Notes on the sheet Bangalore-Salem J.-P. Pascal, B. R. Ramesh

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J.-P. Pascal, B. R. Ramesh. Notes on the sheet Bangalore-Salem. Institut Français de Pondichéry, 66 p., 1996, Publications du Département d’Ecologie. Hors Série N° 18, Head of Ecology Department, Institut Français de Pondichéry, e-mail: [email protected]. ￿hal-00476204￿

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notes on the sheet BANGALORE SALEM

FOREST MAP OF SOUTH

notes on the sheet

BANGALORE

SALEM

J.P. Pascal B.R. Ramesh

publications du département d'écologie INSTITUT FRANÇAIS DE PONDICHÉRY

© Institut Français de Pondichéry, 1995 (ISSN 0971 -3107) Composition - Cellule d'édition IFP Impression - All India Press, Pondichéry Couverture - Conception : Françoise Boudignon

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 01

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTS AND METHODS I. Location and identification of vegetation cover 02 II. Typology of the different formations 02 III. Representation of ecological conditions 04 IV. Identification of climax formations 05 V. Dynamic relationships 07

CHAPTER TWO: CLIMATE 09 I. Rainfall 09 II. Temperature 13 III. Dry season 14

CHAPTER THREE: VEGETATION TYPES 15 I. Dry Vegetation types 15 A. amara- spp. type 15 B. Gyrocarpus jacquini and/or binata types 16 C. latifolia-Chloroxylon swietenia-Albizia amara type 18 D. Anogeissus latifolia-Pterocarpus marsupium-Terminalia spp. type 19 E. Anogeissus latifolia-Tectona grandis-Terminalia alata type 21 II. Moist Vegetation types 22 A. Low elevation (below 1000 m) 22 B. Medium elevation (altitude 750-1400 m) 22 C. High elevation (altitude 1300-1800 m) 26

REFERENCES ON THE SHEET (or cited in the text) 28

ANNEXES: Floristic lists of the forest types 31 I. Dry Vegetation types 32 - Albizia amara-Acacia spp. type 32 - Gyrocarpus jacquini and/or Hardwickia binata types 34 - Anogeissus latifolia-Chloroxylon swietenia-Albizia amara type 38 - Anogeissus latifolia-Pterocarpus marsupium-Terminalia spp. type 41 II. Moist Vegetation types 45 A. Medium elevation types 45 - Elaeocarpus tuberculatus-Michelia champaca-Canarium strictum t y p e 45 - Mesua ferrea-Palaquium ellipticum-Olea glandulifera type 48 - ovalifolia-Memecylon lushingtonii-Olea glandulifera type 51 B. High elevation types 53 - Schefflera spp.-Gordonia obtusa-Meliosma arnottiana type 53 - Schefflera capitata-Neolitsea zeylanica-Meliosma spp. Type 56

INTRODUCTION

During the last fifty years, the forested area has dangered forests. Studies have also been carried out on the changed considerably, mainly due to the rapid population ecology and functioning of different forest types, the growth. In overpopulated regions, the increase in impact of major development projects, selection of population necessitates fresh clearing of wooded areas for afforestation programmes, etc., besides the for agricultural and other purposes. New settlements creation of Wildlife Parks and Sanctuaries, Biosphere can be observed, for example, in the foothills of the Reserves, and imposition of a ban on felling for a certain Ghats in northern and near the border of the Kar- number of years in some of the endangered forests. nataka plateau in Sirsi, Siddapur and Yellapur regions. In order to meet these requirements, it became nec- The need to accomodate the rising population, as essary to prepare a new vegetation map at an appropriate well as the construction of huge hydroelectric projects scale showing the actual state of the Forests, their (some of which have already been completed, while environmental conditions (climate, edaphic, biotic, others are still underway) in less populated areas, also administrative) and their potentialities. lead to deforestation. Moreover, the continuous and An agreement was signed between the French ever increasing demand for by industries and for Institute of Pondicherry and the Forest Departments of fuel wood by the population greatly accelerate felling , Kerala and to map the main operations. Overexploitation has thus brought about a forested regions of these states, in six sheets, at the scale rapid degradation of the forest, if not its total destruction of 1: 250 000 (Fig. 1 ) . in some areas. Three sheets with an explanatory booklet have A more rational management of the forest heritage is already been published (Pascal et al. 1982 a, b; 1984; 2 necessary, especially decisions concerning deforestation 1986). They cover an area of nearly 90 000 km , from and afforestation policies, conversions, the choice of 16° N up to 11°30 N. The Bangalore-Salem sheet areas to be selected, and the degree of exploitation that presented here is the eastward extension of the Mercara- may be permitted. Mysore sheet, and concerns the south-eastern part of the Mysore plateau and the hills of the Eastern Ghats Thus, during the last few decades, several policies dominating the Tamil Nadu pediplain. have been formulated with a view to protecting en-

Chapter I

CONCEPTS AND METHODS

The methodologies and concepts used in preparing and herbs), density of the stand and the cover provided by this sheet are similar to those used for the three earlier the dominant stratum. Based on these criteria they were ones (Pascal et al. 1982a, b; 1984; 1986) and are based distinguished as: on the method developed by Gaussen for the International -Dense forest: here, the term forest is strictly reserved Map of the Vegetation and of Environmental Conditions, for formations dominated by a tree stratum. A forest at the scale of 1:1 000 000. The originality of this was considered as dense when the canopy cover was method lies in complementing the map of the types of more than 80%. formations (for example, forests, savannas, thickets) - Woodland to savanna-woodland: the tree stratum with additional information, such as the climatic envi- of these formations is discontinuous, the percentage of ronment of these formations (precipitation and tem- cover varying between 80 and 50% for woodlands and perature) and the dynamic relationships between them. between 50 and 20% for savanna-woodlands, where the This kind of cartography thus provides information not ground is covered by a continuous carpet of tall grasses only on the different types of vegetation and their at least during the monsoon. Naturally, all the inter- extent, but also on their evolutionary potentialities in mediate stages between these two formations are present. relation to the nature and intensity of anthropic pressure. - Tree savanna to grass savanna: these formations are characterised by a continuous grass cover with a few scattered (tree savanna), or ( savanna), I - LOCATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF or devoid of any woody species (grass savanna). Here THE VEGETATION COVER also all the intermediate stages are encountered. -Scrub-woodland to dense thicket: scrub-woodlands The method followed for the preparation of the map have a sparse and discontinuous tree layer. The grass is illustrated in Fig. 2. cover is replaced by a dense and continuous scrub or Field trips over almost 4 years to more than half of shrubby layer often composed of thorny, spiny species. the 453 Reserved Forests found on the sheet enabled the The tree stratum has disappeared in the dense thickets. constitution of a database which include the phys- - Discontinuous thicket to low scattered shrubs: iognomic and structural description as well as the floristic these formations are more open and lower in stature composition of the stand in each forest. than those mentioned above. T h e shrubby layer becomes Field observations were complemented by existing discontinuous. Palatable and unarmed species grow literature (see References) and by data provided by the only in the middle of shrubs and are protected by thorny Forest Department: Working Plans, stock maps, 10% and spiny . Some scattered trees emerge here and enumeration data, location of plantations, legal status of there. In the low scattered shrub formation, t h e soil forests, etc. is more exposed to erosion as they only have a sparse The forests were demarcated by interpreting satellite grass cover with small interspersed shrubs. imageries: Landsat (MSS, TM), SPOT and IRS. Some of these physiognomic types are derived from each other through degradation because of man’s destructive activity and grazing or, conversely, due to a gradual change following their protection. This dynamic II - TYPOLOGY OF THE DIFFERENT link will be dealt later. FORMATIONS 2. Phenology The formations were characterised by their physiognomy, phenology and floristic composition. Based on the percentages of evergreen and deciduous species, the formations are classified into three cate- gories: evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous. 1. Physiognomy Evergreen forests: evergreen species constitute at The formations were classified according to their least 95% of the stand. Deciduous species, found mainly dominant biological strata (trees, shrubs, undershrubs in the openings, do not exceed 5% of the individuals.

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Deciduous forests: all the trees of the top canopy rainfall regime, lengthening of the dry period, etc. They shed their at the same time. were also selected because of their relative abundance. Semi-evergreen forests may be divided into two For example, in the Mesua ferrea - Palaquium major groups: (i) The dominant stratum includes a ellipticum - Olea glandulifera type confined to the Bili- mixture of evergreen and deciduous species, the latter giri Rangan Hills and which is subjected to both the comprising more than 5%. (ii) Evergreen species are eastern and western climatic influences, Mesua and absent or rare in the dominant stratum, but constitute Palaquium were chosen not just for their abundance, practically the whole of the lower stratum, as is often the but mostly because these two species find their eastern- case in secondary forests in a humid environment. The most limit here. They occur in forest patches isolated recovering capabilities of these two types of semi- from the forest continuum of the where evergreen forests can be very different. they are common, specially at medium elevations. Thus, they represent the floristic link between this forest type 3. Floristic composition and the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. Olea glandulifera is not found in the wet evergreen forests of Formations with similar physiognomy and phenology the Western Ghats and is characteristic of the drier are further divided into forest types based on the main regions exposed to the east. It represents the eastern in- differences in their floristic composition. fluence which is also found in this forest. The typology is based on the tree species which Throughout the dry zone, one passes gradually from appear to be most characteristic of a milieu or certain one type to another, with very little change in the species climatic conditions. For example, those which are most encountered. These types differ more in the relative sensitive to a reduction in temperature or rainfall, to the

4 densities of the species. Thus, the composition of the Albizia - Acacia type. The changes are generally gradual, Anogeissus - Pterocarpus - Terminalia type resembles particularly with increase in altitude. The lo ca l that of the Anogeissus - Chloroxylon - Albizia type conditions, edaphic or of exposure, sometimes modify which, in turn, has many species in common with the the limits of the altitudinal zonation (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Altitudinal zonation of the dry vegetation types

III - REPRESENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL red. Thus, a forest growing under a rainy ( b l u e ) and CONDITIONS warm (red) climate will be represented in blue + red = purple. Another forest situated in a rainy and cool 1. Climate environment would be shown in blue + yellow = green and a formation in a dry and hot environment would The climatic conditions corresponding to each forest appear in red (dry) + red (hot) = red. type in the mapped region necessitates a detailed study of the bioclimates. A synthesis of the whole of the 2. Biotic pressure and administrative information Western Ghats was made at the scale of 1:500 000 (Pascal 1982c). Nevertheless, it was necessary to extend Degradation of the forest is mainly related to the this work to the east of Biligiri Rangan Hills in order to intensity of anthropic pressure. cover the whole of the mapped region (see Chapter 2). Population density is shown on the map to provide On the map, the climatic conditions are expressed by an estimate of its requirements (in fuelwood, fodder, colours, following Gaussen’s method (Bagnouls and etc.). Towns and villages with a population exceeding Gaussen, 1953; Gaussen, 1959) which is also 1000 persons are represented by circles whose diameter recommended by UNESCO (1973). The colours is proportional to the population (figures are from the assigned to the rainfall range, varying from very dry to 1991 census). As human activities are often along very humid, are in the following order: red, orange, roadsides, accessibility of a forest is an indication of its yellow, light blue and dark blue. Colours corresponding potential for exploitation and risk of degradation. Hence, to the three classes of mean temperature of the coldest the network of roads, including important forest tracks, have been shown on the map. month, ranging from cold to hot, are yellow, orange and

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Information on the legal status of the forests is also vegetation series with Hardwickia were recognized by important. Among the forests managed by the Forest Gaussen et al. on the maps at the scale of 1/100 000. The Department (Reserve forests, minor forests ‘betta’, Cape Comorin sheet (Gaussen et al. 196la, b) which revenue land, etc.), only the Reserve forests are outlined goes up to 12°N does not identify any series char- and identified by a number on the map. This number re- acterised by Hardwickia, even though it covers the part fers to a list given in the lower part of the sheet where the of the Eastern Ghats and the plateau to the east of Bili- forests are classified according to their position in the giri Rangan Hills where Hardwickia is quite common. territorial division of the Forest Administration (Range, The Hardwickia - Anogeissus series is found from the Division,Circle, State). The administrative information extreme southern part of the Mysore sheet (Gaussen et is supplemented by the limits of Divisions and Circles al. 1965, 1966), mostly on skeletal soils. Another series and by the location of the headquarters of the Forest makes its appearance on the Madras sheet (Gaussen et Department. A small scale inset also shows the bound- al. 1962, 1964), to the north of 13°N: the Hardwickia - aries of Circles and Divisions. Pterocarpus santalinus - Anogeissus series. Hence the greater part of this series is located to the north of the Bangalore - Salem sheet. At the most, only a few highly IV - IDENTIFICATION OF CLIMAX degraded thickets in the Bangarapet region can be FORMATIONS considered to belong to it. Considering the very small area covered by this series on the sheet and the degraded The first step was to identify the most advanced type condition of the stands (where Hardwickia is most often of formation (forest, woodland, scrub-woodland, absent) that can be attributed to it, this series has not thickets, etc.) for each set of environmental conditions been represented on the sheet. Formations where Hard- encountered in the mapped region. These formations wickia is common are mostly situated on the eastern should, according to Clements (1916, 1936), correspond edge of the plateau and on the low elevation slopes of to the climax under optimum conditions. However, this the Eastern Ghats. They were grouped under Gyrocar- concept is debatable elsewhere as it supposes a state of pus jacquini and/or Hardwickia binata types (on slopes, skeletal soils and as transitional facies). Indeed, very equilibrium between the milieu and the vegetation. often Hardwickia is found growing in association with Gyrocarpus, especially on steep slopes. The presence 1. Modifications introduced by human activities of Hardwickia is indicated by the letter ‘H’. The antiquity and intensity of man’s action in the whole of this region has greatly modified the plant for- 3. Teak forests mations in such a way that the climax is rarely observed. Teak is found in the deciduous formations on the Most often, a degraded formation is all that remains, slopes of the Biligiri Rangan Hills (BRH), on the reliefs sometimes far away from the potential climax of the around Madeshwara Malai and on the mountains place. The remnant species and formations, adapted to dominating the pediplain of Tamil Nadu (Shevaroy, these very harsh microclimatic conditions, are mostly Chitteri, Elagiri) when precipitation exceeds 900 mm. the same, whereas the bioclimates can be quite different. However, teak is never as abundant as in the deciduous Degradation results in a kind of convergence in the forests situated further west on the plateau which receives vegetation, making it difficult to propose a theoretical the major part of precipitation during the summer reconstruction of what could have been the climax. monsoon (see Mercara - Mysore sheet). It therefore On the other hand, the areas of some formations seemed preferable to indicate this difference by retaining which could locally correspond to a climax, have been only some forests, situated on the western slopes of the extended due to man’s action. They now dominate in BRH where teak is quite abundant, in the Anogeissus - places where they did not constitute the original climax Tectona - Terminalia type. The other forests where teak formation and now form what appears a substitute is clearly less common are included in the Anogeissus - climax. Such is the case of a considerable part of the tree Pterocarpus - Terminalia type. The presence of teak is savannas and scrub-woodlands, as well as the grass sa- indicated by the letter ‘T’ on the map. vannas on hills and mountains. Other formations, such as the evergreen forest patches or semi-deciduous forests 4. Riparian forests confined to the talwegs, present a simplified structure and have lost some of their most sensitive species. Some formations may be considered as specific to edaphic conditions which are particularly humid, for 2. Hardwickia binata formations example, Terminalia arjuna - Syzygium cumini - Pongamia pinnata type which is confined to talwegs on The definition and delimitation of Hardwickia binata the slopes of the Eastern Ghats at elevations generally forest types posed a different kind of problem. Several

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Table 1. Correspondence between the Forest Map of South India's classification and that of Champion and Seth (1968)

Forest Map of South India Champion & Seth

Albizia - Acacia spp. type 6A/C1 - Southern thorn forest Gyrocarpus and/or Hardwickia 6A/C1 - Southern thorn forest

- scrub - woodland 5A/E4 - Hardwickia forest - savanna - woodland

Forests 5A/C3 - Southern dry mixed Anogeissus - Chloroxylon - Albizia deciduous forest

Anogeissus - Pterocarpus - 5A/C3 -Southern dry mixed dec. forest Terminalia spp. 5/2S1 - Secondary dry deciduous forest

Anogeissus - Tectona - Terminalia 5A/Clb- Dry teak forest

Savanna - woodland to tree savanna 5/DS2 - Dry savanna forest DRY VEGETATION TYPES

5/DS1 - Dry deciduous scrub

stages Scrub - woodland to thicket 6A/C1 - Southern thorn thicket 6A/C2Dsl - Southern thorn scrub

Discontinuous thicket to low Degraded 6A/Ds3 - Southern Euphorbia scrub scattered shrubs

Low Terminalia - Syzygium - 4E/Rsl - Riparian fringing forest elevation Pongamia Elaeocarpus - Michelia - Tropical Sub-group 2A Canarium wet evergreen Medium Mesua - Palaquium - 1 A/C3 - Southern hilltop forests elevation Olea tropical evergreen forest

Diospyros - Memecylon - Olea Forests

Schefflera - Gordonia - Sub - Meliosma sp. tropical broad - 8A/C1 - Southern sub- High Schefflera - Neolitsea - leaved tropical hill forest VEGETATION TYPES VEGETATION elevation Meliosma spp. hill forests Vaccinium - Neolitsea -

MOIST Meliosma spp.

Semi-evergreen forests

8A/DS1 - South Indian subtropical hill savanna Tree savanna to grassland 11A/DS2 - Southern montane wet

Degraded stages Degraded grassland

7 lower than 1000 m. Another riparian type, the relate thedifferent existing stages by observing the evo- Elaeocarpus tuberculalus - Michelia champaca - lution of stands subjected to intense anthropic pressure Canarium strictum type is found on the western slopes at or, conversely, those protected from the action of man medium elevations in the BRH. Everywhere else, at and his animals. The formations can thus be classified medium and high elevations, the evergreen and semi- into degradation or recovering series (Gaussen 1966). evergreen patches found in the talwegs do not represent On the map, all the stages belonging to the same the riparian type proper but seem to be the relics of series are shown in the colour corresponding to the forests that were once widespread but are now confined to climatic conditions of the series. Physiognomically the more humid pockets, anthropic pressure having identical stages, resulting from the degradation of taken a heavy toll of the evergreen forest. Although formations which were initially different and hence these forest patches are important elements for the growing under different conditions, can thus be conservation of biodiversity in this region, they could distinguished by their colour. The latter will indicate not be mapped because their size is too small for the that the climatic conditions not being the same, the scale of the map (1 mm = 250 m). potentialities of recovery will not be the same either. Table 1 groups all the forest types found on the sheet, However, the possibilities of a return to the climax as well as the different physiognomic stages derived formation should be nuanced. Indeed, certain degrada- through their gradual degradation, and gives their corre- tions in the plant cover are accompanied by a considerable spondence with Champion and Seth’s (1968) classi- degradation of the soil, especially by erosion. These fication which is generally followed in forest literature. new edaphic conditions may hinder recovery. Moreover, several species found in one physiognomic stage are no longer found in more degraded stages where moisture V - DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS conditions are different. Their reappearance in the stand during a gradual recovery would depend on the proximity of seed-bearers. The reconstituted formation may thus be Although it is still possible to find some climax much poorer in species than the initial formation. There formations (sensu Clements) in this region, most often would thus be a reconstitution of the physiognomy and they are formations corresponding to more or less de- phenology, but not of the biodiversity. graded stages of succession. An attempt can be made to

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2. Moist vegetation types These dynamic relationships are illustrated in Fig. 4. In the legend of the sheet, the formations have been Some of the moist formations correspond to riparian divided into two groups corresponding to two broad forests. Those forests may be found in dry as well as ecological categories: dry vegetation types and moist moist regions. Because of their special ecological vegetation types. location, they are generally able to resist man’s inter- ference to a better extent, but under excessive pressure 1. Dry vegetation types they get transformed first into a semi-deciduous forest, then to deciduous and lastly into increasingly open The most evolved physiognomic stage corresponding physiognomic stages (savanna-woodland, tree savanna, to the climax would depend on the amount of precipi- shrub savanna). The presence of some evergreen species tation. Along the gradient of decreasing rainfall, it is evidence of higher soil moisture. would be deciduous forest, savanna-woodland or scrub- Other climax evergreen formations have been woodland. Each of these climax stages could be more or separated according to altitude (medium and high less degraded by human interference. elevations). They are found only on the reliefs and Mostly situated in accessible areas, the dry forma- receive on the one hand, the highest rainfall, and on the tions have been subjected to intense and continuous other, an appreciable amount of moisture from occult anthropic pressure from a long time. Shifting cultivation, precipitations (dew, mist) as a result of low temperatures. overexploitation, overgrazing and repeated fires are re- These evergreen formations are mostly confined to sponsible for severe degradation. Two main degradation talwegs which further increase the humidity. Human paths can be outlined: activity first transforms them into semi-deciduous (i) overexploitation, excessive cutting of wood or forests, then gradually into tree savanna, shrub savanna overgrazing convert a forest into scrub-woodland, to and finally into grassland. These grasslands of secondary dense thicket, and then to increasingly lower and dis- origin should not be confused with those of edaphic or continuous thickets, and finally to barren soil. climatic origin which are often found towards the (ii) exploitation and grazing accompanied by frequent summits. fires which, by favouring the growth of grasses, gradually lead to a savanna-woodland, then tree savanna, shrub savanna and finally, to grass savanna.

In the studied area, the number of meteorological I - RAINFALL stations is high enough to enable a relatively accurate study of the bioclimatic conditions. However, most of Two important aspects of rainfall are rainfall regime these stations record only the rainfall, and very few, the (i.e. season of occurrence of rains) and rainfall amount. temperature. Other parameters generally necessary for a more detailed study (evaporation, wind, etc.) are 1. Rainfall regime The rainfall regimes are illustrated in Fig. 5. The most available only for big towns. striking feature in this region is the small amount of Therefore, the characterisation of the bioclimates is rain brought by the southwest monsoon, which falls on based only on climatic parameters which are commonly just a few reliefs in the southern part of the sheet available, viz., rainfall and temperature, from which the (Biligiri Rangan Hills, Shevaroy). For the remaining length of the dry season is calculated.

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12 part, rainfall is generally from convection movements formation of these depressions is very variable in number, (peaks in May and September-October) or from depres- as well as in intensity, from one year to another. This sions which form in the Bay of Bengal towards the end irregularity can be seen, for example, in the quartiles of of the year. Attur, Allikan Estate and Kodanad (Fig. 6b). It is observed that this influence is felt quite far inland as a) West-east gradient Kodanad is located in the Nilgiris. Besides the The shift towards the east is reflected in the gradual convectional rains and the summer monsoon, the BRH modifications in the relative abundance of rainfall in and Shevaroy summits also receive rainfall from the May and October. The main change observed is the dis- depressions of October-November-December. symmetry in the peaks in May and September-October. In Chamrajnagar the two peaks are quite similar, while c) North-south variations in Bangalore and the peak in October is one Two main trends are observed. and a half times higher (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6a), and in Salem (i) increasing dissymmetry, from north to south, in two times higher (Fig. 6b) than the peak in May. the May and October peaks which reinforce the west- The equal importance of the two peaks in east gradient. In Attur, located to the southeast, the two Chamrajnagar, which is also found in Mysore, is due to gradients are maximum and the October peak is more its location in the shelter of the reliefs to the east as well than three times higher than the one in May. The as to the west. However, beyond this sheltered location, sheltered Mysore - Chamrajnagar region is a special the dissymmetry becomes apparent at the same longitude case as already mentioned. (Nagamangala, Fig. 6a). (ii) increase in the September rainfall with latitude. North of 12°30', the peaks in September and October are b) Influence of the year end depressions more or less similar. From October to December, the regions exposed to The region around Dharmapuri (Bara Mahals) is in the east receive rainfall from depressions originating in an intermediate situation, reinforced by its position in the Bay of Bengal and moving towards India. The the shelter of the Shevaroy, Chitteri, Kalrayan and

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Javadi hills. This regime extends slightly over the II - TEMPERATURE plateau upto Hosur, following the Tamil Nadu-Kamataka border. The huge number of reliefs in t h i s region breaks the The cumulative influences of these variations and monotony of the rainfall distribution. The corresponding rainfall patterns result in six distinct areas with similar temperature gradient enables the development of more rainfall regimes (shown by different designs in Fig. 5). humid formations. Rainfall related to orographic effect 2. Annual rainfall is augmented by occult precipitations, dew and fog resulting from lower temperatures. The annual rainfall value is the result of the influences Temperature obviously plays a role in the selection of the different rainfall regimes and particular topo- of species. Thus a number of species selected to designate graphic situations (exposure, altitude). The rainfall distri- a forest type are species with a narrow altitudinal bution is given in Fig. 7. In the mapped region, rainfall amplitude-for example, Gyrocarpus and Hardwickia. varies from about 500 mm to the west of Chamrajnagar Some families, such as Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and to nearly 1900 mm in the Biligiri Rangan Hills (BRH). Araliaceae, are particularly well developed in the coldest The driest areas are situated in the western part of the regions. plateau, the southernmost part of the sheet and in the Temperatures are higher in the plains (Table 2). The northeast (around Bangarapet and Kolar Gold Fields). mean of the hottest month is 30.3 -31.8° C. In the region Two more dry pockets are also found on the plateau, as corresponding to the very dissymmetric rainfall regime a result of their sheltered location: one to the south of (Salem), (the hottest month is May and the maxima Kanakapura and the other along the Marthahalli river. exceed a mean value of 29°C during 4 months (March Rainfall exceeds 900 mm in the Nilgiris, around to June). The maximum is in April in stations less BRH, in the most exposed zones of the Eastern Ghats1, exposed to the eastern influence (Dharmapuri). along a crest-line joining Melagiri and Bangalore, and Throughout the plains, the coldest month is December around the Javadi-Elagiri and Shevaroy-Chitteri- with mean values between 22.7° and 25.1° C. Kalrayan hills. Temperatures are naturally s l i g h t l y lower on the Only the mountain reliefs get rainfall higher than plateau. The hottest month is April (27.3°-28.4°C), 1100 mm. BRH and Shevaroy are the only two stations while the coldest month passes from December to where it exceeds 1500 mm; however, it is always less January as we go westwards. This change corresponds than 2000 mm. The case is the same in the small part of to slightly lower temperatures: 20.2°-20.5°C in the east the Nilgiris included in the sheet. and 22.2°-23.7°C in the west.

1 Geographically, the BRH, the Javadi, Elagiri, Shevaroy, Chitteri and Kalrayan hills form part of the Eastern Ghats. However, we will treat Javadi, Elagiri, Shevaroy, Chitteri and Kalrayan as hills of Tamil Nadu and retain the term Eastern Ghats only for the edge of the Mysore plateau.

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At very high elevations, the temperature becomes a 8 months in regions with low rainfall (less than 700 mm) limiting factor for several species. In Coonoor and and 5 to 6 months when the rainfall exceeds 900 mm. It Yercaud, the mean minimum (in January) is between is only on the highest reliefs (Nilgiris, BRH, Shevaroy) 14.5° and 15.6° C, while the mean maximum (in May) that the dry season is limited to 3 or 4 months. is around 20° C ( 19.5-21.8). However, these mean values should not mask the large interannual variations. Thus, in Satyamangalam and Chamrajnagar, the dry season in 50% of the years III -DRY SEASON is 7-8 months, but the extreme values vary between 5 The length of the dry season is another limiting and 10 months, i.e., from simple to double. In Kodanad, factor for the vegetation. It plays an important role in the in the Nilgiris, the extremes are 1 to 5 months. It is selection of species and, consequently, in the distribution therefore clear that such constraining factors impose a of the main vegetation types. very strict selection on plant species. Taking into account the limitations in the data avail- Another aspect to be considered in this region is the able for accurately measuring the intensity of dryness, frequency of bixerism. With the exception of the crest the dry season was calculated following Gaussen and on the plateau from the Melagiris to Bangalore, the Bagnoul’s (1953) method: a month is considered dry BRH and summits of the Eastern Ghats, all the regions when the rainfall (in mm) is less than twice the value of experience a second period of dryness after May. This the mean temperature (in C). The ombrothermic dia- period, generally 1-2 months (2-3 in the west), varies in grams (Fig. 6a,b), where the ordinates were established duration and intensity from one region to another, and according to this ratio, help in immediately recognizing also from year to year, but on the average, it is observed the dry months. A slightly more accurate estimate can in 6 out of 10 years. be made by calculating the number of dry months sepa- The climatic conditions described above lead to rately for each year. The average thus obtained is gen- certain adaptations in the natural vegetation, such that erally higher than that seen in ombrothermic diagrams the major bioclimatic limits of the principal vegetation which have a tendency to underestimate interannual types found in the sheet can be distinguished quite variations. Fig.6 also gives the variations in the monthly easily. Naturally, some formations such as the riparian rainfall and in the number of dry months in the form of forests, for example, are found only under certain edaphic quartiles. conditions and do not fit with these climatic limits. In the major part of the sheet, the dry season thus These bioclimatic limits are described at the beginning of the study of each type. calculated ranges from 6 to 8 months. It is generally 7 to .

Chapter III

VEGETATION TYES

I - DRY VEGETATION TYPES 1. Scrub - woodland These formations include an upper stratum 10 to A. Albizia amara - Acacia spp. type 12 m high, generally composed of deciduous species, and an undergrowth of thorny shrubs and climbers This type greatly exceeds the limits of the Bangalore - which is sometimes almost impenetrable. A grass cover Salem sheet. It covers most of the dry regions of the is present between the shrubs, specially in the clearings. plains and hills of low elevation (less than 600 m) of - Tree stratum Tamil Nadu (Gaussen et al. 1961a,b, 1962, 1963: Cape Acacia chundra1 Comorin and Madras sheets). It also appears in the Acacia leucophlœa driest regions of the Mysore plateau (rainfall about 450 Albizia amara to 600 mm). However, it is not found on calcimorphic Azadirachta indica soils (Gaussen et al. 1966). Canthium dicoccum In the Bangalore - Salem sheet, it is found on the Chloroxylon swietenia plains up to the foot of the hills, except for a part of Bara Cleistanthus collinus Mahals where it seems to be replaced by the Anogeissus Erythroxylon monogynum - Chloroxylon - Albizia type. Nevertheless, it is difficult Strychnos potatorum to distinguish these two types precisely, as they are both Wrightia tinctoria Ziziphus mauritiana highly degraded and represented now by almost similar Ziziphus xylopyrus formations. The Albizia - Acacia type is again found on the plateau, in a small dry zone around Bangarapet, - Understorey where the rainfall is less than 600 mm. Acacia ferruginea The rainfall regime corresponding to its distribution Acacia latronum area is strongly dissymmetric with the rainfall peak in Atalantia monophylla October distinctly higher than the one in May, for Benkara malabarica example, Satyamangalam (Fig. 6b). Rainfall generally Canthium dicoccum varies between 600 and 1000 mm and the dry period Capparis divaricata from 6 to 8 months, spread over two seasons: a long Carissa spinarum season from December to April and a shorter one, of 1 Catunaregam dumetorum to 3 months, after May. Commiphora berryi Most often this type is represented by more or less Dichrostachys cinerea degraded thickets, generally distant from one another Euphorbia antiquorum and surrounded by cultivated land. These formations Flacourtia indica have resulted from intense and continuous biotic pressure Gmelina asiatica acting on them since centuries. However, in some cases, Lantana camara especially at the foot of the hills, the Albizia - Acacia Maytenus emarginata type is still found as scrub-woodland, a physiognomic Pterolobium hexapetalum stage which is now difficult to specify whether it Securinega leucopyrus represents the climax of the type or not. Tarenna asiatica In a general way, the Albizia -Acacia type is replaced - Small shrubs and grass cover: on the slopes by the Gyrocarpus - Acacia type with Acalypha fruticosa which it shares a large number of species. Aristida adscensionis The description of this type is that of Gaussen et al. Aristida hystrix (1963), complemented by a few additions from our own Barleria buxifolia surveys. Cassia auriculata

' The most common species are indicated in bold..

16

Dodonaea viscosa Euphorbia antiquorum Euphorbia tirucalli and under moderate grazing: Opuntia dillenii Aristida funiculata Eragrostiella bifaria On steep and eroded slopes, there is hardly any Heteropogon contortus vegetation left between the rocks. Aristida hystrix is Tragus bifiorus very scattered and the shrubs are also far apart.

2. Dense thicket B. Gyrocarpus jacquini and/or This formation is derived from the preceding one by Hardwickia binata types degradation. Species which provide timber and fuel- wood, specially Albizia amara, Chloroxylon swietenia, Formations on the slopes from the foothills up to Azadirachta indica and Wrightia tinctoria, have been elevations of 600 to 700 m are grouped under this type. overexploited. This degradation results in drier Gyrocarpus type is found from the southern tip of India conditions favouring the growth of spiny and climbing on the eastern slopes of the Ghats up to northwest of species such as Pterolobium indicum and Acacia pen- Madras on poor, most often skeletal, soils. nata. The ground is covered by an impenetrable under- On the sheet, these formations occupy most of the growth composed of shrubs about 4 m high, with a few lower slopes of the Eastern Ghats and the hills of Tamil isolated trees. Nadu. They are also found on the steep slopes of the The floristic composition is more or less the same as valleys of the Kaveri and its tributaries where they form that of the undergrowth of scrub-woodlands. The domi- the transition to the Anogeissus - Chloroxylon - Acacia nant species are: Acacia pennata type which generally succeeds them in altitude. Albizia amara The Gyrocarpus type has a large number of species Canthium dicoccum in common with the Albizia - Acacia type and, in the Capparis divaricata highest parts, some species of the next type. This type Catunaregam dumetorum is well characterised by the presence of Gyrocarpus Chloroxylon swietenia jacquini which is often very common. Dichrostachys cinerea On the slopes and in the valleys of the Eastern 2 Flacourtia indica Ghats , Gyrocarpus is associated with Hardwickia Maytenus emarginata binata which also seems to be adapted to skeletal soils Pterolobium and hardly grows above 800 m. Hardwickia is less hexapetalum common on the slopes of the eastern hills (Shevaroy, Securinega leucopyrus Kalrayan, Javadi). Ziziphus xylopyrus The formations found on the part of the plateau dominating the valleys of the Kaveri and its tributaries 3. Discontinuous thicket to low scattered shrubs (for example, Madeshwaramalai plateau) where Hardwickia and Gyrocarpus are still found, have been The low discontinuous thicket is still more degraded included in this type. However, Gyrocarpus becomes than the preceding stage and is heavily grazed. It is easy increasingly rare and then disappears completely as we to move between these 2-4 m high, thick thorny shrubs. go towards the interior of the plateau. The forest type Thornless and edible species grow in the middle of these then corresponds to the Hardwickia - Anogeissus series bushes, away from the reach of animals. A few isolated trees emerge in some places. Climbing and thorny spe- described by Gaussen et al. (1966) which we have not cies are abundant and a sparse grass cover is found identified separately here. between the shrubs. At the northern limit of the sheet (in the Bangarapet Increasing degradation gradually leads to the last region) begins the Hardwickia - Pterocarpus santalinus stage: scattered shrubs. The soil is then highly exposed -Anogeissus series (described by Gaussen et al. 1962, to erosion, and has only a thin graminaceous cover of 1963) whose area extends far north up to 17° N. We Aristida adscensionis, A. hystrix and sometimes have not recognised this series as it is represented here Cymbopogon coloratus. A few scattered undershrubs only by a few thickets which are, moreover, highly are found: degraded. The intensity of biotic pressure has resulted in the Barleria buxifolia Calotropis gigantea disappearance of large areas of other formations in the

Cassia auriculata Dodonaea viscosa

2 See footnote Chapter II

17 plains and on the plateau. On the other hand, the Gyro- Barleria acuminata carpus and Hardwickia types are relatively better pro- Bombax ceiba tected as they are generally found occupy in a less accessi- Bridelia crenulata ble sites. On the plateau, in the one and same zone, are Butea parviflora found thorny/spiny thickets of Anogeissus - Chloroxylon Calotropis gigantea - Albizia type on flat terrain, whereas on steep slopes, Canthium parviflorum where man and cattle have no easy access, prevail Cardiospermum halicacabum savanna-woodland or tree savanna with Hardwickia. Catunaregam dumetorum Topography seems to play an important role in separating Chloroxylon swietenia the Anogeissus - Chloroxylon - Albizia and Hardwickia Chukrasia tabularis types. Cissus quadrangularis These formations receive rainfall between 500 and Cordia monoica 900 mm, with a very dissymmetric distribution in the Dalbergia paniculata September-October and May rainfall. This dissymmetry Dendrocalamus strictus gradually disappears towards the interior of the plateau, Dichrostachys cinerea which also corresponds to the disappearance of Gyro- Diospyros melanoxylon carpus. The number of dry months is 6-8 months, most Dodonaea viscosa often distributed over two periods. Considering the ex- Dolichandrone falcata posure and low water retaining capacity of the soils Ehretia pubescens which are generally skeletal, this dry period actually Emblica officinalis corresponds to intense drought conditions aggravated Erythroxylon monogynum Euphorbia antiquorum by a wide inter-annual variability. Euphorbia nivulia mollis 1. Scrub-woodland and thicket Gardenia latifolia Garuga pinnata The Gyrocarpus - Hardwickia type is most often Hiptage benghalensis found as scrub-woodland or thicket which may be low Lannea coromandelica and discontinuous when degradation is more intense. Lantana camara The physiognomies are comparable to those described Limonia acidissima in the preceding type. Generally the tree stratum is clear Maytenus emarginata and the trees are stunted and less than 15 m high. Polyalthia cerasoides The best represented species in this type are: Premna tomentosa Pterocarpus marsupium Boswellia serrata Pterolobium hexapetalum Cochlospermum religiosum Rhus mysorensis Commiphora caudata Santalum album Givotia rottleriformis Sapindus emarginatus Gyrocarpus jacquini Sarcostemma acidum Hardwickia binata Schleichera oleosa Sterculia urens Securinega leucopyrus Strychnos potatorum Most of the other common species belong to the Tarenna asiatica Albizia - Acacia type though there are some coming Terminalia bellerica from the deciduous forest type located higher up in Vitex altissima elevation: Wrightia tinctoria Abrus precatorius Wrightia tomentosa Acacia chundra Ziziphus mauritiana Acacia caesia Ziziphus œnoplia Acacia latronum Ziziphus xylopyrus Acacia leucophlœa Albizia amara In the low and discontinuous thickets, some species Albizia odoratissima such as Hardwickia and Anogeissus are not found any Anogeissus latifolia more, while the formation becomes richer in thorny and Azadirachta indica climbing plants.

18

2. Savanna-woodland and tree savanna Terminalia (APT) type. It is generally found between 600 and 900 m, but can sometimes go up to 1200 m On the plateau, a little away from the eastern influ- under slightly drier conditions. ence, besides the scrub-woodlands and thickets are Because of its altitudinal range, it can actually extend found more open formations with a bigger and practically only over the plateau. If present, it constitutes just a brief continuous grassy cover which may be considered as transition between the Gyrocarpus - Hardwickia and savanna-woodlands or tree savanna depending on the Anogeissus - Pterocarpus - Terminalia types over steep tree density. The trees are stunted and rarely exceed a slopes. height of 10 m in savanna-woodlands and 8 m in tree On the plateau, its area occupies the western part of savannas. The main species are: the sheet up to the foot of the Biligiri Rangan Hills Acacia chundra where, at about 900 m, it is followed by the APT or Acacia leucophlœa Anogeissus - Tectona - Terminalia (ATT) types. This Albizia amara type also stops at the level of the more humid crest be- Anogeissus latifolia tween Bangalore and the Melagiris. It is found again to Boswellia serrata the east of this region along the edge of the plateau Butea monosperma except for the dry pocket (already mentioned) near Cassia auriculata Bangarapet. The presence of Anogeissus in the Bara Cassia fistula Mahals at the foot of the Eastern Ghats leads to the Catunaregam dumetorum supposition that, in this region, it may also be found at Chloroxylon swietenia lower elevations. However, this cannot be stated categor- Dalbergia paniculata ically because of the highly degraded condition of the Diospyros melanoxylon relic formations. Dodonaea viscosa According to Gaussen et al. (1966) the area of this Dolichandrone atrovirens type extends northwards up to a latitude slightly above Dolichandrone falcata Belgaum. Emblica offlcinalis This distribution area corresponds to rainfall between Erythroxylon monogynum 600 and 900 mm. The rainfall regime does not seem to Flacourtia indica play a determining role because this type is found in Gardenia latifolia regions where the rainfall peaks of September-October Grewia tiliifolia and May are highly dissymmetric (like in Nagamangala, Hardwickia binata Fig. 6a), as well as in places where the two peaks are Holoptelea integrifolia similar (Chamrajnagar). The number of dry months Lannea coromandelica varies between 6 and 8 months in two periods in the Maytenus emarginata mapped region. Premna tomentosa It is difficult to know now what would have been the Pterocarpus marsupium climax of this type. Under the joint onslaught of drought Securinega leucopyrus and exploitation for fuelwood, the best stands rarely Sterculia urens attain the physiognomy of savanna-woodland. Away Stereospermum personatum from the hills, only increasingly degraded stages, from Tarenna asiatica thickets to low scattered shrubs are found. Wrightia tinctoria Ziziphus xylopyrus 1. Savanna-woodland to tree savanna Among the grasses: All the intermediates between these two stages are Aristida adscensionis present, with physiognomies similar to those described Aristida hystrix in the preceding type. Cymbopogon martini Heteropogon contortus - Tree stratum (about 10 m high) Aegle marmelos Albizia amara C. Anogeissus latifolia - Chloroxylon swietenia - Anogeissus latifolia Albizia amara type Azadirachta indica This type occupies an intermediate position between Bauhinia racemosa the preceding type and the Anogeissus – Pterocarpus – Buchanania axillaris Cassia fistula

19

Chloroxylon swietenia Apluda varia Dalbergia paniculata Aristida hystrix Dendrocalamus strictus Barleria prionitis Diospyros melanoxylon Canthium dicoccum Dolichandrone falcata Cassia auriculata Emblica officinalis Catunaregam dumetorum Holarrhena antidysenterica Chloroxylon swietenia Holoptelea integrifolia Cymbopogon martini Lannea coromandelica Dichrostachys cinerea Limonia acidissima Dodonaea viscosa Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia Erythroxylon monogynum Premna tomentosa Euphorbia antiquorum Stereospermum personatum Heteropogon contortus Strychnos potatorum Ixora arborea Wrightia tinctoria Lantana camara On t h e slopes, Gyrocarpus jacquini and Limonia acidissima Cochlospermum religiosum can be found, but they are Maytenus emarginata not very common. Phoenix humilis Pterolobium hexapetalum - Undergrowth Rhus mysorensis Acacia chundra Santalum album (some times quite Acacia latronum common) Argyreia cuneata Securinega leucopyrus Canthium dicoccum Strychnos potatorum Carissa spinarum Tarenna asiatica Catunaregam dumetorum Ziziphus œnoplia Cipadessa baccifera Under intense biotic pressure, these dense thickets Diospyros melanoxylon are reduced to discontinuous thickets whose shrubs are Diospyros montana separated by large barren areas. In the ultimate stage, Dodonaea viscosa Erythroxylon monogynum only a few shrubs which are inedible for animals are left Gmelina asiatica on the denuded sites Ixora arborea Mundulea sericea Rivea hypocrateriformis D. Anogeissus latifolia - Pterocarpus marsupium - Securinega leucopyrus Terminalia spp. type

- Graminaceous cover This type includes formations which resemble the Aristida adscensionis Anogeissus – Tectona - Terminalia spp. (ATT) type, but Aristida hystrix differs from it in that here teak is usually rare under Chrysopogon fulvus natural conditions (its presence is indicated on the map Heteropogon contortus by the letter T). These formations are found between 900 and 1350 m 2. Dense thicket to low scattered shrubs on the slopes of the Biligiri Rangan Hills and of the reliefs of the Eastern Ghats and hills of Tamil Nadu These degradation stages are the result of abusive (Shevaroy, Kalrayan, etc.). Similar formations are also and continuous exploitation of wood which has found in the more humid zone of the plateau connecting practically removed the tree stratum. The resulting Guttirayan, Melagiris and Bangalore. increase in dryness at the level of the undergrowth and Rainfall is higher than 900 m, and often between overgrazing favour the growth of thorny species. Among 1100 and 1400 mm. The r a i n f a l l regime is dissymmetric, the most common species may be cited: except for a part of B R H , with practically no summer Acacia chundra monsoon rains. This difference may be essential for the Acacia latronum richness in teak because in the three sheets situated in Albizia amara the west (Belgaum-Dharwar-Panaji, Shimoga and Anogeissus latifolia (shrub form) Mercara-Mysore), the ATT type is always found in

20 regions with a rainfall regime strongly dominated by Cassia fistula rains in June-July. The dry season is 5-6 months. Catunaregam torulosa Most often, the type is represented by savanna- Chukrasïa tabularis woodlands or tree savannas. A true dense deciduous Clausena indica forest is rare and is found only as small patches in the Dendrocalamus strictus more humid valleys which are relatively protected from Diospyros montana human interference. In regions where biotic pressure is Emblica officinalis intense, the type is degraded into scrub-woodland, and Eriolœna hookeriana then increasingly to low and discontinuous thickets. Glochidion velutinum Litsea deccanensis 1. Savanna-woodland to tree savanna philippensis Meyna laxiflora The physiognomies are the same as those of similar Radermachera xylocarpa formations in the other types. Streblus asper - Upper stratum Wrightia tinctoria Albizia odoratissima Ziziphus rugosa Anogeissus latifolia -Undergrowth Bauhinia purpurea Bauhinia racemosa Argyreia cuneata Bombax ceiba Breynia rhamnoides Buchanania lanzan Cipadessa baccifera Butea monosperma Clerodendrum serratum Careya arborea Flemingia macrophylla Celtis tetrandra Grewia hirsutus Dalbergia latifolia Helicteres isora Dalbergia paniculata cassioides Ficus microcarpa Leea chinensis Ficus tsjahela Mœsa indica Garuga pinnata Munronia pinnata Gmelina arborea Pavetta tomentosa Grewla tiliifolia Phœnix humilis Holoptelea integrifolia Polygala arillata Hymenodictyon excelsum Tarenna asiatica Kydia calycina The most common grasses are: Lagerstrœmia parviflora (rare) Premna tomentosa Cymbopogon nardus Pterocarpus marsupium Themeda cymbaria. Schleichera oleosa Boswellia serrata, Givotia rottleriformis and Sterculia Schrebera swietenioides urens are soetimes found in the transition to the Gyrocarpus Sterculia guttata type. Sterculia villosa Shorea roxburghii is sometimes found in pure Stereospermum personatum patches, generally on shallow clayey soil (for example, in Tali Syzygium cumini RF (Housur Range) and also in Chitteri Hills). Tectona grandis (rare) Terminalia alata 2. Dense thicket to low scattered shrubs Terminalia bellirica (locally abundant) The main tree species in a stunted form are: Terminalia paniculata Acacia leucophlæa Toona ciliata Albizia amara - Intermediate stratum Anogeissus latifolia Buchanania lanzan Bridelia retusa Chloroxylon swietenia Canthium Dalbergia paniculata dicoccum Grewia tiliifolia Casearia elliptica Premna tomentosa

21

Pterocarpus marsupium Butea monosperma Terminalia alata Careya arborea Cassia fistula In the bushy stratum are found most of the species Dendrocalamus strictus cited in the preceding types: Acacia chundra Diospyros melanoxylon Carissa carandas Emblica officinalis Catunaregam torulosa Flacourtia indica Cipadessa baccifera Gmelina arborea Clematis gouriana Grewia tiliifolia Dodonaea viscosa Holarrhena antidysenterica Erythroxylon monogynum Ougeinia oojeinensis (localised) Flacourtia indica Wrightia tinctoria Lantana camara - Undergrowth Pterolobium hexapetalum Santalum album (locally quite common) Acacia chundra Tarenna asiatica Canthium dicoccum Carissa congesta Casearia elliptica E. Anogeissus latifolia - Tectona grandis - Catunaregam torulosa Terminalia alata type Diospyros montana Helicteres isora This type is practically absent in this region. It is Lantana camara found only in a small zone, richer in teak, on the western Leea asiatica flank of the BRH, between 900 and 1200 m and in some Maytenus emarginata tree savannas on the northern slope of the Nilgiris, at Mundulea sericea elevations below 1100 m. In all other places, the density of Thespesia lampas teak is too low to relate the formations to this type. Ziziphus œnoplia A more detailed description is given in the Ziziphus rugosa explanatory booklet (Pascal 1986). Only the most common species are cited here. -Ground cover: herbs, small sized shrubs and grasses - Dominant stratum Achyranthes aspera Albizia lebbeck Albizia odoratissima Apluda mutica var. aristida Anogeissus latifolia Aristida hystrix Bombax ceiba Bidens biternata Buchanania lanzan Chromolœna odorata Dalbergia latifolia Crotalaria calycina Dalbergia paniculata Crotalaria hirsuta Garuga pinnata Crotalaria sericea Haldina cordifolia Cymbopogon coloratus Holoptelea integrifolia Cymbopogon confertiflorus Lagerstrœmia parviflora Cymbopogon martini Lannea coromandelica Desmodium pulchellum Pterocarpus marsupium Elephantopus scaber Schrebera swietenioides Gomphostemma heyneanum Shorea roxburghii (localised) Grewia hirsuta Stereospermum personatum Heteropogon contortus Tectona grandis Hibiscus furcatus Terminalia alata Indigofera wightii Terminalia chebula Terminalia paniculata Justicia simplex Leucas marruboides - Intermediate stratum Ophiopogon intermedius Bauhinia racemosa Sida acuta Bridelia retusa Themeda triandra.

22

II - MOIST VEGETATION TYPES area is too small to be depicted on a map at this scale (250m = 1 mm).

1. Elœocarpus tuberculatus - Michelia champaca - A. Low elevation (below 1000 m) Canarium strictum riparian type Moist formations at low elevations are poorly rep- Narrow strips of tall evergreen forests are encountered resented on the sheet. In fact, except for some special along streams in the middle of deciduous forests. They situations, the general climatic conditions are not condu- depend on the high moisture content of the soil. cive for their spread, and human activities further con- These ripicole forests are found between 1000 and tribute to their reduction. They are thus found only in the 1400 m. They are more common on the slopes of BRH valleys. The best formations are on the western slopes and the Eastern Ghats than on the hills dominating the of the Biligiri Rangan Hills; elsewhere, they are most plains of Tamil Nadu, and better developed on the west- often confined to river banks, in the most inaccessible ern slopes than on the eastern slopes. Sometimes, they regions. are gradually replaced towards lower elevations by the preceding type. At higher elevations, they constitute Terminalia arjuna - Syzygium cumini - Pongamia only a facies of evergreen forests. In areas having good riparian type drainage, they are usually replaced by the Diospyros - Under best conditions, this type occurs as forest Memecylon - Olea type. galleries with a top canopy often exceeding 20 m. The It is in this kind of formation that we find a remarkable stratification underneath is distinctly 3 or 4 layered. Big tree of Michelia champaca, worshipped for its great buttressed trees can also be seen near streams. However, antiquity. Located in Gundal Valley (BRH), this the canopy does not generally exceed 15 m and the pluricentenary tree attracts devotees from distant places. stratification below is not clearly defined. The Reserved Forest in which this tree is found is named Among the most common species are: after the vernacular name of this species, Dodda Sampige. - Dominant stratum A detailed description of this type is given in Ramesh Anthocephalus cadamba (1989), from which the floristic list given in the Annexe Celtis tetrandra is also taken. Four arborescent strata and one shrubby Chukrasia tabularis and herbaceous stratum are recognized. The tallest Madhuca longifolia trees such as Elaeocarpus tuberculatus and Salix Mangifera indica tetrasperma exceed 25 m. The remaining species of the Pongamia pinnata upper stratum are between 20 and 25 m. Salix tetrasperma Only the important species of the different structural Spondias pinnata ensembles are given below: Syzygium cumini Terminalia arjuna - Upper stratum Toona ciliata Acrocarpus fraxinifolius - Understorey Aphanamixis polystachya Bischofia javanica Atalantia monophylla Canarium strictum Homonoia riparia (on river bed) Cassine glauca Vitex leucoxylon Dimocarpus longan - Undergrowth includes Elœocarpus serratus Elœocarpus tuberculatus Glycosmis pentaphylla Ficus nervosa Salix sp. Ficus tsjahela Ficus virens Mangifera indica B. Medium elevation (altitude 750-1400 m) Meliosma pinnata ssp. arnottiana Michelia champaca The area of the formations at medium elevations is Persea macrantha very limited as seen on the map. They are found naturally Salix tetrasperma on the reliefs, most often in the form of forest patches Syzygium cumini subject to intense anthropic pressure. Very often their Toona ciliata

23

A few deciduous species are sometimes found in this Mæsa indica stratum; however, they are less common: Nothapodytes fætida Psychotria elongata Celtis tetrandra Psychotria nigra Dalbergia latifolia Symplocos cochinchinensis Grewia tiliifolia Syzygium malabaricum (swampy habitats) Pterocarpus marsupium Ziziphus rugosa Stereospermum personatum Terminalia alata - Shrubs and herbaceous layer - Dominant strata: Paucity of species in this stratum may be attributed to rocky outcrops and eroded soils. Common shrubs and Actinodaphne lawsonii herbs found are: Antidesma menasu Arisæma sp. Canthium dicoccum Chasalia ophioxyloides Casearia ovata Cipadessa baccifera Cinnamomum sulphuratum Elatostema lineolatum Cinnamomum travancoricum Globba bulbifer Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Munronia pinnata Euodia lunu-ankenda Pavetta indica Ficus mollis Polygonum chinensis Ficus racemosa Litsea floribunda - Climbers Mallotus philippensis Allophylus cobbe Neolitsea zeylanica Asparagus racemosus Olea glandulifera Calamus gamblei Phæbe paniculata Carissa inermis Viburnum punctatum Diploclisia glaucescens Xantolis tomentosa Entada pursætha Several species are found only in openings where Gnetum ula they are also more abundant: Hiptage benghalensis Callicarpa tomentosa Jasminum azoricum Chionanthus ramiflora Mezoneuron cuculatum Clerodendrum viscosum Peperomia sp. Glochidion velutinum Piper hymenophyllum Scutia myrtina Mallotus tetracoccus Toddalia asiatica var. floribunda Meyna laxiflora Sterculia guttata 2. Mesua ferrea - Palaquium ellipticum - Olea A few deciduous species are also found, most often glandulifera evergreen forest type at the edges or in openings: This type is represented only by a forest patch of Careya arborea 0.5 km2 in the Gundal Valley in the BRH, at an elevation Cassia fistula of 1300-1400 m. It has, nevertheless, been classified as a Emblica officinalis type because of the originality of its floristic composi- Erythrina stricta tion which expresses both the western and eastern Kydia calycina influences. In fact, this is the eastern limit for a large number of characteristic species of the Western Ghats, - Undergrowth: such as Mesua ferrea and Palaquium ellipticum. Char- Ardisia solanacea acteristic species of the eastern slopes, like Olea glan- Atalantia wightii dulifera, are found growing along with them. Cipadessa baccifera Ramesh (1989) has made a detailed study of t h i s Clausena indica type. The basal area and height of the formation are Cocculus laurifolius quite comparable to those of the dense evergreen forests Eriolæna hookeriana of the Western Ghats. Floristic richness is also high, as Helicteres isora 107 tree species have been enumerated. However, the

24 density is less, probably a consequence of human interfere- Syzygium hemisphericum ence, which is also expressed in the richness of species Villebrunea integrifolia characteristic of openings (the forest patch is adjacent to a coffee estate). This relic forest is thus in imminent - Shrubs and herbaceous layer: danger of disappearing. Arisœma sp. Only species which are very common or interesting Atalantia wightii from the phytogeographic point of view are cited here. Clausena dentata The complete floristic list is given in the Annexe. Elatostema lineolatum Nilgirianthus barbatus Emergents and upper canopy trees : Ophiopogon intermedius Aglaia jainii Psychotria elongata Beilschmiedia wightii Canarium strictum - Climbers: Casearia ovata Allophylus cobbe Cinnamomum keralœnse Calamus gamblei Dimocarpus longan Carissa inermis Diospyros ovalifolia Gnetum ula Diospyros sylvatica Hiptage benghalensis Elœocarpus serratus Piper sp. Epiprinus mallotiformis Ficus nervosa Toddalia asiatica var. floribunda Litsea oleoides Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Mesua ferrea Myristica dactyloides 3. Diospyros ovalifolia - Memecylon lushingtonii -Olea Neolitsea zeylanica glandulifera evergreen to semi-evergreen forest type Palaquium ellipticum This type is characterised by the abundance of spe- Persea macrantha Phœbe paniculata cies typical of the Eastern Ghats, like the three species Toona ciliata used to designate the type. Another distinguishing feature of this type is the absence of some of the characteristic - Middle storey: species of the Western Ghats, such as Mesua ferrea, Actinodaphne bourdillonii Miclielia champaca and Palaquium ellipticum. Agrostistachys meeboldii It is found in the valleys of the Eastern Ghats, on Aphanamixis polystachya the hills of Tamil Nadu and the eastern flank of BRH, with Artocarpus heterophyllus rainfall of 900 to 1200 mm and at elevations generally Bischofia javanica between 1100 and 1400 m. Above this elevation, it is Cinnamomum malabathrum succeeded by a transitional formation dominated by Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Lauraceae. Euodia lunu-ankenda Generally it occurs as forest patches which are Isonandra perrottetiana sometimes quite dense. However, very often their size Litsea floribunda is too small to be mapped at this scale. Thus this type is Macaranga peltata not shown in the western part of the Kalrayan Hills or on var. pungens the Javadi hills, although some small pockets of forests Olea glandulifera can still be found there. Sterculia guttata Physiognomically, it occurs as low forest with trees seldom higher than 15 m, often quite degraded by man. - Understorey: Antidesma menasu The height of the formation gradually decreases towards Ardisia pauciflora the margin. There is no distinct stratification under the Chionanthus ramiflora canopy. Clerodendrum viscosum The main species are: Mallotus philippensis - Canopy trees Mallotus stenanthus Aglaia roxburghiana Mallotus tetracoccus Aphanamixis polystachya Meiogyne pannosa Bischofia javanica (along streams) Neopeltandra longipes

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Canthium dicoccum Casearia ovata Celtis timorensis Cinnamonum travancoricum Diospyros ovalifolia Fagraea ceilanica Euodia lunu-ankenda Ixora notoniana Ficus microcarpa Meliosma pinnata ssp. arnottiana Ficus tsjahela Schefflera capitata Litsea floribunda Xantolis tomentosa Mallotus philippensis A few more heliophilous species are found specially Mangifera indica near the edges or in openings: Memecylon lushingtonii Callicarpa tomentosa Neolitsea zeylanica Celtis tetrandra Nothopegia beddomei Chionanthus ramiflora Olea glandulifera Glochidion neilgherrense Persea macrantha Macaranga peltata Phoebe paniculata Mallotus tetracoccus Syzygium cumini Meyna laxiflora monosis Murraya paniculata - Trees and shrubs under the canopy: Sapindus laurifolius Alphonsea sclerocarpa Sterculia guttata Antidesma menasu Trichilia connaroides Atalantia wightii Cipadessa baccifera 4. Semi-evergreen forests Clausena indica This type is recognised on the basis of the absence of Cocculus laurifolius any typical or characteristic species of the other types at Euonymus crenulatus this elevation (Diospyros ovalifolia, Memecylon lushing- Maesa indica tonii, Olea glandulifera, Mesua ferrea, etc.). It occurs Miliusa eriocarpa in small pockets which, in Biligir Rangan Hills, are Notapodytes fœtida confined to altitudes between 1100 and 1400 m and are Pavetta indica mostly transitional to the evergreen types. Several Psychotria nigra deciduous species of the neighbouring forests are found Scolopia crenata growing along with the evergreen species. - Under shrubs: Antidesma menasu Aphanamixis polystachya Elatostema lineolatum Ardisia solanacea Nilgirianthus heyneanus Atalantia wightii Ophiopogon intermedius Bischofia javanica - Climbers: Callicarpa tomentosa Canthium dicoccum Allophylus cobbe Cassia fistula Asparagus racemosus Celtis tetrandra Clematis gouriana Chionanthus ramiflorus Entada pursaetha Chasalia ophioxyloides Hiptage benghalensis Cinnamomum malabathrum Jasminum azoricum Colebrookia oppositifolia Piper hymenophyllum Dalbergia latifolia Sageretia filiformis Dalbergia paniculata Smilax perfoliata Dimocarpus longan Toddalia asiatia var. floribunda Diospyros montana Uvaria narum Elaeocarpus serratus Ventilago maderaspatana Emblica officinalis Towards the upper limit of this type are found Eriolœna hookeriana species which are more characteristic of higher Euodia lunu-ankenda elevations. Glochidion velutinum

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Grewia tiliifolia These forests, locally called sholas, are low forma- Kydia calycina tions rarely exceeding a height of 15m, with low branch- Litsea deccanensis ing, stunted trees, often loaded with mosses, lichens and Litsea floribunda other epiphytes. Stratification is not evident. Many of Maesa indica these forests have become highly degraded, mostly as a Mallotus philippensis result of fires lit annually in the neighbouring savannas. Neolitsea zeylanica Nothapodytes fœtida 1. Schefflera spp. - Gordonia obtusa - Meliosma spp. Nothopegia beddomei type Persea macrantha This type occupies only a very small area on the Phoebe paniculata map, on the upper slopes of the Nilgiris. It extends to- Piper hymenophyllum wards the west (see Mercara-My sore sheet) and naturally Pterocarpus marsupium to the southwest all along the Western Ghats. The flo- Scolopia crenata ristic list is given in the Annexe. Only the main species Sterculia guttata are cited here, emphasizing the richness in Lauraceae Syzygium cumini and Myrtaceae members. Schefflera is represented by Terminalia alata 5 species. Terminalia paniculata Toona ciliata Alseodaphne malabarica Uvaria narum Apollonias arnottii Wendlandia thyrsoidea Cinnamomum verum Some patches of such semi-evergreen forests on the Cinnamomum sulphuratum southeastern slope of BRH constitute a transition to the Cryptocarya neilgherrensis higher elevation type.The deciduous species are more Elaeocarpus serratus or less the same as above. The formation becomes richer Euonymus crenulatus in Lauraceae and other evergreen species, particularly: Gomphandra coriacea Gordonia obtusa Litsea floribunda Meliosma simplicifolia ssp. pungens Litsea oleoides Vernonia monosis Litsea stocksii Viburnum punctatum Meliosma pinnata ssp. arnottiana Xantolis tomentosa Meliosma simplicifolia ssp. pungens Neolitsea zeylanica Persea macrantha C. High elevation (altitude 1300-1800 m) Phœbe wighti Rhodomyrtus tomentosa With the exception of the highest peaks of the BRH Schefflera capitata (1816 m) and Shevaroy (1649 m), the elevation is less Schefflera micrantha than 1600 m. High elevation forests encountered thus Schefflera racemosa belong to a transition stage, between 1350-1700 m, and Syzygium arnottianum are rich in Lauraceae and Myrtaceae. The three types Syzygium caryophyllatum distinguished at these elevations share a major part of Syzygium hemisphericum their floristic composition. They differ in the absence of Turpinia cochinchinensis some species as one moves from west to east, and the Viburnum punctatum appearance or concommitant domination of some others which are more typical of the eastern influence. 2. Schefflera capitata - Neolitsea zeylanica - These forests are generally confined to the very shel- Meliosma spp. type tered areas, often in valleys where the atmospheric hu- midity and soil moisture are more favourable for their This type is found in BRH, still covering vast areas. It growth. All around and on the peaks, the natural vegeta- is the best represented type at these elevations on the tion is constituted by tree savannas, shrub savannas or sheet and has been studied in detail (Ramesh 1989). grasslands. The complete floristic list, which includes about a Temperature plays a predominant role at this eleva- hundred species, is given in the Annexe. Only the tion. Rainfall is generally between 1500 and 1800 mm most common species are mentioned below: and the dry season is reduced to 3 or 4 months (Attikan Actinodaphne lawsonii Estate, Yercaud)

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Bischofia javanica Vernonia monosis Casearia ovata Vaccinium neilgherrense Cinnamomum malabathrum Shrubs Cinnamomum sulphuratum Maesa indica Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Nilgirianthus heyneanus Daphniphyllum neilgherrense Psychotria elongata Eurya japonica Glochidion neilgherrense Climbers Ligustrum gamblei Celastrus paniculatus Litsea floribunda Elaeagnus kologa Maesa indica Gnetum ula Meliosma simplicifolia ssp. pungens Hiptage benghalensis Neolitsea zeylanica Smilax zeylanica Olea glandulifera Toddalia asiatica var. floribunda Persea macrantha Phoebe paniculata Psychotria elongata 4. Tree savanna, shrub savanna and grassland Rapanea wightiana The successional status of these savannas is s t i l l Schefflera capitata not well established. Some may be climax whereas Symplocos cochinchinensis ssp. laurifolia others are seral in nature. Therefore they have been Symplocos foliosa treated together here. Syzygium cumini A continuous grass carpel covers th e spaces Vernonia monosis separating the ‘sholas’. Most often some scattered Viburnum punctatum shrubs and bushes are found, giving the formation Xantolis tomentosa an aspect of a shrub savanna or tree savanna, like on the slopes of the Nilgiris where the shrubs are a little bigger. 3. Vaccinium neilgherrense - Neolitsea zeylanica - Among the shrubs may be cited: Meliosma spp. type Chionanthus ramiflora This type is found only in a few forest patches on the Emblica officinalis summit of the Shevaroy. The forests are generally quite Glochidion neilgherrense disturbed by man who settled in this h ill a longtime ago. Glochidion velutinum A major part of the area of this type has been converted Wendlandia thyrsoidea into coffee estates. Phoenix humilis (sometimes dominant) Trees The most common herbaceous species are: Antidesma menasu Artemisia parviflora Apodytes beddomei Coleus sp. Canthium dicoccum var. umbellatum Conyza stricta Chionanthus ramiflora Curcuma neilgherrense Cyathea gigantea Cyanotis fasciculata Elaeocarpus serratus Exacum bicolor Garuga pinnata Habenaria sp. Ilex denticulata Hypericum mysorense Ligustrum perrottetii Lagera alata Macaranga peltata Oldenlandia sp. Meliosma pinnata ssp. arnottiana Phlebophyllum kunthianum Meliosma simplicifolia ssp. pungens Neolitsea zeylanica The most common grasses are: Persea macrantha Cymbopogon flexuosus Rapanea capitellata Cymbopogon nardus Symplocos cochinchinensis Themeda cymbaria Syzygium cumini Themeda triandra

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Meher-Homji, V.M. 1975 - A phytosociological study of the District, Madras State. Proc. 49th Indian Sci. Aibizia amara Boiv. community of India. Congr. III : 319-320. Phytocoenologia 1 : 114-129. Ramamurthy, K. 1978 - Physiognomic features and Meher-Homji, V.M. 1977 - Tropical dry deciduous distribution of the scrub jungles of Tamil Nadu. forests of Peninsular India. Fedde's Repertorium Proc. Madras Univ. (P.G. Centre, Coimbatore) 24 : 2- 88 : 113-134. 5. Meher-Homji, V.M. 1977 - Vegetation-Climate Ramaswamy, S.V. & B.A. Razi. 1967 - The study of parallelism along Pondicherry-Mysore-Murkal vegetation of Savandurga. Bull.Bot.Soc.Bengal transect, South India. Phytocoenologia 4(2): 206-217. 21(2): 87-98. Meher-Homji, V.M. 1980 - On the ecology of the Ramaswamy, S.V. & B.A. Razi. 1973 - Flora of economic endemic Pterocarpus santalinus Linn.f. Bangalore District. Directorate. Prasaranga, of Andhra Pradesh, India. Intern. Tree Crops J. 1: University of Mysore. 143-146. Ramaswamy, S.V. 1964 - Some aspects of the vegetation of Mitchell, R. 1941 - Forests and forest products of Chittoor Ramagiri and its immediate neighbourhood. Bull District. Indian Geogr. J. 16(4) : 411. Bot. Surv. India 6(1): 7-18. Naithani, B.D. 1966 - Studies on the flora of Bandipur Ramesh, B.R. 1990 - Evergreen forests of the Reserve Forest, Mysore State. Bull. Bot. Surv. Biligirirangan Hills, South India. Ecology, structure India 8 : 252-263. and floristic composition, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Pascal, J.-P. (with the collaboration of S. Shyam Sunder Madras. & V. M. Meher-Homji). 1982a - Forest Map of Rao, R.S. & A.S. Rao. 1963 - A contribution towards a flora South India: Mercara-Mysore. Karnataka and of Biligirirangan Hills, Mysore State. Proc. 50th Kerala Forest Departments and the French Institute Indian Sci. Congr. III: 438-439. of Pondicherry. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. sec. sci. Rao, R.S. & A.R. Sastry. 1964 - Deciduous forests of tech. Hors série n° 18a. Devarayadurga, Mysore State. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6(2- Pascal, J.-P. (with the collaboration of S. Shyam Sunder 4): 159-167. & V. M. Meher-Homji). 1982b - Forest Map of South Rao, R.S., B.M. Wadhwa & M.Y. Ansari. 1961 - India : Shimoga. Karnataka Forest Department and the Comparative studies on the distribution of the useful trees French Institute of Pondicherry. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. of tropical evergreen forests in the Western and Eastern Sec. sci. tech. Hors série n°18b. parts of India. Indian For. 87:220-241. Pascal, J.-P. 1982c - Bioclimates of the Western Ghats at Rao, S.R. 1936 - Forests and forest products of Salem 1/250 000 (2 sheets). Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. sec. District. Indian Geogr. J. 11(2): 130. sci. tech. Hors série n°l7. Razi, B.A. 1950 - An account of the forests of Mysore. J. Pascal, J.-P. (with the collaboration of S. Shyam Mysore Univ. B 1 0 : 47-58. Sunder & V. M. Meher-Homji). 1984 - Forest Map of Razi, B.A. 1956 - An account of the vegetation of the semi- South India: Belgaurn-Dharwar-Panaji. The Karnataka arid tracts of Mysore States and Karnataka. J. Mysore Forest Department and the French Institute of Univ. BI5: 1-6. Pondicherry. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. sec. sci. tech. Razi, B.A. & H.C. Govindu. 1952 - Some plant Hors série n°18c. associations of Savandurga. J. Mysore Univ. Pascal, J.-P. 1986 - Explanatory booklet on the Forest Map B12(9): 103-108. of South India. Sheets : Belgaum-Dharwar-Panaji; Saldhana, C.J. 1988 - Flora of Karnataka Vol I. Oxford Shimoga; Mercara-Mysore. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. & IBH Publishing Co. trav. sec. sci. tech. Hors série n°18. 88p. Sebastine, K.M. 1964-65 -A contribution to the flora of Pascal, J.-P. 1988-Wet evergreen forests of the Western Thekkumalai Hills and the adjoining valley, Ghats of India. Ecology, structure, floristic Coimbatore District, Madras State. Proc. Combl. 51st- composition and succession. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. 52nd Indian Sci. Congr. III : 404-405. sec. sci. tech. Tome n° 20bis. 345p. Sebastine, K.M. 1968 - Natural vegetation of the Eastern Pascal, J.-P. & B. R. Ramesh. 1987 - A field key to the trees Ghats. in : “Mountains and Rivers of India” (Ed. B.C. and lianas of the evergreen forests of the Western Law), pp. 153-166, 21st Intern. Geogr. Congr. India. Ghats (India). Inst. fr. Pondichéry. trav. sec. sci. tech. Shankarnarayan, K.A. & M.V. Dabholkar. 1959 – The flora Tome n° 23. 236p. 136pl. of the scrub jungles of Madras State. J.Bombay Nat. Ramamurthy, K. 1962 - Ecological studies of the Hist. Soc. 56: 282-292. vegetation of Gingee Reserve Forest, South Arcot Shankarnarayan, K.A. & M.V. Dabholkar. 1959 – Studies on the vegetation of Salem District. Indian For. 85: 577-580.

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Shankarnarayan. K.A. & M.V. Dabholkar. 1959 - The Subramanyan, K. & A.N. Henry. 1967 - On a collection vegetation of Coimbatore District. Indian For. 85: of plants from Javadi Hills, North Arcot District, 533-541. Madras State. Indian For. 93(7): 507-518. Sharma, B.D., B.V. Shetty, E. Vajravelu et al. 1977 - UNESCO. 1973 - Classification Internationale et Studies on the flora of Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu. Biol. cartographic de la vegetation. Ecologie et Mem. 2(1-2): 2-186. Conservation. 6. 93p. Sharma, B.D., B.V. Shetty, K. Vivekananthan & Vajravelu, H. & N.C. Rathakrishnan, 1967 - A N.C. Rathakrishnan. 1978 - Flora of Mudumalai contribution to the flora of Dharmapuri District, wildlife sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Madras State. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9(1-4): 31-45. Hist. Soc. 75(1): 13-43. Vanamala Naidu, K. & R.S. Prakasa. 1967 - A Sreemadhavan, C.P. 1967 - Observations on the flora of contribution to the flora of Tirupati Hills. Indian Boluvampatti Hills of Coimbatore District, Madras For. 93(2): 123-135. Pt. II. Indian For. 95: 618- State. Proc. 54th Indian Sci. Congr. IV: 16. 628. Subramanian, K.N. 1966 - Further contribution to the Vanamala Naidu, K., P. Mallikarjuna Swamy & flora of Boluvampatti valley forests, Coimbatore K. Narayana Rao. 1971 - Contribution to the flora of District, Madras State. Indian For. 92(1): 39-50. Tirupati Hills. Pt. III. Indian For. 97: 89-100. Subramanian, K.N. & K.B. Kalyani. 1977 - Contribution Yoganarasimhan, S.N., K.V.Nair & Govindaiah. 1981 - to the flora of Dimbam Ghats and adjoining areas of Addition to the flora of Bangalore District and their Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu State. Indian medical values. Mysore For. 17(2): 89-90. For. 103(2): 112-120.

ANNEXES: FLORISTIC LISTS OF THE FOREST TYPES

LEGEND

Indication of structural level and life form

E, I, II, III, IV, : emergent, structural ensembles I, II, III, IV T : big tree t : small tree S : shrub or under-shrub H : herb L : liana, climber Ep : epiphyte St : strangler P : parasite

Indication of frequency

VC : very common C : common O : occasional R : rare

Indication of ecological preference and geographical distribution

R : riparian, humid localities Op : openings M : margin of the forest A : savanna-woodland to tree savanna B : scrub-woodland * : in the transition zone with the high elevation forest K : Kerala N.K. : North Kanara W.G. : endemic of Western Ghats

Indication of pheneology

D : deciduous species EV : evergreen species

ALBIZIA AMARA - ACACIA SPP. TYPE (Scrub-woodland)

DICOTYLEDONS Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. t C APOCYNACEAE Euphorbia antiquorum L. t C Carissa carandas L. S r Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. t r Carissa opaca L. S C Givotia rottleriformis Griff. T O Carissa spinarum L. S O Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. S O Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. T VC Securinega leucopyrus ( Willd.) M. Arg. S VC ASCLEPIADACEAE L r () Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. T O Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt L O Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf L r Hardwickia binata Roxb. T C Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) L VC Sant.& Wagh S r Notonia grandiflora Wall. ex DC. FABACEAE () T C BORAGINACEAE Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. T O Cordia monoica Roxb. S r FABACEAE () BURSERACEAE Acacia chundra (Roxb.) Willd. T VC Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl. S r Acacia ferruginea DC t r Acacia latronum Willd. t r T O CACTACEAE Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. T C Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. S O Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth. T r CAPPARIDACEAE Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. t VC Capparis divaricata Lam. L r FLACOURTIACEAE Capparis sepiaria L. L O Flacourtia indica (Burm f . ) Merr. S O CELASTRACEAE HERNANDIACEAE Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze T r T O Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Gyrocarpus jacquini Roxb. Ding Hou S O Maytenus ovata (Wight & Am.) Loes. S r LINACEAE Hugonia mystax L S O LOGANIACEAE Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Wall. T C T O Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. L r Strychnos potatorum L. f. LORANTHACEAE P O Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Diospyros ferrea (Willd) Bakh. T O T O Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. MALVACEAE Diospyros montana Roxb. T O Kydia calycina Roxb. t r

ERYTHROXYLACEAE MELIACEAE t VC T O Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

33

MORACEAE SOLANACEAE Ficus benghalensis L. T O Solanum pubescens Willd. S O

OLEACEAE STERCULIACEAE Jasminum auriculatum Vahl L O Sterculia urens Roxb. T O

RHAMNACEAE TILIACEAE Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz L r Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori S O Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. t O Grewia tiliifolia Vahl T O Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. L C VERBENACEAE Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. T C Gmelina asiatica L. S r RUBIACEAE Lantana camara L. S C Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirven. S C Premna latifolia Roxb. T O Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B. T O Premna tomentosa Willd. T r Catunaregam dumetorum Tirven. S C Vitex altissima L.f. T r Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. T r Ixora arborea Roxb. t O VITACEAE S C Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze Cissus quadrangularis L. L O

RUTACEAE MONOCOTYLEDONS T C Atalantia monophylla Corr. T r ARECACEAE Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. t O T O Phoenix humilis Royle Chloroxylon swietenia DC. t O Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. L c Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea oppositifolia L. L O SAPINDACEAE L O LILIACEAE Cardiospermum halicacabum L. T O L O Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Gloriosa superba L.

SAPOTACEAE POACEAE Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard T r Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees T O

GYROCARPUS JACQUINI AND / OR HARDWICKIA BINATA TYPES (On slopes, skeletal soils and as transition facies

Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.)Schum. T O A,B DICOTYLEDONS Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.)

Chatterjee T O B ACANTHACEAE Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz S O B BIXACEAE Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston T O A,B ALANGIACEAE

Alangium salvifolium ( L.f.) Wang. BOMBACACEAE t r A,B Bombax ceiba L. T O B ANACARDIACEAE Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. T r A,B BORAGINACEAE Buchanania lanzan Spreng. T C B Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehrenb. T O B Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. T C A,B T O B Rhus mysorensis Heyne S O A,B Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hk. f. & T. S C A,B Semecarpus anacardium L. f. T r B Cordia monoica Roxb. Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz T r B BURSERACEAE ANNONACEAE Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. T C A,B Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. T r A,B Commiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl. S C A,B Commiphora caudata Engl. T C A,B APOCYNACEAE Garuga pinnata Roxb. T O A,B Carissa carandas L. S r A,B Carissa opaca L. CACTACEAE S C B S O A,B Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb.)Wall. Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. S r B Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. T C A,B Wrightia tomentosa R .& S. CAPPARIDACEAE T r B S O A,B Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce ARALIACEAE t O B Capparis divaricata Lam. L C A,B Schefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Harms. t O B Capparis sepiaria L.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE CELASTRACEAE Aristolochia indica L. L O A,B Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze T r A,B Celastrus paniculatus Willd. L O B ASCLEPIADACEAE Maytenus emarginata (Willd.)Ding Hou S C A,B S r A,B Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. S O B Maytenus ovata (Wight & Arn.) Loes. Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Maytenus wallichiana (Wight & Arn.) S r B Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt L O A,B Raju & Babu Secamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. L O A,B Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston T r A,B Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf L O A,B L r A COMBRETACEAE ASTERACEAE Anogeissus lalifolia (Roxb.) Wall. T C A,B Chromolaena odorata (L.) King&Robin. S C B Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. L r B Notonia grandiflora Wall. ex DC. Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth T C B S O A,B Terminalia arjuna Wight & Arn. T r B BIGNONIACEAE Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. T O B Terminalia chebula Retz. T O A,B Dolichandrone atrovirens Sprague T C A,B Terminalia paniculata Roth T O A,B Dolichandrone falcata Seem. T O A

35

CONVOLVULACEAE FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker Gawl. S O B Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. L r A,B Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy L r B Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. T C A,B Acacia ferruginea DC. T r B EBENACEAE Acacia latronum Willd. t O B Diospyros ebenum Koenig T r B Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. T O A,B Diospyros exsculpta Bedd. T O B Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. L C A,B Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. T O A,B Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib. L r A Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. T O A,B Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. T C A,B Diospyros montana Roxb. T r A,B Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. t r A,B Albizia marginata (Lam.) Merr. T r B EHRETIACEAE Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. T r A,B Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. S O B Albizia procera Benth. T O B Ehretia ovalifolia Wight S O B Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. t C A,B Ehretia pubescens Benth. S C A,B rubicaulis Lam. L r B

ERYTHROXYLACEAE FLACOURTIACEAE t C A,B Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S O A,B

EUPHORBIACEAE HERNANDIACEAE Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) M. Arg. S C B Gyrocarpus jacquini Roxb. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. T O B T C A,B T O A,B Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. LAURACEAE Drypetes sepiaria (W.& A.) Pax&Hoffm. T r B Emblica officinalis Gaertn. T C A,B Litsea deccanensis Gamble T r B Euphorbia antiquorum L. T C A,B LINACEAE Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. T r B Givotia rottleriformis Griff. T C A,B Hugonia mystax L. S O B Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. S O A,B LOGANIACEAE Jatropha gossypifolio L. S O B Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. T r B Strychnos nux-vomica L. T r A,B Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) M. Arg. S C A,B Strychnos potatorum L.f. T O A,B LORANTHACEAE FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) Bauhinia racemosa Lam. T O A,B Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. P O A,B Cassia auriculata L. S C B LYTHRACEAE Cassia fistula L. T O A,B Hardwickia binata Roxb. T C A,B Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. T O B Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) Sant.&Wagh L C A,B MALPIGHIACEAE Tamarindus indica L. T r A,B Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz L O A,B

FABACEAE (Faboideae) MALVACEAE Abrus precatorius L. L C B Kydia calycina Roxb. t O B Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. T O B MELASTOMATACEAE S r B Butea parviflora Roxb. Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble T O A,B t r A Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f. t r A Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. T C A,B MELIACEAE Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. L O B Erythrina suberosa Roxb. T r B Azadirachta indica A. Juss. T O A S O B Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. T O B Cipadessa baccifera Miq. Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Cheval. t r A S C B T r A,B Soymida febrifuga A. Juss. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre T O A,B Toona ciliata Roemer Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. T O A,B T O A

36

MENISPERMACEAE Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale T r A,B Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hk. f. & T. L r B Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.) Wall. T r A,B Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith t O A,B Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. T O A,B Ficus amplissima Smith T r B Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. T C A,B Ficus arnottiana Miq. T O B Paveta indica L. S O B Ficus benghalensis L. T O A,B Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze S C A,B Ficus microcarpa L. f. T O A,B Ficus mollis Vahl T C A,B RUTACEAE Ficus tsjahela Burm. f. Atalantia monophylla (L.) Correa T O B T C A,B Ficus virens Aiton T O A Chloroxylon swietenia DC. T C A,B Citrus medica L. t O B MORINGACEAE Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. t C B Moringa concanensis Nimmo T O B Limonia acidissima L. t O A,B Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack S O B MYRTACEAE Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson T O A,B Pleiospermum alatum (Wall.) Swingle Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels T O B t C A,B Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. L C A,B OCHNACEAE SANTALACEAE Ochna squarrosa L. t r B Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. S O A,B OLEACEAE Santalum album L. T O A,B Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. T O B SAPINDACEAE Jasminum auriculatum Vahl L O B Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. Jasminum cuspidatum Rottl. S C B t C B Cardiospermum halicacabum L. T O B Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. L C A,B Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. T O A,B S C A,B Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. t O B Sapindus emarginatus Vahl OPILIACEAE T O A,B Cansjera rheedii Gmel. L O A,B Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken T O A,B RANUNCULACEAE SAPOTACEAE Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. L O B Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. T O B Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard T r B RHAMNACEAE Manilkara roxburghiana (Wight) Dub. T r B Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz L O A,B Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn. L O B SIMAROUBACEAE Ziziphus horrida Roth t O B Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. T O B Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. T O A,B Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. L C A,B SOLANACEAE S C A,B Ziziphus rugosa Lam. L O B Solarium pubescens Willd. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. T O A,B STERCULIACEAE RUB1ACEAE Eriolaena hookeriana Wight & Arn. S R A,B Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirven. Helicteres isora L. t O B Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. T C A,B Pterospermum suberifolium (L.) Lam. S O B Canthium parviflorum Lam. S O A,B Sterculia colorata Roxb. T r B Catunaregam dumetorum Tirven. S C A,B Sterculia urens Roxb. T r B Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirven. t O B Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex DC. T C A,B Ceriscoides turgida (Roxb.) Tirven. t r A,B T O B Deccania pubescens (Roth) Tirven. T r A TILIACEAE Gardenia gummifera L. f. T r B Grewia flavescens Juss. Gardenia latifolia Ait. T O A,B L O B Grewia orbiculata Rottl. t O A,B Gardenia resinifera Roth T C A,B Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne ex Roth L C A,B

37

Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori S O A,B MONOCOTYLEDONS Grewia tiliifolia Vahl T C A,B Grewia villosa Willd. S C A,B ARECACEAE Phoenix humilis Royle t C B ULMACEAE T O B Celtis tetrandra Roxb. DIOSCOREACEAE Holoptelea integrifolia Pl. T O A,B Dioscorea oppositifolia L. L O A,B Trema orientalis Bl. T r B Dioscorea pentaphylla L. L C A VERBENACEAE LILIACEAE Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon S O B Asparagus racemosus Willd. Gmelina arborea Roxb. L C A,B T O B Gloriosa superba L. Gmelina asiatica L. S O A,B L O A,B Lantana camara L. S C A,B POACEAE Premna latifolia Roxb. T O B Dendrocalamus strictus Nees T O A,B Premna tomentosa Willd. T O A,B Tectona grandis L. f. T O A,B Vitex altissima L. f. T O A,B VITACEAE Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth) Pl. L O A Cissus pallida Pl. L O A,B Cissus quadrangularis L. L C A,B

ANOGEISSUS LAT1F0LIA - CHLOROXYLON SWIETENIA - ALBIZIA AMARA TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS BORAGINACEAE Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hk. f.& T. T O B ALANGIACEAE Cordia monoica Roxb. S r A Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang. t r B BURSERACEAE ANACARDIACEAE Boswellia serrata Roxb. T O B Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. T C A,B Commiphora caudata Engl. T C A,B Buchanania lanzan Spreng. T O B Garuga pinnata Roxb. T O B Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. T C B Mangifera indica L. T r B CACTACEAE Rhus mysorensis G. Don S r A Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. S C A Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz T r B CAPPARIDACEAE ANNONACEAE Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce S O A Miliusa eriocarpa Dunn t r B Capparis sepiaria L. L C A,B Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. T O A,B CELASTRACEAE APOCYNACEAE Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze T r A,B Carissa carandas L. S O A Maytenus emarginata (Willd.)Ding Hou S C A Carissa opaca L. S O A,B Maytenus ovata (Wight & Arn.) Loes. S O A,B Carissa spinarum L. S C A Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston T O A Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. T C A,B COMBRETACEAE ARALIACEAE Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Wall. T VC A,B Schefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Harms St O B Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. L r A Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth T O B ASCLEPIADACEAE Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. T O B Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. T O A Terminalia chebula Retz. T O B Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt L O A,B Secamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. L O A,B CONVOLVULACEAE Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker Gawl. S C B ASTERACEAE Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy L r A Chromolaena odorata (L.) King &Robin. S C B Notonia grandiflora Wall. ex DC. S O A,B EBENACEAE Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb. T r A BIGNONIACEAE Diospyros ebenum Koenig T r A,B Dolichandrone atrovirens Sprague T O A Diospyros exsculpta Bedd. T O A,B Dolichandrone falcata Seem. Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. T C A,B T C A Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. T O A,B Chatterjee T O A,B Diospyros montana Roxb. T r A,B Diospyros ovalifolia Wight T O B BIXACEAE Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston T O B EHRETIACEAE Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. BOMBACACEAE S O A,B Ehretia pubescens Benth. S C A,B Bombax ceiba L. T O A

39

ERYTHROXYLACEAE LAURACEAE Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. t C A,B Litsea deccanensis Gamble T r B

EUPHORBIACEAE LOGANIACEAE Breynia rhamnoidcs (Retz.) M. Arg. S C B Strychnos potatorum L. f. T O A,B Bridelia crenulata Roxb. T O B Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. t O B MALPIGHIACEAE Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz L O B Pax & Hoffm. t r B Emblica officinalis Gaertn. T C A,B MALVACEAE t C B Euphorbia antiquorum L. Kydia calycina Roxb. t r B Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. t r B Euphorbia tirucalli L. t O A MELASTOMATACEAE Givotia rottleriformis (Griff.) Pax & Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble Hoffm. T O A,B t r A Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. t r A,B Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) M. Arg. S C A,B Suregada angustifolia Muell. Arg. MELIACEAE Airy Shaw T O B Azadirachta indica A. Juss. T O B FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. T r B Cipadessa baccifera Miq. S C B Bauhinia racemosa Lam. T O A,B T O A,B Cassia fistula L. MENISPERMACEAE Hardwickia binata Roxb. T O A,B Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hk.f. & T. L O A Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) L C A,B Sant. & Wagh MORACEAE Tamarindus indica L. T r A,B Ficus benghalensis L. T O B Ficus microcarpa L. f. T O B FABACEAE (Faboideae) Ficus mollis Vahl T C A,B Abrus precatorius L. L O A,B Ficus virens Aiton T r B Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. T O A Butea parviflora Roxb. L r A Streblus asper Lour. t O B Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. T O A,B MYRTACEAE Dalbergia paniculate Roxb. T C A,B Erythrina suberosa Roxb. T r A Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels T O B Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Cheval. t r A Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre T r B OLEACEAE T r B Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. T O A,B Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. Jasminum auriculatum Vahl L O A,B FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) Jasminum cuspidatum Rottl. S C A,B Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. T C A Ligustrum gamblei Ramam. T O B Acacia ferruginea DC. T O A Acacia latronum Willd. t r B OPILIACEAE t O B Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Cansjera rheedii Gmel. L O A,B Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. L C A,B T VC A,B Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. RHAMNACEAE Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. T O A Sageretia parviflora (Klein) G. Don L r A,B T r A Albizia marginata (Lam.) Merr. Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz L O A,B T r B Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn. L O A Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. T r B Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. T O A Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. t C A,B Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. L C A,B FLACOURTIACEAE Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. T C A,B Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S C A,B RUBIACEAE HERNANDIACEAE Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirven. S O A,B Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Gyrocarpus jacquini Roxb. T C A,B T C A,B

40

Canthium parviflorum Lam. S C A,B STERCUL1ACEAE Catunaregam dumetorum Tirven. S C A,B Sterculia urens Roxb. T C A,B Gardenia gummifera L. f. T r B Gardenia latifolia Aiton T O A,B TILIACEAE T C B t r B Gardenia resinifera Roth Grewia orbiculata Rottl. T r A Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale L C A,B T r A,B Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne ex Roth Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.)Wall. S O A t C A,B Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori Ixora arborea Roxb. T C B Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. T r A,B Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. T r A ULMACEAE Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze S C A,B Celtis tetrandra Roxb. T O B RUTACEAE Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Pl. T O A,B t O B Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. T C A,B VERBENACEAE Atalantia monophylla (L.) Correa T r B T r A,B Gmelina arborea Roxb. Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. S O B T C A,B Gmelina asiatica L. Chloroxylon swietenia DC. S C A,B t r A Lantana camara L. Citrus medica L. T O A,B t O B Premna tomentosa Willd. Clausena dentata (Willd.) M.Roem. T O A,B T O A Tectona grandis L. f. Limonia acidissima L. S O A,B Vitex altissima L. f. T O A,B Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson T r A,B VITACEAE Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. L O A,B L C A,B Cissus pallida Pl.

SANTALACEAE Cissus quadrangularis L. L C A Santalum album L. T O A,B MONOCOTYLEDONS SAPINDACEAE DIOSCOREACEAE Cardiospermum halicacabum L. L O A L C A Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. S C A,B Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. t O B LILIACEAE Sapindus emarginatus Vahl T O A,B Asparagus racemosus Willd. L C A Schleichera oleosa (Lour) Oken T O A,B SAPOTACEAE POACEAE Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. T O B Dendrocalamus strictus Nees T O A,B Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard T r A Mimusops elengi L. T r A,B SMILACACEAE Smilax perfoliata Lour. L O B SOLANACEAE Solanum pubescens Willd. S C B

ANOGEISSUS LATIFOLIA - PTEROCARPUS MARSUPIUM - TERMINALIA SPP. TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS BIGNONIACEAE

Dolichandrone atrovirens Sprague T O A ACANTHACEAE L O A Dolichandrone falcata Seem. T O B Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.)Schum. T O A Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) ALANGIACEAE Chatterjee T C A,B Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang. t O B BOMBACACEAE ANACARDIACEAE Bombax ceiba L. T O A Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. T O A Buchanania lanzan Spreng. T C A,B BORAGINACEAE Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. T O A Mangifera indica L. T O A Cordia dichotoma Forst. Nothopegia beddomei Gamble T r A Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hk.f. & T. T C A,B Semecarpus anacardium L. f. t r A,B T O A,B BURSERACEAE ANNONACEAE Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. T O A Miliusa eriocarpa Dunn. t r A Commiphora caudata Engl. T O A,B T O A,B Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd T O A,B Garuga pinnata Roxb. Uvaria narum Wall. L O A,B CAPPARIDACEAE t O A APOCYNACEAE Capparis divaricata Lam. L O A,B Carissa carandas L. S O B Capparis sepiaria L. Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb.)Wall. S C B CELASTRACEAE Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. T C A,B T O A,B Wrightia tomentosa R. & S. T r A Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze L O A Celastrus paniculatus Willd. ARALIACEAE S O A Maytenus emarginata (Willd.)Ding Hou S r A,B Schefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Harms. St O A,B Maytenus ovata (Wight & Arn.) Loes. Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston T r A ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia indica L. L O B COMBRETACEAE Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Wall. T C A,B ASCLEPIADACEAE Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth T C A T C A,B Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. L r A,B Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt L O A,B Terminalia chebula Retz. T O A,B Secamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. L O A,B Terminalia paniculata Roth T C A,B Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf L r A CONVOLVULACEAE ASTERACEAE Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker Gawl. S C A,B Chromolaena odorata (L.) King&Robin. S C A Argyreia pilosa Wight & Arn. L r B Notonia grandiflora Wall. ex DC. S O A Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy L r B Vernonia divergens Edgew. S O B EBENACEAE BARRINGTONIACEAE Diospyros ebenum Koenig T r A,B Careya arborea Roxb. T C A,B Diospyros exsculpla Bedd. T O A,B Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. T O A,B

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Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. T O A,B LAURACEAE T r A,B Diospyros montana Roxb. Litsea deccanensis Gamble T r A,B Diospyros ovalifolia Wight T r A Litsea ligustrina Hk. f. t r B Neolitsea zeylanica Merr. t r B EHRETIACEAE Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. S O A,B LOGANIACEAE Strychnos nux-vomica L. T O A ERYTHROXYLACEAE Strychnos potatorum L.f. T C A,B Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. t C A,B LORANTHACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. P O A Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) M. Arg. S C A,B Bridelia crenulata Roxb. T C A,B LYTHRACEAE Bridelia retusa Spreng. t C A,B Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. T O A Emblica officinalis Gaertn. T C A,B Givotia rottleriforniis Griff. T C A,B MALPIGHIACEAE Glochidion velutinum Wight T C A Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz L O A,B Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. t O A,B Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) M. Arg. S O A,B MALVACEAE

FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) Kydia calycina Roxb. t C A,B Bauhinia purpurea L. T O A MELASTOMATACEAE Bauhinia racemosa Lam. T C A,B Cassia fistula L. Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble T C A,B t r A Hardwickia binata Roxb. Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f. T r A t r A,B Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) Sant. & Wagh L O A,B MELIACEAE Aglaia roxburghiana (W. & A.) Miq. T r A,B FABACEAE (Faboideae) Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. T O A,B Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. T C A,B Cipadessa baccifera Miq. S C A,B Butea parvifloro Roxb. L O B T r A Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Melia dubia Cav. T C A,B Dalbergia paniculate Roxb. Toona ciliata Roemer T r A,B Erythrina suberosa Roxb. T C A,B Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. T r A MENISPERMACEAE S O A,B Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hk. f. & T. L r A,B Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. T r A T C A,B MORACEAE FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) Ficus amplissima Smith T r A Ficus arnottiana Miq. T O A Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. T C B Ficus benghalensis L. T O A Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. T O A,B Ficus microcarpa L.f. T O A,B Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. L C A,B Ficus mollis Vahl T O A Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib. L r A Ficus tsjahela Burm. f. T r A,B T r A,B Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. Ficus virens Aiton T r A Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. T O A,B Streblus asper Lour. t O B Albizia marginata (Lam.) Merr. T O A Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth. T O A,B MYRSINACEAE Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. t O A,B Ardisia solanacea Roxb. S r A,B Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. L O A,B Embelia basaal A. DC. L r A

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam A. DC. L r A,B FLACOURTIACEAE Casearia elliptica Willd. t O A,B MYRTACEAE S O A,B Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels T O A,B

HERNANDIACEAE OCHNACEAE Gyrocarpus jacquini Roxb. T C B Ochna squarrosa L. t r A

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OLEACEAE SANTALACEAE Chionanthus malabarica Bedd. T r A Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne S r A,B Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. T O A,B Santalum album L. T r A,B Jasminum auriculatum Vahl L O A,B Jasminum cuspidatum Rottl. S C A,B SAP1NDACEAE T O A,B Ligustrum gamblei Ramam. Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. t C A Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don T O A,B Allophylus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz L C A,B Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. T O A Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. S O A,B Sapindus emarginatus Vahl T C A OPILIACEAE Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken T O A,B Cansjera rheedii Gmel. L O A,B SAPOTACEAE RANUNCULACEAE Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. T O A,B Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. L C A,B Mimusops elengi L. T O A Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin. t O A,B RHAMNACEAE L O A,B Sageretia parviflora (Schultes) Don SIMAROUBACEAE Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz L C A,B Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. T r B Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn. L O A Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. L C A,B STERCULIACEAE Ziziphus rugosa Lam. L C A Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. T O A,B Eriolaena hookeriana Wight & Arn. t O A,B S C A,B Helicteres isora L. ROSACEAE Pterospemum suberifolium (L.) Lam. T r A T O A Rubus niveus Thunb. L C A,B Sterculia guttata Roxb. T C A Sterculia urens Roxb. t C A RUBIACEAE Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex DC. Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirven. S r A,B Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. T C A,B TTLIACEAE S r A,B Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne ex Roth L O A,B Canthium parviflorum Lam. S r A S C A,B Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori Catunaregam dumetorum Tirven. T C A,B t r A,B Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirven. S O B Gardenia latifolia Ait. T O A,B Triumfetta pilosa Roth Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale T O A,B ULMACEAE Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.) Wall. T r A t O A,B Celtis tetrandra Roxb. T O A Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith T O A,B Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. T r A,B Holoptelea integrifolia Pl. T r A Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. T C A Trema orientalis Bl. Pavetta indica L. S O A VERBENACEAE Pavetta tomentosa L. S C A Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze S O A,B Gmelina arborea Roxb. T r A,B Wendlandia thyrsoidea (R. & S.) Steud. t O A,B Lantana camara L. S C A,B T C A Premna latifolia Roxb. T O A,B RUTACEAE Premna tomentosa Willd. Atalantia monophylla (L.) Correa T O A,B Tectona grandis L. f. T O A Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. T O A Vitex altissima L. f. T O A,B Chloroxylon swietenia DC. T r A,B Citrus medica L. t r A VITACEAE L O A Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. t O A,B Cissus pallida Pl. Clausena indica Oliv. S C A,B Limonia acidissima L. T O A Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack T O A,B MONOCOTYLEDONS T O A,B Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson ARECACEAE Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. T C A,B Phoenix humilis Royle t O A,B

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DIOSCOREACEAE SMILACACEAE L O A Dioscorea oppositifolia L. L C A,B Smilax perfoliata Lour. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. L C B GYMNOSPERMS

LILIACEAE GNETACEAE Asparagus racemosus Willd. L C A,B POACEAE Gnelum ula Brogn. L O B Dendrocalamus strictus Nees T C A,B

ELAEOCARPUS TUBERCULATUS - MICHELIA CHAMPACA - CANARIUM STRICTUM TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS ELAEOCARPACEAE

ACANTHACEAE Elaeocarpus serratus L. I,II C

Nilgirianthus heyneanus (Nees) Brem. H C Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. I,E C

EUPHORBIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE Mangifera indica L. I,E C Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Tul. III,IV O I,II C O M Bischofia javanica Bl. Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz Emblica officinalis Gaertn. III O M,D III r M ANNONACEAE Glochidion neilgherrense Wt. III O M Glochidion velutinum Wt. Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Wt. & I,III O Op L C Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) M. Arg. Arn. Mallotus philippensis ( L a m . ) M. Arg. II,III C Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz II,III O Op APIACEAE Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. H FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wt. I,E O D APOCYNACEAE Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston L C M L O Carissa inermis Vahl Cassia fistula L. III O M,D Mezoneuron cucullatum (Roxb.) ARALIACEAE Wt. & Arn. L r Schefflera capitata (Wt. & Arn.) Harms II,III O FABACEAE (Faboideae) BIGNONIACEAE Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. I O M,D Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz III r M,D Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. I O M,D III O M,D Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) Erythrina stricta Roxb. III O M,D K. Schum. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. I,II O M,D

Stereospermum colais FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) (Buck.-Ham. ex Dillw.) Mabberley I O M,D Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. L O M

BORAGINACEAE Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. I,Il O M,D Entada pursaetha DC. Cordia macleodii (Griff.) J. Hk. & Th. III r M,D L C FLACOURTIACEAE BURSERACEAE Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. II,III O I,II C Op Canarium strictum Roxb. Scolopia crenata (Wt. & Arn.) Clos. III,IV C

CAPRIFOLIACEAE ICACINACEAE Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Grah.) Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. ex Mabberley IV O D. Don II,III LAURACEAE CELASTRACEAE Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze I,E O Actinodaphne lawsonii Gamble II,III O Actinodaphne malabarica Balak II,III r COMBRETACEAE Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees II,III C II,III C Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth I O M,D Cinnamomum travancoricum Gamble II C Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. I O M,D Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Meissn.

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Litsea deccanensis Gamble III O Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels I,II C II C Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble Syzygium malabaricum (Bedd.) IV C Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. II,III C Gamble Persea macrantha (Ness) Kosterm. I C Phoebe paniculata Nees II,III C IV OLEACEAE Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. III O M LECYTHIDACEAE Jasminum azoricum L. CI C Careya arborea Roxb. II,III O M,D Ligustrum perrottetii A. DC. III O M Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don II O MAGNOLIACEAE I,E C Michelia champaca L. PIPERACEAE Peperomia sp. Ep C MALPIGHIACEAE Piper hymenophyllum Miq. C C Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz L C RHAMNACEAE MALVACEAE Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz CI O II O M,D Kydia calycina Roxb. Ziziphus rugosa Lam. IV O M

MELASTOMATACEAE ROSACEAE

Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble III r Op Prunus ceylanica (Wt.) Miq. II Memecylon talbotianum Brandis III,IV r Rubus fairholmianus Gard. L M MELIACEAE Rubus niveus Thunb. L M Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) RUBIACEAE Parker I C II,III C Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. I O Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. S C III C Op Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms H O Tirven. Chasalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. S O Toona ciliata M. Roem. I,II C Op III C Op Trichilia connaroides (Wt. & Arn.) Meyna laxiflora Robyns Bent. II r Op Mussaenda glabrata (J. Hk.) Hutch. S O M ex Gamble S O Pavetta indica L. MENISPERMACEAE S O Op Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex J.E. Sm. Cocculus laurifolius DC. IV C S r Psychotria bisulcata Wt. & Arn. Diploclisia glaucescens (Bl.) Diels L C IV C Psychotria elongata (Wt.) J. Hk. IV C MORACEAE Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston II O Wendlandia thyrsoidea Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. III,IV O M (Roem. & Schult.)Steud. Ficus hispida L.f. II r Ficus microcarpa L.f. I,II O RUTACEAE Ficus mollis Vahl II O Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth I,II r Atalantia wightii Tanaka IV C Ficus racemosa L. II O Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver IV O Ficus talbotii King II r Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. III C Ficus tsjahela N. Burman I C Murray a paniculata (L.) Jack. IV O Ficus virens Aiton I C Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. L C var. floribunda (Wall.) Gamble MYRISTICACEAE Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. II r SABIACEAE

Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp. I,II C MYRSINACEAE ssp. arnottiana (Walp.) Beus. IV Ardisia solanacea Roxb. Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. II C Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. IV ssp. pungens (Walp.) Beus.

MYRTACEAE SALICACEAE Eugenia thwaitesii Duthie IV r Salix tetrasperma Roxb. I,E O

47

SAPINDACEAE Gmelina arborea Roxb. III O M,D

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. L C Lantana camara L. Dimocarpus longan Lour. I C var. aculeata (L.) Mold. IV,S O M Sapindus laurifolia Vahl II O Op VITACEAE SAPOTACEAE Cayratia sp. L C Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. II,III O MONOCOTYLEDONS STERCULIACEAE Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn. IV O M,D ARACEAE Helicteres isora L. IV O M,D Arisaema sp. H C Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC. II C Op,D ARECACEAE SYMPLOCACEAE Calamus gamblei Becc. L O Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) IV C M Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Noot. LILIACEAE Asparagus racemosus Willd. TILIACEAE L C Grewia tiliifolia Vahl I C M POACEAE ULMACEAE Dendrocalamus sp. IV O M

Celtis tetrandra Roxb. I C Op,D SMILACACEAE Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. III,IV C Op Smilax perfoliata Lour. L O

URTICACEAE ZINGIBERACEAE Elatostema lineolatum Wt. H C Globba bulbifera Roxb. H C Procris crenata C. Robinson H C Villebrunea integrifolia Gaud. III O Op GYMNOSPERMS VERBENACEAE GNETACEAE Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray III C Op Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. III C Op Gnetum ula Brogn. L C

MESUA FERREA - PALAQUIUM ELLIPTICUM - OLEA GLANDULIFERRA TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Tul. III,IV C ACANTHACEAE Bischofia javanica Bl. I, II C Nilgirianthus barbatus (Nees) Brem. S O Epiprinus mallotiformis (M. Arg.) I, II C Nilgirianthus heyneanus (Nees) Brem. H C Croizat Glochidion sp. III r

ANACARDIACEAE Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) M. Arg. II, III O Op Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. II, III O Mangifera indica L. I r Mallotus stenanthus (Lam.) M. Arg. III, IV O Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz III O Op ANNONACEAE Neopeltandra longipes Gamble III O Op Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair III,IV C WG Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) L O Wt. &Arn. Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wt. I+E O

APOCYNACEAE FABACEAE (Faboideae) L r Carissa inermis Vahl Indet. C O

Indet. L D FLACOURTIACEAE ARALIACEAE Cascaria ovata (Lam.) Willd. I, II C Schefflera capitata (Wt. & Arn.) Harms III O Scolopia crenata (Wt. & Arn.) Clos. I I,I I I O

ASTERACEAE LAURACEAE Vernonia monosis C.B. Clarke III O O p,M Actinodaphne lawsonii Gamble I, I I C BURSERACEAE Actinodaphne malabarica Balak. II r Beilschmiedia wightii Benth. ex J. Hk. I,I I O Canarium strictum Roxb. I O Cinnamomum malabathrum (Burm.f.) Kosterm. I I,I I I C CAPRIFOLIACEAE Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm. I O Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Meissn. II C ex D. Don II O Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble II C Litsea oleoides (Meissn.) J. Hk. I+E C CELASTRACEAE Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. I, I I C Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze I+E O I O Phoebe paniculata Nees I, I I C

CLUSIACEAE LOGANIACEAE

Mesua ferrea L. I C Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. St. O EBENACEAE Diospyros ovalifolia Wt. I r MAGNOLIACEAE I +E O Diospyros sylvatica Roxb. I r Michelia champaca L.

ELAEOCARPACEAE MALPIGHIACEAE L Elaeocarpus serratus L. I,II O Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. I+E C R

MELASTOMATACEAE III, IV Op EUPHORBIACEAE Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. II,III C

49

MELIACEAE Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. L O Aglaia jainii Viswa. & Rama. I,II O var. floribunda (Wall.)Gamble Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wt. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) L O Parker I,II &Arn. Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms H SABIACEAE Toona ciliata M. Roem. I O p,M Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp.

Ssp. arnottiana (Walp.) Beus. I,II O MENISPERMACEAE Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. Cocculus laurifolius DC. IV O Ssp. pungens (Walp.) Beus. II C MORACEAE SAPINDACEAE Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. II O Ficus microcarpa L.f. I,II O Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. L Op Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth I,II O Dimocarpus longan Lour. I+E C Ficus laevis Bl. var. macrocarpa (Miq.) SAPOTACEAE Corner L r Chrysophyllum lanceolatum (Bl.) DC. I r MYRISTICACEAE Isonandra perrottetiana DC. II,III C Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. I,II O Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baillon I+E C

SOLANACEAE MYRSINACEAE Solanum giganteum Jacq. Ardisia pauciflora Heyne ex Roxb. IV O S C Op STERCULIACEAE MYRTACEAE II,III O Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC. Op Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels I,II O Syzygium gardneri Thw. I+E r SYMPLOCACEAE Syzygium hemisphericum (Wt.) III,IV O Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) III,IV O M Alston Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Noot.

OLEACEAE ULMACEAE Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Op IV r Celtis tetrandra Roxb. I,II O Green Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. III C Op Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. I,II,III C O p,M Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don I,II O URTICACEAE

PIPERACEAE Debregeasia longifolia (N. Burman) IV C Op Peperomia sp. Ep C Wedd. Piper hymenophyllum Miq. L C Elatostema lineolatum Wt. H C Procris crenata C. Robinson Ep C ROSACEAE Villebrunea integrifolia Gaud. III, IV C Op Prunus ceylanica (Wt.) Miq. II r VERBENACEAE III, IV C Op RUBIACEAE Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray Chasalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. H C Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon IV O Coffea arabica L. S C Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. III, IV C Op Psychotria elongata (Wt.) J. Hk. S C VITACEAE

RUTACEAE L C S O Cayratia sp. Atalantia wightii Tanaka

MONOCOTYLEDONS Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. & Schult. S O ARACEAE Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. II O H C Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. IV O Op Arisaema sp.

50

ARECACEAE GYMNOSPERMS L C Calamus gamblei Becc. GNETACEAE L O LILIACEAE Gnetum ula Brong.

Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don H C PTERIDOPHYTES ORCHIDACEAE CYATHEACEAE Anoectochilus elatior Lindl. H O Cyathea gigantea (J. Hk.) Holttum IV r R Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) H C Schlechter.

DIOSPYROS OVALIFOLIA - MEMECYLON LUSHINGTONII - OLEA GLANDULIFERA TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS GESNERIACEAE Aeschynanthus perrottetii DC. Ep C ACANTHACEAE Nilgirianthus heyneanus (Nees) Brem. H C ICACINACEE Nothapodytes foetida (Wt.) Sleumer ANACARDIACEAE t C Nothopegia beddomei Gamble T r LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum travancoricum Gamble T C ANNONACEAE Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble T C t,S C Miliusa eriocarpa Dunn Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. T C Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Wt. & Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. T O Arn. C C Phoebe paniculata Nees t C

ARALIACEAE LOGANIACEAE St r * Schefflera capitata (Wt. & Arn.) Harms t O * Fagraea ceilanica Thunb.

ASTERACEAE MALPIGHIACEAE C C Vernonia monosis C.B.Clarke T O M,* Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz

BORAGINACEAE MALVACEAE Ehretia canarensis (Clarke) Gamble S r Abutilon sp. S O

CELASTRACEAE MELIACEAE Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze T r Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.)

Euonymus crenulatus Wall. ex Wt. & Parker T r Arn. S C Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. S C Toona ciliata M. Roem. T r EBENACEAE Trichilia connaroides (Wt. & Arn.) Diospyros ovalifolia Wt. T VC Bent. T O M

ELAEAGNACEAE MELASTOMATACEAE Elaeagnus kologa Schlecht. C O Memecylon lushingtonii Gamble

EUPHORBIACEAE MENISPERMACEAE t C Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Tul. Cocculus laurifolius DC. t O Bischofia javanica Bl. T C t r M,* Croton laccifer L. MORACEAE Glochidion neilgherrense Wt. T C M Ficus microcarpa L.f. T O Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) M. Arg. T O Op T r Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. T VC Ficus tsjahela N. Burman T C Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz T O Op MYRSINACEAE FLACOURTIACEAE Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. S C T r Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Rapanea wightiana (Wall. ex DC.) Scolopia crenata (Wt. & Arn.) Clos. t C Mez. t O *

52

MYRTACEAE Dimocarpus longan Lour. T r Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels T C Sapindus laurifolia Vahl T O Op SAPOTACEAE OLEACEAE Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. T C M T O * C C Jasminum azoricum L. SOLANACEAE t M Ligustrum perrottetii A. DC. Solanum sp. H C Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don T C STERCULIACEAE PIPERACEAE Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC. T C Op,D Piper hymenophyllum Miq. C C ULMACEAE ROSACEAE Celtis tetrandra Roxb. T O Op,D T r Prunus ceylanica (Wt.) Miq. Celtis timorensis Span. T C

RUBIACEAE URTICACEAE T VC Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Elatostema lineolatum Wt. H VC Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don t O * Meyna laxiflora Robyns t O Op VERBENACEAE

Pavetta indica L. S O Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray t C M Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston S O Tarenna asiatica (L.) Schumann VITACEAE t,S O * forma. rigida (Wt.) Raju Cayratia sp. C C

RUTACEAE MONOCOTYLEDONS Atalantia wightii Tanaka t,S C LILIACEAE Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver S C Asparagus racemosus Willd. C C Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. T C Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don H C Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. S O S C M Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. SMILACACEAE Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Smilax perfoliata Lour. C O Var. floribunda (Wall.) Gamble C C PTERIDOPHYTES SABIACEAE LYCOPODIACEAE Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp. H C ssp. arnottiana (Walp.) Beus. T O * Lycopodium phlegmaria L. Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. ssp. pungens (Walp.) Beus. T O

SAPINDACEAE Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. L C

SCHEFFLERA SPP. - GORDONIA OBTUSA - MELIOSMA ARNOTTIANA TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS ELAEAGNACEAE L C ACANTHACEAE H C Elaeagnus kologa Schlecht. Nilgirianthus sp. ELAEOCARPACEAE Elaeocarpus munroii (Wt.) Mast I C ANACARDIACEAE Elaeocarpus serratus L. I C Holigarna arnottiana J. Hk. I r Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. I O Mangifera indica L. II O EUPHORBIACEAE Agrostistachys indica Dalz. ARALIACEAE II O Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax Schefflera capitata (Wt. & Arn.) & Hoffm. I,II r Harms I C Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Tul. III C Schefflera micrantha Gamble I O Aporosa sp. II C Schefflera racemosa Harms I C Daphniphyllum neigherrense Ros. II C M Schefflera venulosa Harms St C Dimorphocalyx lawianus J. Hk. III O Schefflera wallichiana Harms St r Glodchidion ellipticum Wt. II,III C M Glodchidion fagifolium J. Hk. II,III r ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Glodchidion neilgherrense Wt. II,III C Apama siliquosa Lam. S O Glodchidion zeylanicum A. Juss. II,III O M Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) M. Arg. II O ASTERACEAE Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. I,II C Vernonia arborea Ham. I C Mallolus tetracoccus (Roxb. ) Kurz II O Sauropus androgynus Merr. S O BALSAMINACEAE FABACEAE(Faboideae) Impatiens sp. H O Derris sp. L O BURSERACEAE FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) Canarium strictum Roxb. I O Archidendron monadelphum (Roxb.) CAPRIFOLIACEAE Neilsen II O Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. FLACOURTIACEAE I C ex D. Don Casearia coriacea Thw. II,III C Casearia rubesccns Dalz. II,III O CELASTRACEAE Flacourtia montana Graham II O Celastrus paniculatus Willd. L O Hydnocarpus alpina Wt. I O Euonymus crenulatus Wall. II C Scolopia crenata (Wt. & Arn.) Clos. II C Euonymus dichotomus Heyne II O ICACINACEAE II O CLUSIACEAE Apodytes benthaminana Wt. Gomphandra coriaceae Wt. II,III O Garcinia gummu-gutta (L.) Robson I C Garcinia pictorius (Roxb.) D'Arey I r LAURACEAE CONVOLVULACEAE Actinodaphne malabarica Balak I O Argyreia sp. L O Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees DILLENIACEAE var. angustifolia Meisner I C I O Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.

54

Apollonias arnottii Nees II O OLEACEAE Beilschmiedia wightii Benth. ex J. Hk. I O Jasminum sp. L O Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees I,II C Ligustrum gamblei Ramam. II,III C M Cinnamomum verum Presl. I O Olea dioica Roxb. II O Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. I C Cryptocarya lawsonii Gamble I r PIPERACEAE Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Meissn. I C Piper sp. L Litsea bourdillonii Gamble I,II O Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble I,II C PITTOSPORACEAE Litsea oleoides J. Hk. II C Pittosporum neelgherrense Wt. & Arn. III O M Litsea stocksii J. Hk. I C Pittosporum tetraspermum Wt. & Arn. III C M Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. II C Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. I C RANUNCULACEAE Phoebe wightii Meisn. II C Clematis gouriana Roxb. L O

LEEACEAE RHAMNACEAE III,S O Leea indica (Burm.) Merr. Scutia myrtina (Burm.) Kurz L C

LOGANIACEAE RUBIACEAE Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. II O Canthium neilgherrense Wt. III,S r Hedyotis stylosa Br. H C LYTHRACEAE Ixora nigricans Wt. & Am. III,S O I r Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wt. Ixora notoniana Wall. S C MAGNOLIACEAE Lasianthus rostratus Wt. Psychotria S C elongata J. Hk. Psychotria S C Michelia champaca L. I r globicephala Gamble Psychotria S O truncata Wall. S O MELASTOMATACEAE Randia sp. S O III O Memecylon gracile Bedd. II C III C Saprosma sp. Memecylon malabaricum (CL.) Cogn. Tarenna asiatica (L.) Schumam S C Tricalysia apiocarpa Gamble II r MELIACEAE Wendlandia thyrsoidea (R. & S.) Toona ciliata M. Roemer I O Steudel III C M Trichilia connaroides (Wt. & Arn.) RUTACEAE Bent. I O Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq Euodia II C I,II r MYRISTICACEAE lunu-akenda (Gaertn.) Merr. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. I O L C var. floribunda (Wall.) Gamble Zanlhoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. I r MYRSINACEAE Ardisia rhomboidea Wt. III,S r SABIACEAE Ardisia solanacea Roxb. III,S C III,S O Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp. Ardisia sonchifolia Mez. ssp. arnottiana (Wt.) Beus. Meliosma I C S C Rapanea sp. simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. ssp. pungens (Walp.) Beus. I C MYRTACEAE Eugenia mooniana Wt II O SAPINDACEAE Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt. II,III C Dimocarpus longan Lour. I C Syzygium arnottianum Walp. II C I C Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston SAPOTACEAE Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels I O Isonandra montana Gamble II C Syzygium hemisphericum (Walp.) II O Alston SCROPHULARIACEAE Syzygium rubicundum Wt. & Arn. II C Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) Don H O

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STAPHYLEACEAE Turpinia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. I C MONOCOTYLEDONS Turpinia malabarica Gamble I 0

SYMPLOCACEAE ARACEAE H O Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Arisaema leschenaultii Bl. Moore ssp. lauriana (Retz.) Noot. II C M ARECACEAE Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex DC. II O Symplocos racemosa Roxb. III O Calamus huegelianus Mart. L O Caryota urens L. I,II O THEACEAE PANDANACEAE Gordonia obtusa Wt. & Arn. I,II C Pandanus sp. S O URTICACEAE SMILACACEAE Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.) Wedd. S O Smilax sp. L O Elatostema lineolatum Wt. H C

VERBENACEAE Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray II,III C M

VITACEAE Cayratia sp. L O

SCHEFFLERA CAPITATA - NEOLITSEA ZEYLANICA - MELIOSMA spp. TYPE

DICOTYLEDONS Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) M. Arg. T O Op Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) M. Arg. ACANTHACEAE T C Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz T O Op S C M Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. Barleria involucrata Nees S r M,Op Nilgirianthus foliosus (Wt.) Brem. S C M Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Nilgirianthus heyneanus (Nees) Brem. H C Pax & Hoffm. S r Op Nilgirianthus sp. S C FABACEAE (Caesalpinioideae) APOCYNACEAE Cassia fistula L. T r Op Carissa inermis Vahl L Rauwolfia densiflora (Wall.) Benth. FABACEAE (Mimosoideae) ex J. Hk. t C Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. T r Op

AQUIFOLIACEAE FLACOURTIACEAE T C Ilex denticulata Wall. t C Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Scolopia crenata (Wt. & Arn.) Clos. T C ARALIACEAE Schefflera capitata (Wt. & Arn.) Harms T C ICACINACEAE Schefflera rostrata (Wt.) Harms Nothapodytes foetida (Wt.) Sleumer t C var. micrantha (Clarke) Mahesh. St O LAURACEAE ASTERACEAE Actinodaphne lawsonii Gamble T C Vernonia monosis C.B.Clarke T C M Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees T C Cinnamomum travancoricum Gamble T C CAPRIFOLIACEAE Cryptocarya neilgherrensis Meissn. T C Viburnum coriaceum Bl. t C M Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble T C Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. T C T O ex D. Don T O R Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Phoebe paniculata Nees T C CELASTRACEAE T O LOGANIACEAE Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze St C Celastrus paniculatus Willd. L C Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. L O Euonymus crenulatus Wall. Gardneria ovata Wall. ex Wt. & Arn. S,t C MALPIGHIACEAE ELAEAGNACEAE Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz L C Elaeagnus kologa Schlecht. L O M MELIACEAE ELAEOCARPACEAE Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Elaeocarpus munronii (Wt.) Masters T r Parker T O Elaeocarpus serratus L. T O Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. S C Toona ciliata M. Roem. T O EUPHORBIACEAE T R Bischofia javanica Bl. MENISPERMACEAE Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wt.) Cocculus laurifolius DC. t O Rosenth. T C M Glochidion neilgherrense Wt. T C M MORACEAE T O M Glochidion velutinum Wt. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. T r

57

Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth T O SABIACEAE Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp. MYRSINACEAE ssp. arnottiana (Walp.) Beus. T C Ardisia solanacea Roxb. S C Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. S C ssp. pungens (Walp.) Beus. T C Rapanea wightiana (Wall. ex DC.) Mez. T C M SALICACEAE MYRTACEAE Salix tetrasperma Roxb. t r R Eugenia thwaitesii Duthie t r SAPINDACEAE Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels T C: Syzygium densiflorum Wall. ex Wt. Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. L C & Arn. T C M SAPOTACEAE T C M,Op OLEACEAE Isonandra perrottetiana DC. Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. T C Chionanthus ramiflora Roxb. T C M L C Jasminum azoricum L. SOLANACEAE L C Jasminum rottlerianum DC. Solanum laeve Dunal H C Op Ligustrum perrottetii A. DC. T C M Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don T C STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC. T O Op PIPERACEAE Piper hymenophyllum Miq. L C SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) PITTOSPORACEAE Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Noot. t C M,Op T O M Pittosporum neelgherrense Wt. & Arn. Symplocos foliosa Wt. T C

RHAMNACEAE THEACEAE S,t C Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Eurya nitida Korthals S,t O ROSACEAE ULMACEAE O T Prunus ceylanica (Wt.) Miq. Celtis tetrandra Roxb. T O Op L C M Rubus fairholmianus Gard. Celtis timorensis Span. T C Rubus niveus Thunb. L O M Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. S,t C Op RUBIACEAE T C VERBENACEAE Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. t C Op,M Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirven. t O Op Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray t C Op Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don t C M Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Lasianthus venulosus Wt. S r VITACEAE Pavetta indica L. S O Psychotria elongata (Wt.) J. Hk. S C Cayratia sp. L C Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston S C Tarenna asiatica (L.)Schumann MONOCOTYLEDONS forma. rigida (Wt.) Raju S,t C M LILIACEAE Wendlandia thyrsoidea L C (Roem. & Schult.) Steud. S,t C M Asparagus racemosus Willd.

RUTACEAE SMILACACEAE Atalantia wightii Tanaka S O Smilax perfoliata Lour. L C T r Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. Murraya paniculala (L.) Jack. S C M GYMNOSPERMS Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. L C GNETACEAE var. floribunda (Wall.) Gamble Gnetum ula Brogn. L O Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wt. & Arn. L O