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MINORITY RIGHTS in BULGARIA and GREECE, and the IMPACT of EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS Settore Scientifico-Disciplinare: SPS/04

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MINORITY RIGHTS in BULGARIA and GREECE, and the IMPACT of EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS Settore Scientifico-Disciplinare: SPS/04 UNIVERSITÀ’ DEGLI STUDI DI TRIESTE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE FOR EUROPEAN STUDIES Sedi consorziate: Università degli Studi di Trieste, Università degli Studi di Udine, Università di Cluj-Napoca, Università Eötvös Loránd di Budapest, Università di Klagenfurt, Università Jagellonica di Cracovia, Università Comenius di Bratislava, Università MGIMO di Mosca, l’Università di Nova Gorica e l’Istituto di Sociologia internazionale di Gorizia -ISIG. XXIVCICLO DEL DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN POLITCHE TRANSFRONTALIERE PER LA VITA QUOTIDIANA TRANSBORDER POLICIES FOR DAILY LIFE MINORITY RIGHTS IN BULGARIA AND GREECE, AND THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS Settore scientifico-disciplinare: SPS/04 DOTTORANDO NURI ALI TAHIR COORDINATORE PROF. LUIGI PELLIZZONI FIRMA __________________ RELATORE PROF. GYORGY CSEPELI FIRMA __________________ CORRELATORE PROF. ANNA MARIA BOILEAU FIRMA __________________ ANNO ACCADEMICO 2011 / 2012 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep gratitude to everyone who made this work possible. Special thanks to the University of Trieste and IUIES for providing me a Doctoral fellowship for three years, that made it possible the realization of this project. I am grateful to my mentor Professor György Csepeli, who helped me to improve my project with his comments. I am also grateful to Professor Alberto Gasparini who encouraged me to continue my research at different universities and helped me to improve my knowledge in the area of cross-border cooperation. I would like to thank Professor Anna Maria Boileau, who checked every aspect of my work and contributed with her useful comments and suggestions. I would like to thank Professor Florian Bieber, who also helped me to improve my project with his comments during my research at the Centre for Southeast European Studies, Karl-Franzens University of Graz. I am also grateful to Professor Elisabeth Vestergaard and Professor Katarzyna Stoklosa, who helped me during my research at the Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark. Special thanks to my family and friends, who unconditionally supported my every initiative. I am grateful to the European Commission for granting me with the Marie Curie Fellowship to continue part of my research. I would like to also thank to the following people and institutions for their support during the realization of this process: Professor Konstantinos Tsitselikis, Department of Balkan Slavic and Oriental Studies, University of Macedonia. Professor Serpil Güdül, Gazi University. iii Dr. Vemund Aarbakke, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Institute of Ethnology, Martin-Luther-University of Halle Wittenberg. Max Planck Institute of Social Anthropology, Halle. Austrian agency for international mobility and cooperation in education, science and research. Danish Agency for Universities and Internationalisation Centre for Research on Peace and Development, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMVR Arhiv na Ministerstvoto na Vatreshnite Raboti (Archive of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Bulgaria) BCP Bulgarian Communist Party BEM Bulgarian Ethnic Model BSP Bulgarian Socialist Party CBC Cross-Border Cooperation CoE Council of Europe ECHR European Convention on Human Rights ECRML European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ECtHR European Court of Human Rights EPATH Thessaloniki Pedagogical Academy EU European Union FCNM Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities GCC Greek Citizenship Code GDP Gross Domestic Product ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights IMIR International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice IPA Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance MRF Movement for Rights and Freedom MSZ Military Surveillance Zone NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization v NGO Non-governmental Organizations OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe TsDA Tsentralen Darjaven Arhiv (Central State Archive, Bulgaria) UDF Union of Democratic Forces UN United Nations vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………..ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………..iv INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………..2 CHAPTER I DEFINING MINORITIES IN BULGARIA AND GREECE AND THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF MINORITY RIGHTS 1.1. THE ERA OF MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL TREATIES: CREATING MINORITIES OUT OF NEW NATION STATES BULGARIA AND GREECE…………………………………………………………………….........12 1.1.1. 1878 Berlin Treaty: Imposing Minority Protection on Bulgaria……………………………………………………………………14 1.1.2. Balkan Wars in 1912-1913: Towards More Solid Borders and Minority Rights Regime………………………………………………….18 1.1.3. 1919 Neuilly Treaty……………………………………………….21 1.1.4. 1923 Lausanne Treaty and the Recognition of Muslim/Turkish Minority in Greece (Western Thrace)…………………………………..22 1.2. POPULATION EXCHANGE AS A METHOD TO PREVENT MINORITY ISSUES……………………………………………………………………………25 1.2.1. Bulgarian-Greek Convention for Reciprocal Emigration……...28 1.2.2. The Importance of the Greek-Turkish Population Exchange………………………………………………………………….33 1.2.3. League of Nations as an International Actor to Manage Minority Rights and Exchange of Minorities between Bulgaria-Greece and Greece-Turkey……………………………………………………………37 1.3. THE RISE OF INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS DEALING WITH THE RIGHTS OF MINORITIES AND THE NEED TO DEFINE MINORITY……..40 1.3.1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights……………………….41 vii 1.3.2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Struggle to Define Minorities……………………………………………43 1.3.3. Other Important International Conventions and Regulations Dealing with Minorities…………………………………………………..48 1.4. MINORITY RIGHTS REGULATIONS IN EUROPE……………….........51 1.4.1. European Convention on Human Rights………………………52 1.4.2. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages………………………………………………………………..53 1.4.3. Copenhagen Criteria……………………………………………..55 1.4.4. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities…………………………………………………………………..57 1.4.5. OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities…………....59 The Fate of Minority Rights in Europe as Conclusion……………….61 CHAPTER II DISCOURSE OF GREEK AND BULGARIAN NATIONALISM TOWARDS THE RIGHTS OF MINORITIES 2.1. INTRODUCTION TO GREEK AND BULGARIAN NATIONALISM AND THE ISSUE OF MINORITY ACCOMMODATION…………………………….65 2.2. GREEK NATIONALISM AND ITS HISTORICAL EVOLUTION: CONSTRUCTING TURKISH/MUSLIM MINORITY AS THE “OTHER”…………………………………………………………………………..72 2.2.1. The Role of the Greek Orthodox Church in Politics and Daily Life of Greece: Struggle for Power Through Competition……………79 2.2.1.1. Controversies on ID Cards and Planned Mosque in Athens……………………………………………………………..83 2.2.2. “Religious Minority” Recognition Versus “Ethnic Identity” Claims……………………………………………………………………..88 2.3. BULGARIA: NATIONALISM AND GRADUAL DECREASE OF MINORITY PROTECTION UNTIL 1944……………………………………….92 viii 2.4. COMMUNIST RULE AND THE RISE OF BULGARIAN NATIONALISM: INTEGRATION WHICH TURNED TO ASSIMILATION, 1945- 1989………………………………………………………………………………..98 2.4.1. Contractual Migration as a tool for Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War…………………………………………………………………105 2.4.2. Revival Process and the Name Changing Campaign: The Last Exodus from Bulgaria…………………………………………………..111 2.5. UNCERTAINTY OF POMAKS IN GREECE AND BULGARIA: AN EXAMPLE OF CROSS-BORDER MINORITY GROUP…………………….118 CHAPTER III EUROPEANIZATION/EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS AND THE PERSISTENCE OF MINORITY RIGHTS ISSUES IN GREECE AND BULGARIA 3.1. EUROPEANIZATION OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN GREECE AND BULGARIA………………………………………………………………………125 3.2. GREEK EU MEMBERSHIP PROCESS AND SYSTEMATIC VIOLATIONS OF MINORITY RIGHTS………………………………………..128 3.2.1. Restricted Area and Military Surveillance Zone in Western Thrace…………………………………………………………………….134 3.2.2. Article 19 of the Greek Citizenship Code and Its Effect on the Muslim/Turkish Minority…………………………………………………137 3.2.3. Land Confiscation and Restrictions on Property Transfers………………………………………………………………….143 3.2.4. Restrictions on the Political and Social Participation of the Minority in Western Thrace…………………………………………….148 3.2.5. Educational Policies Towards Minority Members in Western Thrace……………………………………………………………………153 3.2.6. Problems with the Election of Muslim Religious Representatives…………………………………………………………158 ix 3.3. THE END OF COMMUNISM IN BULGARIA AND AN ENDLESS TRANSITION PROCESS………………………………………………………162 3.3.1. Bulgarian Constitution from 1991 and Restoring the Rights of Minorities…………………………………………………………………166 3.3.2. Educational Rights of the Turkish Minority in Bulgaria...........170 3.3.3. Religious Issues…………………………………………………174 3.3.4. Social and Political Participation of the Turkish Minority…………………………………………………………………..177 3.3.5. Europeanization of Minority Rights in Bulgaria: Resilience of National Problems or Incompetence of European Institutions?.......182 CHAPTER IV MAPPING BULGARIAN-GREEK CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION: THE ROLE OF EU AND OTHER ACTORS 4.1. BORDERS AND THEIR CHANGING MEANING………………………187 4.2. PECULIARITY OF BULGARIAN-GREEK BORDER AND THE INITIAL RELEVANCE OF TURKEY …………………………………………………...192 4.3. THE INCITEMENTS AND PROBLEMS OF CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN BULGARIAN-GREEK-TURKISH TRIANGLE………..195 4.3.1. Cross-Border Cooperation Between Bulgaria and Turkey….198 4.3.2. Cross-Border Cooperation Between Greece and Turkey……………………………………………………………………201 4.3.3. Cross-Border Cooperation Between Bulgaria and Greece…………………………………………………………………...205 4.3.3.1. Kardzhali-Komotini: Unique Example in the EU of Cross-Border Non-Cooperation……………………………….208
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