIEC61427standard Maximum 15%ofRatedCapacity at25oCpermonth C. A shallow cyclebattery Labels shall meet the general requirements of Battery Council International andlocalstandardsasrequired. CouncilInternational requirementsofBattery Labels shallmeetthegeneral shouldbeindelibly polarity visible. terminal Identification ofbattery ofpolypropylene, caseshouldbeconstructed The battery ABS orPVC. Vents (orreliefvalves for withanti-flamepropagationmechanismsandshouldprevent electrolyte leakage. VRLA) shouldbeconstructed aremet. Flat plateortubular platedesignmay beusedaslongotherparameters Designed for deepcycleapplication. Noshallow cycleorautomotive SLIbatteries. Minimum standards -Floodedand o C. Forlarger sical char cteristic oflead- - of thehydrolysischarging. during ofhydrogenan explosive tooccurasaresult concentration ver, installationmusttoprevent bevented properly battery manufacturer must beused.specified by thebattery Moreo- charging.during Qualitywaterthatmeetsminimum standards replace waterlostasaresultofhydrolysis thattakes place objective. requireregularmaintenanceto FLAbatteries systemdesign lowest life-cycle costsisthemostimportant choose forapplicationswherethe mostrenewable energy technologies.deep cyclebattery They aretheoptionto provide ofall the bestcyclingperformance FLA batteries and valve regulatedleadacid(VRLA). groups:systems fallintotwofloodedleadacid(FLA) primary typically usedinrenewableDeep cyclebatteries energy andVRLA FLA types:Deep cycleleadbattery developers. results shouldbeeasily availableandproject toendusers andthese to thisstandardby anindependentlaboratory statesofcharge. at partial shouldbetested The battery frequently operates in REapplicationswherethebattery 61426 standard), abilitytodowell whichteststhebattery’s testingfollowingperformance renowned standards(e.g. IEC ies. Besidethis cost, selectionshouldbebasedonrelevant this costismuch lower thantheoneofautomotive batter isthecostpercycle.sideration With deepcyclebatteries, thatshouldbetaken intocon- The only costofabattery damage. cells,prone toshorting whichmay leadtosevere system reachestheendofits’when abattery life suddenly, theyare replaced.be regularly Inaddition, theyarenotreally safe as andneedto cost-effective ismuch astheirlife shorter term often selectedfor theirinitiallow prices, but areactually not same conditions. areunfortunately Shallow cyclingbatteries (FLA, AGM orGEL)may lastonly 100–150cyclesinthe cteristic oflead- -20°C to+45°C(<90%ofhumidity) VRLA cid ba at 50%DOD25oCaccordingtotheIEC61427standard. 2-Volt, 6-Volt cells bankshallprovideAGM minimum 1,500cycles configuredbattery monoblock inthesameconditions. battery at 25oC, accordingtotheIEC61427standardand1,000 cyclesfor GEL12- Volt AGM 12-Voltmonoblock shallprovide minimum 1,200cyclesat50%DOD battery Maximum 5%ofRatedCapacity at25oCpermonth Minimum standards– VRLA tteries uedREy

cid ba - tteries uedinREy for eachtechnology. distinguishtheminimum technicalstandards order toclearly systems, usedinEHSandmini-grid FLAand battery VRLA, in typesofdeepcycleleadacid divided intothetwo primary renewable applications. When necessary, thestandardsare bestin thatwillperform as ameanstoselectbattery For eachparameter, theminimum technicalstandardisgiven performance). whichhave factors directimpactonbattery (design andinstallation Design andInstallationCharacteristics Physical Characteristics, Performance Characteristics, System systemsarebroken intothreecategories:for EHS/mini-grid The technicalrecommendationsfor selectionofbatteries into account. have personal tobetaken conditionsandtrained natural andelementssuchasloadssizing, has itsown particularities lowed, lifetime. eachproject willimprove Ofcourse battery are only meanttoprovide minimum standardsthat, iffol- innatureand These technicalrecommendationsaregeneric systemsthatuserenewables.used inEHSandmini-grid The following aretechnicalrecommendationsfor batteries T to FLAbatteries. result, willmost likely have alower cyclelife whencompared tolerant, issuesinhotclimates, subjecttothermal andasa moreexpensive, aregenerally VRLA batteries non-abuse for properoperation. donotrequirewatering batteries gel electrolyte (GEL). maintenance,While stillrequiring VRLA two commonconfigurations, absorbedglassmat(AGM) and shouldbeconsidered.battery areavailableVRLA batteries in technology,maintenance freebattery adeepcycling VRLA anteed onaregularbasis. Forsuchsystemsthatrequirea not aviable optionbecausemaintenancecannotbeguar However for someapplications, technologyis FLAbattery echnical recommendations stem: stem: -

49 50 array shallbesized designfactors: takingintoaccountseveral array exclusivelyfor systemsthatarecharged withPV, thesolar sources specific natureofthecharging available. Forinstance, requirements oftheapplicationwhiletakingintoaccount thatsystemsbeoptimisedtomeettheload it isimportant over-charging so canreducethelife ofthebattery batteries factorinfluencinglongevity.important Bothunderand bankisperhapsthemost ofthebattery Daily charging life.common problems thatimpactoverall battery roleinhelpingtoavoid acritical many serve and installers REsystemdesigners alongwithexperienced manufacturers performance.tions willensurethebestlong-term Battery applica- electrification rural for EHSandmini-grid propriate ap- taking stepstoselectahigh-qualitydeepcyclebattery number lifeoffactors, dependsonalarge however,Battery damageasaresult. long-term ending upsuffering but onaregularbasis, never reachesafullstateofcharge tofunctionwell initially, bankthatappears result inabattery life. Mostoftenthesemistakes battery andshorten formance topoorper systemscontribute designing renewable energy Many commonyet seemingly minormistakes madewhen conditions. They provide low life cyclecostsfor theoperator. They areso-calledalkalinesystems, i.e. acid. theirelectrolyte isofalkalinenatureinsteadsulphuric technologies, (Ni-MH)areadvanced,Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd)andNickel-Metal Hydride androbust battery suitableapplications underextremeenvironmental easytocharge for allindustrial Safety V Maintenance Location Storage Interval Hardware (L Inverter andController Controller SetP Controller T Ambient T Autonomy (DOD) Depth ofischarge Parameters Minimum st sulphuric acid.sulphuric systems, i.e. theirelectrolyte isofalkalinenatureinstead cycle costsfor theoperator. They areso-calledalkaline extreme environmental conditions. They provide low life technologies, suitableapplicationsunder for allindustrial (Ni-MH) areadvanced, androbust battery easytocharge Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd)andNickel-Metal Hydride ANNEX 2: Standards andrecommendations forNickel-based batteries used REy IEC 68-2-29Chapter 5.1&5.2 IEC 68-2-6Chapter 5.3.1 IEC 62485-2ed. 1.0 P IEC 61427Ed. 2.0 lead-acid batteries IEC 60896-11ed. 1.0onStationary entilation Standards VD) emperature echnology stem: and oints ards fory art 2 art Minimum standards-Flooded tive devices sized according to the wire downstream as close as possible to battery terminals tive devicessized accordingtothewiredownstream asclosepossible tobattery unlimitedvoltage withbatteries. source,working must beprotectedby Inaddition, wiring isavirtually meanofover protec- current sincethebattery terminals. circuitofbattery Provisions shallbetaken toavoidAlways wear accidentalshort protective clothing, gloves andeye protectionwhen spaces. ventilated toprevent roomshallbeproperly accumulation ofexplosive andtoprevent hydrogen fumesinsideliving gasconcentration The battery facturer recommendationsatregularintervals. Electrolyte must bereplenishedwithdistilledwateraccordingtomanu- access. with restricted shouldbelocatedinaspacedirectly vented tooutsideair The battery ing for morethan3monthsbefore installation. - withoutcharg At 25°C, shouldnotbeinstorage newFloodedbatteries Terminal for corrosion. connectionsshouldbemadewithstainlesssteelhardware(screwandnuts) andconnectionsshouldbeinspectedregularly for the controller for theDCloadsandatinverter AC Load, orasadiscreetrelay driver. inthesystemshallfeature Low Load circuitry Voltage Disconnect(LVD) toprevent over ofthebattery. discharge LVD istypically featured atthe andequalize manufacturer recommendationsforcharging. normal regulatorshouldallow forThe charge voltage setpointsconsistentwithbattery Additionally, Maximum-Power-Point Tracking loads. canbeconsideredfor larger (MPPT)algorithm compensationfeature. andtemperature algorithm regulatorwithPulse-WidthModulation(PWM)charge viaacharge shallbecharged The battery recommendations. factors manufacturer de-rating casemonthly banksizeaverage designshallbebasedontheworse ambientcoldtemperature, perbattery The battery according totheloaddemandsofapplicationandtypesystems(e.g.capacity) power hybrid systemsneedslessbattery bankdesignshouldallow for 2to5Days ofautonomy,The battery casemonthly average at80%DODtheworse ambientcoldtemperature, range of2to25%DOD.The dailyshallfluctuateinthe average discharge shallbe80%DOD. Themaximum occasionaldischarge stem deign standard RequirementsandMethodsof for Photovoltaic Systems (PVES)–General CellsandBatteries Energy Secondary Test” 22:Part Valve regulatedtypes–Requirements 11:Part 21:Vented requirementsandmethodsoftestsPart types–General Valve regulatedtypes–Methodsoftests Bump test test Sinusoidal vibration installations: Batteries andbattery Stationary batteries Safety requirementsfor secondary Explanation - ing. autonomy canbereducedto2-3days inthe Battery manufacturer’s- recommendationstoensureefficientcharg of thesedevicesneedtobesetaccordingthebattery bank. tothebattery plemental charging settings The charge tions, typically provides sup- acombinedinverter/charger - contribu systemswhichcombinemultipleFor hybrid energy being over for longerlife. discharged from also beincludedinthesystemtoprevent thebattery setat 80%DOD)should the regulatorand/orinverter low voltage in disconnect(LVD) (typically integrated circuitry for permitted ofexplosion. duetoarisk VRLA batteries A ies for optimum performance. Equalisingmodeisnottobe weeks modefor maximum)FLAbatter equalisingcharging 3-4 Itshouldalsoengageregular(i.e. every ing parameters. - manufacturer recommendedcharg withinbattery algorithm life ofthebattery, safely operating throughPWMcharge losses of10%to20%. The PVregulatorshalloptimize the if any) typically from5%to15%, andaminimum totalsystem orinverters, power conditioninglosses(DC/AC converters (ALR)typically from 11%to30%, ratio array-to-load the monthly averagethe worst-case insolation, anassociated voltage of1,2V, orinblock batteries, withmultiples of1,2V. teries. They comeeitherassinglecelltype, withanominal (also known asvented cells)andrecombinationNi-Cdbat- Ni-Cdbatteries:are two majortypesofindustrial opencells hydroxide andthenegative withcadmiumhydroxide. There with theactive material, i.e. thepositive onewithnickel with different electrodedesigns. The electrodesarefilled Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd)accumulator systemsarebuilt T echnology and inst alla tion char Minimum standards– VRLA sealed donotallow for replenishmentofelectrolyte. areconsideredmaintenancefreeandbecausethey VRLA batteries access. shouldbelocatedinaventilated spacewithrestricted The battery for morethan10monthsbefore installation. At 25°C, new withoutcharging shouldnotbeinstorage VRLA batteries cteristic oflead- - proper charge at any ambient temperature atthesite. atany ambienttemperature proper charge willreceive a toensurethatbatteries compensation charging for adequatetemperature temperature to measurebattery affect batteries, controllershouldhave thecharge theability solution.case ofahybrid Finally, variations sincetemperature ficient qualityofsystemcomponents. They aretheminimum requirementsfor safeguarding asuf- theminordertohaveshould integrate thebestproducts. Electrification.for Rural orprojectdesign Any programme ofthe andarerespectedby themembers world Alliance intherenewable energy These standardsaretheauthority batteries International qualitystandards for version andPowerversion version. the facttheyaremaintenancefree. They existinEnergy density (upto40%greaterthannickel-cadmium cells)and volume. Majoradvantagesincludetheir improved energy for agiven weightcapacity (measuredinampere-hours) and cadmium-based electrode. This increases thecellelectrical tion ofahydrogen absorbingnegative electrodefor the proven nickel cadmiumcelltechnology withthesubstitu- Nickel-metal cellsareessentially hydride anextensionofthe applications.Ni-MH technologyalsoexistsfor industrial cid ba tteries

Construction V Plate Design General Design Parameter Labels T Case omposition Minimum st Initial Capacity Cycle Life Efficiency Self -Discharge Rate T Operating P Minimum st Minimum st canbespecially designedfor PV Cycling Ni-Cdbatteries Cycling • • • • • • technology: KEY FEA • • • • • • technology: KEY FEA rural electrifica electrifica sy (DOD) Depth ofischarge P emperature ent/V arameter erminal arameters Easy tomaintain No waterreplenishment, Compact : /volume Small footprint given off vapors No corrosive Good mechanicalabuse resistance Long Life &GoodCycleLife operation state-of-charge partial No damagescausedby overcharging, and deepdischarge high capacityperformance Different electrodedesignsavailable for highpower to withhighcurrents Chargeable cycles High number ofoperating -50°C upto+60°C Usable from atextremelow andhightemperatures mechanical robustness Extremely highelectrochemicalrobustness andhigh stem chargedbyrenewable energysource: alve TURES Ni-MHba TURES -Ni-Cdba P and olarity and and and tion sy life time ards fory ards forperformncechr ards forphy Ni-Cd industrial battery Ni-Cd industrial Minimum Standardfor or 62259). labelsshallmeettheIECrequirements(60623 Battery shouldbeindelibly polarity visible. terminal Identification ofbattery of electrolyte levels. caseshouldbetranslucent, for easyinspection The battery flip top vent. To beequippedwithFlamearresting Low Pressurevent notnecessary. aremet. long asotherparameters Pocket plateofFibertechnologiesmay beused, as arerecommended. Cycling Ni-Cdbatteries tion sy facturer for details. below 100%. This figure must betaken intoaccount whensizingthebattery. profileandtechnology. Actualvaluedependingoncharge Consultmanu - operation. usedfor Solarapplicationshallbecapablenormal ofbuild upcapacityduring A NiCdbattery isnormally The finalstabilized stateofcharge conditions of§8.4@40°C Ni-Cd shallprovide minimum 1 500cyclesunderIEC61427 Efficiencies aretocomply withIEC61427standard capacitypermonth(@25°C) Maximum 10%ofrated high densityelectrolyte between -40°Cto-20°CispossibleOperation by usingspecial -20°C to+50°C Ni-Cd industrialbattery Minimum Standard stem chargedbyrenewable energysource: discharged. Low voltage disconnectisnotnecessary. asNi-Cdcanbe100% DOD. range of2to25% The dailyshallfluctuateinthe average discharge Ni-Cd industrialbattery Minimum Standard for ttery ttery stem chargedbyrenewable energysource: stem deign sical char topping upby addingwater, specified by the (ofthegrade Like theFLA, Vented Ni-Cdwillrequireregularelectrolyte Maintenance difficult environmental and operation conditions. difficult environmental andoperation canbeachieved instandbyyears power systemseven under with theNi-Cdtechnology, life ofmore than20 aservice ofthebattery.operation Basedonthepresentexperience endar age, but ishighly dependentontheconditionsduring by isnotdriven itscal- battery lifetime ofaNi-Cd service cycles areneededtoreachthefullperformance. The total longtimeandafterthis, very only afew charge/discharge features. The cellscanbestoredwithoutcapacitylossfor a isoneoftheirimportant batteries life ofNi-Cd The service ofdifferent theperformance chemistries.comparing IEC 61427cyclingconditionsat40°C. This isalsoaway of time, istoassessthenumber ofcyclesitcompletesunder andlife performance - short, away ofassessingabattery Ni-MH canprovide 6.000cyclesinthesameconditions. In cycling atthetypicaldaily DODof15to20%. application, offgrid Ni-Cdshall providetypical PVrural 8.000 cyclingcharacteristics.usually donothaveIna thenecessary floating application(UPSorDCback-upsystems), asthey designedfor is notrecommendedtouseaNi-Cdbattery mini-grids. forFortheseapplications, rural storage energy it cyclingapplications,off-grid andprovide areliable sourceof and inst cteristic ofba cteristic ofba alla Ni-MH industrial battery Ni-MH industrial Minimum Standardfor There is yet no industrial IECstandardforThere isyet Ni-MHbatteries. noindustrial Follow Ni-Cdlabellingby default. interface caseshouldbeopaquewithpolypropylene plastic. opaque polypro-pylene. assembly isofmetalliccasewithconnectorand The finalbattery The singlecellismadeofsteel. Noelectrolyte checknecessary. Somedesignsarealso of The cellsarewithsealeddesign. Hydrogen-absorbing AB5 alloy for thenegative electrode. Cycling Ni-MHisrecommended. tion char tteries uedinEHS Minimum Standard for Ni-MHindustrialbattery under IEC61427 Ni-MH shallprovide 6000cycles@20°Cat15%DoD, orbestcyclingprofile capacitypermonth(@25°C) Maximum 10%ofrated -20°C to+40°C Ni-MHindustrialbattery Minimum Standard for such adevice. Low voltage disconnectisrecommended. systemmightintegrate Somebattery The dailyshallfluctuatebetween average 2to25%DOD. discharge tteries uedinEHS cteristic ofba and MiniGridrural electrifica tion projects. followed,- electrifica life inrural willallow improved battery are meanttoprovide aminimum qualitystandardthat, if innatureand The technicalrecommendationsaregeneric recommendations. project toandassuch, isbeyond thescopeofthese ing tothesystemloadsandlocation, from whichvaries accord- systemwillvary the sizingofeachEHS/mini-grid sources. charging that userenewable energy Pleasenotethat projects electrification usedinEHSsystemsfor rural teries These aretechnicalrecommendationsfor Nickel-based bat- T thus donotrequireany electrolyte adjustmentorcheck. battery. arenotsealedtechnologies, Ni-MHbatteries and possible, thusmakingitpossible tousethefulllifespan ofthe Unlike sealedtechnologies, andlike for FLA, topping-upis understandardconditions.years maintenance intervals. Typical isfour topping-upinterval tominimise recommended toselectarecombiningbattery pressure vent. IftheNi-Cdtechnologyispreferred, thenitis the manufacturer, theymay comeequippedwithalow- much lessmaintenancethanvented type. Dependingon manufacturer). willrequire RecombiningNi-Cdbatteries echnical recommendations tteries uedinEHS and mini-gridrural ini Grid and MiniGrid

tion tion

51 52 lithium atoms. discharge. during This processisreversed electrons andaredepositedbetween as carbonlayers toward thecarbonanodewherecombinewithexternal throughtheelectrolyte cathode becomeionsandmigrate isbeingcharged, theLithiumatomsin When thebattery between 3.2Vand3.8V.individual Li-ioncellvaries choice ofthecathodematerial, the nominalvoltage ofan carbonates.LiPF6) dissolved inorganic Dependingonthe material. The electrolyte ismadeupoflithiumsalts(suchas (LiCoO2, LiMO2, andtheanodeismadeof carbon etc.) isalithiatedmetaloxide The cathodeinthesebatteries Standards andrecommendations for Lithium-ion ANNEX 3: 14001,that will ensure that its customers areconsistently receivinghighqualityproducts. will ensurethatitscustomers 14001,that thatrequestsuchdata.make thetestresultsreadily available toany parties manufacturer shouldalsohave qualitycertifications,like theISO9001:2000or The battery manufacturer shouldhave itsproductstestedusingtheIEC61427standard,The battery by anobjective andindependentlaboratory. manufacturer should The battery statesofcharge. atpartial frequently operates where thebattery testing, selectionprocessshouldbebasedonrelevantperformance likeThe battery theIEC61427standard, abilitytodowell inaREapplication whichteststhebattery’s EN 50272-2: (IEC62485-2) installationandSafety : For Battery IEC 61427 IEC standardfor PVandOffGrid Applications : IEC 61951-2 are: The IECstandardsfor nickelbatteries metalhydrid IEC 62259 IEC 60623 are: The IECstandardsfor nickel cadmiumbatteries technicalvocabulary The IEC60050-486:2004International Standards Major st for off-gridPV V Maintenance Location Storage Interval Hardware nect (L Low V Controller Inverter and Controller SetP T Controller T Ambient Autonomy Safety echnology emperature entilation oltage VD) and Discon- ards rela oints

applic might berequired, consultmanufacturer for moredetails. 0°C to+50°C. Outsidethisrange,Compensation temperature Temperature Compensationisnotrequiredfor Ni-Cdfrom Charge loads. larger PWM charge, Additionally, can beconsideredfor MPPTalgorithm regulatorwith viaacharge shallpreferably becharged The battery recommendations. factors manufacturer de-rating casemonthly banksizeaverage designshallbebasedontheworse ambientcoldtemperature, perbattery The battery according totheloaddemandsofapplication. bankdesignshouldallow for minimum 5Days ofautonomy,The battery casemonthly average at80%DODtheworse ambientcoldtemperature, Always follow theManufacturers’ Installations, andMaintenanceinstructions operating clothing, gloves withbatteries. andeye protectionwhenworking arepreferred. terminals terminals. IP2Xprotectedbattery circuitofbattery ProvisionsAlways shallbetaken toavoid wear protective accidentalshort calculation. andventilationPlease refer toEN50272-2for moreinstructions inside livingspaces. tion ofexplosive andtoprevent hydrogen fumes gasconcentration ventilated toprevent roomshallbeproperly accumula- The battery manufacturer manual. Electrolyte must bereplenishedwithdistilledwateraccordingto access. shouldbelocatedinaventilated spacewithrestricted The battery delivered charged. fillwithelectrolyte andelectrically @25°Cwhen canbestoreduptto2years Solar Ni-Cdbatteries hardware andconnectionsshouldbeinspectedregularly. Terminal connectionsshouldbemadewithnickel platedcopper details. If theProjectrequiresaLVD, Manufacturer for consulttheBattery life extend orprotectthebattery tocompletedischarge,Ni-Cd istolerant thushaving aLDV willnot charging. manufacturer recommendationsfor normal regulatorshouldallow forThe charge voltage setpointsconsistentwithbattery

ted to Nibasedba tion:

4. 3. 2. 1. are: of Li-ionbatteries Compared tootheradvancedbatteries, themainadvantages Key fea tteries (performance, safety, inst Safety requirements for secondary batteries and battery installations. 2: batteries andbattery Part batteries Stationary Safety requirementsfor secondary for photovoltaic systems(PVES), energy cellsandbattery requirementandmethodoftest. General Secondary 2:single cells–Part Nickel-metal hydride sealedrechargeable containingalkalineorother non-acidelectrolytes –Portable cellsandbatteries Secondary gasrecombination. singlecellswithpartial rechargeable Nickel-Cadmium prismatic singlecells. rechargeable prismatic containingalkalineorother non-acidelectrolytes – cellsandbatteries Secondary Vented nickel-cadmium for batteries. Standard definesthebasicterms Explanation Maintenance-free years+ combinedwithlongcalendarlife of20 discharge) Long cyclelife (>3,000cyclesat80%depthof High efficiency(near100%) level) at battery density (150-200kWh/m3-40kWh/ton High energy tures

facturer for moredetails. Temperature notrequired. Compensationisgenerally Charge Consultmanu- charge, Additionally, loads. canbeconsidered for larger MPPTalgorithm regulatorwithPWM viaacharge shallpreferably becharged The battery Please refer toManufacturer’s andtotheEN50272-2for guidance. instruction enclosure. Even ifNi-MHisasealedtechnology, itshallnotbeplacedinasealed No additionofwaterisnecessary. access. Should belocatedinanonsealedenclosurewithrestricted Can bestoredupto1year atroomtemperature. hardware andconnectionsshouldbeinspectedregularly. Terminal connectionsshouldbemadewithnickel platedsteelorcopper suchadevice. integrate A LDV disconnectisrecommended. systemmightalready Somebattery T echnology alla 6. 5. tion) tion) health) SOC &SOHindication(stateofcharge, stateof power patterns /energy Versatility: electrodescanbeoptimized for different

1 systems PV hybrid onthemostcommonpurposeofcommunicationusedin Overview communications. this study’s of Figure 1describes findingsonthemainpurpose forsystems. hybrid tion componentsusedaroundtheworld oncommunica - The IEAPVPStask11launchedanoverview the system. so slow communication isoftenusedfor remotecontrolof information, among allcomponentstocollectthenecessary management control. requirescommunication Suchmonitoring flows andtooptimisecomponentsenergy the energy systemshaveHybrid tobemonitoredinordersupervise the system. up to1Hz), flow within usedtoregulatetheenergy normally The secondistheslow communication (frequencyfrom 0.01 inparallel. working in ordertosynchronize, suchasinverters exchangehastobedonewithinmilliseconds The information properly.components andisapreconditionfor themtowork 20kHz) usedfor thesynchronisationofpower handling communication exchangeisaround (frequencyofinformation be differentiated system. inahybrid Oneofthemisthefast There aretwo different typesofcommunication thatcan requires anadvancedcommunication. systemalso ofa hybrid influence andcontroltheoperation between thecomponents. A remotecontrolwhichis used to power unitswhichcanonly bedonethroughcommunication coordinatethe toproperly itisnecessary properly storage and apply apropercontrolstrategy. theenergy Inordertorun systemistoexchangeinformation,hybrid commands distribute ofcommunication between The purpose thecomponentsofa Wha andSystemsinSubstations”. “Communication Networks communication between components; andtheIEC61850 which provides onhow usefulinformation tosetupefficient power andinterconnectedelectric systems”,in distributed P1547.3 exchange andinformation “Guidelines for monitoring systems;more flexibilityandcompatibilityto hybrid theIEEE the newly introducedUESPSystemconcept, whichbrings There arethreeapproachestocommunication strategies: Annex 5: –› NiCl2+2Na, theoppositefor discharge. ing discharge. is2NaCl+Ni charge The mainreactionduring load. totheexternal as current dur This processisreversed electrolyte (beta Al). The available freeelectronscouldflow throughtheceramic the cathodebecomeionsandmigrate theSodiumatomsin isbeingcharged When thebattery V at295°C. inbetween 270°Cand350°C. tery) The cellOCVis2.58 ofthecells(andbat- temperature liquid attheoperating ofsodium(suchasNaAlCL4),tetrachloralluminate andis is madeofSodium(Na). The electrolyte ismadeupof (NiCL2)whiletheanode The cathodeisNickel Chloride Standards andrecommendations forSodium–Nickel Chloride Annex 4: player systems. inhybrid technologies like BluetoothandGSM, arealsoanupcoming RS232 islessimportant.Newtechnologies, especially wireless used. bus play adominantrole, RS485andCAN whilethe onthetypeofhardwarebus Figure 2provides anoverview Source: Fraunhofer InstitutfürSolareEnergiesysteme. t iscommunica 1

Communication Standards andEnergy ManagementSystems

tion for? - in theUESPstandard. standards for theindustry. areinvitedAll manufacturers toparticipate Open which managetheCAN CiAorganisation totheCAN ferred andtoopenitallcompaniesworldwide;ernment itwas thentrans- gov- of the German different commercial companies with the support Fraunhofer ISE, memberofthe Alliance for Rural Electrification, and 3 2 Open communication –UESP fromthis: emerge done by theutilitiesandtheir suppliers. Three openstandards concept, onwhichtechnicaldevelopment were primarily bysystem automationanddriven thesocalled grid” “smart based onexistingstandardsfor substationordistribution sourcesintotheutilitygrids.generation Those were often distributed renewablestandards developed energy tointegrate arethecommunication Another sourceofinformation fromwithinthetechnicalcommunity.emerge may standards for datacommunication mini-grids inhybrid practice, openstandards. isthecreationofinternational Open standardisethedifferent between componentsandtofurther One ofthesolutionstosolve theproblem ofcommunication communica Open st Different systems typesofhardware busesusedinPVhybrid tion fromthecomponentsandcontrolthem, soacentrally- - managementunit(EMS)collectsallinforma energy A central (generators, storages, connectedtothebus. loadsandothers) communicated allover thesystemtoalltypeofcomponents With thestandardisedprotocolUESP, canbe theinformation bus.are connectedtoacommoninformation inasystemwhereallcomponents the exchangeofinformation ofthepowerUESP communication isaseparation flow and Key fea • • • • • • • other advancedbatteries, are: The mainadvantagesofNa-NiCl2batteries, comparedto 31% 17% 14% SupplyProtocol(UESP)was Energy developed byThe Universal Source: Fraunhofer InstitutfürSolareEnergiesysteme. 15% 100% recyclable systems SOC &SOHindication, ofthe remotemonitoring Maintenance-free combined withlongcalendarlife ofmorethan15years Long cyclelife (2,000cyclesat80%depthofdischarge) level:(complete battery 170kWh/m3-120kWh/ton) density High energy No airconditioningneeds from -40°Cto+60°C) condition(service Immunity toambienttemperature 6% 17% tures and 3% tion protocols for ards for 23% 19% 25% 3 31%

: ideaoftheopen thecentral Figure 1 Monitoring Human Interface Energy Management Remote Control Metering Revenue Others Payment Figure 2 RS485 CAN I Others 2 C 2

because of proprietary protocols. because ofproprietary such communication solutions aremainly notcompatible systems.synchronisation withinhybrid However, uptonow exchangeandcomponents information provide thenecessary Many different hardwarebuses andprotocolsareusedto operations. power withelectric system automation andDERintegration of thepowermated operation system, includingdistribution However, real-timeauto- IEC61850isevolving tosupport substations. distribution electricity tronic devicesinmodern communication standardsfor thenumerous intelligentelec- Systems inSubstations”, developed wasoriginally toprovide The IECstandard61850– and “Communication Networks Open communication -IEC61850 systems. designed for large Modelling Language(UML)anopenmethodfor software oftheUnified communication architecturesandinparticular todevelop the practices softwareengineering use ofmodern these architecturesandprotocols. the The guidelinesencourage tectures orsetsofprotocols, itsguidelinesareusedtoestablish specificcommunication archi- Although itdoesnotdescribe Systems (EPS). Power Resources(DER)interconnectedwithElectric Energy monitoring, exchange, information andcontrolfor Distributed Powernected withElectric Systems”, provides guidelines for Exchange, ResourcesIntercon- andControlofDistributed The IEEEP1547.3– “Guide for Monitoring, Information Open communication -IEEEP1547.3 4 communication bus The power linesarethickandthedashedlineindicates the ManagementUnit.Schematic ofanUESPSystemwithEnergy voltage regulation. fails completely, thesystemwillautomatically gobacktosimple mode.switches toSOCbasedoperation Ifthecommunication bus overwhileeachcomponent still bedistributed theCAN managementunitfails, energy central SOCwill thebattery’s local needortoany changesintheloadprofile. Incasethe caneasily bechangedandadaptedtothe control strategy installation andextension, whileatthesametime; thesystem ofsystemplanning, moreflexibilityinterms This conceptoffers canbeimplemented.controlled strategy manufacturer is coming into the market shortly (2011). shortly manufacturer iscomingintothemarket capacity andtoreducethecostofthesebatteries. A second toincreasetheproduction the only manufacturer isworking storage. energy Currently andon/offgrid back-up markets technology ismatureenoughtoexpandintotelecomsand andHEVbuses,tions for EVcars andvans. trucks Today, the have batteries beenfound inapplica- originally Chloride Commercialised sincethemiddleof90’s, SodiumNickel Deployment St Source: Fraunhofer InstitutfürSolareEnergiesysteme. 4 . T echnology a tus:

53 54 (Manuf These comp Studer Innotec Steca Elektronik GmbH SolarT SMA Phocos Outback P Nedap KA Company Po Limited Rahimafrooz Accumulators T Hoppecke Enersys BAE Batterien Company These comp Limited Rahimafrooz Accumulators T The SunF Sunlabob Renewable Ltd Energy Solarworld Solarmate Eng. Ltd Siemens F Rural Energy Q Cells Photowatt Photalia Phaesun KXN igeria Kaito IT P IED FF SolarEnergiasRenovaveis, Lda Eauxwell Nigeria Limited Enel Acciona Micro F Energy ADES Company Annex 6: rojan Batteries rama T CO new energy wer electronics (chargecontrollers, Inverters/converters, tra ower ecnoambiental actory a ower cturers, inst echnology oundation anies anies propose y The membersofthe oundation and organiz allers &opera stem’ component(Ba Habibul Xavier Pieter Andy Lars Dokun Jean-Paul Willem Christian Stéphane Franck Michel Anthony Heidi Bernard Anjali Franz Edwin Marco Julio Maria First name First name First name Claude Michael Michael Stephanie David Peter Volker Habibul John Peter Iwan Stephan tions ha tors): lliance for Rural Electrification Alliance forRuralElectrification ve extensiveperienceint Basit Vallve Klimp Schroeter Koerner Tokun Peers Nolens Breyer Del Alamo Bernage Mansard Ighodaro Schiller McNelis Shanker Wagner Enwegbara Raganella Eismann Lahuerta Name Name Basit F. DeBoever Nemec-Losert Gentsch Stutterheim Name Ruchet Müller Wollny Hardy Alsina Verwer Dietrich tteries): Bangladesh Spain The Netherlands Lao PDR Germany Nigeria Germany The Netherlands Germany France France France Nigeria Germany UK France Portugal Nigeria Italy Spain Spain Countr Countr Bangladesh USA Germany Switzerland Germany Countr Switzerland Germany Germany Germany USA The Netherlands Germany y y y ckers etc.): and alone PVSolutions [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Email Email [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Email [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Wonderenergy ofT University University ofSouthhamption Renewable Energy Academy (RENA Institute for Sustainable P ID Global Council(GWEC) Wind Energy F European Wind Energy Association (EWA) European SmallHydro P European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) ManufacturersEuropean associationofbattery (Eurobat) Asociación delaIndustriaF Company These ORGANISA T Studer Innotec Solarworld SolarT SMA Outback P Nedap KA Company maint These comp IT P IED Company These comp V The Wind F Eauxwell Nigeria Limited Bergey ADES Company These comp ortis Wind ortis raunhofer–Institut fürSolare Energiesysteme rama T ergnet AE CO new energy ower Cover: Power, IT Power, Bergey Wind EnergiebauandGreenpeace. (pages 5and35),Phaesun SMA(page 26), Now! Solar (page 15)and Wind (page 17).The Factory 47), International(pages 12and13), MicroEnergy Power NewHome Wind (page 18), NICE InternationalB.V. (page 37), 40), EPIA (page 44), ESHA (page 22), (page 19), Fortis Energy Wind Greenpeace (page 1), IREM S.p.A. (pages 21and ACRA &APER (page 24), Power Bergey Wind (page 27), (page 38), BPSolar (page 42), Conenergy Energiebau(page ARE would companies liketothankthefollowing andorganisations makingtheirimages/graphics for availabletous: ecnoambiental aining mini-ridsolution: ower F actory echnology Energy wente anies anies h anies propose mall TIONS and organisa ower Association (ESHA) ower Inc otovoltaica (ASIF) ve extensiveperienceint are reno C) wned experts in their fieldof tions ha First name Franck Pieter Johan Orjiako Mike Maria wind (manuf Xavier Claude Lars Michael David Peter Volker Drona Anjali First name First name ve experienceindesignin, inst First name Ernesto Angèle Bahaj Berthold Geoff Marisa Angelika Matthias Justin Dirk Simone Erwin Javier a Name Bernage Klimp Kuikman Edwin Enwegbara Bergey Lahuerta cturers, inst alling Upadhyay Shanker Name Vallve Ruchet Koerner Wollny Alsina Verwer Dietrich Name Name Macias Reinders Bakr Breid Stapleton Olano Pullen Vetter Wilkes Hendricks Sweerts Marckx Anta and oper allers &opera Countr France The Netherlands The Netherlands Nigeria USA Spain a ctivities: UK France Countr Spain Switzerland Germany Germany USA The Netherlands Germany Spain The Netherlands UK Germany Australia/USA Spain Belgium Germany Belgium Belgium Belgium Belgium Spain y ting smallhydro solution: y alling, opera tors): Email [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Email Email Email [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] ting nd and

55 The Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE) is the international business organisation for the renewable energy off-grid sector. Our members are companies, research institutes, renewable energy agencies and associations. ARE members stand for high quality, experience and sustainability. Together we develop the renewable energy markets of the future !

1 Alliance for Rural Electrification Renewable Energy House Rue d’Arlon 63-65 1040 Brussels Belgium Tel. +32 2 400 10 52 E-mail: [email protected] www.ruralelec.org

Author: Simon Rolland, based on the contributions of the members of ARE’s Technology Working Group • First edition – Publication date: June 2011