Isotopic Study of Diet During the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia

Template B v3.0 (beta): Created by J. Nail 06/2015

Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia

By TITLE PAGE Stephanie M. Fuehr

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Applied Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures

Mississippi State, Mississippi

August 2016

2016

Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia

Triada, Greece

By APPROVAL PAGE Stephanie M. Fuehr

Approved:

______Michael L. Galaty (Major Professor)

______Nicholas P. Herrmann (Committee Member)

______Molly K. Zuckerman (Committee Member)

______David M. Hoffman (Graduate Coordinator)

______Rick Travis Interim Dean College of Arts & Sciences

Name: Stephanie M. Fuehr ABSTRACT Date of Degree: August 12, 2016

Institution: Mississippi State University

Major Field: Applied Anthropology

Major Professor: Michael L. Galaty

Title of Study: Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada, Greece

Pages in Study 124

Candidate for Degree of Master of Arts

The stable isotopes carbon and nitrogen from 18 skeletal and 51 dental samples from various burial contexts at the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Mitrou and Tragana Agia

Triada are examined to understand diet in prehistoric central Greece. The samples are compared by cultural period, site, and burial type in order to determine if diet was affected by changes in society or by social status as determined by burial form. In addition, isotopic data from across Greece is compared to understand diet from the

Neolithic to Iron Age and in different regions of the country. The results of the Mitrou-

TAT study indicate no change in diet through time or between the two sites. No significant differences were found between diet and burial types as well. When applied to the broader aspect of societal change, these results suggest that, even with a significant societal change, diet is not significantly influenced.

DEDICATION

To my parents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Nick Herrmann, I can’t express enough my gratitude for your help and guidance.

It has been an honor being your student for the majority of my graduate career. Thank you for bringing me to Mitrou the summer before I started graduate school and the following two summers, as well as Cyprus. Thank you for always pushing me to be a better researcher. You have provided me with so many research opportunities during my time at MSU, from which I have learned a lot. And especially, thank you for teaching me everything I need to know about Thermopylae - based on the bald guy from 300 - and that it is totally acceptable to transport thesis samples in an origami box.

Mike Galaty, thank you so much for all the advice and guidance over the past few years. I would never have made as much progress on my thesis proposal had it not been for the independent studies I took with you. Molly Zuckerman, thank you for the advice and edits on my thesis, your comments are always beneficial.

A huge thanks to Shane Miller. I can’t thank you enough for all the stats help.

That portion of my thesis would have taken a much longer time if it wasn’t for you.

Thank you for also helping me make my maps. And of course, thanks for all the Ham visits!

David Hoffman, thank you for being a phenomenal graduate coordinator. Jimmy

Hardin, thanks for always being willing to talk soccer and I can’t thank you enough for convincing me to coach with Starkville Soccer Association. A huge thank you to Dr.

iii

Kecia Johnson and Dr. Nicole Rader for being incredibly understanding when it came to my TA duties and finishing my thesis.

Thank you to AMEC, the Cobb, and the University of Tennessee Classics

Department for funding my trips to Greece. Thank you to Dr. Nick Herrmann for paying for half the isotope analysis and Dr. Aleydis Van de Moortel for using INSTAP funds for the other half. Also, thank you to the 14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical

Antiquities for giving us permission to do destructive analysis.

To my wonderful parents, thank you for always being supportive and allowing me to follow my dreams. Thank you for sitting for hours looking at all of my pictures, without too much complaining, after every trip of mine to Europe, and for not being grossed out whenever I talk about bones or show you pictures of them. To quote our favorite show, you “are my twin pillars without whom I could not stand.”

Jeremy, Christopher, and Michael, you have always been my role models and I’m so glad to have you as my brothers. Christopher and Michael, I’ll be forever grateful to the both of you for making me a Tennessee fan. Go Vols!

Teri Welgan, I cannot thank you enough for your influence in my life, it is because of you that I am doing what I am. You introduced me to the Greek world and archaeology and I can never express enough how grateful I am for that. Amy Mundorff, I was so lucky to have you as my professor for osteology and thank you for always challenging me. You have been so supportive throughout my undergraduate and graduate career. Aleydis Van de Moortel, thank you for allowing me to do my thesis research on remains from Mitrou and always being supportive while I was at UT and

MSU.

Thanks to my friends for their patience and understanding during the times when I was freaking out about thesis samples, writing, and everything else. I wouldn’t have been able to do this without y’all. Thank you so much to Monica Warner for showing me how to prep my thesis samples and for assisting me with half of the sample preparation.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES ...... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Problem Statement ...... 2

II. BACKGROUND LITERATURE ...... 7

Archaeological Background Description ...... 7 Review of Greek Archaeology and Chronology ...... 7 Mitrou ...... 13 Tragana Agia Triada ...... 15 Isotopic Background Description ...... 17 Carbon ...... 18 Nitrogen ...... 20 Prior Isotopic Analyses in Greece ...... 21

III. RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 23

Hypothesis 1 ...... 23 Hypothesis 2 ...... 25 Hypothesis 3 ...... 27

IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 29

Samples ...... 29 Sample Preparation ...... 34 Data Collection and Analysis/Procedures ...... 35 Statistics Used ...... 37

V. RESULTS ...... 39 vi

Hypothesis 1 Results ...... 41 Early Periods vs Bronze Age ...... 41 All Bronze Age Periods vs. Iron Age ...... 44 Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition ...... 47 Mitrou Comparative Study ...... 50 Central Greece ...... 51 All of Greece ...... 55 Hypothesis 2 Results ...... 60 LH Mitrou and LH TAT ...... 61 Hypothesis 3 Results ...... 65 Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...... 65 Burial Style at Mitrou ...... 66

VI. DISCUSSION ...... 71

Hypothesis 1 ...... 71 Central Greece Comparison ...... 73 All of Greece Comparison ...... 74 Hypothesis 2 ...... 75 Hypothesis 3 ...... 77

VII. CONCLUSION ...... 79

REFERENCES ...... 82

APPENDIX

A. STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS SAMPLES PER SITE ...... 88

vii

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Greek Chronology Chart ...... 4

2.1 Greek Chronology and Background Chart ...... 9

4.1 Mitrou Dental Remains ...... 30

4.2 TAT Dental Remains ...... 31

4.3 Mitrou Skeletal Remains...... 33

5.1 Mitrou Shapiro-Wilk ...... 39

5.2 TAT Shapiro-Wilk ...... 40

5.3 TAT (separated) Shapiro-Wilk ...... 41

5.4 T-Tests for Early Periods vs. Late Helladic ...... 42

5.5 T-tests for Bronze Age vs. Iron Age ...... 45

5.6 T-tests for the Bronze Age-Iron Age Transition ...... 48

5.7 One-way ANOVA for Central Greece Data ...... 52

5.8 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for Central Greece Data ...... 53

5.9 One-way ANOVA by Cultural Period for All of Greece ...... 55

5.10 One-way ANOVA for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region ...... 57

5.11 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for All of Greece ...... 59

5.12 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT ...... 61

5.13 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) ...... 63

5.14 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...... 65

5.15 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...... 66

viii

5.16 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou ...... 67

5.17 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou ...... 67

5.18 Follow-up ANOVA for Burial Style at Mitrou...... 69

5.19 Follow-up Discriminant Function Analysis for Burial Style at Mitrou ...... 69

A.1 Mitrou Thesis Samples ...... 89

A.2 TAT Thesis Samples ...... 92

A.3 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Petroutsa and Manolis 2010 ...... 94

A.4 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2011 ...... 106

A.5 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2015 ...... 107

A.6 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Iezzi 2005 and 2015 ...... 109

A.7 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Richards and Hedges 2008 ...... 110

A.8 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papathanasiou et al. 2009 ...... 113

A.9 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papthanasiou 2001 ...... 114

A.10 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Triantaphyllou et al. 2008 ...... 118

A.11 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Panagiotopoulou and Papathanasiou 2015 ...... 120

A.12 Mitrou Faunal Samples ...... 124

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Map of Greece with Mitrou and TAT (base map from Google Maps) ...... 3

2.1 Map of Mitrou Burials ...... 14

2.2 TAT Chamber tomb plan view (from Iezzi 2005) ...... 16

5.1 Histogram of Mitrou δ15N Shapiro-Wilk ...... 40

5.2 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ...... 43

5.3 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period ...... 43

5.4 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ...... 44

5.5 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ...... 46

5.6 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period...... 46

5.7 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ...... 47

5.8 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ...... 49

5.9 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period...... 49

5.10 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ...... 50

5.11 Map of Greece with Comparative Sites ...... 51

5.12 Central Greece Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ...... 53

5.13 Central Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period ...... 54

5.14 Scatterplot for Central Greece ...... 54

5.15 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period ...... 56

5.16 All of Greece Boxplot for δ13C by Cultural Period and Region ...... 58

5.17 All of Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period and Region ...... 58

5.18 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region ...... 60

5.19 LH Mitrou and TAT Boxplot for δ13C apatite ...... 62

5.20 LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) Boxplot δ13C apatite ...... 64

5.21 Scatterplot for LH Mitrou and TAT...... 64

5.22 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou and TAT ...... 66

5.23 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou...... 68

5.24 Discriminant Function Analysis Plot for Burial Style at Mitrou ...... 70

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Minimal archaeological research has been performed in central Greece, particularly examining the periods of later prehistory, beginning in Greece around 6800

B.C. with the Neolithic Age (Papathanasiou, 2005). The Neolithic is characterized by the earliest transition to domesticated plants and animals in Europe, decreased mobility, and various technological changes, such as the introduction of fixed hearths and storage facilities (Papathanasiou, 2001; 2005; Papathanasiou et al., 2009). The Bronze Age, ca.

3100-1070 B.C., follows the Neolithic, during which the first urban communities developed (Tartaron, 2008; Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989; Papathanasiou et al., 2009).

Finally the Iron Age, ca. 1070-900 B.C., follows the Bronze Age, but little is known about societies during this period, especially during the Early Iron Age (Tartaron, 2008;

Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989). What is known is that the shift from the Bronze Age to the

Iron Age was dramatic, so much so that it is often characterized as a collapse.

This research examines the differences between the Bronze and Early Iron Ages in central Greece, and particularly the transition between the two, by analyzing isotopic reconstructions of diet generated from skeletal remains and their relation to burial style.

The social order appears to have changed during this transition. My thesis tests whether diet changed as well. Diet can be inferred by studying certain archaeological remains, such as fish hooks or depictions on pottery, and from the presence of faunal remains;

however, the presence of these items does not necessarily make them representative of the entire diet, or any part of the diet at all. Rather, archaeologists must also look to human bones to reconstruct ancient diets more fully. By combining an analysis of isotopes and skeletal remains, this research will provide an understanding of diet as it relates to the individuals at the main study sites and in prehistoric Greece as a whole.

This research focuses on the Bronze and Early Iron Age sites of Mitrou and

Tragana Agia Triada. These sites are important for better understanding the BA and EIA periods because there has been very little bioarchaeological research performed at them.

Additionally, the wider region of central Greece is not often studied, in particular as compared to other areas of the country, like the Argolid or Messenia. Mitrou is an especially important site because it seems to have a continuous occupation through the

Bronze Age and Early Iron Age transition, which is very rare anywhere in Greece.

Problem Statement

This research examines diet using stable isotope values from burial samples obtained from two central Greek archaeological sites, Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada

[Figure 1.1]. Dental and skeletal remains collected from Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada

(TAT) will be used to evaluate the dietary profiles of these past populations. These data will also be examined diachronically to assess dietary changes during the transition from the Bronze Age (BA) to the Early Iron Age (EIA). Evaluating the dietary patterns at these sites will help answer questions about the nature of the Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition in central Greece and whether social changes during this time had an effect on diet. This research is particularly important for central Greece as most dietary isotope work in the country has taken place in the southern region of Greece. In southern Greece, 2

social change appears to have caused substantial modifications to the diet of particular individuals by limiting the availability of certain foods, such as meat (See e.g.: Schepartz et al., 2013; Triantaphyllou et al., 2008; Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010; Richards and

Hedges, 2008).

Figure 1.1 Map of Greece with Mitrou and TAT (base map from Google Maps)

The archaeological sites of Mitrou and TAT are located in East Lokris, Greece and are separated by 3 kilometers. The burials from Mitrou date to the Middle Helladic

(MH) and Late Helladic (LH) periods of the Bronze Age, and the Protogeometric (PG) period of the Early Iron Age, with a concentration in the Late Helladic period [Table 1.1].

The burials from TAT date solely to the Late Helladic period. Due to the close proximity

of the sites and the orientation of the TAT tombs, it is likely that Mitrou and TAT are associated, and that TAT may have served as a Mycenaean necropolis associated with

Mitrou (Fossey, 1990).

Table 1.1 Greek Chronology Chart

Chronology Early Helladic 3100-2000 BC Middle Helladic 2000-1680 BC Late Helladic 1680-1070 BC Protogeometric 1070-900 BC

Bronze Age 3100-1070 BC Early Iron Age 1070-900 BC

Prepalatial 3100-1415 BC Palatial 1415-1070 BC Post-Palatial 1070-900 BC References: Tartaron, 2008; Rutter, 1993; Morris, 1989; Pedley, 2007

While TAT was only used as a burial site during the LH, architecture and artifacts suggest that Mitrou was continuously occupied from the Early Helladic (EH) through the

Protogeometric (PG) periods. The complete depositional sequence at Mitrou from the

EH period to the PG makes it rare amongst most prehistoric Greek sites. Occupations were typically disrupted at the end of the Late Helladic (Van de Moortel and Zahou,

2005), when Mycenaean palatial society collapsed and lifestyles changed throughout

Greece. When cultures change there is the distinct possibility that diet will alter as a new society is formed. I used stable isotope analysis to examine if there is evidence of dietary change across the Bronze Age to EIA transition and to observe if the isotope values correlate with different burial styles at Mitrou and TAT. The second part of this research applies isotopic analysis to the acknowledged interpretations of burial styles and social

status in prehistoric Greece. It is an attempt to determine if diet varies between social statuses.

Two isotopes, carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) are utilized in this study to reconstruct the diet of the prehistoric inhabitants of Mitrou and TAT in central Greece.

This analysis provides a means to define dietary inputs by determining the isotopic ratios from osseous and dental tissues, which reflect the consumed diet (Larsen, 1999). Carbon and nitrogen isotopes provide information for the reconstruction of diets by expressing

13 13 15 the values of δ Ccollagen, δ Capatite, and δ N in the human remains, which reveal consumed food components (Bogaard, 2013; Keenleyside et al., 2006; Garvie-Lok, 2009;

Price et al., 2002; Dupras and Schwarcz, 2001).

This study examines dental and skeletal remains to determine ancient dietary patterns for Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric individuals from Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada. In particular, dietary differences and similarities between the cultural periods and between the two sites are examined. Additionally, the Mitrou and

TAT isotopic values are compared with previously published isotopic data from multiple archaeological sites throughout Greece. This study addresses the following three research questions about diet, ancient Greek society, and mortuary patterns:

1) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, change over time during the

occupied periods at Mitrou, particularly from the BA to EIA?

1a) If so, what were those changes at Mitrou?

2) Is there a difference in isotopic values between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late

Helladic TAT?

3) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, correlate with burial style and

social status?

The results from this study provide significant amounts of new isotopic data for central Greece specifically, as well as for mainland Greece in general. These new results are compared to the data gathered from other parts of Greece, thus allowing for a better understanding of prehistoric diet in Greece, regionally and overall, as well as temporally.

CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND LITERATURE

Archaeological Background Description

Review of Greek Archaeology and Chronology

The Greek prehistoric chronology encompasses the Bronze Age, ca. 3100-1070

B.C., and the Early Iron Age, ca. 1070-900 B.C., which are further divided into the Early

Helladic, Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric periods (Tartaron, 2008;

Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989). The archaeological sites included in this research study span all four of these periods; however, this research project is focused on the Middle Helladic

(MH), Late Helladic (LH), and Protogeometric (PG) periods. These periods are subdivided into phases indicated by changes in the material culture, such as pottery styles and sequence. The Middle Helladic contains three phases, Middle Helladic I, II, and III.

The Late Helladic also contains three phases, Late Helladic I, II, and III. These are further subdivided into various sub-phases. These sub-phases pertain to pottery sequences and therefore are not extensively used in relation to the dental and skeletal remains of this study. However, these sub-phases will be discussed throughout this research since they help to contextualize aspects of culture and society in Bronze Age

Greece, such as providing context for the burials.

Prior to the Bronze Age is the Neolithic period. The Neolithic is characterized by an introduction to agriculture and animal domestication. According to Papathanasiou and

colleagues (2009; Papathanasiou, 2005), this period began in Greece around 6800 B.C., making it one of the earliest transitions to agriculture in Europe. This period and transition were followed by increasing urbanism during the Bronze Age (Papathanasiou et al., 2009).

The Bronze Age began with the Early Helladic (EH) period in ca. 3100 B.C. and lasted until ca. 2000 B.C. (Rutter, 1993; Tartaron, 2008). The EH material from Mitrou will not be analyzed in this study, however it is important to acknowledge that the end of the EH period brought settlement abandonment and a decrease in population across

Greece (Papadimitriou, 2010; Zavadil, 2010).

Following the Early Helladic is the Middle Helladic period [Table 2.1]. The

Middle Helladic period lasted around 400 years, from ca. 2000 B.C. to 1680 B.C. (Rutter,

1993; Hale, 2015; Tartaron, 2008). Similar pottery styles from EH and MH sites show that there was some degree of cultural continuity from one period to the next (Wright,

2006; Papadimitriou, 2010). Settlements in this period are characterized by being more nucleated than those in the Early Helladic and having more highly organized social networks (Papadimitriou, 2010).

Table 2.1 Greek Chronology and Background Chart

Mainland Pottery Phase Calendar Dates Period Mortuary Patterns Characteristics Middle 2000-1680 BC destruction of sites, intramural, cist Helladic villages, no graves, pit graves monumental buildings, formative Late Helladic 1680-1070 BC social hierarchy, shaft graves, cist palatial society, graves, tholos dietary restrictions, tombs, rich grave Linear B, goods, chamber fortifications, tombs monumental buildings Protogeometric 1070-900 BC mudbrick buildings, intramural, cist villages, reduced graves long distance trade, no more writing, no monumental buildings

References: Morris, 1989; Tartaron, 2007; Morris & Powell, 2010; Pedley, 2007; Rutter, 1993

The most widely used burial methods in the Middle Helladic period are cist and pit graves, which commonly appear within settlements (Phialon, 2010). During this period, most burials were single and intramural and are often associated with houses in

MH settlements, like Asine, Argos, and Lerna (Milka, 2010). The exact definition of

“intramural” is unclear, as it has been used to describe various archaeological contexts including any burial within a settlement, burials within or near current houses, and burials placed in earlier/abandoned houses. The practice of burying individuals in abandoned

houses and then rebuilding over them is seen at Lerna and at other sites in the Argolid

(Voutsaki et al., 2010).

The burial and skeletal analyses from Thebes, one of the closest large settlements to Mitrou, provides a valuable comparison to Mitrou. At Thebes there have been at least

150 Middle Helladic graves recovered, which are believed to have come from three main cemeteries (Aravantinos, 2010). Most of these graves are single burials and tend to date to the late Middle Bronze Age and early Late Bronze Age (Aravantinos, 2010). These burials were found either under floors, in the walls of houses, or in free areas between buildings (Aravantinos, 2010). These single burials are similar to other Middle Helladic burials at Mitrou and in Greece.

The Late Helladic period, ca. 1680 B.C. to 1070 B.C. (Rutter, 1993; Tartaron,

2008; Pedley, 2007), coincides with the formative period of the Mycenaean palatial system, as well as the palatial period (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012) [Table 2.1].

During the transition from MH III to LH I an increase in the population of Greece and in settlement sizes is observed (Iezzi, 2005). During this time there was also an increase in fortifications at settlements, indicating a greater need for protection (Maran, 1995).

The majority of burials in the Late Helladic period can be classified as simple graves. Simple graves are defined as “all Mycenaean burial constructions that are not monumental and were intended for single burials” (Lewartowski, 2000). This definition includes pit and cist graves, pot burials, burials found in caves, and most shaft graves

(Lewartowski, 2000). Changes in burial patterns occurred throughout the Late Helladic.

The period from MHIII to LHI is known as the Shaft Grave period. The rich grave goods from this type of grave, especially at Mycenae, have been interpreted as suggesting the

existence of a social hierarchy and ruling upper class (Maran, 1995). During the transition from MH III/LH I to LHII/LHIIIA1, all of the typical Mycenaean burial forms were in use (Lewartowski, 2000). This changed during the LHIIIA1 to LHIIIB periods, when there was a spread of chamber tombs. In LHIIIC, the use of chamber tombs declined and simple graves became more frequently used (Lewartowski, 2000).

The Late Helladic period is when major political economies were prominent in

Greece. Major economic centers during this time period included Thebes and the southern sites of Mycenae and Pylos. These large centers are thought to have had regional dominance over and been surrounded by smaller settlements (Pullen, 2010).

However, especially when looking at Mycenae, there are several substantial nearby centers, e.g. Tiryns, Midea, and Argos (Pullen, 2010). Recent studies have examined the relationship between these major centers and the smaller but substantial settlements. For instance, Wright (2006) states that research questions should focus on the nature of these secondary settlements and their relationships with each other and the major centers.

Excavation and subsequent research leads to the belief that Mitrou was one of these smaller substantial settlements, particularly because of the presence of monumental architecture during the LH and ceramic roof tiles, which are very uncommon in mainland

Greece (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).

The Late Helladic ends with consecutive destructions and societal changes that seem to have affected the ruling class rather than the smaller communities (Lewartowski,

2000). Mitrou is an example of this and demonstrates how smaller settlements continued to exist after the downfall of the Mycenaean palatial system. The end of Mycenaean society was caused partially by a shift in trade patterns away from the control of the

Mycenaean elite, which in turn destroyed their primary power source (Galaty and

Parkinson, 2007). A shift in trade patterns is a plausible cause for the destruction of

Mycenaean palatial society because the collapse seems to have occurred at different

Mycenaean centers at different times and a shift in trade would not suddenly affect every settlement at the same time (Galaty and Parkinson, 2007). This is evident at Mitrou in the form of limited building destruction and rebuilding around the same time as the fall of the palatial system (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012). The occupation at Mitrou continued from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age.

The end of the Late Helladic brought with it the end of the Bronze Age in mainland Greece and the beginning of the Iron Age. The beginning of the Early Iron Age is referred to as the Protogeometric period, named because of the simple geometric designs that are common on the pottery of this period [Table 2.1]. The Protogeometric

(PG) period dates from ca. 1070 B.C. to 900 B.C (Morris, 1989; Tartaron, 2008). This period is characterized by decreases in population and settlement numbers along with a decline in wealth and foreign trade (Fossey, 1990; Iezzi, 2005).

Mortuary analysis of the PG period reveals a wide variety of burial practices and stylistic elements both within and between PG communities (Lemos, 2002). Single burial tombs appear to be the most common burial practice during the PG. These tombs were skillfully made and the construction likely required a great deal of labor (Lemos, 2002).

However, multiple inhumation burials continued to be used during this time in Thessaly and at some sites in Central Greece (Lemos, 2002). While a PG settlement has not been identified through excavation at Thebes, there is evidence of a few PG tombs (Lemos,

2002). The existence of these tombs implies that Thebes was occupied continuously from the palatial period to the Early Iron Age.

Mitrou

Mitrou was surveyed by the Cornell Halai and East Lokris Project (CHELP) in

1988 and 1989. Based on surface finds it was considered to be an important Late Bronze

Age settlement (Kramer-Hajos and O’Neill, 2008; Kramer-Hajos, 2008) [Figure 2.1].

Excavations at Mitrou began in 2004 and ended in 2009 (Van de Moortel, 2007), with study seasons ongoing since the end of excavation. These excavations yielded settlements and artifacts that span the Bronze and Early Iron Age (Van de Moortel and

Zahou, 2005). No architectural remains associated with the LHIIIA2 subphase have been identified at Mitrou, however it is unlikely that the settlement was abandoned during this time because there is abundant pottery from this phase (Van de Moortel, 2007; Van de

Moortel and Zahou, 2012). The LHIIIA2 early subphase at Mitrou was ended by a major catastrophe – potentially a fire – that caused a decrease in building activity in the following subphase (Vitale, 2008; Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).

Figure 2.1 Map of Mitrou Burials

Map of Mitrou excavation and burials.

In the LHIIIC period at Mitrou, a rebuilding of the settlement occurred. Based on the construction layout, Van de Moortel and Zahou (2012) suggest that the prepalatial organization was revived rather than a new settlement plan developed. Near the end of this period, Mitrou experienced a change from urban to rural characteristics and the building styles changed (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012). This could be due to the downfall of the palace system and therefore changes in the organizational structure of society. Intramural burials reappear and are seen in the ruins of earlier buildings (Van de

Moortel and Zahou, 2012).

The graves present at Mitrou mostly consist of cist graves. During the Late

Helladic I period, a large chamber tomb was built in the center of the settlement and there is a formal cemetery in the northeast portion of the island. The rural settlement continued

through the Protogeometric period and cist graves are found in the ruins of Bronze Age buildings (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).

Tragana Agia Triada

The 14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities excavated Tragana

Agia Triada as a salvage project from 1992 to 1997. The TAT salvage project recovered burials from nine Mycenaean chamber tombs that were cut into the rock in the hills south of Mitrou (Kramer-Hajos, 2008) [Figure 2.2]. Based on Iezzi’s (2005) initial partial skeletal analysis, the minimum number of individuals for tombs 1 to 5, 7, and 8 is 74.

However, the remains from all of the tombs are currently being reexamined. These tombs are generally classified as LHIII (Kramer-Hajos, 2008; Iezzi, 2015), but the artifacts have not been fully analyzed. Therefore these are tentative dates.

Figure 2.2 TAT Chamber tomb plan view (from Iezzi 2005)

With the exception of Tomb III, all tomb entrances faced north (Kramer-Hajos,

2008). It is difficult to determine where individuals were placed in each tomb due to looting that occurred and the necessity of rapid excavation protocols. Many of the chamber tombs had cists inside of them and are described as secondary burials; however, this practice is uncommon for the area in the Late Bronze Age and could be evidence for foreign influence (Kramer-Hajos, 2008). Foreign influences are seen in Atalanti, a town about 12 km from Tragana, during the Protogeometric period, based on the presence of two sarcophagi (Lemos, 2002). 16

Isotopic Background Description

Stable isotopes are variations of chemical elements that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons (Bethard, 2012). When applied to human skeletal remains, stable isotope analyses greatly enhance reconstructions of past human diets (Larsen, 1999). While the simplest explanation for understanding the relationship between isotopic analysis and diet is that “you are what you eat,” in reality it is a far more complicated process. While stable isotope values do not provide a complete reconstruction of ancient diet (i.e. the specific foods eaten), they do enable the identification of consumption profiles of different kinds of foods eaten by past populations (Larsen, 1999).

For dietary isotopic studies, two forms of tissue can be used, biological apatite and collagen. Biological apatite, or bioapatite, is the inorganic, mineral component of bone and tooth enamel (Bethard, 2012). This tissue comprises approximately 70% of dry bone (Bethard, 2012). Because of continual remodeling, bioapatite from bone represents an average diet from the past ten years of an individual’s life (Van der Merwe and Vogel,

1978; Bethard, 2012; Manolagas, 2000; Keenleyside et al., 2006). From tooth enamel, bioapatite provides an examination of enamel formation from the period of growth and development and thus can be used to reconstruct early-life diet because teeth do not remodel (Bethard, 2012). Collagen is the organic component of bone and comprises the remaining 30% of dry bone (Bethard, 2012). The composition of collagen is characteristic of the diet averaged over the last 5 to 10 years of life (Richards and

Hedges, 1999).

Analysis of both apatite from dental enamel and bone collagen are performed in this study to provide a detailed portrait of the prehistoric Greek diet at Mitrou and TAT.

While most elements that contain dietary significance are present in the inorganic

(apatite) rather than organic (collagen) component of bone, bone apatite is more problematic because of the stronger influence of diagenesis (Larsen, 1999; Szostek et al.,

2011). Diagenesis is the alteration of the organic and inorganic components of body tissues post-mortem (Szostek et al., 2011). Because of diagenesis, it is useful to perform multiple analyses on different parts of the skeleton.

Carbon

Carbon is a light stable isotope and can exist in three forms: oxidized, elemental, and reduced (Sharp, 2007). Carbon is the fourth most abundant element and was the first stable isotope to be studied in anthropology (Faure and Mensing, 2005; Bethard, 2012).

This isotope has several applications, such as in the estimation of variation in past temperatures, photosynthetic pathways, diet, metabolic pathways, and variations in greenhouse gas abundances (Sharp, 2007). For this study, carbon will be used to reconstruct the diet of skeletons from Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada. Ratios of carbon isotopes provide a long-term record of the proportions of C3 and C4 resources that have been consumed by a given individual (Ambrose et al., 2003). Carbon values derived

13 from collagen (δ Ccollagen) are more reflective of protein sources, whereas values from

13 bioapatite (δ Cap) are reflective of an individual’s whole diet, including carbohydrates, fats, and protein (Bethard, 2012; Larsen, 1999; Ambrose et al., 2003). Following established standards, the values are presented relative to the international Pee Dee

Belemite (PDB) limestone fossil standard (Turner, 2008; Papathanasiou et al., 2000). 18

More positive values indicate the carbon is enriched relative to the standard, while more negative values suggest depletion of 13C (Faure and Mensing, 2005). The PDB standard is a calcium carbonate marine shell that is rich in δ13C, thus isotopic analyses of most mammalian tissues are negative relative to PDB (Krueger and Sullivan, 1984).

Carbon (δ13C) isotopes can be used to differentiate between terrestrial and marine protein consumption. They also provide information on the sources of three dietary protein categories, specifically diets based on marine resources, diets that consist mostly of C3 plants, and diets that consist of mostly C4 plants (Papathanasiou et al., 2009;

Keenleyside et al., 2006; Ingvarsson-Sundstrom et al., 2013). C3 plants are considered to be part of the Calvin Photosynthetic Pathway. C4 plants are part of the Hatch-Slack

Photosynthetic Pathway (Bethard, 2012). C3 plants are commonly found in temperate climate regions and consist of high latitude grasses, such as wheat, barley, and quinoa

13 (Sharp, 2007; Bethard, 2012). The average value for δ C of the C3 pathway is -26.5‰; however, coastal δ13C values from the Neolithic onwards tend to be less negative and average around -18‰ to -23‰ (Bethard, 2012; Larsen, 1999). C4 plants are located in more tropical climates and the average δ13C value is -12.5‰ (Bethard, 2012). Examples of C4 plants are millet, maize, sugarcane, and sorghum (Sharp, 2007; Petroutsa and

Manolis, 2010; Bethard, 2012). Typically for Greece, any C4 values are attributed to millet; however, there is no isotopic evidence for systematic cultivation and consumption of this crop in Greece and it only appears sporadically in human and animal samples throughout prehistoric Greek sites (Papathanasiou, 2015). The ratios of the isotopes from the tissues are expressed in parts per million (‰ or ppm) because the numbers of isotopes

needed to distinguish between dietary resources is low (Papathanasiou et al., 2000;

Larsen, 1999).

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a stable isotope used for quantifying trophic level positions and reconstructing diet (Sharp, 2007). Originally, nitrogen studies focused on trophic level distinctions in the food chain, particularly for marine environments (Bethard, 2012).

Trophic levels are the position in the food chain that a group of organisms occupies, with each successive trophic level consuming the ones below (Sharp, 2007). Additionally, nitrogen isotopes are used to differentiate between plant and animal proteins, as well as terrestrial versus marine protein (Bethard, 2012; Schepartz et al., 2013). Nitrogen analysis is used together with carbon analysis to better understand the ancient diet from the two central Greek archaeological sites. Nitrogen (δ15N) values represent the trophic levels for samples and when combined with δ13C can be used to distinguish between proteins derived from marine or terrestrial resources because marine plants are more enriched for δ15N than are terrestrial plants (Keenleyside et al., 2006; Bethard, 2012;

Schepartz et al., 2013). Nitrogen levels are usually associated with an organism’s position in the food chain and typically increase by 2 to 3‰ per trophic level (Bethard,

2012). Because of this, consumers of marine protein have significantly enriched δ15N values when compared with terrestrial consumers (Bethard, 2012). Following established standards, the values are presented relative to the atmospheric nitrogen standard, also known as the Ambient Inhalable Reservoir (AIR) (Papathanasiou et al., 2000;

Papathanasiou, 2001).

While nitrogen analysis can provide information on marine versus terrestrial food sources, there are several problems associated with this method of analysis. One of the biggest problems with nitrogen is that researchers do not know how much individual nitrogen variation there is between humans, even if they have the same dietary input

(Hedges and Reynard, 2007; O’Connell et al., 2012). Another problem is that the isotopic values for most food components are unknown, with the exception of a few domesticated animals (Hedges and Reynard, 2007). These are significant problems, but they have not stopped analyses from being performed. Valuable information pertaining to diet can still be ascertained from nitrogen, such as identifying weaning patterns (Fuller et al., 2006a; Fuller et al., 2006b), and hopefully with more analyses the above problems can be addressed and solved.

Prior Isotopic Analyses in Greece

In most isotopic studies performed in Greece, collagen derived carbon and nitrogen assays are compared to create a more holistic understanding of ancient diet.

Reviewing case studies and previous research from other sites in Greece aid in determining the relevance of the isotope data from Mitrou.

An interesting pattern involving carbon values is that there tends to be a higher carbon signature than nitrogen in human remains at coastal sites, which is intriguing since these sites have easy access to the sea. It would be more logical if coastal sites had higher trophic levels from nitrogen in their diets – expressing a high intake of marine foods – but this is not the case. This is also apparent at the LH sites of Aghia Triada

(Elis), Almyri, Zeli, and Kalapodi (Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010). Petroutsa and Manolis

(2010) state that there are no individuals from prehistoric Greece with δ13C and δ15N 21

isotopic values that represent marine intake, regardless of their proximity to the Aegean

Sea. This result is also seen in burials examined by Papathanasiou and colleagues (2000) from Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave in southern Greece. Although this site is close to the sea, the δ13C values were very negative, which indicates that the diet was almost exclusively based on terrestrial C3 plants and animals (Papathanasiou et al., 2000).

Minimal isotopic research has been conducted on the remains from the TAT tombs. As part of her dissertation research, Iezzi (2005, 2015) examined diet and health of coastal and inland sites in central Greece. She analyzed the remains of four individuals from TAT. The isotopic results for TAT showed similar isotopic values as other published Late Bronze Age samples and are indicative of a C3 plant based diet

(Iezzi, 2015).

Proskynas is a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement in central Greece near

Mitrou. Papathanasiou and colleagues (2009) performed an analysis of health, disease, and lifestyle from skeletal indicators along with a reconstruction of diet. This study measured the carbon and nitrogen values of bone collagen to gain information about the sources of protein in the diet (Papathanasiou et al., 2009). The isotope results indicated that the sampled individuals consumed primarily terrestrial protein from a C3 ecosystem

(Papathanasiou et al., 2009). This study is a valuable comparison for the isotopic study of burials from Mitrou because of the close proximity of the two sites.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH DESIGN

This research focuses on isotopic analysis of human dental and skeletal remains from the Greek archaeological sites of Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada. Isotopic results are compared between these two sites as well as against isotopic values from sites across

Greece. By comparing the Mitrou and TAT data, this study adds to what is known of

Bronze Age central Greece. The hypotheses described below are designed to test carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures and the relationship between the occupied periods at

Mitrou and TAT with regard to diet, burial styles, and social change.

Hypothesis 1

The carbon and nitrogen signatures from Mitrou will suggest that all inhabitants

had a similar diet within each occupied period (Early/Middle Helladic,

Late Helladic, and Protogeometric).

This hypothesis examines the carbon and nitrogen isotopic values for each period

(Early/Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric) to determine whether each occupied period had its own specific diet. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes are used in order to identify the components of diet and the C3 or C4 levels of the samples in order to determine the community’s diet (Sharp, 2007).

The purpose of investigating this hypothesis is to learn and understand more about the culture and society of each period separately. To do so, the isotopic values are 23

compared with each other in order to understand the relationship of Mitrou to TAT, while also being compared with isotopic signatures derived from previous studies of sites located in central Greece. Specifically, the isotopic results from Papathanasiou et al.’s

(2009) study at Proskynas is of great value given that site is located only 4 km from

Mitrou.

Petroutsa and Manolis (2010) used similar methods to examine dietary patterns of four Late Bronze Age sites in central and southern Greece. The results of this study indicate mostly similar isotopic values, however the values from Kalapodi, a temple site near Mitrou, demonstrate a greater consumption of animal protein (Petroutsa and

Manolis, 2010). The results from Kalapodi could indicate a regional difference and also might be seen in the Late Helladic samples from Mitrou and TAT, where higher levels of animal protein might also have been consumed during the LBA.

Isotopic values from these three periods are then compared in order to examine the transitional phases at Mitrou. The Middle Helladic-Late Helladic and Late Helladic-

Protogeometric transitions represent changing social structures within Bronze Age

Greece and are crucial to understanding how these societies functioned. These transitional periods are marked by changes in pottery style and/or architectural change or destruction. If social systems changed during these transitional periods, then diet may have changed as well. The data from this analysis allows comparison of Bronze Age central Greece and to the relatively well-studied Bronze Age in southern Greece.

Hypothesis 2

The carbon and nitrogen signatures will express a difference in diet between Late

Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic Tragana Agia Triada.

The second part of this research aims to examine dietary signatures between LH

Mitrou and TAT. Isotope analysis enables dietary information to be collected for both individuals and the broader community (Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010), so for this hypothesis the focus is on the individuals of these two sites during their corresponding time period.

It is believed that the TAT burials have a more varied diet than the burials at

Mitrou. This information is used to better understand the separation of burials for the two sites. The isotopic values will support the possibility that the TAT burials were an elite group in the area during the Late Helladic period.

The presence of an elite group at Mitrou during the LHI period is determined by the abundance of LHI pottery – which is not commonly found at other sites in the region

– indicating that Mitrou was a center for elites during this period (Kramer-Hajos, 2008).

This concept of an elite center can be qualified by the presence of monumental architecture on Mitrou at this time (Kramer-Hajos, 2008; Van de Moortel and Zahou,

2012). There is no way to definitively correlate grave goods with a person’s living social status because burial customs can make the dead appear richer or more important than they really were (Lewartowski, 2000). Differing diets within a community could indicate a social distinction between two or more groups of people, which would add another – and possibly more reliable – component to the estimation of social status. For example,

maize consumption relating to social status is seen in Mesoamerica and in the southeastern United States (Larsen, 1999; Ambrose et al. 2003) and a similar approach can be used as a basis for examining differing isotopic values in relation to social status and burial type.

This hypothesis addresses Late Helladic palatial society and the possibility that individuals at Mitrou could have had a more restricted (or less varied) diet than those at

TAT, as was also the case at Mycenae. The dietary study at Mycenae indicates that there could have been variability in food consumption between the different grave areas.

Specifically, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic values for Grave Circles A and B were more positive than those from the Mycenaean chamber tombs (Richards and Hedges,

2008). Richards and Hedges (2008) argue that this relates to higher marine food consumption, resulting in more positive carbon and nitrogen values. This means that these individuals consumed a greater amount of dietary protein. The isotopic values from the chamber tombs indicated little or no marine food intake (Richards and Hedges, 2008).

The difference in isotopic values could be caused by a shift in diet over time – the grave circles date to ca. 16th century B.C. while the chamber tombs date to ca. 1600-1200

B.C. – or that marine foods were eaten only by the elite in the society (Richards and

Hedges, 2008). The grave circles of Mycenae are known to have held many golden artifacts, including golden death masks. The rich grave goods inside these burials, but not in any others, suggests the grave circles represented the elites or people of higher authority. Voutsaki (2010) states that Mycenae maintained strict control over ivory and gold manufacture, so it is possible that the state also controlled food sources. The

conclusion that the people buried in these grave circles had different diets is supported by the results of the isotopic analysis (Richard and Hedges, 2008).

Based on Richard and Hedges’ (2008) analysis, I expect the isotope data indicates a more varied diet at TAT as compared to the LH burials from Mitrou. However, considering Iezzi’s (2005) previous isotopic results from TAT, there may be no significant difference in the diet.

Hypothesis 3

Burial construction styles will correlate with distinct ranges of isotopic values.

Studies of graves, burial customs, and mortuary symbolism aid in understanding past cultures (Lewartowski, 2000), which is a goal of this research and a focus of this third hypothesis. It is expected that differing ranges of isotopic signatures correspond to the three forms of burials present at Mitrou and TAT: pit, cist, and chamber tomb. Some researchers are certain that tomb type strongly indicates an individual’s social status

(Lewartowski, 2000). Some consider that chamber tombs were for the elite and simple graves were for poorer individuals (Lewartowski, 2000). If chamber tombs are normally associated with the elite, then potentially they would have a more varied diet than the poorer burials. This hypothesis aims to determine if the isotopic values reflect social status by burial style.

This hypothesis aims to determine if burial style can help identify differences in society. This analysis aids in understanding the relationship between burial style and diet at Mitrou.

The results from these analyses aid in explaining Mitrou’s history and how the settlement developed in the Mycenaean Bronze and Iron Ages, particularly during the transitional periods. Since there are no PG settlement remains found at Thebes (Lemos,

2002), the information gained from Mitrou and TAT augments knowledge of prehistoric central Greece.

CHAPTER IV

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples

The materials for this study were collected during the Mitrou excavation seasons of 2004 to 2009 and the rescue excavations of the TAT tombs from 1992 to 1997. The human skeletal and dental samples were selected from burials at different locations on the island that correspond to the occupied periods of the site. Overall, the main goal of the sampling process was to select samples that span the studied time periods and that represent a variety of burial styles, and thus address my specific research questions.

A sample of 51 human teeth was brought to Mississippi State University from

Tragana, Greece in August 2013 after being selected by Dr. Nicholas Herrmann. These

13 13 teeth were chosen for δ Cap (δ C from mineral carbonate apatite) isotopic analysis.

Twenty-nine of these teeth are from Mitrou [Table 4.1] and 22 teeth are from TAT [Table

4.2]. Regarding the teeth from Mitrou, one dates to the Middle Helladic, 18 to the Late

Helladic, and ten to the Protogeometric. The 22 teeth from TAT are from the Late

Helladic II period.

Table 4.1 Mitrou Dental Remains

Grave Burial TRSU Tooth Type of Development Period Tooth 6 9 LN786-028-014 18 2nd molar Late PG 10 13 LF790-017 3 1st molar Early PG 12 17 LH792-010-017 6 Canine Early PG 15 20 LM792-042-023 27 Canine Early LH 22 28 LD791-040-012 5 1st premolar Early PG 22 28 LD791-092-011 26 Incisor Early PG 23 27 LG784-087-018 14 1st molar Early LH 24 29 LE795-087-017 70 Deciduous Early LH 2nd molar 25 30 LE792-092-022 5 1st premolar Early LH 25 30 LE792-092-022 9 Incisor Early LH 29 33 LN782-172 18 2nd molar Late PG 31 32 LE793-013-014 11 Canine Early LH 31 32 LE793-013-014 12 1st premolar Early LH 33 34 LP785-019-016 19 1st molar Early PG 41 44 LE792-065-031 15 2nd molar Late MH/L H 42 49 LP785-080-019 19 1st molar Early PG 48 51 LO782-220-014 19 1st molar Early PG 50 53 LR797-029-011 18 2nd molar Late LH 52 LO782-224- 19 1st molar Early LH 013/017 55 56 LR797-028-016 5 1st premolar Early LH 55 56 LR797-028-016 12 1st premolar Early LH 56 57 LX784-030 30 1st molar Early LH 65 64 LR797-051-020 13 2nd Early LH premolar 66 66 LR797-057 30 1st molar Early LH 73 74 LN783-455 18 2nd molar Late LH 73 74 LN783-502-012 19 1st molar Early LH 73 74 LO784-859-019 18 2nd molar Late LH 74 76 LN783-577- 15 2nd molar Late LH 011A 74 77 LN783-577- 22 Canine Early LH 011B

Table 4.2 TAT Dental Remains

Tomb Box Bone ID Tooth Type of Development Period # Tooth 1 om2n 3742 28 1st premolar Early LH 1 om2n 3692 8 Incisor Early LH VI om3 138 30 1st molar Early LH 1 om2n 3690 8 Incisor Early LH 1 om2n 3651 9 Deciduous Early LH incisor 1 om2a 1044 10 Incisor Early LH 1 om2a 1045 10 Incisor Early LH 1 om2a 1050 27 Canine Early LH 1 om2a 1048 25 Incisor Early LH 1 om2n 3671 11 Canine Early LH 1 om2n 3673 27 Canine Early LH III om2 13 2492 26 Incisor Early LH III om3 13 2484 25 Incisor Early LH V OM4a 2 552 6 Canine Early LH V OM4a 2 541 22 Canine Early LH V OM4a 2 542 23 Incisor Early LH V OM4a 2 531 10 Incisor Early LH V OM5a 2909 18 2nd molar Late LH V 2 23 24 Incisor Early LH VII 4 301 26 Incisor Early LH OM6 VII 5 815 26 Incisor Early LH OM7 VII 4 309 25 Incisor Early LH OM6 Bone ID numbers assigned during NP Herrmann’s analysis from 2010-2012.

Human skeletal samples were also collected during the 2013 summer study season and brought to Mississippi State University in August 2013 with the dental samples. Eighteen bone samples, consisting of ribs and metatarsals, from Mitrou were chosen for bone collagen analysis [Table 4.3]. One of the bone samples represents the

Middle Helladic, 14 samples are from the Late Helladic, and three samples date to the

Protogeometric. Along with the above mentioned samples, C14 dates and δ13C and δ15N bone collagen values have been obtained from three additional burials from Mitrou

(Herrmann, personal communication). These values are included in this isotopic analysis.

In order to support the nitrogen analysis of human remains, a faunal comparison from Mitrou is referenced. It is important that the faunal remains originate from the same site and area as the human remains so that they will be representative of the same geographic and environmental context (Papathanasiou, 2015). The animals represented from Mitrou consist of four pigs and one dog. More information on these samples is provided in the Appendix.

Table 4.3 Mitrou Skeletal Remains

Grave Burial TRSU Bone Weight (mg) Period 6 9 LN786-028-014 L rib 3-9 9000 PG 10 13 LF790-019- 2 R ribs 3-9 A: 4290 LH 015/016 B: 3980 15 20 LH792-042-023 R & L ribs 3-9 A: 2500 LH B: 2600 C: 2530 22 28 LD791-040-012 R rib 3-9 5730 PG 23 27 LG789-087-018 R rib 3-7 3930 LH 24 29 LE795-087-015 R ribs 3-9 A: 1590 LH B: 1470 C: 1240 D: 1330 25 30 LE792-092-022 R femur – 12960 LH diaphysis fragment 31 32 LE793-013-014 R ribs 3-9 A: 3160 LH B: 3990 C: 3360 33 34 LP785-019-016 L femur fragment 22010 PG 41 44 LE792-065 L rib 3-9 6910 MH/LH - 52 LO782-224-013 L ribs 3-9 A: 3030 LH B: 1640 56 57 LX784-031-013 R femur – distal 10380 LH 1/3 diaphysis fragment 66 66 LR797-057 R rib 3-9 4980 LH 73 74 LO784-859-014 L 1st metatarsal 7290 LH 73 74 LN783-429-013 L 1st metatarsal 4680 LH 73 74 LO784-859-014 L 1st metatarsal 5190 LH 74 76 LN783-577- R 1st metatarsal 4760 LH 011A 74 77 LN783-577- R 5th metatarsal 5870 LH 011B

In addition to the results from three previously analyzed Mitrou samples

(Herrmann, personal communication), isotopic data from multiple archaeological sites throughout Greece are examined for comparative purposes. The isotopic values from

these sites allow for further analysis of prehistoric diet for the region of central Greece. I also compare values for central Greece (including the Mitrou and TAT data) to values from southern Greece. I compare the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values from 22

Neolithic, Bronze Age, and/or Iron Age sites in Greece. Twelve of these sites are located in the southern region of the country and ten are in central Greece (two of these ten are additional Mitrou and TAT samples from previous studies). The isotopic signatures and general information about these sites can be seen in the Appendix.

Sample Preparation

The dental samples were prepared for isotopic analysis in the Biological

Anthropology Research Laboratory (BARL) and the Biological Anthropology Teaching

Laboratory at Mississippi State University. Methods of preparation of the δ¹³Cap samples were adapted from Turner (2008). The teeth were cleaned in glass beakers with acetone, deionized water, and a sonicator. After being cleaned, a dremel tool with a Tungsten tip was used to remove the dentin and break up the enamel. Hydrochloric acid was used to clean the drill tip of the dremel between each sample to ensure that the samples were not contaminated. A saw attachment was added to the dremel to remove roots when they were present. The broken pieces of enamel were re-sonicated to clean them again and to remove any additional dentin. After the fragments dried they were powdered with an agate mortar and pestle until the enamel was a fine powder. Using a scoopula, the enamel powder (5-20 mg) was placed in δ¹³C marked microcentrifuge tubes before being sent to the isotope laboratories. No preparation was required for the selected bone samples, they were sent to the laboratories in complete form.

After sample preparation was complete, specific samples were chosen to be sent to the isotope labs. Samples sent were chosen by considering which would be the most beneficial to answering the research questions and hypotheses. The main factors used to determine which samples to send included the associated time period of the sample and its location on the island. Not all samples (18 skeletal, 29 Mitrou dental, and 22 TAT dental) were sent because of lab costs and a limited budget for analysis; however, 28 bone samples were sent for collagen analysis to the University of Georgia CAIS, representing 18 from Mitrou, five Mitrou faunal, and five from TAT. Thirty-nine dental

13 samples were sent for δ Cap enamel analysis to the University of California Santa Cruz

Stable Isotope Laboratory, including 25 from Mitrou, five Mitrou faunal, and nine from

TAT. The specific details on these samples are provided in the Appendix.

Data Collection and Analysis/Procedures

Powdered enamel samples were sent to the University of California Santa Cruz

Stable Isotope Laboratory for δ¹³C analysis. This analysis examined the apatite of the tooth enamel. For this analysis, this facility used a Kiel IV Carbonate Device with a

ThermoScientific MAT-253 dual-inlet isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS).

The 39 dental samples were processed by Colin Carney, a specialist at the UC

Santa Cruz Stable Isotope Laboratory. The preparation for tooth enamel carbonate samples followed the recommended procedure produced by the Santa Cruz Laboratory and began with the addition of 1 ml of 30% H202 to 10 mg of the powdered enamel. The sealed microcentrifuge tubes were agitated for 30 to 60 seconds before the lids were loosened to allow the gas to escape. To allow for a chemical reaction to occur, the tubes sat and were agitated frequently for 24 hours. The samples were put in a centrifuge to 35

take the H202 away and then rinsed with 1 ml of MilliQ water. This step was done repeatedly for five rinses. Two ml of 1M acetic acid with calcium acetate were added to the samples, which were then agitated and left to react for another 24 hours. The samples were centrifuged again to allow for the acetic acid buffer to aspirate. The samples were rinsed again with 1 ml of MilliQ water and agitated. The previous two steps were performed four more times. After this was done, aluminum foil was placed with a small hole over the open microcentrifuge tubes and the samples were frozen for approximately twenty-five minutes. The samples were then placed overnight on a freeze dryer and then weighed out to be between .5 and 1 mg. The samples were vacuum roasted for around one hour at 65°C before being analyzed with the mass spectrometer.

Skeletal samples were sent to the University of Georgia Center for Applied

Isotope Studies (CAIS) for collagen analysis of bone. An EA mass spectrometer system

Coltech-Delta V+ was used to perform this analysis. Collagen is also being used because it largely reflects the δ13C protein component of diet (Larsen, 1999).

Preparation of the δ¹³C and δ15N skeletal samples were adapted from Ambrose

(1990) and were performed by Dr. Alexander Cherkinsky, at CAIS. The bone samples were cleaned using an ultrasonic bath. After cleaning, the dried bone was gently crushed to small fragments and treated with diluted 1N acetic acid to remove surface absorbed and secondary carbonates. Periodic evacuation insured that evolved carbon dioxide was removed from the interior of the sample fragments, and that fresh acid was allowed to reach the interior micro-surfaces. The chemically cleaned sample was then reacted under a vacuum with 1N HCl to dissolve the bone mineral and release carbon dioxide from the bioapatite. The residue was filtered, rinsed with deionized water, and under slightly acid

conditions (pH=3), heated at 80ºC for 6 hours to dissolve collagen and leave humic substances in the precipitate. The collagen solution was then filtered to isolate the pure collagen and dried out. The δ13C and δ15N samples are expressed as δ13C with respect to

PDB, with an error of less than 0.1‰, and δ 15N with respect to atmospheric air nitrogen with an error of less than 0.2‰. The quality of collagen was determined by the C/N ratio and any value below 3 and above 3.6 was discarded.

Statistics Used

Several forms of statistics are used in this analysis. The Mitrou and TAT data were initially tested for normality with the Shapiro-Wilk test and for homogeneity of variance with a Levene’s test. Testing for normality is done to determine if the distribution of the data set is significantly different from a normal distribution (Field et al., 2012). This is important because the analysis here involves comparing groups (Field et al., 2012). A Levene’s test is used to test that the values are roughly equal in different groups and is specifically used when comparing groups (Field et al., 2012).

A t-test and one-way ANOVA were applied to the hypotheses to determine differences in the data according to the research questions. Depending on the variables, a t-test and one-way ANOVA were used to compare means. A t-test was used when two variables were being analyzed and an ANOVA was used when three or more variables were being analyzed. When results were significantly different a Tukey post-hoc test was performed to compare the means of all combinations of pairs in the sample (Field et al.,

2012). Scatterplots with convex hull ellipses were created to better understand the results from the t-test and ANOVA.

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was also performed when multiple variables were being considered. The MANOVA is used to examine several dependent variables simultaneously, which allows for any correlation between the dependent variables to be observed (Field et al., 2012). When the MANOVA results were significant, specific post-hoc tests were performed. The follow-up analysis for

MANOVAs includes both an ANOVA of the dependent variables and discriminant function analysis. The purpose of the follow-up ANOVA is to determine if the significant MANOVA was reflective of all the dependent variables or just one (Field et al., 2012). The discriminant function analysis (DFA) shows the relationships between the dependent variables as well as the relationship between the dependent variables and the overall group (Field et al., 2012).

The results for each hypothesis are presented below. For all statistical tests, the level of significance is p = .05. Because the hypotheses are not directionally focused and only seek to determine if there is a difference or not in diet, the probability of absolute t will be used instead of the probability > or < t.

CHAPTER V

RESULTS

Initially, the Mitrou samples and TAT samples were tested for normality using a

Shapiro-Wilk test, with the collagen, apatite, and nitrogen values separated, as well as separated by site. All of the values for Mitrou were normal, which can be seen in Table

5.1. The Mitrou δ13C collagen values and apatite values had no outliers but the δ15N had four outliers. The presence of outliers provides useful information since the data overall is normal. Of these four outliers, one was below the second standard deviation and three were above, as can be seen in Figure 5.1. The lower value is from Grave 25 Burial 30.

The values from Grave 24 Burial 29 and one from Grave 73 Burial 74 are above the second standard deviation and the points are clustered together. The last outlier is another sample from Grave 73 Burial 74 and it has the highest δ15N of all the Mitrou samples. The values for TAT can be seen in Table 5.2. While the TAT δ13C apatite and

δ15N were normal and had no outliers, the δ13C collagen was not normal and had one outlier. The outlier is from Tomb VIII and has a value of -17.4‰. After the normality was tested, homogeneity of variance was assessed by using a Levene’s test.

Table 5.1 Mitrou Shapiro-Wilk

Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=20) .98017 .9363 δ13C apatite (n=25) .96941 .6302 δ15N (n=20) .94034 .2434

Figure 5.1 Histogram of Mitrou δ15N Shapiro-Wilk

Table 5.2 TAT Shapiro-Wilk

Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=9) .79559 .0182 δ13C apatite (n=13) .86884 .0505 δ15N (n=9) .94115 .5940

Since the outlier in the TAT data were from Iezzi’s (2005; 2015) previous analyses, the TAT data were separated based on her data and the data I sampled here.

This was done to ensure that the TAT collagen data were not normal only because of the one outlier. After re-running the TAT data separately, Table 5.3 shows that the TAT data are indeed normal except for the one outlier. Separating the data, and thus limiting the overall sample size, causes the TAT apatite values to have one outlier. However, since the apatite values do not produce outliers when they are all combined, this outlier is not a concern.

Table 5.3 TAT (separated) Shapiro-Wilk

TAT Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=5) .83725 .1575 δ13C apatite (n=9) .91419 .3463 δ15N (n=5) .95097 .7441

TAT_Iezzi Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=4) .65744 .0033 δ13C apatite (n=4) .95236 .7309 δ15N (n=4) .98477 .9294

Hypothesis 1 Results

To restate, hypothesis 1 proposes that the carbon and nitrogen signatures from

Mitrou will suggest that all inhabitants had a similar diet within each occupied period

(Early/Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric). Results of H1 are broken up into several sections: the early periods of the Bronze Age vs. the Late Helladic period, the entire Mitrou BA sample set vs. the Iron Age sample set, the Late Helladic period vs. the

Iron Age period, and a regional comparative study. The first section briefly examines the transition from the Middle Helladic to the Late Helladic. The second section looks at all the samples from the Bronze Age at Mitrou against the Iron Age samples, and more specifically, section three looks at the transition between the Late Helladic and Iron Age periods. The fourth section examines how Mitrou and TAT fit within the region of central Greece and the country as a whole.

Early Periods vs Bronze Age

The first part of the hypothesis compares the early periods of the Bronze Age

(Early Helladic and Middle Helladic) to the Late Helladic period. A t-test was performed 41

13 13 15 on these periods and their respective δ Cap, δ Ccollagen, and δ N isotopic values. The results can be seen in Table 5.4. No significant difference was found between the Bronze

Age periods for any of the isotopes. As represented by the sampled individuals, this suggests there is no significant difference in diet throughout the Bronze Age. The high p- value is supported by a visual interpretation of the box plots [Figures 5.2-5.4], in which the values from the Early periods fall within the range of the LH values. As represented by the sampled individuals, these results indicate a homogenous diet throughout the various periods of the Bronze Age at Mitrou.

Table 5.4 T-Tests for Early Periods vs. Late Helladic

LH-Early Assuming equal variances 13 δ Ccollagen (n=17) Difference -0.3567 t Ratio -1.0935 Standard Error 0.3262 DF 15 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.3385 Prob > |t| 0.2914 Lower LC Diff -1.0519 Prob > t 0.8543 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.1457

13 δ Cap (n=17) Difference -0.0131 t Ratio -0.028 Standard Error 0.469 DF 15 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.9865 Prob > |t| 0.978 Lower LC Diff -1.0127 Prob > t 0.511 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.489

δ15N (n=17) Difference 0.1098 t Ratio 0.13596 Standard Error 0.8073 DF 15 Diff Upper CL Diff 1.8305 Prob > |t| 0.8937 Lower LC Diff -1.611 Prob > t 0.4468 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.5532

Figure 5.2 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period

Figure 5.3 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period

Figure 5.4 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period

All Bronze Age Periods vs. Iron Age

The second part of this hypothesis compares the entire Bronze Age to the Early

Iron Age. Again, a t-test was performed on these two groups and the three analyzed isotopes. The results of the t-test can be seen in Table 5.5. As with the first part, no significant difference occurs between the entire Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. As can be seen with the box plots [Figures 5.5-5.7], both time periods have similar values, indicating no difference in diet.

Table 5.5 T-tests for Bronze Age vs. Iron Age

BA-IA Assuming equal variances 13 δ Ccollagen (n=20) Difference -0.13961 t Ratio -0.45235 Standard Error Diff 0.30863 DF 18 Upper CL Diff 0.50879 Prob > |t| 0.6564 Lower LC Diff -0.78801 Prob > t 0.6718 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.3282

13 δ Cap (n=25) Difference 0.24860 t Ratio 1.205664 Standard Error Diff 0.20620 DF 23 Upper CL Diff 0.67515 Prob > |t| 0.2402 Lower LC Diff -0.17795 Prob > t 0.1201 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8799

δ15N (n=20) Difference -0.4271 t Ratio -0.57983 Standard Error Diff 0.7365 DF 18 Upper CL Diff 1.1203 Prob > |t| 0.5692 Lower LC Diff -1.9744 Prob > t 0.7154 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.2846

Figure 5.5 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period

Figure 5.6 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period

Figure 5.7 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period

Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition

The next part of this first hypothesis examines the cultural transition between the

Bronze Age and the Iron Age. While similar to the second part, this analysis includes only the Late Helladic samples and the Iron Age samples. A t-test was performed and the results can be seen in Table 5.6. The results for this part are similar to the second part.

This is mostly because excluding the Early periods from the analysis only removed three samples. The result of the transition provides isotopic patterns similar to the overall

Bronze Age. As seen with the p-values and the box plots [Figures 5.8-5.10], there is no significant difference in the isotopic values between these two periods, indicating that, as represented by the sampled individuals, diet was homogenous and did not change, even when it appears that the culture changed.

Table 5.6 T-tests for the Bronze Age-Iron Age Transition

BA/IA Assuming equal variances 13 δ Ccollagen (n=17) Difference -0.07667 t Ratio -0.23535 Standard Error 0.32576 DF 15 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.61767 Prob > |t| 0.8171 Lower LC Diff -0.77101 Prob > t 0.5914 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.4086

13 δ Cap (n=24) Difference 0.24937 t Ratio 1.171189 Standard Error 0.21292 DF 22 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.69095 Prob > |t| 0.2541 Lower LC Diff -0.19220 Prob > t 0.1270 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8730

δ15N (n=17) Difference -0.4464 t Ratio -0.54854 Standard Error 0.8139 DF 15 Diff Upper CL Diff 1.2883 Prob > |t| 0.5914 Lower LC Diff -2.1811 Prob > t 0.7043 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.2957

Figure 5.8 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period

Figure 5.9 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period

Figure 5.10 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period

Mitrou Comparative Study

The Mitrou comparative study is broken down into two sections: isotopic data focusing strictly on central Greece and isotopic data that encompasses the entire country of Greece. The comparative samples include sites from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and

Iron Age. While Mitrou does not have any Neolithic burials, Neolithic period sites are included in this analysis as a way to visually acknowledge the dietary signatures from the period preceding the Bronze Age. The comparative sites are shown below in Figure 5.11.

The Appendix contains the references and isotopic values of these sites.

Figure 5.11 Map of Greece with Comparative Sites

Modified from Papathanasiou and Fox (2015) and Papathanasiou (2001)

Central Greece

A one-way ANOVA and scatterplot were run for this analysis and the results can be seen in Table 5.7. Since the data were statistically significant, a Tukey post-hoc test

was run [Table 5.8]. This analysis shows that, as represented by the sampled individuals, the Neolithic period in central Greece is statistically different from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. This can be seen in the results of the Tukey as well as by the ellipses on the scatterplot [Figures 5.12-5.14]. The graphs indicate a less varied diet during the

Neolithic for these individuals, indicating lesser amounts of animal protein and plants.

Even though the diet is not significantly different between the Bronze Age and Iron Age, the scatterplot indicates that individuals from the Bronze Age had the most varied diet of

13 the three periods, by having a wider range of δ C values that indicate both C3 and C4 influences.

Table 5.7 One-way ANOVA for Central Greece Data

13 δ Ccollagen (n=203) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural 2 2.643503 1.32175 3.6184 0.0286 Period Error 200 73.056852 0.36528 C. Total 202 75.700355

δ15N (n=203) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural 2 31.64882 15.8244 11.3042 <.0001 Period Error 200 279.97330 1.3999 C. Total 202 311.62212

Table 5.8 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for Central Greece Data

13 δ Ccollagen (n=203) Level - Level Difference Std Err Lower Upper p-value Dif CL CL 3 IA 1 Neolithic 0.3192 0.1289 0.0147 0.6238 0.0375* 2 BA 1 Neolithic 0.2793 0.1146 0.0086 0.5499 0.0413* 3 IA 2 BA 0.0399 0.1001 -0.1964 0.2764 0.9159

δ15N (n=203) Level - Level Difference Std Err Lower Upper p-value Dif CL CL 3 IA 1 Neolithic 1.1874 0.2525 0.5912 1.7837 <.0001* 2 BA 1 Neolithic 0.8218 0.2243 0.2920 1.3516 0.0009* 3 IA 2 BA 0.3655 0.1960 -0.0972 0.8284 0.1516

Figure 5.12 Central Greece Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period

Figure 5.13 Central Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period

Figure 5.14 Scatterplot for Central Greece

All of Greece

As with the analysis above, an ANOVA and scatterplot were produced for this analysis. A statistically significant difference was identified for both the collagen and nitrogen data. Initially, the data were run considering just the broad cultural period. The results for this ANOVA and scatterplot can be seen in Table 5.9 and Figure 5.15. The

13 15 ANOVA for the δ Ccollagen and δ N values presents a slight trend over time from the

Neolithic period through to the Iron Age. This suggests a slight decrease in diet variability for the sampled individuals.

Table 5.9 One-way ANOVA by Cultural Period for All of Greece

13 δ Ccollagen (n=421) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural 2 12.65639 6.32819 7.4609 0.0007* Period Error 418 354.53808 0.84818 C. Total 420 367.19447

δ15N (n=415) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural 2 38.10014 19.0501 12.0947 <.0001* Period Error 412 648.93195 1.5751 C. Total 414 687.03209

Figure 5.15 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period

The presence of this trend is unexpected so further analysis was done. Following the ANOVA by broad cultural period, an ANOVA and scatterplot by broad cultural period and region was performed. The results of the one-way ANOVA and scatterplot can be seen in Table 5.10 and Figures 5.16-5.18. When separated by broad cultural period and region, the data remain statistically different. A Tukey post-hoc test was run to determine the specific differences within the data. The results of the Tukey are included in Table 5.11. As seen, the Central IA, Southern BA, Central BA, and Central

Neolithic group together. The Southern Neolithic is the factor that makes the data statistically significant. There is not much of a difference between the Southern Bronze 56

Age and Central Bronze Age or the Central Iron Age and Central Bronze Age. No difference is seen between the Central Iron Age and Southern Bronze Age data. These results then indicate that cultural period might not play as important a role in diet for these individuals as presumed, nor does the region within the country. The only exception to this is represented by the Southern Neolithic.

Table 5.10 One-way ANOVA for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region

13 δ Ccollagen (n=421) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Region & 4 13.88833 3.47208 4.0882 0.0029* Period Error 416 353.30614 0.84929 C. Total 420 367.19447

δ15N (n=415) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period 4 53.64050 13.4101 8.6805 <.0001* Error 410 633.39159 1.5449 C. Total 414 687.03209

Figure 5.16 All of Greece Boxplot for δ13C by Cultural Period and Region

Figure 5.17 All of Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period and Region

Table 5.11 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for All of Greece

13 δ Ccollagen (n=421) Level - Level Difference Std Err Lower Upper p-value Dif CL CL C IA S Neolithic 0.5538 0.1849 0.0472 1.0604 0.0242* S BA S Neolithic 0.5530 0.1529 0.1338 0.9721 0.0031* C BA S Neolithic 0.5138 0.1613 0.0716 0.9560 0.0135* C IA C Neolithic 0.3192 0.1966 -0.2195 0.8581 0.4832 S BA C Neolithic 0.3184 0.1670 -0.1390 0.7760 0.3152 C BA C Neolithic 0.2793 0.1747 -0.1994 0.7580 0.4993 C Neolithic S Neolithic 0.2345 0.2035 -0.3230 0.7921 0.7783 C IA C BA 0.0399 0.1526 -0.3783 0.4582 0.9990 S BA C BA 0.0391 0.1118 -0.2674 0.3457 0.9968 C IA S BA 0.0008 0.1437 -0.3930 0.3946 1.0000

The scatterplot [Figure 5.18] by broad cultural period shows how the periods relate overall; however, by running another scatterplot by the broad cultural period associated with region, a more detailed explanation is visible. This second scatterplot follows what is described in the Tukey post-hoc results and allows them to be visualized.

This plot shows how the isotopic values change relative to broad cultural periods and the corresponding regions. This plot aids in depicting the decrease in dietary variability within the Iron Age. One potential problem is that in this sample only two Iron Age sites were included, both from central Greece, so the existence of this trend will need to be explored in future research.

Figure 5.18 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region

Hypothesis 2 Results

Hypothesis 2 states that the carbon and nitrogen signatures will express a difference in diet between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic Tragana Agia Triada.

The results of hypothesis 2 are focused on Late Helladic Mitrou and TAT in order to determine if the presence of these two sites and their close proximity are indicative of a social divide.

LH Mitrou and LH TAT

A t-test was performed on the LH Mitrou and TAT data. The results can be seen

13 in Table 5.12. As is seen in Table 5.12, the p-value for δ Cap is .0156, indicating the apatite signatures are statistically different for the two sites. A Tukey post-hoc test was run to try to determine a specific difference. However, when examining the plot [Figure

5.19], the high values were introduced by Iezzi’s (2005) bone apatite samples. Bone apatite and dental apatite are different, so the samples were rerun without Iezzi’s four samples.

Table 5.12 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT

TAT-Mitrou Assuming equal variances 13 δ Ccollagen (n=23) Difference 0.31889 t Ratio 1.143201 Standard Error 0.27894 DF 21 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.89898 Prob > |t| 0.2658 Lower LC Diff -0.26121 Prob > t 0.1329 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8671

13 δ Cap (n=29) Difference 0.80466 t Ratio 2.579971 Standard Error 0.31189 DF 27 Diff Upper CL Diff 1.44461 Prob > |t| 0.0156* Lower LC Diff 0.16472 Prob > t 0.0078* Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.9922

δ15N (n=23) Difference 0.2547 t Ratio 0.487738 Standard Error 0.5222 DF 21 Diff Upper CL Diff 1.3406 Prob > |t| 0.6308 Lower LC Diff -0.8312 Prob > t 0.3154 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.6846

Figure 5.19 LH Mitrou and TAT Boxplot for δ 13C apatite

13 When the samples were analyzed excluding Iezzi’s samples, the δ Cap results were similar to the other results presented above. These results can be seen in Tables

5.13. Within the apatite data there was one outlier but, after looking at the box plot

[Figure 5.20], it is still within the overall range from Mitrou. The scatterplot [Figure

5.21] shows that TAT fits in the middle of the Mitrou data. The results from the statistical tests indicate a homogenous diet for the sampled individuals for both LH

Mitrou and TAT, thus rejecting the hypothesis.

Table 5.13 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated)

TAT-Mitrou_Separated Assuming equal variances 13 δ Ccollagen (n=19) Difference 0.34600 t Ratio 1.369857 Standard Error 0.25258 DF 17 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.87890 Prob > |t| 0.1886 Lower LC Diff -0.18690 Prob > t 0.0943 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.9057

13 δ Cap (n=25) Difference 0.13646 t Ratio 0.749611 Standard Error 0.18204 DF 23 Diff Upper CL Diff 0.51303 Prob > |t| 0.4611 Lower LC Diff -0.24012 Prob > t 0.2305 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.7695

δ15N (n=19) Difference 0.2876 t Ratio 0.425144 Standard Error 0.6764 DF 17 Diff Upper CL Diff 1.7147 Prob > |t| 0.6761 Lower LC Diff -1.1395 Prob > t 0.3380 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.6620

Figure 5.20 LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) Boxplot δ 13C apatite

Figure 5.21 Scatterplot for LH Mitrou and TAT 64

Hypothesis 3 Results

Hypothesis 3 focuses on the burial styles and states that these variables will correlate with similar dietary isotopic signature ranges. This hypothesis examines the three main burial styles from Mitrou and TAT in order to examine whether different isotopic signatures correlate with the different burial types.

Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT

13 15 A MANOVA test was run on the δ Ccollagen and δ N data for Mitrou and TAT, with no regard to time period. This test, Tables 5.14 and 5.15, shows that the collagen

13 and nitrogen values correlate similarly with burial style. The δ Ccollagen mean values for the three burial styles are all very similar, almost identical. There is a slight decrease in

δ15N for the pit burials. This relationship can be seen in Figure 5.22. Figure 5.22 shows the degree of similarity between the isotopic values and the corresponding burial styles; the cists and chamber tombs cannot be differentiated in the plot. Even though Figure

5.22 shows a differentiation of the pit burials, Table 5.15 indicates no statistically significant differences in isotopic ranges between the burial styles.

Table 5.14 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT

13 15 Burial Style δ Ccollagen δ N Chamber tomb -19.43875 9.55125 Cist -19.532222 9.01222222 Pit -19.548 8.096

Table 5.15 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT

Test Value Exact F NumDF DenDF Prob>F F Test 0.2615553 2.4848 2 19 0.1100 Univar unadj 1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100 Epsilon Univar G-G 1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100 Epsilon Univar H-F 1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100 Epsilon

Figure 5.22 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou and TAT

Burial Style at Mitrou

A second MANOVA was produced that excluded the TAT burials in order to analyze only the burials on Mitrou. This analysis was performed to determine if any differences occurred when just considering the Mitrou burials.

This test, with results shown in Tables 5.16 and 5.17, demonstrates that the collagen and nitrogen values correlate similarly with the burial styles. The mean

13 δ Ccollagen values for the three burial styles are almost identical. As with the previous

analysis, there is a slight decrease in δ15N for the pit burials. Table 5.17 indicates that there is a statistically significant difference between the isotope values and burial style.

This is supported in Figure 5.23.

Table 5.16 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou

13 15 Burial Style δ Ccollagen δ N Chamber tomb -19.73 9.84666667 Cist -19.532222 9.01222222 Pit -19.548 8.096

Table 5.17 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou

Test Value Exact F NumDF DenDF Prob>F F Test 0.5454807 3.8184 2 14 0.0475* Univar unadj 1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475* Epsilon Univar G-G 1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475* Epsilon Univar H-F 1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475* Epsilon

Figure 5.23 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou

Since the results of the MANOVA were significant, two standard follow-up analyses were performed. The ANOVA [Tables 5.18] for carbon and nitrogen provide non-significant results. The discriminant function analysis [Table 5.19] correctly classified 71% of the burial styles by isotopic value. The accuracy of this percentage is supported by the pattern visible in Figure 5.24. Table 5.19 illustrates that of the three chamber tombs, one was misclassified as a pit burial. Of the nine cist graves, one was misclassified as a chamber tomb and one was misclassified as a pit burial. Of the five pit burials, two were misclassified as cist graves. Figure 5.24 illustrates the placement of burial types along two axes for carbon and nitrogen. As stated from the other analyses, the nitrogen values are driving the pattern that is seen. While the follow-up ANOVA did not indicate a significant difference, the DFA supports the hypothesis that isotope values by burial style do form a pattern that indicates a difference between isotopic signatures and burials. The results of the DFA suggest that isotopic values can differ by burial

styles, which could potentially be used to understand more about social status in prehistoric Greece.

Table 5.18 Follow-up ANOVA for Burial Style at Mitrou

13 δ Ccollagen Source DF Sum of Mean F Ratio Prob > F Squares Square Burial Style 2 0.0920115 0.046006 0.1547 0.8581 Error 14 4.1628356 0.297345 C. Total 16 4.2548471

δ15N Source DF Sum of Mean F Ratio Prob > F Squares Square Burial Style 2 6.032258 3.01613 2.7641 0.0973 Error 14 15.276542 1.09118 C. Total 16 21.308800

Table 5.19 Follow-up Discriminant Function Analysis for Burial Style at Mitrou

Score Summaries Source Count # % Entropy -2LogLikelihood Misclassified Misclassified RSquare Training 17 5 29.4118 0.14628 29.106

Actual Predicted Burial Chamber Cist Pit Style tomb Chamber 2 0 1 tomb Cist 1 7 1 Pit 0 2 3

Groups Burial Count Style Chamber 3 tomb Cist 9 Pit 5 69

Figure 5.24 Discriminant Function Analysis Plot for Burial Style at Mitrou

CHAPTER VI

DISCUSSION

Hypothesis 1

Overall, the time periods represented at Mitrou by the sampled individuals indicate a homogenous diet of C3 plant protein. Statistically, there is no significant difference in the diet throughout the Bronze Age at Mitrou or between the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Sample size could be an issue since there are only three samples from the early Bronze periods and three samples from the Early Iron Age. However, when comparing other sites, this trend tends to be normal for the time period and region (see comparative data and analysis). When examining the raw data a few differences in the isotopic values can be seen. These differences in values are slight and limited in occurrence, thus explaining why there is no significant difference statistically. All of the

Mitrou samples, except one sample and regardless of time period, fall within the range of

13 δ Ccollagen -20.64‰ to -19.00‰, thus reflecting a C3 plant-based diet. The one exception,

13 sample 1327, has a δ Ccollagen value of -18.87‰. This less negative value could indicate that the individual had possibly incorporated C4 plants in their diet or, more likely, because of an increased intake of animal products, had a more enriched C3 value. This incorporation could be due to the consumption of C4 plants, such as millet or, the consumption of animals that feed on C4 plants (Iezzi, 2015; Papathanasiou, 2015).

For this analysis, three range categories for δ15N values were used, adapted from

Petroutsa and Manolis (2010) and Papathanasiou et al. (2009), in order to understand the meanings of the isotopic signatures. Values of around 4 to5‰ indicate that all protein in the diet is from plants, 6 to 8‰ indicates that the diet is primarily based on plant protein, and 9 to 10‰ indicates that some animal protein was included in the diet. While these values are close together, trophic levels typically increase by 2 to 3‰ (Bethard, 2013).

When applying these ranges, two Iron Age samples and nine Bronze Age samples fall into the category representing a diet that was primarily based on plant protein. One Iron

Age sample and eight Bronze Age samples suggest a diet that included animal protein.

Based on the δ15N data from Mitrou, the diet is evenly distributed between both the time periods and the consumption of plant and animal protein.

Within the δ15N data, there are some discrepancies. Two of the individuals, samples 1307 and 1308, are 3 to 5 and 1 to 2 years of age. Given these ages and the elevated δ15N values, weaning and its effects must be considered. Weaning is sometimes thought of as a single moment in time when a child no longer requires breast milk; however, in reality weaning is a gradual process of introducing solid foods to an infant’s diet, which can occur for months or even years (Davies and O’Hare, 2004). This is why, archaeologically, individuals from birth to around five years of age are considered to have isotopic effects from weaning. Infants that are breastfeeding will have isotopic values one trophic level higher than their mother, generally 2 to 3‰ higher (Fuller et al.,

2006a; Fuller et al., 2006b). Once weaning begins, the δ15N levels begin to drop because the solid food will have less protein than breast milk. When a child is completely weaned, the δ15N values should match the mother’s δ15N values (Fuller et al., 2006a;

Fuller et al., 2006b). Judging by the δ15N values of these two individuals compared with the standard δ15N values from Mitrou, it can be assumed that these two individuals were still being breastfed.

As is seen in the results and data, no significant difference occurs between the sampled individuals from the entire Bronze Age (all periods) and the Early Iron Age.

The box plots assist in showing that both time periods have similar values indicating no difference in diet. However, to obtain more representative results, more Iron Age samples need to be analyzed in future work. In this study, only three samples were

13 15 analyzed for δ Ccollagen and δ N, and this small sample size limits the representativeness of the results for communities living during this time period. Eight samples were

13 analyzed for δ Cap and results from this analysis provide similar results, indicating that the diet was homogenous through the transition. Future work employing more samples would allow better interpretation of this result.

Central Greece Comparison

The first part of the comparative study focused on archaeological sites in central

13 Greece. Dietary differences were found and are discussed here. The δ Ccollagen ANOVA shows an increase in isotopic values from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age with a very slight decrease for the Iron Age. However, BA to IA is not significantly different, possibly due to the difference in sample size between the two periods. The scatterplot indicates that the BA had the most varied diet of the three periods. The BA has some potential instances of consumption of C4 in the diet, which is supported by data shown in the scatterplot, specifically the presence of several outliers outside of the ellipses.

15 13 The δ N ANOVA shows similar results as the δ Ccollagen. In the Neolithic, sampled individuals appear to be eating mostly plant protein with some animal protein and those in the BA and IA appear to be consuming more animal protein. This δ15N analysis suggests that the dietary difference is not exactly the result of what these individuals were eating but rather the quantity of the consumed foods.

13 The δ Ccollagen results indicate the existence of a C3 plant based diet for the three periods with a few samples indicating C4 consumption by these individuals. As with the

δ15N results, it seems that the type of foods that the individuals were eating was not different but the amount consumed varied. This is supported by the plot and ellipses that show a less varied diet for the Neolithic compared with the BA and IA.

All of Greece Comparison

This second part of the comparative study brought more interesting results.

Initially the data were analyzed by period, as was done with the central Greece data. The

13 δ Ccollagen ANOVA by period shows a decrease in variability from the Neolithic to the

IA, with the Neolithic having the most varied diet. This is intriguing, since the results for

13 central Greece alone suggested the exact opposite. For δ Ccollagen, the individuals from the Neolithic and BA mostly consumed a C3 plant based diet, however individuals from the two periods do have several values indicating there was some potential consumption of C4 plants. The IA data suggest that only C3 plants were consumed.

The δ15N values are continuous with what was seen in central Greece, with the exception that the three periods are all statistically different from one another. The box plots show that BA individuals ate a wider variety of plant and animal protein than those from the Neolithic and IA. 74

When analyzing these data by period alone generated more questions than answers, they were further divided by period and region. The results of this additional analysis provide a more clear understanding of diet throughout Greece from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age as represented by the sampled individuals. A post-hoc test showed that individuals from the southern Neolithic period represent the source of significant differences in the data. This helps to explain why the results of this ANOVA were so

13 different from those of the ANOVA for central Greece. When examining the δ Ccollagen

ANOVA, a vast difference is seen between individuals from the central Neolithic and the southern Neolithic, suggesting that individuals from the southern Neolithic had access to a greater variety of C3 and C4 plants. The central and southern BA values are fairly equal and indicate a C3 plant based diet with minimal C4 consumption in these individuals.

Unfortunately there were no southern IA sites to compare with the central IA data. The

δ15N ANOVA shows that values from the central BA and IA are similar and thus indicate a plant and animal protein consumption for these individuals. In future work, more IA studies need to be performed, especially for southern Greece, to understand better if diet does indeed stay consistent over time.

Hypothesis 2

This hypothesis examined LH Mitrou and TAT. Like hypothesis 1, overall the samples suggest a homogenous C3 based diet. All of the TAT samples, excluding one

13 sample, fall within the range of δ Ccollagen -20.00‰ to -19.09‰, indicating a C3 plant-

13 based diet. The exception, sample Tr4 from Iezzi’s (2005) data, has a δ Ccollagen value of

-17.4‰. This value, with an even less negative value than that from the single Mitrou individual, suggests that the individual consumed C4 plants or that they had enriched C3 75

values due to eating more animal products. When the comparative faunal data are

13 included, the isotopic analysis of the dog reveals a C4 diet as well with a δ Ccollagen value of -18.25‰. The isotopic value from the dog can be compared to the human values because both animals and humans would have consumed the same animal protein source

(Papathanasiou, 2015). That the three samples indicate some C4 plants were being consumed suggests that those plants were available but either were not eaten often or were not found in abundance. A botanical report from Mitrou is forthcoming from

Angeliki Karathanou and will hopefully identify specific plants and expand upon these isotopic results.

13 Both the data analyzed here and Iezzi’s (2005) TAT data contain δ Cap values and the statistical tests showed that there was a statistical difference in the isotopic values. The post-hoc test revealed that the cause for the difference were the values of the samples from Iezzi. A clear explanation for this major difference in values is that Iezzi

13 13 analyzed δ Cap from bone while here, δ Cap from dental enamel was analyzed.

Comparison of apatite from enamel and bone can be useful to examine diet from childhood to adulthood because of remodeling rates (Bethard, 2012). Unfortunately, this comparison could not be done here because the samples analyzed were not from the same individual. While samples were chosen by placement in the same tombs, due to commingling of remains it was not possible to determine the individuals sampled.

The δ15N value range for TAT is 8.05‰ to 10.75‰ and the range for samples from LH Mitrou is the same as above, 6.93‰ to 11.42‰. Following the same δ15N categories as described above, three TAT samples and six of the LH Mitrou samples indicate a diet primarily based on plant protein. The isotopic signatures from the four

analyzed pigs support this result. Three of the pigs fall within the first δ15N category, indicating all dietary protein was from plants. The remaining pig values are in the second category, indicating a diet primarily based on plant protein. The isotopic signatures from the pigs can be used in comparison with the human values because herbivore values represent the values of the animal protein that was consumed by humans, as well as the value of the plants, which they were fed (Papathanasiou, 2015). Six TAT samples and the other seven LH Mitrou samples suggest a diet with animal protein. From examining these numbers, it appears that some TAT and LH Mitrou individuals might have consumed slightly more animal protein, but the difference is not statistically significant.

Overall, the diet of LH Mitrou and TAT was made up of plant protein but with some evidence of consumption of animal protein, either from the meat directly or from byproducts such as milk and cheese.

Hypothesis 3

13 The δ Ccollagen values for the three burial forms are all very similar. However, the one sample from Mitrou that suggests a C4 influence represents one of the individuals from the monumental built chamber tomb on the island. It is intriguing that the only individual with a C4 value was buried in what is considered to be the elite tomb at Mitrou.

However, the other two samples from that tomb suggested a C3 diet similar to the other burials on the island. Additionally, the chamber tombs of TAT did not reveal any significant dietary changes from the other kinds of burials.

The δ15N values provide slightly more information with regard to difference in the burial styles. While statistically there is no significant difference between the burial styles of Mitrou and TAT, when considering the δ15N categories there is a slight decrease 77

in δ15N for the pit burials. When examining the DFA plot a pattern is evident, and as stated above, this trend is driven by the nitrogen values. In the DFA plot, from left to right, the burials are ordered by pit, cist, and chamber tomb. Even though there are a few burials that were misclassified in the analysis, a pattern does exist and indicates that burial styles could be influenced by diet and social status. Social status is related to diet.

Elite members of society have access to a wider variety of foods, therefore a correlation should exist between dietary signatures and burial style. It is sometimes agreed that pit burials were indicative of members of a low social strata, which supports these results, however this is very subjective (Lewartowski, 2000). More analyses examining this relationship need to be done in order to determine if the pattern seen here exists at other sites. If so, this type of analysis could be an additional way to analyze social status of burials. Overall though, statistically the results indicate a homogenous diet, regardless of burial style.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

Studies are conducted continuously throughout the Aegean that examine the diets of communities in prehistoric Greece. However, most of these studies have been done in the southern portion of the country, providing little information about past diets in the central and northern portions. In response, isotopic research in central Greece is growing and more studies are beginning to be published. This study contributes to this emergent body of scholarship, specifically by examining the diet of past communities at Mitrou and

TAT and the similarities or differences that existed between them.

As stated before, the research questions for this thesis are: 1) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, change over time during the occupied periods at Mitrou, particularly from the BA to EIA? 1a) If so, what were those changes at Mitrou? 2) Is there a difference in isotopic values between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic

TAT? 3) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, correlate with burial style and social status?

To answer these research questions, stable isotopic analyses of carbon and nitrogen were performed. Overall, the isotopic results suggest a homogenous C3 plant protein based diet in the sampled individuals, with some inclusion of animal protein. In this study there was no indication of marine consumption, regardless of the close proximity of the sites to the Euboean Gulf. Throughout the Bronze Age and into the Iron

Age there were no statistically significant dietary changes at Mitrou, based on the sampled individuals. The same results appear from examination of LH Mitrou and LH

TAT.

When comparing Neolithic, BA, and IA sites throughout all of central Greece, the isotopic values from Mitrou and TAT fit well within the regional signature, reported in other publications (see Appendix). Based on the collective results of these analyses, the past communities of central Greece appear to have consumed a C3 plant based diet with a few samples indicating possible consumption of C4 plants. Overall, it seems that the composition of these individuals’ diets were not different but the amount of these contributions consumed did differ. Through examination of other published isotopic analyses from central and southern Greece, and comparison of those results to those presented here, this study was able to examine the diet of communities from prehistoric

Greece employing a much larger sample size than is commonly found in the literature for prehistoric Greece. Importantly, this larger sample size allowed for better comparisons to be made, while also showing where further research is needed, such as for communities from the southern Greek Iron Age. Further, this analysis demonstrated that the diet of sampled communities from the southern Neolithic was statistically different from that of other periods and regions, suggesting that these communities had access to a wider variety of C3 and C4 plants. The central and southern BA values are fairly equal and indicate a C3 based diet, with plant and animal protein consumption, and with minimal C4 consumption.

The results of this thesis help contextualize cultural changes in a society. It is mostly observed and assumed that when a controlling power ceases to exist, society

should change due to fewer restrictions. This is the general hypothesis for dietary studies focusing on the Bronze and Early Iron Ages of prehistoric Greece. This thesis demonstrates that not all settlements of prehistoric Greece followed this general trend of increasing dietary variability once the main power source was removed. When applied to broader discussions of societal change, the results of this thesis suggest that, even when a significant societal collapse or change occurs, diet is not always significantly influenced.

Overall, as represented by the sampled individuals, this study shows that diet at

Mitrou and TAT did not change during the Bronze Age and Iron Age transition, nor was diet significantly different between the sites or between burial styles.

REFERENCES

Ambrose SH, Buikstra J, Krueger HW. 2003. Status and gender differences in diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, revealed by isotopic analysis of bone. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:217-226.

Ambrose SH. 1990. Preparation and Characterization of Bone and Tooth Collagen for Isotopic Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 17:431-451.

Aravantinos V, Psaraki K. 2010. The Middle Helladic Cemeteries of Thebes. General Review and Remarks in the Light of New Investigations and Finds. In: A Philippa- Touchais, G Touchais, S Voutsaki, and J Wright (éds.), MESOHELLADIKA: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age. 377-395.

Bethard J. 2012. Isotopes. In: EA DiGangi and MK Moore, eds. Research Methods in Human Skeletal Biology. Academic Press. 425-448.

Bogaard A, Outram AK. 2013. Palaeodiet and beyond: stable isotopes in bioarchaeology. World Archaeology 45:333–337.

Davies DP, O’Hare B. 2004. Weaning: a worry as old as time. Current Paediatrics 14.2:83-96.

De Gregory J.R. 2012. Dental microwear and diet change during the Greek Bronze and Iron Age in Coastal East Lokris, Greece. Master’s Thesis; Mississippi State University. 1-102.

Dupras TL, Schwarcz HP. 2001. Strangers in a Strange Land: Stable Isotope Evidence for Human Migration in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:1199–1208.

Faure G, Mensing T. 2005. Isotopes: Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Field A, Miles J, and Field Z. 2012. Discovering Statistics Using R. Sage Publications Ltd.

Fossey J. M. 1990. The Ancient Topography of Opountian Lokris. Gieben.

Fuller B, Fuller J, Harris D, Hedges R. 2006a. Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 129.2:279-293.

Fuller B, Molleson T, Harris D, Gilmour L, Hedges R. 2006b. Isotopic Evidence for Breastfeeding and Possible Adult Dietary Differences from Late/Sub‐Roman Britain. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 129.1:45-54.

Galaty M, Parkinson W. 2007. Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces II. Vol. 60. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology.

Garvie-Lok SJ. 2009. Population Mobility at Frankish Corinth: Evidence from Stable Oxygen Isotope Ratios of Tooth Enamel. Hesperia Supplements 43:245–256.

Hale C. 2015. The Middle Helladic Ceramic Sequence at Mitrou, East Lokris: A Diachronic Quantitative Analysis and the Implications for Inter- and Intra-regional Interaction in Central Greece during the Middle Bronze Age. Ph.D. Dissertation; University of Melbourne, Australia.

Hedges RE, Reynard LM. 2007. Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:1240-1251.

Iezzi CA. 2005. Regional differences in the health status of late Bronze Age Mycenaean populations from East Lokris, Greece. Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.

Iezzi CA. 2015. Existence and Subsistence in Mycenaean-Era East Lokris: The Isotopic Evidence. Hesperia Supplements, Archaeodiet in the Greek World 49:89-104.

Ingvarsson-Sundstrom A, Voutsaki S, Milka E. 2013. Diet, health and social differentiation in Middle Helladic Asine. In: Voutsaki, S. and Valamoti, S.-M. (eds) Diet, economy and society in the ancient Greek world. 149-161.

Keenleyside A, Schwarcz H, Panayotova K. 2006. Stable isotopic evidence of diet in a Greek colonial population from the Black Sea. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1205–1215.

Kramer-Hajós MT. 2008. Beyond the Palace: Mycenaean East Lokris. British Archaeological Reports Limited 1781.

Kramer-Hajós MT, O’Neill K. 2008. The Bronze Age Site of Mitrou in East Lokris: Finds from the 1988-1989 Surface Survey. Hesperia 77:163-250.

Krueger H, Sullvan C. 1984. Models for Carbon Isotope Fractionation between Diet and Bone. ACS Symposium Series 258: Stable Isotopes in Nutrition: 205-220.

Larsen CS. 1999. Isotopic and Elemental Signatures of Diet and Nutrition. In: Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human skeleton. Cambridge University Press.

Lemos I. 2002. The Protogeometric Aegean: The Archaeology of the Late Eleventh and Tenth Centuries BC.

Lewartowski K. 2000. Late Helladic Simple Graves: a study of Mycenaean burial customs. British Archaeological Reports 878:1-140.

Manolagas S. 2000. Birth and death of bone cells: basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. Endocrine Reviews 21:115-137.

Maran J. 1995. Structural Changes in Settlement during the Shaft Grave Period. In Politeia 68.

Milka E. 2010. Burials upon the Ruins of Abandoned Houses in the Middle Helladic Argolid. A Philippa-Touchais, G Touchais, S Voutsaki, and J Wright (éds.), MESOHELLADIKA: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age 347-355.

Morris I. 1989. Burial and Ancient Society: the rise of the Greek city-state. Cambridge University Press.

Morris I, Powell B. 2010. The Greeks: history, culture, and society. Pearson College Division.

O’Connell TC, Kneale CJ, Tasevska N, Kuhnle GGC. 2012. The Diet-Body Offset in Human Nitrogen Isotopic Values: A Controlled Dietary Study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 149:426-434.

Papadimitriou N. 2010. Attica in the Middle Helladic Period. In: A Philippa-Touchais, G Touchais, S Voutsaki, and J Wright (éds.), MESOHELLADIKA: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age 243-257.

Papathanasiou A. 2001. A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave, Greece (Vol. 961). British Archaeological Reports Ltd.

Papathanasiou A. 2005. Health status of the Neolithic population of Alepotrypa Cave, Greece. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 126:377-390.

Papathanasiou A. 2015. Stable Isotope Analyses in Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece: An Overview. Hesperia Supplements, Archaeodiet in the Greek World: Dietary Reconstruction from Stable Isotope Analysis 49:25-55.

Papathanasiou A, Fox S. 2015. Introduction. Hesperia Supplements, Archaeodiet in the Greek World: Dietary Reconstruction from Stable Isotope Analysis 49:1-13.

Papathanasiou A, Larsen CS, Norr L. 2000. Bioarchaeological inferences from a Neolithic ossuary from Alepotrypa cave, Diros, Greece. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10.3: 210-228.

Papathanasiou A, Zachou E, Richards MP. 2009. Bioarchaeological Analysis of the Human Osteological Material from Proskynas, Lokris. Hesperia Supplements, New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece 43:223–233.

Pedley J. 2007. Greek Art and Archaeology. Pearson Higher Ed.

Petroutsa E, Manolis S. 2010. Reconstructing Late Bronze Age Diet in Mainland Greece Using Stable Isotope Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 37:614-620.

Phialon L. 2010. Funerary Practices in Central Greece from the Middle Helladic into the Early Mycenaean Period. In: A Philippa-Touchais, G Touchais, S Voutsaki, and J Wright (éds.), MESOHELLADIKA: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age 397-402.

Price TD, Burton JH, Bentley RA. 2002. The Characterization of Biologically Available Strontium Isotope Ratios for the Study of Prehistoric Migration. Archaeometry 44:117–135.

Pullen D. 2010. Political economies of the Aegean Bronze Age. Oxbow Books.

Richards MP, Hedges RE. 1999. Stable isotope evidence for similarities in the types of marine foods used by Late Mesolithic humans at sites along the Atlantic coast of Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 26:717-722.

Richards MP, Hedges RE. 2008. Stable isotope evidence of past human diet at the sites of the Neolithic cave of Gerani; the Late Minoan III cemetery of Armenoi; Grave Circles A and B at the Palace Site of Mycenae; and Late Helladic Chamber Tombs. In: Archaeology Meets Science: Biomolecular Investigations in Bronze Age Greece. Oxbow Books.

Rutter J. 1993. Review of Aegean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. American Journal of Archaeology 97(4):745-797.

Schepartz LA, Papathanasiou A, Miller-Antonio S, Stocker SR, Davis JL, Murphy JMA, Malapani E, Richards M. 2013. No Seat at the Table? Mycenaean Women's Diet and Health in Pylos, Greece. Anthropology a la Carte.

Sharp Z. 2007. Principles of stable isotope geochemistry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson education.

Szostek K, Stephanczak B, Szczepanek A, Kepa M, Glab H, Jarosz P, Wlodarczak P, Tunia K, Pawlyta J, Paluszkiewicz C, Tylko G. 2011. Diagenetic signals from ancient human remains – bioarchaeological applications. Mineralogia 42:93-112.

Tartaron TF. 2008. Aegean prehistory as world archaeology: recent trends in the archaeology of Bronze Age Greece. Journal of Archaeological Research 16:83-161.

Triantaphyllou S, Richards MP, Zerner C, Voutsaki S. 2008. Isotopic dietary reconstruction of humans from Middle Bronze age Lerna, Argolid, Greece. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35:3028-3034.

Turner BL, Kamenov GD, Kingston JD, Armelagos GJ. 2009. Insights into immigration and social class at Machu Picchu, Peru based on oxygen, strontium, and lead isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:317-332.

Turner BL. 2008. The servants of Machu Picchu: Life histories and population dynamics in Late Horizon Peru. Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, Atlanta, GA.

Van de Moortel A. 2007. The Site of Mitrou and East Lokris in “Homeric Times”. Proceedings of the 11th international Aegean Conference, organized by the University of Liège and UCLA, Los Angeles.

Van de Moortel A, Zahou E. 2005. 2004 Excavations at Mitrou, East Lokris. In: Aegean Archaeology 7:39–48.

Van de Moortel A, Zahou E. 2012. Five Years of Archaeological Excavation at the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Site of Mitrou, East Lokris (2004-2008). Preliminary Results, in A. Mazarakis Ainian and A. Doulgeri-Intzesioglou (eds.), 3rd Archaeological Meeting of Thessaly and Central Greece 2006-2008. From Prehistory to the Contemporary Period (Volos) 1131-1146.

Van der Merwe N, Vogel J. 1978. 13C Content of human collagen as a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America. Nature 1:815-816.

Vitale, S. 2008. Ritual Drinking and Eating at LH IIIA:2 Early Mitrou, East Lokris. Evidence for Mycenaean Feasting Activities? In L. Hitchcock and R. Laffineur (eds), DAIS. Proceedings of the 12th International Aegean Conference, organized by the University of Liège and the University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia, April 2008 (Liège) 229-237, pls. XL-XLVIII.

Voutsaki S, Triantaphyllou S, Ingvarsson-Sundström A, Sarri K, Richards MP, Nijboer AJ, Kouidou-Andreou S, Kovatsi L, Nikou D, Milka E. 2010. Project on the Middle Helladic Argolid: a report on the 2006 season. Pharos XIV: 59-99.

Voutsaki S. 2010. From the Kinship Economy to the Palatial Economy: The Argolid in the Second Millennium BC. Political Economies of the Aegean Bronze Age: Papers from the Langford Conference, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 22–24 February 2007.

Wright J. 2006. The Formation of the Mycenaean Palace. In: Ancient Greece: From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer, edited by Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos, Edinburgh Leventis Studies 3, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 7-52.

Zavadil M. 2010. The Peloponnese in the Middle Bronze Age: An Overview. In: A Philippa-Touchais, G Touchais, S Voutsaki, and J Wright (éds.), MESOHELLADIKA: The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age 151-163.

STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS SAMPLES PER SITE

Table A.1 Mitrou Thesis Samples

13 13 13 13 15 Grave Burial δ Ccollagen/ δ Capatite UGAMS UCSC # Burial Cultural δ C δ C δ N C:N 15 δ N Sample # # Style Period collagen apatite Ratio Sample # 6 9 1301 1201 22418 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -19.44 -12.5 8.71 3.2 201 10 13 1302 1202 22419 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -19.92 -13.16 8.01 3.22 202 15 20 1304 1204 22420 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -20.64 -12.17 8.8 3.57 204 22 28 1305 1205 22421 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -19.7 -12.23 9.2 3.22 205 22 28 1206 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -12.08 206 89 23 27 1307 1207 22422 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -19.32 -13.62 9.13 3.24

207 24 29 1308 22423 Disturbed LH -19.24 10.93 3.6

25 30 1309 1209 22424 Mitrou_Human_1 Pit LH -20.15 -13.32 6.93 3.17 209 29 33 1211 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -11.78 211 31 32 1313 1213 22425 Mitrou_Human_1 Pit LH -18.77 -12.48 8.77 3.3 213 33 34 1214 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -13.45 214 41 44 1315 1215 22427 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist Early -19.26 -12.82 8.93 3.22 215

Table A.1 (continued)

42 49 1216 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -12.9 216 48 51 1217 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist PG -12.57 217 50 53 1218 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -12.89 218 - 52 1319 1219 22428 Mitrou_Human_1 Pit LH -19.49 -12.93 7.76 3.22 219 55 56 1220 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -12.96 220 55 56 1221 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -11.8 221 56 57 1322 1222 22429 Mitrou_Human_1 Pithos LH -19.83 -13.11 8.42 3.2 222 90 65 64 1223 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -12.97

223 66 66 1324 1224 22430 Mitrou_Human_1 Cist LH -19.31 -12.49 9.13 3.29 224 73 74 1325 1225 22431 Mitrou_Human_1 Chamber LH -20.27 -12.9 11.42 3.12 225 tomb 73 74 1326 1226 22432 Mitrou_Human_1 Chamber LH -20.05 -13.29 7.15 3.25 226 tomb 73 74 1327 1227 22433 Mitrou_Human_1 Chamber LH -18.87 -12.73 10.97 3.42 227 tomb 74 76 1328 1228 22434 Mitrou_Human_1 Context LH -19.81 -13.11 9.25 3.27 228 unknown 74 77 1329 1229 22435 Mitrou_Human_1 Context LH -19.59 -12.56 8.75 3.2 229 unknown

Table A.1 (continued)

Β360602 Cist Early -19 9.4

Β360604 Pit Early -19.5 8.6

Β361289 Cist LH -19.2 9.8

Grave 33 Burial 34 was analyzed for δ13Ccollagen but due to the extremely high C:N ratio (37.82) it was excluded from analysis. The last three Mitrou samples in this table were obtained from Dr. Nicholas Herrmann through personal communication. Apatite samples for Mitrou originated from tooth enamel.

Table A.2 TAT Thesis Samples

13 13 13 13 15 Grave δ Ccollagen/ δ Capatite Iezzi UGAMS # UCSC # Burial Cultural δ C δ C δ N C:N 15 δ N Sample # Sample # Style Period collagen apatite Ratio Sample # Tomb VI 1332 1232 22441 TAT_Human_1232 Chamber LH -19.57 -12.68 10.75 3.24 tomb Tomb I 1337 1237 22442 TAT_Human_1237 Chamber LH -19.4 -12.7 10.23 3.25 tomb Tomb I 1340 1240 22443 TAT_Human_1240 Chamber LH -19.14 -11.89 8.05 3.09 tomb Tomb III 1241 TAT_Human_1241 Chamber LH -12.51 tomb Tomb V 1244 TAT_Human_1244 Chamber LH -12.74 tomb 92 Tomb V 1347 1247 22444 TAT_Human_1247 Chamber LH -19.09 -12.57 9.05 3.08 tomb Tomb 1249 TAT_Human_1249 Chamber LH -13.12 VII tomb Tomb 1350 1250 22445 TAT_Human_1250 Chamber LH -19.12 -12.73 8.79 3.08 VII tomb Tomb 1251 TAT_Human_1251 Chamber LH -13.33 VII tomb Tomb I Tr1 Chamber LH -20 -10.8 9.2 tomb Tomb I Tr2 Chamber LH -19.9 -10.5 9.5 tomb Tomb III Tr3 Chamber LH -20 -11.2 10.4 tomb

Table A.2 (continued)

Tomb III Tr4 Chamber LH -17.4 -9.6 8.1 tomb The last four TAT samples come from Iezzi 2005 and 2015. The apatite samples from Iezzi originated from bone, while the remaining apatite samples for TAT originated from tooth enamel.

Table A.3 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Petroutsa and Manolis 2010

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Greece Period Cultural Ratio Period Aghia SAE01 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.3 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE02 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.3 6.1 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE03 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -21.5 6.8 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE04 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.6 7.1 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE05 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.3 3.2 Triada commingled burials 94 Aghia SAE06 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20 6.8 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE07 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.3 7.8 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE08 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.4 7.4 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE09 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE10 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -18.1 8.1 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE11 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.3 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE12 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -18.6 6.1 3.3 Triada commingled burials

Table A.3 (continued)

Aghia SAE13 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 6.6 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE14 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.2 7.9 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE15 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.1 7.3 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE16 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7.5 3.4 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE17 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -21.7 7.4 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE19 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.4 7.6 3.1 Triada commingled burials

95 Aghia SAE20 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.3 8 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE21 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.4 7.8 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE22 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.1 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE23 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.5 7 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE24 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.5 7.1 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE26 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -21.7 6.5 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE27 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.9 7 3.4 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE28 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.8 6.2 3.1 Triada commingled burials

Table A.3 (continued)

Aghia SAE29 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.9 6.5 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE31 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.7 6.7 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE33 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.4 7.2 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE34 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -22.5 6.4 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE35 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.5 7.5 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE36 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.5 3.2 Triada commingled burials

96 Aghia SAE37 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.9 7.9 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE38 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 6.9 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE39 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20 6.9 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE40 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20 6.4 3.6 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE41 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.8 7.1 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE43 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 6.6 3.6 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE44 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.1 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE45 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.1 3.2 Triada commingled burials

Table A.3 (continued)

Aghia SAE46 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.6 7 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE47 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7.9 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE48 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 6.4 3.4 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE49 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 6.5 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE50 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.8 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE51 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -21.4 6.8 3.3 Triada commingled burials

97 Aghia SAE53 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.9 6.7 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE54 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -21.9 7.7 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE56 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20.1 7.7 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE57 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.7 7.7 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE58 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE59 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.4 7.3 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE60 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.4 7.5 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE61 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20 7.5 3.1 Triada commingled burials

Table A.3 (continued)

Aghia SAE62 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7.9 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE63 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.6 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE64 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7 3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE65 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -20 7.1 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE68 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.6 7.4 3.2 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE69 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.6 3.3 Triada commingled burials

98 Aghia SAE70 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 8.6 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE72 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.9 8 3.4 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE73 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -17.8 8.1 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE74 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.3 3.1 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE75 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.5 7.2 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE76 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.2 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE77 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 6.3 3.4 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE78 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.4 7.3 3.2 Triada commingled burials

Table A.3 (continued)

Aghia SAE79 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.9 7.4 3.3 Triada commingled burials Aghia SAE80 Southern tholos tombs with LH 2 BA -19.8 7.7 3.3 Triada commingled burials Zeli ZL01 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.6 8.1 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL02 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.8 7.3 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL03 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.7 8.1 3.4 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL04 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.4 8.5 3.3 - LHIIIC

99 Zeli ZL05 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.8 8.5 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL06 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -20 9.7 3.4 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL07 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -20.1 8.2 3.5 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL08 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.7 9.1 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL09 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.3 8.6 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL10 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.8 9.6 3.5 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL11 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.7 8.7 3.4 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL12 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.5 8.8 3.3 - LHIIIC

Table A.3 (continued)

Zeli ZL13 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.4 8.2 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL14 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -20 7.7 3.4 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL15 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.5 7.7 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL16 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.7 8.5 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL17 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -20.1 8.6 3.3 - LHIIIC Zeli ZL18 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.6 7.9 3.4 - LHIIIC

100 Zeli ZL19 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -19.5 9 3.3 - LHIIIC

Zeli ZL20 Central pit tombs LH IIIA2 2 BA -20.2 8.1 3.5 - LHIIIC Kalapodi KL01 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.9 9.3 3.4 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL02 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.6 8.3 3.3 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL03 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19 7.1 3.3 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL04 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.2 7.2 3.3 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL05 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.7 8.7 3.4 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL06 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -20 9.4 3.5 IIIA1

Table A.3 (continued)

Kalapodi KL07 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -20 8 3.3 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL08 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.8 8.2 3.4 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL09 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -20.3 7.3 3.4 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL10 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.9 9.4 3.7 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL11 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.9 7.6 3.3 IIIA1 Kalapodi KL12 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.1 10.4 3.2 IIIA1

101 Kalapodi KL13 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.7 9.9 3.3 IIIA1

Kalapodi KL14 Central tholos tombs LHIIB- 2 BA -19.2 8.6 3.2 IIIA1 Almyri AL01 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.1 9.3 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL02 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.4 8.7 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL03 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 9 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL04 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 9.3 3.2 architecture Bronze Age

Table A.3 (continued)

Almyri AL05 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.2 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL06 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 9.5 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL07 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.4 8.6 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL08 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.6 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age

1 Almyri AL09 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.2 9.6 3.2 02 architecture Bronze

Age Almyri AL10 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.8 9.5 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL11 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.5 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL12 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.4 9.4 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL13 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age

Table A.3 (continued)

Almyri AL14 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.5 9.6 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL15 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL16 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.7 8.5 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL17 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.8 9.3 3.3 architecture Bronze Age

103 Almyri AL18 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19 9.1 3.4 architecture Bronze

Age Almyri AL19 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.1 9.6 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL20 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.4 9.3 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL21 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.8 9.9 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL22 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19 9.6 3.2 architecture Bronze Age

Table A.3 (continued)

Almyri AL23 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.1 9.2 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL24 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.3 8.7 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL25 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.4 9.3 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL26 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.1 9.3 3.2 architecture Bronze Age

104 Almyri AL27 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.9 9.8 3.2 architecture Bronze

Age Almyri AL28 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19 9.4 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL29 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.1 9.6 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL30 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.2 9.6 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL31 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.8 9.5 3.3 architecture Bronze Age

Table A.3 (continued)

Almyri AL32 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19.2 9.4 3.2 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL33 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -19 9.6 3.3 architecture Bronze Age Almyri AL34 Southern some tholos Late 2 BA -18.6 9.5 3.3 architecture Bronze Age In the 2010 publication the δ13Ccollagen value for sample SAE46 was listed as 19.6. After examining their scatterplot, I changed the value to -19.6. 105

Table A.4 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2011

Site Burial Region of Burial Cultural Period Broad Cultural δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Style Period Thebes OSE10 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.6 9.1 3.4 Bronze Age Thebes OSE2 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.5 7.8 3.3 Bronze Age Thebes OSE7 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -18.9 10.1 3.4 Bronze Age Thebes OSE8 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.8 7.9 3.3 Bronze Age Thebes OSE1 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.7 8.1 3.3 Bronze Age

106 Thebes OSE12 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.6 8.8 3.4 Bronze Age

Thebes OSE13 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.4 10.1 3.3 Bronze Age Thebes OSE14 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.2 9.7 3.4 Bronze Age Thebes OSE15 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -21.7 5.9 3.5 Bronze Age Thebes OSE3 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.4 7.7 3.3 Bronze Age Thebes OSE5 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -19.2 8.1 3.3 Bronze Age Thebes OSE6 Central pit Early and Middle 2 BA -18.8 10.4 3.3 Bronze Age

Table A.5 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2015

Site Burial Region of Burial Cultural Broad δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Style Period Cultural Period Thebes THOP1 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.4 9.6 3.3 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP3 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.8 9.4 3.3 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP4 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.7 11 3.4 burial, tumulus

107 Thebes THOP5 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.7 10.9 3.3 burial,

tumulus Thebes THOP9 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.8 10 3.3 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP14 Central mass EH 2 BA -20.5 8.8 3.3 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP15 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.6 9.7 3.4 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP24 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.9 9.8 3.3 burial, tumulus

Table A.5 (continued)

Thebes THOP25 Central mass EH 2 BA -19.9 10.1 3.4 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP28 Central mass EH 2 BA -20 9.5 3.4 burial, tumulus Thebes THOP40 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -20 9.3 3.5 Thebes THOP41 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.6 8.5 3.4 Thebes THOP42 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -20.2 8.5 3.4 Thebes THOP43 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.7 8.3 3.4 Thebes THOP44 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.7 8.3 3.3 Thebes THOP45 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.7 8.4 3.3

108 Thebes THOP46 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.5 8.4 3.3 Thebes THOP47 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.8 8.7 3.3 Thebes THOP48 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -18.5 10.8 3.3 Thebes THOP49 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -20 10.8 3.4 Thebes THOP50 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.4 8.8 3.3 Thebes THOP51 Central tumulus MH 2 BA -19.7 9.2 3.3

Table A.6 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Iezzi 2005 and 2015

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad δ13Ccollagen δ13Capatite δ15N C:N Greece Period Cultural Ratio Period Atalanti At1 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.7 -10.4 8 IIIC Atalanti At2 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -21.7 -13.1 6.5 IIIC Atalanti At3 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -20.4 -13.7 8.1 IIIC Atalanti At4 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -20 -12.4 8.3 IIIC Kolaka Ko1 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -15.9 -9.2 7.1

109 IIIC Kolaka Ko2 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.3 -11.7 7.1

IIIC Kolaka Ko3 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.3 -10.9 10.3 IIIC Kolaka Ko4 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -18.6 -10.6 6.8 IIIC Modi Mo1 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19 -12.7 6.2 IIIC Modi Mo2 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.7 -12.7 8.9 IIIC Modi Mo3 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.1 -13.9 7.9 IIIC Modi Mo4 Central chamber tomb LHIIIB- 2 BA -19.2 -12.5 6.2 IIIC The TAT samples from these published works are included in Table A.2.

Table A.7 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Richards and Hedges 2008

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad Cultural δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Period Period Mycenae M663 Southern grave circle MHIII-LHI 2 BA -18.5 10.8 3.386058 GC-A Mycenae M664 Southern grave circle MHIII-LHI 2 BA -18.7 11.1 3.38538 GC-A Mycenae M665 Southern grave circle MHIII-LHI 2 BA -18.3 10.7 3.360505 GC-A Mycenae M667 Southern grave circle LHI 2 BA -18.8 10 3.270675 GC-A Mycenae M662 Southern grave circle MHIII-LHI 2 BA -17.8 11.2 3.357324 GC-A

110 Mycenae M668 Southern grave circle LHI 2 BA -19.7 7.8 3.380355 GC-A

Mycenae M675 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -18.7 10.5 3.379514 GC-A Mycenae M676 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -18.5 11.5 3.375499 GC-A Mycenae M677 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -18.4 10.8 3.390843 GC-A Mycenae MYC608 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.9 6.6 3.568971 GC-B Mycenae MYC608 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -20.1 5.6 3.594798 GC-B Mycenae BMYC608 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.9 6.4 3.312443 GC-B Mycenae MYC611 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.8 10.3 3.620953 GC-B

Table A.7 (continued)

Mycenae BMYC612 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.5 10.1 3.453008 GC-B Mycenae MYC620 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -18.2 10.7 3.424762 GC-B Mycenae MYC616 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -18.8 9.8 3.526679 GC-B Mycenae BMYC614 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.1 9.7 3.356072 GC-B Mycenae MYC618 Southern grave circle MH-LHI 2 BA -19.6 8.1 3.566046 GC-B Loupouno BMYC630 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.3 8.5 3.354131 tomb

111 Monastiraki BMYC631 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.6 6.5 3.406702 tomb

Batsorachi BMYC632 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.4 8.5 3.319527 tomb Batsorachi MYC633 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.5 7.6 3.419799 tomb Batsorachi BMYC634 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.4 9.4 3.25413 tomb Batsorachi MYC635 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.5 7.7 3.402358 tomb Loupouno MYC636 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.1 9.8 3.388278 tomb Loupouno MYC637 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.1 8.6 3.382794 tomb Batsorachi MYC638 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.5 8.1 3.383972 tomb

Table A.7 (continued)

Batsorachi MYC639 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.1 6.9 3.348448 tomb Batsorachi MYC640 Southern chamber LHI-LHIII 2 BA -19.2 6.9 3.359778 tomb

112

Table A.8 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papathanasiou et al. 2009

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad Cultural δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Period Period Proskynas AP1 Central Final 1 Neolithic -19.62 9.25 3.28 Neolithic Proskynas AP2 Central MH 2 BA -19.05 8.97 3.35 Proskynas AP3 Central MH 2 BA -20.13 6.52 3.42 Proskynas AP4 Central Final 1 Neolithic -19.81 7.84 3.39 Neolithic Proskynas AP5 Central MH 2 BA Proskynas AP6 Central Final 1 Neolithic Neolithic Proskynas AP7 Central Final 1 Neolithic

113 Neolithic Proskynas AP8 Central MH 2 BA -19.49 5.3 3.16

Proskynas AP9 Central Final 1 Neolithic -19.11 7.57 3.14 Neolithic Proskynas AP10 Central MH 2 BA -19.49 8.22 3.17 Proskynas AP11 Central MH 2 BA -21.51 4.52 3.28 Proskynas AP12 Central MH 2 BA -19.46 8.37 3.18 Proskynas AP13 Central Final 1 Neolithic -19.49 8.49 3.18 Neolithic

Table A.9 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papthanasiou 2001

Site Burial Region of Burial Cultural Broad δ13Ccollagen δ13Capatite δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Style Period Cultural Period Alepotrypa AP1103 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.7 -12.98 8.09 3.06 Alepotrypa AP1104 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.95 -12.67 7.92 3.04 Alepotrypa AP1105 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.92 -12.21 6.7 3.07 Alepotrypa A01106 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.29 -14.4 5.64 3.02 Alepotrypa AP1107 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.27 -10.48 7.47 3.03 Alepotrypa AP1109 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.95 -12.99 7.21 3.06 Alepotrypa AP1110 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.33 -12.54 6.62 3.2 Alepotrypa AP1111 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -12.52 Alepotrypa AP1112 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.13 -14.77 7.82 3.17

114 Alepotrypa AP1113 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -21.55 -13.72 4.46 3.19 Alepotrypa AP1114 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.85 -11.83 7.47 3.14 Alepotrypa AP1115 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.03 -12.95 8.73 3.28 Alepotrypa DA1 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -12.6 6 3.22 Alepotrypa DA2 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -12.8 7 3.16 Alepotrypa DA3 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.8 -12.33 8.12 3.14 Alepotrypa DA4 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.17 -14.13 7.65 3.19 Alepotrypa DA5 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -13.8 8 3.18 Alepotrypa DA6 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.7 -13.1 6.9 3.18 Alepotrypa DA7 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.9 -13.5 5.8 3.21 Alepotrypa DA8 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.5 -12.8 7.4 3.19 Alepotrypa DA9 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.5 -13.1 8.1 3.14 Alepotrypa DA10 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -13.6 6.9 3.17 Alepotrypa DA11 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -11.9 7.2 3.19 Franchthi AP1121 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -14.21 Franchthi AP1122 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.3 -12.53 8.16 3.27

Table A.9 (continued)

Franchthi AP1123 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.96 -13.92 9.74 3.09 Franchthi AP1124 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.64 -12.62 8.16 3.17 Franchthi AP1125 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.63 -13.53 9.08 3.12 Franchthi AP1126 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -14.38 Franchthi AP1127 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -17.77 -11.78 10.44 3.3 Franchthi AP1128 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.18 -12.23 9.52 3.34 Franchthi AP1129 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.74 -14.14 Franchthi AP1130 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.23 -12.47 7.79 3.28 Franchthi AP1132 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.14 -13.83 8.38 3.33 Franchthi AP1133 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.97 -12.56 7.84 3.32 Franchthi AP1135 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.43 -11.79 8.3 3.37 Franchthi AP1138 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -16.96 -14.9 14.11 3.32

115 Kephala AP1139 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -27.56 -11.61 3.3 Kephala AP1140 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.59 -10.93 8.68 3.34 Kephala AP1141 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -27.01 -13.53 3.2 Kephala AP1147 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -21.11 -12.31 3.1 Kephala AP1149 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.26 -13.84 10.56 3.32 Kephala AP1153 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -18.52 -13.44 7.98 3.36 Kephala AP1155 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -17.94 -10.27 9.65 3.34 Kephala AP1156 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -21.15 -14.82 8.98 3.49 Tharrounia AP1165 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.92 -11.36 8.75 3.44 Tharrounia AP1166 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.16 -11.87 8.38 3.47 Tharrounia AP1167 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.28 -12.84 7.55 3.42 Tharrounia AP1168 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.55 -12.47 9.41 3.45 Tharrounia AP1169 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.9 -12.09 6.93 3.43 Tharrounia AP1170 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.99 -13.19 8.93 3.47 Tharrounia AP1171 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.77 -11.04 8.6 3.43 Tharrounia AP1172 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.31 -11.04 7.47 3.43

Table A.9 (continued)

Tharrounia AP1173 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.02 -11.27 8.24 3.46 Tharrounia AP1174 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.72 -12.68 8.2 3.45 Tharrounia AP1175 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.97 -11.87 7.92 3.43 Tharrounia AP1176 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.09 -10.15 7.57 3.48 Tharrounia AP1177 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.27 -12.79 8.71 3.46 Tharrounia AP1178 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20 -12.74 7.79 3.43 Tharrounia AP1179 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.83 -13.34 8.52 3.43 Tharrounia AP1180 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.09 -12.35 6.77 3.43 Tharrounia AP1181 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.55 -12.36 7.72 3.44 Tharrounia AP1182 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.17 -10.04 7.68 3.46 Tharrounia AP1183 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.24 -11.38 7.54 3.44 Tharrounia AP1184 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.98 -9.74 8.15 3.45

116 Theopetra AP1185 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.39 -12.77 7.81 3.46 Theopetra AP1186 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.23 -10.85 7.69 3.44 Theopetra AP1187 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.32 -13.8 8.36 3.41 Theopetra AP1188 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.01 -11.1 7.55 3.43 Theopetra AP1189 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.15 -12.93 7.29 3.39 Theopetra AP1190 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.89 -10.82 7.68 3.4 Theopetra AP1191 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.8 -13.68 8.7 3.42 Theopetra AP1192 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.3 -10.94 7.24 3.45 Theopetra AP1193 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.51 -14.62 6.71 3.42 Theopetra AP1194 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.4 -11.97 7.14 3.45 Theopetra AP1196 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -17.22 -10.23 4.38 3.39 Theopetra AP1197 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -20.13 -13.7 7.48 3.38 Theopetra AP1198 Central Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.46 -12.51 8.13 3.4 Kouveleiki AP1199 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -21.78 -10.31 3.33 Kouveleiki AP1201 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -27.3 -12.92 3.08 Kouveleiki AP1202 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.86 -11.87 8.32 3.39

Table A.9 (continued)

Kouveleiki AP1203 Southern Neolithic 1 Neolithic -19.81 -12.88 7.85 3.39 The following samples were removed from the table for this study due to insufficient C:N ratio amounts: APll08 from Alepotrypa; AP1131, AP1134, AP1136, AP1137 from Franchthi; AP1142, AP1143, AP1144, AP1145, AP1146, AP1150, AP1151, AP1152, AP1154 from Kephala; AP1195 from Theopetra.

117

Table A.10 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Triantaphyllou et al. 2008

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad Cultural δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Period Period Lerna 1Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.4 9.6 3.2 Lerna 4Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.4 8.2 3.2 Lerna 7Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.4 8.2 3.2 Lerna 8Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19 8.3 3.2 Lerna 9Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.5 7.6 3.2 Lerna 16Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.2 8.7 3.2 Lerna 17Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -20 8.2 3.2 Lerna 20Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.3 7.7 3.2 Lerna 33Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.6 8.1 3.3 Lerna 38Ler Southern MHI 2 BA -20 8 3.3

118 Lerna 43Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.9 8.3 3.2 Lerna 44Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.7 8.5 3.2 Lerna 46Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.9 7.5 3.2 Lerna 48Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.7 7.5 3.2 Lerna 53Ler Southern MH 2 BA -19.2 8.2 3.2 Lerna 55Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.7 7.2 3.2 Lerna 56Ler Southern MHI 2 BA -20.3 8.3 3.4 Lerna 57Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.1 9.2 3.2 Lerna 69Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.7 8.8 3.2 Lerna 77Ler Southern MHI 2 BA -19.6 9.1 3.3 Lerna 81Ler Southern Shaft Grave 2 BA -19.5 9.5 3.4 Era Lerna 82Ler Southern Post Shaft 2 BA -19.7 9.9 3.4 Grave Era Lerna 86Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -18.8 10.5 3.3 Lerna 87Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.4 8.5 3.3

Table A.10 (continued)

Lerna 91Ler Southern MHI 2 BA -19.3 8.4 3.2 Lerna 93Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.7 8.2 3.3 Lerna 115Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.7 9.4 3.3 Lerna 122Ler Southern Shaft Grave 2 BA -20.1 7.5 3.2 Era Lerna 127Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.2 8.4 3.2 Lerna 129Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.1 8.5 3.2 Lerna 139Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.6 8.1 3.2 Lerna 157Ler Southern LHI 2 BA -19.1 9.8 3.3 Lerna 175Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.7 7.8 3.2 Lerna 201Ler Southern MHIII 2 BA -19.9 8.1 3.2 Lerna 203Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.6 7.7 3.2

119 Lerna 208Ler Southern MHII 2 BA -19.8 8 3.2 Lerna 213Ler Southern MH 2 BA -19.7 8.3 3.3 Lerna 214Ler Southern MH 2 BA -19.4 7.7 3.2 Lerna 215Ler Southern MH 2 BA -19.5 7.9 3.2 It appears there was a typo in the original data table for the δ13Ccollagen for sample 9Ler. After observing the scatterplot, the value appears to be -19.5 and is the value I use in my analysis.

Table A.11 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Panagiotopoulou and Papathanasiou 2015

Site Burial Region of Burial Style Cultural Broad Cultural δ13Ccollagen δ15N C:N Ratio Greece Period Period Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.64 10.7 3.29 Dimitrios 12065a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.03 10.79 3.23 Dimitrios 12065b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.97 8.54 3.33 Dimitrios 12066a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.68 8.12 Dimitrios 12066b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.59 10 3.36 Dimitrios 12067a

120 Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.85 9.86 Dimitrios 12067b

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.85 9.33 3.41 Dimitrios 12068a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.56 9.04 Dimitrios 12068b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.54 9.75 3.4 Dimitrios 12070a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.11 9.52 3.34 Dimitrios 12070b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.52 8.99 3.48 Dimitrios 12071a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.03 8.07 Dimitrios 12071b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.71 8.84 3.29 Dimitrios 12072a

Table A.11 (continued)

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.32 8.91 3.21 Dimitrios 12072b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.47 11.36 3.4 Dimitrios 12073a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.18 10.9 3.45 Dimitrios 12073b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.27 10.4 3.43 Dimitrios 12074a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.18 10.35 3.41 Dimitrios 12074b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.88 10.47 3.28 Dimitrios 12075a

121 Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.56 10.17 Dimitrios 12075b

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.22 10.71 3.26 Dimitrios 12076a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.55 10.67 3.22 Dimitrios 12076b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.03 11.6 3.26 Dimitrios 12077a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.17 11.45 3.18 Dimitrios 12077b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.3 8.41 3.55 Dimitrios 12078a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.46 8.08 3.49 Dimitrios 12078b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.46 8.13 3.27 Dimitrios 12082a

Table A.11 (continued)

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.67 8.08 3.23 Dimitrios 12082b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.94 6.91 3.37 Dimitrios 12084a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.29 6.66 3.32 Dimitrios 12084b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.61 9.02 3.46 Dimitrios 12085a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.16 8.64 3.42 Dimitrios 12085b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.23 8.66 3.21 Dimitrios 12087b

122 Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -18.67 8.87 3.4 Dimitrios 12088a

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.27 8.66 3.35 Dimitrios 12088b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.84 6.38 3.27 Dimitrios 12089a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.61 6.12 3.25 Dimitrios 12089b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.73 7.8 3.48 Dimitrios 12090a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.41 7.43 3.39 Dimitrios 12090b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.35 9.25 3.38 Dimitrios 12092a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.64 9.11 3.3 Dimitrios 12092b

Table A.11 (continued)

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.31 9.07 3.36 Dimitrios 12093a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.23 9.15 3.28 Dimitrios 12093b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.45 8.65 3.5 Dimitrios 12095a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.82 8.57 3.43 Dimitrios 12095b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.46 8.73 3.38 Dimitrios 12096a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.21 8.68 3.29 Dimitrios 12096b

123 Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.41 8.74 3.45 Dimitrios 12097a

Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.31 8.54 3.46 Dimitrios 12097b Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -19.54 8.41 3.43 Dimitrios 12098a Agios S-EVA Central Geometric 3 IA -20.06 8.36 3.36 Dimitrios 12098b

Table A.12 Mitrou Faunal Samples

Site δ13Ccollagen/ δ13Capatite UGAMS UCSC Animal Region of Cultural δ13C δ13C δ15N C:N δ15N Sample # # # Greece Period collagen apatite Ratio Sample # Mitrou 1352 1252 22436 Mitrou Dog Central EH -18.25 -12.08 10.12 3.21 _Faunal _1252 Mitrou 1355 1255 22437 Mitrou Pig Central LH -20.71 -13.95 5.6 3.27 _Faunal _1255 Mitrou 1360 1260 22438 Mitrou Pig Central MH -21.55 -12.14 4.29 3.24 _Faunal _1260

124 Mitrou 1361 1261 22439 Mitrou Pig Central MH -20.33 -12.27 7.15 3.25 _Faunal

_1261 Mitrou 1362 1262 22440 Mitrou Pig Central LH -20.17 -11.71 5.75 3.28 _Faunal _1262