Journal of Global Biosciences ISSN 2320-1355 Vol. 3(2), 2014, pp. 499-510 http://mutagens.co.in Date of Online: 15, April- 2014

A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS FOR CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF FLORA OF THE EASTERN GHATS IN SOUTH L. Arul Pragasan Department of Environmental Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore – 641 046, India .

Abstract Phytogeography is a branch of biogeography which deals with the geographical distribution of . The aim of this study was to analyze the geographic distribution of tree flora in the Eastern Ghats of south India, for their conservation significance. Of the total 272 tree species assessed, 36% of the species were found restricted to Asia, 19% were endemic to India and only one species ( Hildegardia populifolia ) was found endemic to Eastern Ghats. The present phytogeographical analysis revealed that 59% of the tree species inventoried from Eastern Ghats of south India were common to Sri Lanka and supported their close geographic affinity. Species recovery programs are of urgent need for conservation of species with geographically limited distribution . Key words: Phytogeography, Eastern Ghats, distribution, Tree flora, South India .

INTRODUCTION Currently, the earth is experiencing tremendous changes in the natural environments. Destruction and degradation of natural habitats are widespread and profound and their implications for the sustainability of natural resources are of global significance [1]. Biodiversity loss is a global phenomenon but its impact is greatest in the tropics, where the majority of species are distributed [2]. Though, the tropical forests occupy only 7% of the total land surface area of earth, they hold more than 50% of total species of the world. However, now, they are getting disappeared at a rate of 0.8 to 2% per year [3]. Many conservationists have increased concern on biodiversity loss in tropical forests due to deforestation and improper infrastructure development in the name of modernization [4]. Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of plant species. It is an effective tool for clarifying the historical-ecological interpretation of a large area [5], and for prioritizing species for conservation. A few phytogeographical studies available worldwide include: Neotropics [6], Friulian plain, NE Italy [7], Western Europe and Eastern Greenland [8], Tasmanian alpine flora [9], Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts [10], Yukon territory, NW Canada [5], Grasslands of Mexico [11], Yucatan Peninsula [12], Arid mountain of Oman [13], Coastal vegetation of Yucatan Peninsula [14], Bryophytes of Hong Kong [15]. Although, there are many studies on plant biodiversity focusing on the population status [16, 17], only a few records are available on the distribution patterns of plant species in India. The aim of this study was to analyze the geographic distribution of tree species of the Eastern Ghats of South India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The phytogeographic analysis was carried out for the tree species inventoried from the discontinuous range of mountains of Eastern Ghats (11˚ 08.5' - 12˚ 06.0' N; 78˚ 07.5' - 78˚ 48.5' E) in South India. The mountain range covered an area of 3477 km 2, with altitudes varying from 200 m to 1649 m above mean sea level. They were composed of masses of Charnockite associated with gneisses and varied metamorphic rocks, and the soil was red loamy and lateritic. The mean annual temperature and rainfall for the region was 28.3 ˚C and 1058 mm, respectively. The bulk of the rainfall was received from August to October.

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Phytogeograghic analysis The entire stretch of the Eastern Ghats of South India was divided into 6.25 km × 6.25 km grids, and within each grid a 0.5 ha belt transect (5 m × 1000 m) was established, and all live with ≥ 30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) were enumerated [18]. Phytogeographic analysis of the tree flora was made by studying the distributional pattern of the inventoried 272 species by referring to several national and regional floras and other publications [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. The following classification of geographic area was made for analysis: 1. Eastern Ghats, 2. Peninsular India, 3. India, 4. Sri Lanka, 5. Peninsular India & Sri Lanka, 6. Asia, 7. Africa, 8. Australia, 9. America, and 10. Europe.

RESULTS Summary of tree inventory A total of 27,412 trees representing 272 species in 62 families were inventoried from 120 transects (0.5 ha each, covering 60 ha area) distributed in the Eastern Ghats of South India [18]. Tree diversity was 29 (±12) species per transect, and it ranged from 9 to 71 species per transect. Tree density was 228 (±75) trees per transect, and it ranged from 96 to 477 trees per transect. The abundance of the 272 tree species varied from one individual for 33 species to a maximum of 2122 individuals for Albizia amara (Mimosaceae) for the total 60 ha sampled (Table 1). The dominant species, A. amara had a wide range of geographic distribution (Table 1). Phytogeographic analysis The tree species of Eastern Ghats of South India had a unique geographic distributional spectrum. Of the total 272 species recorded, 269 species (98.9%) are common to the entire Eastern Ghats region (Figure 1), and the rest three species, Antiaris toxicata and Dimocarpus longan were new additions to Eastern Ghats, which were earlier recorded only from the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka hot spot, and Memecylon parvifolium , formed a new record to tree flora of India [27]. Out of the total 272 species analyzed, 100 species (37%) were found common to Peninsular India, and 271 species (99.6%) were common to India (Figure 1). A total of 161 species (59%) were common to Sri Lanka, and 203 (75%) species were common to Peninsular India & Sri Lanka. In case of continent, all the species were found common to Asia, 11% of species were common to Africa, 10% were common to Africa, 4% were common to America and only 2 species ( Callitris rhomboidea and Ficus microcarpa ) were found common to Europe. Overall, only one per cent (3 species, Acacia farnesiana , Beilschmiedia bourdilloni and Gyrocarpus asiaticus ) out of the total 272 species had pantropical distribution (i.e. geographic distribution in Africa, Asia and Americas), four per cent (12 species) of the species had neotropic distribution (species restricted to the Americas) and ten per cent (27 species) of the total species analysed were of palaeotropics (species distributed in Africa and Asia). Species endemism Thirty-six percent of the total species studied were endemic to Asia i.e. species restricted to Asia and not found elsewhere in the world, 19% were restricted to India, 14% were restricted to peninsular India, 27% were endemic to peninsular India and Sri Lanka geographic regions, and only one species, Hildegardia populifolia was found endemic to Eastern Ghats. Hildegardia populifolia and Grewia laevigata were the only two rare, endemic, threatened (RET) species found in Eastern Ghats of South India.

DISCUSSION In the past, plant biodiversity inventory mostly focused on the population status of species in a particular geographic area, and less attention was shown to study their patterns of geographical distribution. In the present study, a phytogoegraphical analysis was carried out for tree species inventoried [18] from Eastern Ghats of South India. Out of the 272 tree species inventoried, fifty nine per cent of the species were found common to Sri Lanka, revealing the close geographic affinity of tree species of Eastern Ghats in South India with that of Sri Lanka. Similarly, Parthasarathy [28] had reported that a maximum (240 species, 43 %) of the total 550 species of vascular plants enumerated from Kalakad, Western Ghats of South India, were found common to Sri Lanka. However, according to a research based on mineral occurences, mainly gems and graphite, Sri Lanka was found closely associated with southern part of Madagascar than with the Archean granulites of South India [29]. http://mutagens.co.in 500 Journal of Global Biosciences Vol. 3(2), 2014 pp. 499-510 ISSN 2320-1355

Conservation significance Biologists have long known that the smaller the population, the more susceptible it is to extinction [30]. Out of the 272 tree species inventied from a total of 60 ha in the Eastern Ghats of South India, 12% of species were represented by only one individual, the two RET species H. populifolia and G. laevigata were represented by 4 and 2 individuals, respectively [18], and M. parvifolium , a new addition to Indian tree flora, was represented by only one individual [27]. This situation forces an immediate conservation measure to avoid those species from local extinction. Topographic variables (elevation, slope, aspect, etc.) have a strong influence on the forests and also contribute to the maintenance of species richness [31]. However, the major threats to plant species are the growing human population, expanding crop agriculture, improper harvesting methods and over- exploitation of the plant resources [32]. Though, deforestation, is happening mostly for the conversion of land to food crops, it is the most destructive force in tropical forests worldwide, and the other important disturbance such as the selective harvest of the timber have increased in rate as well as in magnitude [33]. The Eastern Ghats of South India is subjected to various forest disturbances, such as cattle grazing, collection of fuel wood and non-timber forest products, illegal extraction of timber, soil mining, besides invasion of the weeds. Hence, there is an immediate need of action plan for checking all the threatening forces that exist in Eastern Ghats of South India, not only for conserving the geographical distribution range of tree species in this region, but, also for the survival of a variety of wild fauna supported by the plant communities. The present study concludes that more than half of the total tree species in Eastern Ghats of South India were found common to Sri Lanka, and revealed the geographic affinity of Sri Lanka with South India or simply the Gondwana affinity of the two nations. This study reflects the floristic affinity and phytogeographic significance of Eastern Ghats in South India. Further, it provides valuable data on geographic distribution of tree species of Eastern Ghats, which can be potentially used for conservation planning and management of species with geographically limited distribution in this region. The following steps are recommended for tree species conservation in Eastern Ghats of South India: (i) extensive research has to be carried out on the population status of important tree species such as M. parvifolium, H. populifolia, G. laevigata, A. toxicata and D. longan , (ii) species recovery program by tissue culture is of immense need for conservation of the endemic and RET species, (iii) specific protection for very important sites such as Alathi and Kannimar shola, which hosts species such as A. toxicata and D. longan that were new additions to Eastern Ghats of South India, and (iv) awareness program for forest inhabitants is of most urgent need for biodiversity conservation of this part of India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely thank Dr. N. Parthasarathy, Professor in Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University for all his supports and encouragement.

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[33] Asner, G.P., Knapp, D.E., Broadbent, E.N., Oliveira, P.J.C., Keller, M. and Silva, N.J., 2005, Selective logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Science, 310: 480-482.

Figure 1. Geographic distribution of tree species in Eastern Ghats of South India 300

250

200

150

100

Number of species of Number 50

0 Asia India Africa Europe America E. Ghats E. Australia SriLanka Pen. India Pen. SriLanka Pen. India& Pen. Geographic area

Table 1. Phytogeography of 272 tree species inventoried from a total of 60 ha in Eastern Ghats of South India.

Species (Family) Abundance Geographic area* (stems/60ha) Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) 389 1,2,3,4,5,6 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) 46 1,3,6,7,9 Acacia ferruginea DC. (Mimosaceae) 8 1,2,3,4,5,6 Acacia horrida (L.f.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) 344 1,2,3,5,6,7 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) 465 1,2,3,4,5,6 Acacia planifrons Wight & Arn. (Mimosaceae) 663 1,2,3,4,5,6 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Rutaceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Aglaia elaeagnoidea (Juss.) Benth. var. courtallensis 54 1,2,3,5,6 (Gamble) K.K.N. Nair (Meliaceae) Aglaia jainii M.V.Viswan. & K.Ramach. (Meliaceae) 50 1,2,3,5,6 Agrostistachys borneensis Becc. (Euphorbiaceae) 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Simaroubaceae) 20 1,2,3,4,5,6 Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang. (Alangiaceae) 126 1,3,4,5,6,7 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin (Mimosaceae) 2122 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

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Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. (Mimosaceae) 14 1,2,3,4,5,6 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Mimosaceae) 29 1,2,3,4,5,6 Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. (Mimosaceae) 9 1,2,3,4,5,6 Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. (Euphorbiaceae) 6 1,3,6,8 Allophylus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz (Sapindaceae) 24 1,3,4,5,6 Alphonsea sclerocarpa Thw. (Annonaceae) 13 1,2,3,4,5,6 Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees var. angustifolia 169 1,2,3,4,5,6 Meissner (Lauraceae) Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees var. semecarpifolia 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Lauraceae) Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) 1 1,3,6 Annona cherimola Mill. (Annonaceae) 2 1,3,6,9 Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae) 2 1,3,6,9 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr. 724 1,3,4,5,6 (Combretaceae) Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. (Moraceae) 5 1,3,4,5,6 Antidesma menasu Kurz (Euphorbiaceae) 26 1,2,3,5,6 Antidesma zeylanicum Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 Ardisia solanacea Roxb. (Myrsinaceae) 16 1,3,4,5,6 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Moraceae) 25 1,3,4,5,6 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. (Moraceae) 1 1,3,6 Atalantia monophylla (L.) Correa (Rutaceae) 715 1,2,3,4,5,6 Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. (Rutaceae) 98 1,2,3,4,5,6 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Meliaceae) 241 1,3,6 Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Roxb. (Poaceae) 230 1,3,4,5,6 Bauhinia purpurea L. (Caesalpiniaceae) 7 1,3,6 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae) 111 1,3,4,5,6 Beilschmiedia bourdilloni Brandis (Lauraceae) 21 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirvengadum (Rubiaceae) 11 1,2,3,4,5,6 Bischofia javanica Blume (Bischofiaceae) 32 1,3,6 Bombax ceiba L. (Bombacaceae) 2 1,3,6,8 Borassus flabellifer L. (Arecaceae) 6 1,3,4,5,6,7 Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Coleb. (Burseraceae) 35 1,3,6 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae) 29 1,3,4,5,6 Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. (Anacardiaceae) 67 1,2,3,4,5,6 Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (Anacardiaceae) 17 1,3,6 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Papilionaceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6 Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr. (Verbenaceae) 8 1,2,3,4,5,6 Callitris rhomboidea R. Br. ex Rich. (Cupressaceae) 2 1,3,6,9,10 Canarium strictum Roxb. (Burseraceae) 38 1,3,6 Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. & Binn. var. 1385 1,3,4,5,6 dicoccum (Rubiaceae) Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. & Binn. var. 41 1,3,4,5,6 umbellata (Wight) Sant. & Merch. (Rubiaceae) Capparis grandis L. (Capparaceae) 4 1,3,6

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Careya arborea Roxb. (Lecythidaceae) 7 1,3,4,5,6 Caryota urens L. (Arecaceae) 7 1,3,4,5,6,8 Casearia elliptica Willd. (Flacourtiaceae) 7 1,3,4,5,6,8 Casearia rubescens Dalz. (Flacourtiaceae) 2 1,3,6,7 Cassia didymobotrya Fresn. (Caesalpiniaceae) 2 1,3,4,5,6 Cassia fistula L. (Caesalpiniaceae) 82 1,3,6 Cassia siamea Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze (Celastraceae) 100 1,3,4,5,6 Catunaregam spinosa (Thumb.) Tiruvengadum (Rubiaceae) 59 1,2,3,4,5,6 Celtis philippensis Blanco (Ulmaceae) 233 1,3,4,5,6,7,8 Celtis tetrandra Roxb. (Ulmaceae) 2 1,3,6 Celtis timorensis Spanoghe (Ulmaceae) 29 1,3,4,5,6 Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S.Green (Oleaceae) 18 1,2,3,5,6 Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. (Oleaceae) 13 1,3,6,8 Chionanthus zeylanica L. (Oleaceae) 67 1,2,3,4,5,6 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. (Flindersiaceae) 917 1,2,3,4,5,6 Chrysophyllum roxburghii G.Don (Sapotaceae) 4 1,3,4,5,6 Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. (Meliaceae) 47 1,3,4,5,6 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Blume (Lauraceae) 10 1,2,3,5,6 Cipadessa baccifera Miq. (Meliaceae) 23 1,3,4,5,6 Citrus medica L. (Rutaceae) 15 1,3,6 Clausena dentata (Willd.) M.Roem. (Rutaceae) 71 1,3,4,5,6 Cleistanthus collinus Benth. ex Hook.f. (Euphorbiaceae) 259 1,3,4,5,6 Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae) 2 1,3,6,7 Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engler (Burseraceae) 638 1,2,3,5,6 Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engler (Burseraceae) 396 1,2,3,4,5,6 Cordia domestica Roth (Cordiaceae) 71 1,2,3,5,6 Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook.f. & Thoms. (Cordiaceae) 1 1,3,6 Cordia obliqua Willd. (Cordiaceae) 7 1,3,4,5,6,7 Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. (Capparaceae) 1 1,3,6 Croton laccifer L. (Euphorbiaceae) 2 1,2,3,4,5,6 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. (Papilionaceae) 35 1,3,6 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. (Papilionaceae) 195 1,3,6 Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Rafin. (Caesalpiniaceae) 2 1,3,6,7 Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. (Mimosaceae) 37 1,2,3,4,5,6 Dimocarpus longan Lour. (Sapindaceae) 75 3,4,5,6,8 barberi Ramaswami () 66 1,3,6 Diospyros ebenum Koen. (Ebenaceae) 221 1,2,3,4,5,6 Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. var. buxifolia (Rottb.) 316 1,2,3,4,5,6 Bakh. (Ebenaceae) Diospyros humilis Bourd. (Ebenaceae) 5 1,3,6 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. (Ebenaceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae) 124 1,2,3,4,5,6 Diospyros montana Roxb. (Ebenaceae) 424 1,3,4,5,6,8 Diospyros neilgerrensis (R.Wight) Kosterm. (Ebenaceae) 3 1,3,6

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Diospyros ovalifolia Wight (Ebenaceae) 89 1,2,3,4,5,6 Dolichandrone arcuata (Wight) Clarke (Bignoniaceae) 154 1,2,3,5,6 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Spangue 61 1,2,3,5,6 (Bignoniaceae) Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa (Euphorbiaceae) 93 1,3,4,5,6,8 Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm. 512 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Euphorbiaceae) Ehretia pubescens Benth. (Cordiaceae) 34 1,3,6 Elaeocarpus serratus L. (Elaeocarpaceae) 59 1,3,6 Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell. -Arg.) Croizat 10 1,2,3,5,6 (Euphorbiaceae) Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (Rosaceae) 2 1,3,6,9 Erythrina stricta Roxb. (Papilionaceae) 28 1,3,6 Erythrina suberosa Roxb. (Papilionaceae) 1 1,3,6 Erythrina variegata L. (Papilionaceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6,7 Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. (Erythroxylaceae) 278 1,2,3,4,5,6 Eugenia thwaitesii Duthie (Myrtaceae) 5 1,3,4,5,6 Euodia lunu -ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. (Rutaceae) 4 1,3,4,5,6 Euonymus indicus Heyne ex Roxb. (Celastraceae) 5 1,2,3,5,6 Euphorbia antiquorum L. (Euphorbiaceae) 1823 1,3,4,5,6 Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. (Euphorbiaceae) 46 1,3,6,7 Excoecaria robusta Hook.f. (Euphorbiaceae) 39 1,2,3,5,6 Ficus amplissima J.E. Smith (Moraceae) 24 1,2,3,4,5,6 Ficus beddomei King (Moraceae) 13 1,2,3,5,6 Ficus benghalensis L. (Moraceae) 52 1,3,4,5,6 Ficus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens (Roth) Corner 5 1,3,4,5,6 (Moraceae) Ficus exasperata Vahl (Moraceae) 17 1,3,4,5,6 Ficus hispida L.f. (Moraceae) 4 1,3,4,5,6,8 Ficus microcarpa L.f. (Moraceae) 45 1,3,4,5,6,10 Ficus mollis Vahl (Moraceae) 134 1,3,4,5,6 Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth (Moraceae) 22 1,3,4,5,6 Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6,8 Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) 1 1,3,6 Ficus virens Ait. (Moraceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6,8 Filicium decipiens (Wight & Arn.) Thw. (Sapindaceae) 13 1,2,3,4,5,6 Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. (Sterculiaceae) 10 1,2,3,4,5,6 Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (Flacourtiaceae) 33 1,3,6,7 Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeush. (Flacourtiaceae) 1 1,3,6 Gardenia resinifera Roth (Rubiaceae) 154 1,2,3,5,6 Garuga pinnata Roxb. (Burseraceae) 70 1,3,6 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. (Euphorbiaceae) 275 1,2,3,4,5,6 Glochidion ellipticum Wight (Euphorbiaceae) 6 1,2,3,5,6 Glochidion velutinum Wight (Euphorbiaceae) 3 1,3,6 Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka (Rutaceae) 2 1,3,4,5,6

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Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. (Rutaceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6 Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Verbenaceae) 8 1,3,4,5,6 Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. (Proteaceae) 1 1,3,6,8 Grewia laevigata Vahl. (Tiliaceae) 2 1,3,6,7,8 Grewia orbiculata Rottl. (Tiliaceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori (Tiliaceae) 21 1,3,4,5,6,7 Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. (Tiliaceae) 24 1,3,4,5,6,7 Grewia villosa Willd. (Tiliaceae) 11 1,3,6,7 Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. (Hernandiaceae) 809 1,3,6,7,9 Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale (Rubiaceae) 10 1,3,4,5,6 Hardwickia binata Roxb. (Caesalpiniaceae 209 1,2,3,5,6 Helicteres isora L. (Sterculiaceae) 6 1,3,4,5,6,8 Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott & Endl. 4 1,2,3,5,6 (Sterculiaceae) Holarrhena pubescens Wall. (Apocynaceae) 6 1,3,6 Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. (Ulmaceae) 96 1,3,4,5,6 Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabberly (Rubiaceae) 48 1,3,4,5,6 Ilex wightiana Wall. ex Wight (Aquafoliaceae) 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 Ixora pavetta Andr. (Rubiaceae) 296 1,3,4,5,6 Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. (Lythraceae) 4 1,3,6 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (Anacardiaceae) 141 1,3,4,5,6 Lasianthus truncatus Beddome (Rubiaceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (Leeaceae) 2 1,3,4,5,6,8 Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss. Ex Poir.) Leenh . 16 1,3,4,5,6,7,8 (Sapindaceae) Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl.) Radlk. (Sapindaceae) 71 1,3,4,5,6 Ligustrum perrottetii DC.(Oleaceae) 112 1,2,3,5,6 Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae) 14 1,3,4,5,6 Litsea deccanensis Gamble (Lauraceae) 77 1,3,4,5,6 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.Robinson (Lauraceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Litsea oleoides (Meisner) Hook.f. (Lauraceae) 5 1,2,3,5,6 Litsea stocksii (Meisner) Hook.f. (Lauraceae) 1 1,3,6 Macaranga indica Wight (Euphorbiaceae) 80 1,2,3,4,5,6 Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. var. longifolia 20 1,3,4,5,6 (Sapotaceae) Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. (Myrsinaceae) 8 1,3,4,5,6 Maesopsis eminii Engler (Rhamnaceae) 1 1,3,6,7 Mallotus intermedius (Baill.) Balakr. (Euphorbiaceae) 2 1,2,3,5,6 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. -Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) 50 1,3,4,5,6,8 Mallotus stenanthus Muell.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) 19 1,2,3,5,6 Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) 46 1,3,6 Manihot glaziovii Muell.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) 2 1,3,6,9 Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard (Sapotaceae) 53 1,3,6 Margaritaria indica (Dalz.) Airy Shaw (Euphorbiaceae) 9 1,3,4,5,6,8 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou (Celastraceae) 7 1,3,4,5,6,8

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Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) 3 1,3,4,5,6 Melia dubia Cav. (Meliaceae) 4 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim . subsp. arnottiana 2 1,3,4,5,6 (Wight) Beus. (Meliosmaceae) Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. subsp. pungens 2 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Wight & Arn.) Beus. (Meliosmaceae) Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. subsp. simplicifolia 1 1,3,4,5,6 (Meliosmaceae) Memecylon edule Roxb. (Melastomataceae) 1299 1,3,4,5,6 Memecylon grande Retz. (Melastomataceae) 54 1,3,4,5,6 Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble (Melastomataceae) 2 1,3,6 Memecylon parvifolium Thwaites (Melastomataceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Miliusa eriocarpa Dunn (Annonaceae) 27 1,2,3,4,5,6 Mimusops elengi L. (Sapotaceae) 61 1,3,6,8,9 Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (Rubiaceae) 49 1,3,4,5,6 Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith (Rubiaceae) 50 1,3,4,5,6 Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Gibs. (Moringaceae) 284 1,2,3,5,6 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. (Rutaceae) 4 1,3,4,5,6 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (Rutaceae) 11 1,3,4,5,6,8 Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. (Myristicaceae) 31 1,3,4,5,6 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson (Rutaceae) 42 1,3,4,5,6 Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. (Lauraceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisner) Gamble (Lauraceae) 153 1,2,3,5,6 Nothopegia heyneana (Hook.f.) Gamble (Anacardiaceae) 834 1,2,3,4,5,6 Nothopegia racemosa (Dalz.) Ramam. (Anacardiaceae) 6 1,2,3,5,6 Ochna obtusata DC. (Ochnaceae) 4 1,3,4,5,6 Pamburus missionis (Wight) Swingle (Rutaceae) 21 1,2,3,4,5,6 Persea macarantha Nees Kosterm. (Lauraceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Phoebe lanceolata Nees (Lauraceae) 12 1,2,3,5,6 Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae) 24 1,3,6 Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. (Euphorbiaceae) 116 1,2,3,4,5,6 Pittosporum napaulense (DC.) Rehder & Wilson 3 1,3,6 (Pittosporaceae) Pittosporum neelgherrense Wight & Arn. (Pittosporaceae) 1 1,3,6 Pleiospermium alatum (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Swingle 778 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Rutaceae) Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston (Celastraceae) 4 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Plumeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae) 10 1,3,6,9 Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. Nakulsi (Annonaceae) 79 1,2,3,5,6 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Papilionaceae) 67 1,3,4,5,6,8 Premna latifolia Roxb. var. mollissima (Roth) Clarke 51 1,2,3,5,6 (Verbenaceae) Premna tomentosa Roxb. (Verbenaceae) 343 1,2,3,4,5,6 Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. (Rosaceae) 57 1,3,4,5,6 Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) 1 1,3,6,9 Psychotria elongata (Wight) Hook.f. (Rubiaceae) 3 1,2,3,4,5,6

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Psychotria flavida Talbot (Rubiaceae) 1 1,2,3,5,6 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Papilionaceae) 92 1,2,3,4,5,6 Pterospermum canascens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 Pterospermum reticulatum Wight & Arn. (Sterculiaceae) 24 1,3,6 Pterospermum xylocarpum (Gaertn.) Sant. & Wagh 71 1,2,3,5,6 (Sterculiaceae) Randia candolleana Wight & Arn. (Rubiaceae) 1 1,3,6 Rapanea wightiana (Wall. ex DC.) Mez (Myrsinaceae) 20 1,3,4,5,6 Rhus mysorensis G. Don (Anacardiaceae) 186 1,2,3,5,6 Salix tetrasperma Roxb. (Salicaceae) 2 1,3,6 Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) 25 1,3,6 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. (Sapindaceae) 163 1,2,3,5,6 Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. (Euphorbiaceae) 8 1,2,3,4,5,6 Schefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Harms (Araliaceae) 6 1,3,4,5,6 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken (Sapindaceae) 185 1,2,3,4,5,6 Scolopia crenata (Wight & Arn.) Clos (Flacourtiaceae) 158 1,2,3,4,5,6 Semecarpus anacardium L.f. (Anacardiaceae) 21 1,3,4,5,6,8 Shorea roxburghii G. Don (Dipterocarpaceae) 12 1,2,3,5,6 Solanum erianthum D.Don (Solanaceae) 5 1,3,6,8,9 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A.Juss. (Meliaceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Spathodea campanulata Beauv. (Bignoniaceae) 1 1,3,6,7 Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae) 24 1,3,6 Sterculia foetida L. (Sterculiaceae) 11 1,3,4,5,6,7,8 Sterculia urens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 49 1,3,4,5,6 Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex DC. (Sterculiaceae) 8 1,3,4,5,6 Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillw.) Mabberley 16 1,3,4,5,6 (Bignoniaceae) Streblus asper Lour. (Moraceae) 87 1,3,4,5,6 Streblus taxoides (Heyne ex Roth) Kurz (Moraceae) 26 1,2,3,4,5,6 Strychnos nux-vomica L. (Loganiaceae) 62 1,3,4,5,6 Strychnos potatorum L.f. (Loganiaceae) 401 1,2,3,4,5,6 Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore (Symplocaceae) 95 1,3,4,5,6 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) 248 1,3,4,5,6,8 Tamarindus indica L. (Caesalpiniaceae) 96 1,3,6,7 Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze (Rubiaceae) 37 1,2,3,4,5,6 Tectona grandis L.f. (Verbenaceae) 10 1,3,6 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. 8 1,3,4,5,6 (Combretaceae) Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae) 84 1,3,4,5,6 Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) 48 1,3,4,5,6 Terminalia coriacea (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. (Combretaceae) 70 1,2,3,5,6 Terminalia crenulata Roth (Combretaceae) 2 1,3,4,5,6 Terminalia paniculata Roth (Combretaceae) 85 1,2,3,5,6 Toona ciliata M.Roem. (Meliaceae) 32 1,3,6,8 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume (Ulmaceae) 14 1,3,4,5,6,7,8 Trichilia connaroides (Wight & Arn.) Bentvelzen 2 1,2,3,4,5,6

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(Meliaceae) Vaccinium neilgherrense Wight (Vacciniaceae) 35 1,2,3,5,6 Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. (Asteraceae) 8 1,3,4,5,6 Vitex altissima L.f. (Verbenaceae) 173 1,2,3,5,6 Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) 1 1,3,4,5,6 Walsura trifolia (A.Juss.) Harms (Meliaceae) 54 1,2,3,4,5,6 Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Schultes) Steud. (Rubiaceae) 1 1,2,3,4,5,6 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) 479 1,3,6 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae) 89 1,3,4,5,6 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. (Rhamnaceae) 87 1,3,4,5,6

*Geographic area: 1-Eastern Ghats, 2-Peninsular India, 3-India, 4-SriLanka,

5-Peninsular India & SriLanka, 6-Asia, 7-Africa, 8-Australia, 9-America, 10-Europe

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