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Bottom-Up Electrification Introducing New Smart Grids Architecture

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Bottom-Up Electrification Introducing New Smart Grids Architecture energies Article Bottom-Up Electrification Introducing New Smart Grids Architecture—Concept Based on Feasibility Studies Conducted in Rwanda Bartosz Soltowski *, David Campos-Gaona , Scott Strachan and Olimpo Anaya-Lara Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK; [email protected] (D.C.-G.); [email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (O.A.-L.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 30 April 2019; Accepted: 14 June 2019; Published: 25 June 2019 Abstract: Over the past eight years, off-grid systems, in the form of stand-alone solar home systems (SHSs), have proved the most popular and immediate solution for increasing energy access in rural areas across the Global South. Although deployed in significant numbers, issues remain with the cost, reliability, utilization, sustainability and scalability of these off-grid systems to provide higher-tiered energy access. Interconnection of existing stand-alone solar home systems (SHSs) can form a microgrid of interconnected prosumers (i.e., households owning SHS capable of producing and consuming power) and consumers (i.e., households without an SHS, and only capable of consuming power). This paper focuses on the role of a smart energy management (SEM) platform in the interconnection of off-grid systems and making bottom-up electrification scalable, and how it can improve the overall sustainability, efficiency and flexibility of off-grid technology. An interconnected SHS microgrid has the potential to unlock latent generation and storage capacity, and so effectively promote connected customers to higher tiers of energy access. This approach can therefore extend the range of products currently used by people located in the remote areas of developing countries to include higher-power devices such as refrigerators, TVs and potentially, electric cookers. This paper shows the results of field studies in the Northern Province of Rwanda within off-grid villages where people mainly rely on SHSs as a source of electricity. These field studies have informed further simulation-based studies that define the principal requirements for the operation of a smart energy management platform for the interconnection of SHSs to form a community microgrid. Keywords: bottom-up electrification; interconnected solar home systems; microgrids; smart energy networks 1. Introduction There are 1.1 billion people living without access to electricity in the world. Former UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon referred to energy as “the golden thread that connects economic growth, social equity and environmental sustainability”, offering an opportunity for improved living standards for some of the world’s poorest people living in remote rural locations across the Global South. The UN’s Sustainable Development Goal No.7 represents a call to action on the part of the international community to “ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all” by 2030 [1]. Most of those living without electricity reside in remote rural areas of developing countries with no prospect of connecting to the national power network. This is due to the large costs associated with grid extension (around $1000 per household connection in Rwanda [2]), which means this is not economically viable for the rural electrification of base-of-the-pyramid communities. As a result, Energies 2019, 12, 2439; doi:10.3390/en12122439 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2019, 12, 2439 2 of 19 Energies 2019, 12 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 connection fees often must be fully subsidized by the local government in order to provide electricity for everyoneeconomically in the viable country for the by 2023rural (electrificationelectrification of target base-of-the-pyramid in Rwanda) [3 ].communities. As a result, connection fees often must be fully subsidized by the local government in order to provide electricity To date, off-grid renewable-based systems have presented the most viable means of achieving for everyone in the country by 2023 (electrification target in Rwanda) [3]. “energy forTo all”date, [4 off-grid], providing renewable-based access to 360 systems million have people presented around the most the globeviable [means5]. As of a result,achieving for the last eight“energy years, for peopleall” [4], previouslyproviding access relying to 360 on kerosenemillion people lamps around for lighting the globe have [5]. beenAs a givenresult, afor chance the to use stand-alonelast eight years, systems people (not previously connected relying to the on kerosene national lamps network) for lighting [6] and have pay been for them given on a chance a monthly basis,to instead use stand-alone of covering systems significant (not connected upfront to costs. the na Thistional business network) model [6] and is pay preferred for them by onthose a monthly with low financialbasis, capacity instead toof investcovering in significant a new off -gridupfront connection costs. This [ 7business]. model is preferred by those with Olowff-grid financial solutions capacity typically to invest generate in a new electricity off-grid connection for a local [7]. community (microgrids) or for a single household.Off-grid A solar solutions home systemtypically (SHS) generate is typically electricity comprised for a local community of a PV module, (microgrids) 12V (typically)or for a single energy storage,household. charge controllerA solar home and system several (SHS) loads, is typicall as seeny comprised in the Figure of a PV1. module, 12V (typically) energy storage, charge controller and several loads, as seen in the Figure 1. Figure 1. Typical architecture of a solar home system (SHS). Figure 1. Typical architecture of a solar home system (SHS). These off-grid solutions generally succeed in providing base-of-the-pyramid communities with a These off-grid solutions generally succeed in providing base-of-the-pyramid communities with Tier 1 level of energy access, based on ESMAP’s (Energy Network Management Assistance Program) a Tier 1 level of energy access, based on ESMAP’s (Energy Network Management Assistance multi-tier framework for measuring energy access. They can have a significant effect on the health and Program) multi-tier framework for measuring energy access. They can have a significant effect on the wellbeinghealth of and those wellbeing living o offf-grid, those asliving they off-grid, reduce householdas they reduce air pollutionhousehold arising air pollution from kerosene arising from lighting, and introducekerosene lighting, benefits and for introduce education benefits (lighting for classroomseducation (lighting for evening classrooms study) for and evening commerce study) and through productivecommerce uses through of energy productive (e.g., local uses shops, of energy phone (e.g., charging, local shops, etc.) phone [8]. However,charging, etc.) technical [8]. However, limitations associatedtechnical with limitations stand-alone associated SHSs with restrict stand-alone their useSHSs to restrict servicing their use lower to servicing powered lower devices, powered and so generallydevices, provide and so only generally basic accessprovide (i.e., only Tier basic 1). acce Thess Energy (i.e., Tier Network 1). The ManagementEnergy Network Assistance Management Program (ESMAP)Assistance [9] has Program developed (ESMAP) a multi-tiered [9] has developed framework a multi-tiered for measuring framework energy for access,measuring which energy defines ascendingaccess, tiers which of energy defines access ascending (0–7) tiers based of onenergy capacity, access duration (0–7) based reliability, on capacity, quality, duration affordability, reliability, legality quality, affordability, legality and health and safety. Tier 0 represents customers with no electricity and health and safety. Tier 0 represents customers with no electricity access, while higher level tiers access, while higher level tiers represent the levels of energy access generally associated with a represent the levels of energy access generally associated with a reliable grid connection. Stand-alone reliable grid connection. Stand-alone SHSs are generally capable of providing Tier 1 level of electricity SHSsaccess, are generally while microgrids capable of and providing minigrids Tier are 1 levelgenerally of electricity capable of access, delivering while Tier microgrids 2–3 levels and of access minigrids are generallyand stimulate capable local of businesses delivering [10,11]. Tier 2–3 Table levels 1 ofshows access how and higher stimulate power local appliances businesses can be [10 ,11]. Table1accommodated shows how higher by higher power tiers appliancesof energy access. can be accommodated by higher tiers of energy access. TableTable 1. 1.Multi-tier Multi-tier Framework Framework for for Energy Energy Access. Access. Tier NumberTier Number Appliances Appliances 1 Lighting + Phone Charging 1 Lighting + Phone Charging 2 2Telecommunication, Telecommunication, Fans Fans 3 3Refrigeration, Refrigeration, Fans Fans 4 4Access Access to clean to cleanwater water 5 Public water, public water works, sanitation 6 Income generating activities 7 Cooking, air-cooling Energies 2019, 12 FOR PEER REVIEW 3 Energies 2019, 12, 2439 5 Public water, public water works, sanitation 3 of 19 6 Income generating activities 7 Cooking, air-cooling ESMAP’s Multi-tier Framework for Energy Access also specifies the quality of power supply at ESMAP’s Multi-tier Framework for Energy Access also specifies the quality of power supply at each stage of electrification
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